JOB ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION Job Analysis Importance of Job Analysis =A thorough Job analysis is the foundation for almost all human resources activities, + It Is difficult to imagine how one could write a job description, select employees, evaluate performance, ‘or conduct training programs without knowing the tasks an employee performs, the conditions under which they are performed, and the competencies needed to perform the tasks. ~A thorough job analysis provides such information *Writing Job Deseriptions = One of the written products of a job analysis is a job description—a brief, two- to five-page summary of the tasks and job requirements found in the job analysis. = In other words, the job analysis is the process of determining the work activities and requirements, and iption is the written result of the job “Employee Selection = It is difficult to imagine how an employee can be selected unless there is a clear understanding of the tasks performed and the competencies needed to perform those tasks. ~ By identifying such requirements, it is possible to select tests or develop interview questions that will determine whether a particular applicant possesses the necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities to carry out the requirements of the job. “Training Again, It is difficult to see how employees can be trained unless the requirements of the job are known. = Job analyses yield lists of job activities that can be ‘systematically used to create training programs. *Personpower Planning One important but seldom employed use of job analysis {5 to determine worker mobility within an organization, That {s, If Individuals are hired for a particular job, to What other jobs can they expect to eventually be promoted and become successful? + Many organizations have a policy of promoting the Person who performs the best in the job immediately below the one in question. Although this epproach has Its advantages, it can result in the so-called Peter Principle: promoting employees until they eventually reach their highest level of incompetence = For example, consider an employee who is the best salesperson in the company. Even though this person is known to be excellent in sales, it is not known what type of supervisor he or she will be. Promotion solely on the basis of sales performance does not guarantee that the Individual will do well es @ supervisor. = Suppose, however, that job analysis results are used to compare all jobs in the company to the supervisor's job. Instead of promoting the person in the job immediately below the supervisor, we promote the best employee from the most similar job—that is, 2 job that already involves much of the same knowledge, skills, and abilities as the supervisor's job. = With this approach, there is a better match between the person being promoted and the requirements of the Job. *Performance Appraisal = Another important use of job analysis is the construction of a performance appraisal instrument. ~ As in employee selection, the evaluation of en performance must be job related. ployee = The use of specific, jobrelated categories leads to more accurate performance appraisals that are better accepted not only by employees but also by the courts In addition, when properly administered and utilized, job-related performance appraisals can serve os an excellent source of employee training and counseling. “Job Classification Job analysis enables a human resources professional to Classify jobs into groups based on similarities in requirements and duties. - Job classification is useful for determining pay levels, transfers, and promotions.“Job Evaluation Job analysis information can also be used to determine the worth of a job. “Job Design Job analysis information can be used to determine the optimal way in which job should be performed. - That Is, what would be the best way for an employee to sit at her computer or what would be the best way for a warehouse person to lift boxes? = By analyzing a job, wasted and unsafe motions can be eliminated, resulting in higher productivity and reduced numbers of job injuries. *Compliance with Legal Guidelines = Any employment decision must be based on job-related information. = One legally acceptable way to directly determine job relatedness is by job analysis. organizational Analysis = During the course of their work, job analysts often become aware of within organization. certain problems an = For example, during a job analysis interview, an ‘employee may indicate that she does not know how she is evaluated or to whom she is supposed to report. = The discovery of such lapses in organizational communication can then be used to correct problems and help an organization function better. Writing @ Good Job Description = Ajob description is a relatively short summary of a job ‘and should be about two to five pages in length. = This suggested length Is not really typical of most job descriptions used in Industry; they tend to be only one page. - But for a job description to be of value, it must describe {job in enough detail that decisions about activities such as selection and training can be made. - Such decisions probably cannot be made if the description is, ‘only one page long. = A Job description should contain the following eight sections: Job title, brief summary, work activities, tools ‘and equipment used, work context, performance standards, compensation information, and personal requirements. ob Title ~ Ajob title is important for several reasons. An accurate title describes the nature of the job. = An accurate title also aids in employee selection and recruitment. If the job title indicates the true nature of the job, potential applicants for a position will be better able to determine whether their skills and experience match those required for the job. = Job titles provide workers with some form of identity. Instead of just saying that she is 2 “worker at the foundry,” a woman can say that she is a “welder” or a machinist.” *Brief Summary - The summary need be only a paragraph in length but should briefly describe the nature and purpose of the job. = This summary can be used in help-wanted advertisements, internal job postings, and company brochures ‘Work Activities ‘The work-activities section lists the tasks and activities In which the worker is involved. ~ These tasks and activi should be organized into ingful categories to make the job description easy to read and understand, - The category labels are also convenient to use in the brief summary. “Tools and Equipment Used ~ A section should be included that lists all the tools and equipment used to perform the work activities in the previous section, = Even though tools and equipment may have been ‘mentioned in the activities section, placing them in a separate section makes their identification simpler. Information in this section is used primarily for employee selection and training. That is, an applicant can be asked if she can operate an adding machine, ‘computer, and a credit history machin“Job Context - This section should describe the environment in which the employee works and should mention stress level, work schedule, physical demands, level of responsibility, temperature, number of coworkers, degree of danger, and any other relevant information. - This Information is especially important In providing applicants with disabilities with information they can use to determine their ability to perform a job under a particular set of circumstances. Work Performance = The job description should outline standards of performance. = This section contains a relatively brief description of how an employee's performance is evaluated and what work standards are expected of the employee. “Compensation Information = This section of the job description should contain information on the salary grade, whether the position is exempt, and the compensable factors used to determine salary. The competencies section should be divided into two subsections. The first contains KSAOs that an employee Must have at the time of hiring. The second subsection Contains the KSAOs that are an Important part of the Job but can be obtained after being hired, - The first set of KSAOs Is used for employee selection and the second fortraining purposes. Preparing for a Job Analysis, Prior to conducting a job analysis, several decisions must be made that will influence how itis conducted. Who Will Conduct the Analysis? = Typically, a job analysis is conducted by @ trained Individual in the human resources department, but it can also be conducted by job incumbents, supervisors, or outside consultants. - Consultants are a good cholce for conducting a Job analysis because they are well trained and have extensive experience. The main drawback, though, is thelr expense. - An interesting alternative to consultants is the use of college interns. Graduate students from 1/0 psychology programs tend to have job analysis training and experience and can be employed for a relatively small cost (often, at no cost). How Often Should a Job Description Be Updated? - This is a tough question, and the typical answer is that a job description should be updated if a job changes significantly. - An interesting reason that job descriptions change across time is job crafting ~ the informal changes that ‘employees make in their jobs. That is, it is common for employees to quietly expand the scope of their jobs to add tasks they want to perform and to remove tasks that they don’ want to perform. Which Employees Should Participate? + For organizations with relatively few people in each job, it is advisable to have the job analys II employees participate In + In organizations in which many people perform the same job (e.g., teachers at @ university, assemblers in a factory), every person need not participate. + In a committee-based job analysis, a group of subject matter experts (e.g., employees, supervisors) meet to generate the tasks performed, the conditions under Which they are performed, and the KSAOs needed to perform them, + In a field-based job analysis, the job analyst individually Interviews observes a number of incumbents out in the field,according to research, Is that employee differences in rnder, race, job performance level, experience, job enjoyment, and personality can at times result In slightly different job analysis outcomes. +*+Job Competence -the KSAO of an individuals seRace ‘Gender ‘+Education Level ‘*personality - personality of the Incumbent was related to the personality tralts rated by the incumbent to be important to the job. That is, extroverted incumbents rated such traits as friendliness, leadership ability, and ambition as being important for the job whereas conscientious incumbents rated such traits as work ‘ethic and attention to detail as being important. **Viewpoint. It should be no surprise that people with different perspectives on the job (e.g., incumbent, supervisor, customer) produce different job analysis results. - The consideration of which employees are chosen to participate is an important issue because a job can often be performed in several ways. If males and females perform equally well on a job, yet perform the job in different ways, the job analyses must information about both styles. For example, suppose research indicates that male supervisors lead by setting goals and being directive and female supervisors use more of a participative approach contain = Consequently, a job analysis conducted only on male supervisors would result in a different set of KSAOs than a Job analysis using both male and female supervisors, Because job analysis is the basis for every personnel decislon, it can be seen that equal opportunity efforts begin as early as the job analysis. What Types of Information Should Be Obtained? ~ An important decision concerns the level of specificity. That is, should the Job analysis break a job down into very minute, specific behaviors (e.g,, “tilts arm at a 90- degree angle”or “oves foot forward three inches”, or should the job be analyzed at a more general level ("makes financial decisions,"*peaks to clients”? Although most jobs are analyzed at levels somewhere between these two ‘extremes, there are times when the level of analysis will be closer to one end of, spectrum than the other. = For intricate work, its way better fits detalled, = Arelated decision addresses the issue of formal versus. informal requirements, Formal requirements for secretary might include typing letters or filing memos, Informal requirements might involve making coffee or picking up the boss's children from school, = Including informal requirements has the advantages of Identifying and eliminating duties that may be illegal or unnecessary. Conducting a Job Analysis + Although there are many ways to conduct a job analysis, the goal of most job analyses is to identify the tasks performed in a job, the conditions under which the tasks are performed, and the KSAOs needed to perform the tasks under the conditions identified. Step 1: Identify Tasks Performed The first step in conducting 2 job analysis is to identify the major job dimensions and the tasks performed for each dimension, the tools and equipment used to perform the tasks, and the conditions under which the tasks are performed. This information is usually gathered by obtaining previous information on the job, interviewing job incumbents, observing performance, or actually performing the job itself. Gathering Existing Information. Prior to interviewing Incumbents, it is always a good idea to gather Information that has already been obtained. - For example, one might gather existing job descriptions, task inventories, and training manuals. This information might come from the organization with which you are working, other organizations, trade publications, and journal articles. Interviewing Subject Matter Experts. The most common method of conducting a job analysis is to interview subject matter experts (SMEs). SMEs are people who are knowledgeable about the job and include job incumbents, supervisors, customers, and upper-level management. = Job analysis interviews differ greatly fram employment interviews in that the purpose of the job analysisinterview is to obtain information about the Job itself rather than about the person doing the job, ~ Job analysis interviews come in two main forms: Individual and group. in the individual interview, the job analyst interviews only one employee at a tim: In the group interview, or SME conference, a larger number of employees are interviewed together. ~ Regardless of whether individual or group interviews are used, certain guidelines should be followed that will make the interview go more smoothly, 1. Prepare for the interview by announcing the job analysis to the employees well in advance by selecting a quiet and private interview location, 2. Open the interview by establishing rapport, putting the worker at ease, and explaining the purpose of the interview. 3. Conduct the interview by asking open-ended questions, using easyto- understand vocabulary, and allowing sufficient time for the employee to talk and answer questions. Avoid being condescending and disagreeing with the incumbent. Observing Incumbents. Observations are useful job analysis methods, especially when used in conjunction with other methods such as i erviews. = During a job analysis observation, the job analyst observes incumbents performing their jobs in the work setting. The advantage to this method is that it lets the Job analyst actually see the worker do her job and thus obtain information that the worker may have forgotten to mention during the interview. Job Participation. One can analyze a job by actually it. Th is technique, called job participation, is especially eff ective because it is easier to understand every aspect of a job once you have done it yourself, Step 2: Write Task Statements ~ Once the tasks have been identified, the next step is to write the task statements that will be used in the task Inventory and included in the job description. ~ At the minimum, a properly written task statement. ‘must contain an action (what is done) and an object (to which the action is done). ~ such - Often, task statements. will also ine ie 3 ‘components as where the task is done, how It Is done, why it is done, and when it is done. Table22 tint a res Po ten rope ten TatSttement TskStatement Sadyucaeeness Sucre ug parent ty arpa Dries Diese speedo ines inthe cy oie Lost Used ani tite camo ents theese als Step 3: Rate Task Statements Once the task statements have been written (usually including some tasks), the next step is to conduct a task analysis—using a group of SMEs to rate each task statement on the frequency and the importance or criticality of the task being performed. Step 4: Determine Essential KSAOs. Once the task analysis is completed and a job analyst has @ list of tasks that are essential for the proper Performance of a job, the next step is to identify the KSAOs needed to perform the tasks, 7 knowledge is @ body of information needed to perform a task, 7 Askillis the proficiency to perform a learned task. 7 An ability is @ basic capacity for performing a wide range of diff erent tasks, acquiring a knowledge, or developing a skill, 7 Other characteristics include such Personality, willingness, i such tangible factors as lice experience. nses, degrees, and years of Step 5: Selecting Tests to Tap KSAOs ~ Once the important KSAOs have been identifi ed, the ‘ext step is to determine the best methods to tap the KSAOs needed at the time of hire,= These methods will be used to select new employees and Include such methods as Interviews, work samples, ability tests, personality tests, reference checks, Integrity tests, biodata, and assessment centers. Job Evaluation = Once a job analysis has been completed and a thorough job description written, it is important to determine how much employees in a position should be paid. - This process of determining a job's worth is called job evaluation. = A job evaluation is typically done in two stages: determining internal pay equity and determining ‘external pay equity. Determining Internal Pay Equity = Internal pay equity involves comparing jobs within an organization to ensure that the people in jobs worth the most money are paid accordingly. The difficulty in this process, of course, is determining the worth of each job. Step 1: Determining Compensable Job Factors 7 Level of responsibility 7 Physical demands 7 Mental demands 7 Education requirements 7 Training and experience requirements 7 Working conditions ‘Step 2: Determining the Levels for Each Compensable Factor ~ Once the compensable factors have been selected, the next step is to determine the levels for each factor. - For fa factor such as education, the levels are easy to determine (e.¢., high school diploma, associate's degree, bachelor’s degree). = For factors such as responsibility, a considerable amount of time and discussion may be required to determine the levels. ‘Step 3: Determining the Factor Weights Determining External Pay Equity organizations). «- External equity is important if an organization is to attract and retain employees. In other words, it must be competitive with the compensation plans of other organizations. = To determine external equity, organizations use salary surveys. Sent to other organizations, these surveys ask how much an organization pays its employees in various positions. = an organization can decide where it wants to be in relation to the compensation policies of other organizations (often called market position). That is, an organization might choose to offer compensation at higher levels to attract the best applicants as well as employees from going to other keep current organizations. = We have earlier discussed the amount of money a jobis ct compensation. - worth: this amount is called Employees are also compensated in other ways, such as pay for time not worked (e.g., holidays, vacation, sick days), deferred income (e.g., Social Security and pension plans), health protection such as medical and dental insurance, and perquisites (“perks”) such as a company car. Consequently, a job with a direct compensation of $40,000 might actually be worth more than one at {$35,000 because of the indirect compensation package. Determining a Sex and Race Equity - In addition to analyses of internal and external equity, pay audits should also be conducted to ensure that employees are not paid dif erently on the basis of gender or race, = Two types of audits should be conducted: one that looks at pay rates of employees within positions with identical duties (equal pay for equal work) and a second that looks at pay rates of employees in jobs of similar worth and responsibility (comparable worth). ~ This second type of analysis is normally conducted by comparing jobs with similar worth (salary grade) and responsibility (Job family). The OFCCP calls such groups, similarly situated employee groupings (SSEGs).- Comparable worth is an issue very much related to the discussion of job evaluation. Chapter Summary In this chapter you learned: Job analysis provides the foundation for such areas as performance appraisal, employee selection, training, and job design. A properly written job description contains a job title, a brief summary, an extensive list of work activities, a list of tools and equipment, information about the work context, compensation _— information, _performance standards, and personal requirements. Before a job analysis is begun, decisions must be made about the type of information that will be obtained, who will conduct the job analysis, and who will participate in it. The typical job analysis involves interviewing and observing subject matter experts (SMEs) to determine tasks that are performed, the conditions under which they are performed, the tools and equipment needed to perform them, and the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAQs) needed to perform them. Although no job analysis method is always better than others, each is better for certain purposes. For example, the Position Analysis Questionnaire {PAQ) is an excellent method for compensation uses, and the Critical Incident Technique (CIT) is an excellent method for performance appraisal. Job evaluation is the process of assigning a monetary value to ajob. Internal equity, external equity, and comparable worth are important pay issues that must be addressed during any job evaluation.