UNIT IV- MOBILE ESSENTIALS

Cell phone working fundamentals – Cell phone frequencies & channels

– Digital cell phone components – Generations of cellular networks –
Cell phone network technologies / architecture – Voice calls & SMS
Fundamentals of cellular Networks:

• In terrestrial communication high power transmitters are used so that the area
covered is large, example radio communication. In mobile or cellular
communication, low power transmitters are used. So the area covered is less
when compared with terrestrial Communication. Hence even for a small
location, more number of transmitters are required.

• Cells: The cellular network uses a number of low-power transmitters called

base stations (BSs) and each BS covers a unit area called a “cell”. In a
cellular network, total area is subdivided into smaller areas called “cells”.

• Each cell can cover a limited number of mobile subscribers within its
boundaries. Each cell can have a base station with a number of RF channels.

• The difficulty in the early mobile radio systems was the reuse of same
frequencies throughout the system resulting in significant interference and lot
of bandwidth being dedicated to a single call.
The cellular system shown in the figure uses a number of low-power
transmitters called BSs to cover same area and to avoid the above difficulties.

Frequencies used in a given cell area will be simultaneously reused at a different

cell which is geographically separated. In wireless telephony, a cell is the
geographical area covered by a cellular telephone transmitter.

Each cell is allocated a band of frequencies and is served by a base station. Each
base station consists of a transmitter, receiver and a control unit.
Frequency Reuse: In a cellular system, each cell has a base transceiver. The
transmission power is carefully controlled to allow communication within the
cell using a given frequency band by limiting the power of the frequency that
escapes the current cell into adjacent cells.

It is not possible to implement practically the same frequency band in two

adjacent cells. But it is possible to use them at some distance from one another.

Key design issue is to determine the minimum separation between two cells
using the same frequency band so that the signals do not interfere with each
other.

Reason for Hexagonal cell concept and not circular structure:

Hexagons are generally used to represent the cells due to geometry
considerations and calculation purposes.

By using hexagonal concept, we can divide the geographical area efficiently and
the number of transmitters deployed can be brought down. In reality, the shape
is irregular polygon. Hidden areas may not be properly covered through circular
shapes.
The cellular concept was developed in response to the limitations of
conventional mobile radio services. The main limitations of the previous mobile
communication systems are as follows:

1. High-power transmitters were used to cover very large area.

2. Inefficient use of allocated radio spectrum.

3. If a user leaves the coverage area, they had to reinitiate the call on a different
frequency channel.

Multiple access schemes

The radio spectrum is a scarce resource. Without access to radio spectrum, there
can be no mobile communication. Multiple access refers to techniques that
enable multiple users to share a finite portion of given frequency spectrum
efficiently.

The sharing of frequency spectrum is required to achieve high capacity by

simultaneously allocating the bandwidth. Multiple users will be assigned
different channels within that portion according to various techniques, known as
multiple access schemes.
A channel can be thought of as merely a portion of the limited radio resource
(frequency slot or time slot or code), which is temporarily allocated for a
specific purpose, such as someone‟s phone call.

Technologies based on Sharing:

1. Time division multiple access
In digital systems, continuous transmission is not required because users do not
use the allotted bandwidth all the time.

TDMA allows several users to share the same frequency band by dividing the
timescale into different time slots which are periodically allocated to each
mobile user for the duration of a call.

TDMA systems have the capability to split users into different time slots because
they transfer digital data. TDMA systems divide the radio spectrum into time
slots and each user is allowed to either transmit or receive in each time slots
(i.e., different users can use the same frequency in the same cell but at different
times).
Figure shows the principle of operation. Each row (frequency domain) in the
figure represents channel that is divided into three different time-slots (time
domain).

Calls in a TDMA system start in analog format and are sampled to transform
them to digital format. After the call is converted into digital format, the TDMA
system places the call into an assigned time slot.
Frequency division multiple access
The FDMA is the simplest scheme used to provide multiple access in analog
transmission. In FDMA systems, the radio frequency spectrum is divided into
several frequency bands that are separated by a certain guard band. Each
frequency band can be used simultaneously.

In this technique, the bandwidth is divided into a number of channels and

distributed among users with a finite portion of bandwidth for permanent use for
each user as illustrated in the figure.

Frequency guard bands are provided between adjacent signal spectra to

minimize crosstalk between adjacent channels. In FDMA, a channel has two
frequencies, namely forward channel and reverse channel.

When the FDMA technique is employed, as long as the user is engaged in

“conversation,” no other user can access the same spectrum space.

It can be observed from the figure that FDMA permits only one user per channel
because it allows the user to use the channel 100 percent of the time. Therefore,
only the frequency “dimension” is used to define channels.
Applications of FDMA
 Walkie-talkies and mobile networks for closed user groups often use
FDMA.
 Another example of FDMA is AM or FM radio broadcasting, where each
station has its own channel.
 Early cellular telephony mostly used FDMA analog transmission.
Code division multiple access
CDMA allows transmissions to occupy the entire bandwidth at the same time
without interference.

CDMA uses unique spreading codes to spread the base band data before
transmission.

CDMA assigns to each user a unique code sequence that is used to code data
before transmission. If a receiver knows the code sequence related to any
particular user, then it can decode the received data.

The codes are shared by the mobile phone and the base station. The codes are
called Pseudorandom code sequences.

All the users can access the entire spectrum allocation all of the time. A user‟s
unique code separates the call from all other calls. Codes take the form of a
carefully designed one/zero sequence produced at a much higher rate than that
of the base band data.
Space division multiple access
In addition to frequency, time, and code domains, the spatial dimension can also
be used for multiplexing different data streams by transmitting these data
streams over different, non-overlapping transmission channels. The use of space
division multiplexing for multiple access is termed SDMA.

SDMA enables users to share simultaneously the same bandwidth in different

geographical locations.

SDMA solves capacity problem of wireless communication systems by

exploiting the spatial dimension which makes it possible to identify the
individual users, even when they are in the same time/frequency/code domains.
Principle of Operation of a Cellular Mobile System
• A mobile phone is a portable telephone used to receive or make calls through
a cell site (BS), or transmitting tower. Electromagnetic waves are used to
transfer signals to and from the cell phone.

• Modern mobile phone networks use cells because radio frequencies are a
shared resource and are limited. Cell-sites and handsets change frequency
under computer control and use low-power transmitters so that a limited
number of radio frequencies can be simultaneously used by many callers
with less interference.

• A cellular network is used by the mobile phone operator to achieve both

coverage and capacity for their subscribers. Large geographical areas are
split into smaller cells to avoid line-of sight (LOS) signal loss and to support
a large number of active phones in that area.

• All cell sites are connected to telephone exchanges (or switches), which in
turn connect to the public telephone network.
Components of a Cellular Mobile Network
• A cellular network is formed by connecting the following five components:
1. Mobile station (MS) , 2. Base station (BS), 3. Mobile switching centre (MSC)
4. Base station controller (BSC) and 5. Public switched telephone network
(PSTN)
• The function of each network component is described below:
1. Mobile station (MS):
• MSs are usually a mobile phone. Each mobile phone contains a transceiver
(transmitter and receiver), an antenna, and control circuitry. Antenna converts
the transmitted RF signal into an EM wave and the received EM waves into
an RF signal.
• The same antenna is used for both transmission and reception. A duplexer
switch multiplexes the same antenna for sending and receiving.

2. Base station (BS):

• One of the important components in the cellular network is the BS. BS
provides direct communication with mobile phones and it defines the cell.
When cells are grouped together, a cluster is formed. Within a cluster, no
channels are reused.

• Two frequencies are required to establish communication between MS and

BS: one from mobile phone MS to BS (uplink / reverse channel) and the
other from BS to MS ( downlink / forward channel)
• A group of BSs are in turn connected to a BSC. The BS is a transceiver
station or system and consists of a number of different elements.
• The first part of the BS is an electronics section normally located in a
container at the base of the antenna tower. It contains RF amplifiers, radio
transceivers, RF combiners, control and communication links, and power
supply with backup.

• The second part of the BS is the antenna and the feeder to connect the
antenna to the base transceiver station itself.

• It is important that the location, height, and orientation are all correct to
ensure that the required coverage is achieved.
 If the antenna is too low or in a poor location, there will be
insufficient coverage, leaving a coverage “hole”.
 If the antenna is too high and directed incorrectly, then the signal will
be heard well beyond the boundaries of the cell causing interference.
• BS or cell site antenna: Either omni-directional or directional antennas are
used as BS antennas in the wireless industry.
Base station controller (BSC):
• A number of BSs are connected to a BSC. An important function of BSC is that
it manages the “handoff” from one BS to another as a subscriber moves from
cell-to-cell.
• The BSC contains logic to control each of the BSs. Also, a group of BSCs are
in turn connected to a MSC via microwave link or telephone lines.

Mobile switching centre (MSC):

• The MSC is the control centre for the cellular system. The MSC is also known
as mobile telephone switching office (MTSO). It coordinates the actions of the
BSs providing overall control and acts as a switch and connects into the PSTN.
• Various functions performed by a MSC are as follows:
 It communicates with the BSs, routing calls and controlling them as
required.
 It contains databases detailing the last known locations of the mobiles.
 It also contains facilities for authentication centre allowing mobiles onto the
network.
 It contains facilities to generate billing information for individual accounts.
 For this purpose, the MSC makes use of the three major components of the
network subsystem (NSS), that is HLR, VLR, and AUC.
i. Home location register (HLR): The HLR contains the information related to
each mobile subscriber, such as the type of subscription, services that the user
can use, the subscriber‟s current location, and the mobile equipment status. The
database in the HLR remains intact and unchanged until the termination of the
subscription.

ii. Visitor location register (VLR): The VLR comes into action once the
subscriber leaves the coverage region. Unlike the HLR, the VLR is dynamic in
nature and interacts with the HLR when recoding the data of a particular mobile
subscriber. When the subscriber moves to another region, the database of the
subscriber is also shifted to the VLR of the new region.

iii. Authentication centre (AUC): The AUC (or AC) is responsible for policing
actions in the network. AUC protects the network against false subscribers and
protects the calls of regular subscribers.
There are two major keys in the GSM standards: the encryption of
communications between mobile users and the authentication of the users. The
encryption keys are held both in the mobile equipment and the AUC and the
information is protected against unauthorized access.
• PSTN is a cellular network that can be viewed as an interface between
mobile units and a telecommunication infrastructure. It is nothing but the
land-based section of the network.
• It is necessary that the BSs are connected to a switching network and that
network is to be connected to other networks such as the PSTN, so that calls
can be made to and from mobile subscribers.
Common Air Interface
• Communication between the BS and the mobiles is defined by a standard
common air interface (CAI) that specifies four different channels. The
channels used for voice transmission from the BS to mobiles are called
forward voice channels (FVC) and the channels used for voice transmission
from mobiles to the BS are called reverse voice channels (RVC).

• The forward control channel (FOCC) and reverse control channel (RECC)
establish the MS on the network (registration), to set up calls from the MS
and to set up calls coming in for a particular MS (called a mobile page). After
a call is established using the RECC and FOCC, the process switches to the
voice channels.

• Control channels are often called setup channels because they are only
involved in setting up a call and moving it to an unused voice channel.
Control channels transmit and receive data messages that carry call initiation
and service requests, and are monitored by mobiles when they do not have a
call in progress.
• Control channels are also sometimes called paging channels (BS to MS) in
the case of downlink, and access channels (MS to BS) in the case of uplink.
The paging channels are used to set up calls that originate from the BS, while
the access channel is used to set up calls that originate from the mobile.
Paging channel is designated as FOCC and the access channel as the RECC.

• Traffic channels: Traffic channels are active during voice conversations, but
they also do contain the digital information needed to keep a call up. A MS
thus tunes to and receives either a control channel or a traffic channel at any
given moment.
CELL PHONE FREQUENCIES AND CHANNELS:
• A cell phone carrier typically gets 832 radio frequencies to use in a city
(1988). Each cell phone uses two frequencies per call, a duplex channel. So
there are typically 395 voice channels per carrier. (The other 42 frequencies
are used for control channels).

• In each cell, about 56 voice channels are available. In other words, in any
cell, 56 people can be talking on their cell phone at one time. With digital
transmission methods (2G), the number of available channels increases.

• For example, a TDMA-based digital system can carry three times as many
calls as an analog system, so each cell has about 168 channels available.

• Channels (frequencies) used in one cell can be reused in another cell some
distance away, which allows a large number of stations to communicate using
a limited number of radio frequencies.
Channel Assignment
Fixed channel assignment (FCA): Channels are pre-allocated to the cells
during planning phase.

Dynamic channel assignment (DCA): No pre-allocation. When a call is made /

arrives at a cell, then a channel that is not in use is selected.

In FCA, each cell assigns its own frequency channel to the mobile subscribers
within its cell. Channel assignment is primarily made in such a way that
channels assigned adjacently within a cell do not interfere with each other.

In FCA, the area is partitioned into a number of cells, and a number of channels
are assigned to each cell according to some reuse pattern, depending on the
desired signal quality.

Advantages of FCA:
• Fixed parameters (power, frequency) for transceivers.
• Good performance under uniform- and/or high-traffic loads as cells
independently decide their channel allocation decisions.
Disadvantage:
If each cell is allocated to a pre-determined set of voice channels then a newly
arriving call is blocked, as all the channels are occupied.

Borrowing Strategy: A cell is allowed to borrow channels from a neighboring

cell if all of its own channels are occupied.

Mobile switching centre (MSC) supervises the borrowing procedure to ensure

no disruption of calls or interference to any of the ongoing calls in the donor
cell.

In dynamic channel assignment (DCA), the central common pool maintains all
the available channels. Channels are assigned dynamically as new requests for
radio resource (for a fresh originating call or handoff of existing call) arrive in
the system.

This also implies that when the use of assigned channel is completed, the
channel currently in use is returned back to the central pool.
Advantages of DCA:
• No fixed channels are assigned to each cell.
• Out of the available channels, any channel can be assigned to any cell on need
basis.

The serving base station (BS) requests a channel from the MSC whenever a call
request is made.

MSC needs to collect real-time data on channel occupancy, traffic distribution,

and received signal strength indicator (RSSI) of all channels on a continuous
basis, which increases storage and computational load on the system.

DCA schemes perform better under non-uniform and low traffic density. FCA
performs well under high density and uniform traffic conditions.

Channel assignment schemes can be implemented in centralized or distributed

fashion. In centralized methods, the channels are assigned by a central controller,
whereas in distributed methods a channel is selected either by the local base
station or by the mobile that initiated the call.
Channel sharing scheme
When a particular cell needs more channels in order to meet the increased traffic
demand, the channels of another sector at the same cell site can be shared to
meet the short-term overload traffic.

Channel sharing can be done from one of the two adjacent sectors of the
neighboring cells in a sectored cellular system configuration. Shared channels
can be returned back when the channels become available in the shared sector.

Channel sharing scheme makes sure that the channel-sharing arrangement

causes minimum impact on call-blocking probability in neighboring cells.
Reassignment of shared channels is done in order to provide maximum
assistance to the neighboring cells to meet the temporary increased traffic
demand.

The channel can also be ordered based on which channels provide better
performance. Channel sharing always increases the trunking (handling of
multiple signals) efficiency of the channels.
Channel Borrowing:
• It is a combination of fixed and dynamic channel assignment. A channel set is
nominally assigned to each cell.

• When all the channels in a cell are occupied, the cell borrows channels from
other cells to accommodate the incoming new/handoff calls, as long as the
borrowed channels do not interfere with the ones used by existing calls.
Otherwise the call is blocked.

• The channel borrowing schemes are more flexible in the sense that by “moving”
(borrowing) channels from less busy cells to more busy cells, a balanced
performance throughout the system can be achieved.

• Borrowing a channel x carries a penalty: cells that were originally allocated this
channel x, may not be able to use this channel, since they may be within the co-
channel interference range of the cell that borrowed the channel.

• Thus the decreased blocking probability at the cell that borrowed a channel is
obtained at the cost of decreasing the capacity of other cells, which in turn causes
QoS degradation in these cells.
CELL PHONE NETWORK TECHNOLOGIES / ARCHITECTURE:
In a cellular mobile communication system, the service area is divided into many
small areas called cells. A cell station is installed in each, and tracking connections
are carried out in accordance with the movements of the user.

As users move across multiple cells in this system, it is always necessary to identify
the cell in which the mobile stations are located. The essential control technologies
to smoothly continue communications as users move across cells are “location
registration” and “hand-over”.

The cell configuration in mobile communication includes both large zone systems in
which a single base station covers the entire service area, and cellular systems in
which the service area is divided into several smaller areas, each of which has a base
station.

Although the large zone system can cover a larger service area as the radio waves
can reach greater distances, the repeated use of frequencies is not possible except in
more distant locations.

Since the cellular system can repeatedly use limited frequency resources, it can cover
global-scale service area with only a small number of frequency bandwidths.
The basic consideration in cell configuration relates to the cell-shape repetition
pattern. A method in which cells are combined in a pattern of hexagons has
proved effective in both systems.

Cells are amorphous (no uniform shape among cells), not have constant sizes
and overlap in areas of coverage. Area of coverage of a cell is determined by the
distance limits for which a user can place a call with acceptable QoS.

A useful modeling tool for cellular planning is the hexagonal cell layout. It
minimizes cell overlap.
Location Registration:
Under a cellular mobile communication system, connections cannot be
automatically made unless the network side always identifies where the mobile
unit is located as the unit itself is continuously moving, unlike the situation with
a fixed telephone. The process that carries out this essential function is known as
location registration.

Location information is registered in the network via signals from the cell
station to the mobile unit. When a location change is subsequently detected, the
mobile unit updates its internal location registration and notifies the network.

When the mobile unit is turned on, the mobile unit uses signal from the cell
station to compare the location information stored within its internal memory,
and notifies the network about the new location registration details if it detects
any difference.

Location registration in cellular mobile communication systems is generally

carried out through multiple-cell registration area units. Frequent location
registration switchovers can occur around cell boundaries due to fluctuation in
reception levels.
Overlay location registration is a method to establish an individual area for each
mobile unit using the mobile unit‟s initial location registration point as the center.

This can substantially reduce location registration traffic as re-establishing an

overlay area with a new location registration point as the center is needed only if
the mobile unit goes out of the initial overlay area.

Handoff
There are cases in which a mobile unit traverses multiple cells of a cellular mobile
communication system during a call. This demands the use of “hand-over”, the
radio channel is switched over automatically to the appropriate cell during the call.

Excessive signal interference can trigger “interference channel switchover”, which

will select and switch the signal over to a radio channel within the same cell with
less interference.

When a registered phone moves closer to a stronger tower, the call is „handed off‟.
The call is then routed through the new tower. This handoff is fully automatic and
is generally transparent to the user. Sometimes, for technical reasons, a call may
be routed to a weaker tower.
Handover may take place in several conditions:
1. within the cell: Intra-cell handover
2. between cells in the same cell layer: Inter-cell handover
3. between cells of different layers: Interlayer handover
4. between cells of different networks: Internetwork handover

Handoff operation identifies a new base station and reallocates the voice and
control channels to the new base station. Handoff must ensure that the drop in
the measured signal is not due to momentary fading and that the mobile is
actually moving away from the serving base station.

Dwell time: The time over which a call may be maintained within a cell without
handoff. Dwell time depends on propagation, interference, distance and speed.

Handoff measurement are as follows:

1. In first generation analog cellular systems, signal strength measurements are
made by the base station and supervised by the MSC.

2. In second generation systems (TDMA), handoff decisions are mobile

assisted, called mobile assisted handoff (MAHO).
Handoff Mechanism
– Base station continuously measures received signal strength indication.
– Based on this measurements it decides the Handoff request.
– Once Handoff request is identified, asks adjacent cells to measure the
RSSI on that mobile and send the measurements.
– Identifies the candidate cell for Handoff
– Starts Handoff
Handoffs are of two types: Hard and soft handoffs
The hard handoff can be further divided into two different types: Intra and inter-
cell handoffs
The soft handoff can also be divided into two different types: multi-way soft
handoffs and softer handoffs.

Hard Handoff: Early systems used a hard handoff. In a hard handoff, a mobile
station only communicates with one base station. When the mobile station
moves from one cell to another, communication must first be broken with the
previous base station before communication can be established with the new
one.
This may create a rough transition. The mobile ends communication with old
base station BEFORE beginning communication with the new one.

Soft Handoff: New systems use a soft handoff. In this case, a mobile station can
communicate with two base stations at the same time. This means that, during
handoff, a mobile station may continue with the new base station before
breaking off from the old one.
The mobile begins communication with the new base station BEFORE
ENDING communications with the old.
Roaming: Roaming means a user can have access to communication or can be
reached where there is coverage. A service provider usually has limited coverage.

Neighboring service provider can provide extended coverage through a roaming

contract. The situation is similar to snail mail between countries. The charge for
delivery of a letter between two countries can be divided upon agreement by the
two countries.

Intersystem handoff: Happens when a mobile moves from one cellular system
to a different cellular system controlled by a different MSC. Handoff requests is
much important than handling a new call.
The reason for handoff failures are:
a) No channel is available on selected BS
b) Handoff is denied by the network for reasons such as lack of resources.
For example, no bridge or no suitable channel card or the mobile station
may have exceeded some limit on the number of handoffs that may be
attempted in some period of time.
c) It takes the network too long to set up the handoff after it has been initiated.
d) The target link fails in some way during the execution of handoff.
Frequency Reuse:
• Cellular technology enables mobile communication because they use
complex two-way radio system between the mobile unit and the wireless
network.
• It uses radio frequencies (radio channels) over and over again throughout a
market with minimal interference, to serve a large number of simultaneous
conversations. This concept is the central principle to cellular design and is
called frequency reuse.
• Most frequency reuse plans are produced in groups of seven cells. Same
frequency is reused by each sector.
• The number of cells per cluster defines the reuse pattern and this is a function
of the cellular geometry. Cell sizes vary from some 100m up to 35 km
depending on user density, geography, transceiver power etc. The hexagonal
shape of cell is idealized.
• By limiting the coverage area to be within the boundary of the cell, the
channel groups may be reused to cover different cells.
• Consider a cellular system which has a total of S duplex channels. Each cell
is allocated a group of k channels, k<S. The S channels are divided among N
cells.
• Then the total number of available radio channels is given by S=kN
• The N cells which use the complete set of channels is called a cluster. The
cluster can be repeated M times within the system. The total number of
channels C is used as a measure of capacity where C=MkN = MS.
• The capacity is directly proportional to the number of replication cluster
factor M. The cluster size N, is typically equal to 4, 7 or 12. Small N is
desirable to maximize capacity.
• The frequency reuse factor is given by 1/N.
Cell Splitting

• Cell splitting increases the capacity of cellular system since it increases the
number of times the channel are reused.

• Cell splitting is a process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells,

each with its own base station. When traffic density starts to build up and
frequency channels in each cell cannot provide enough mobile calls, then the
original cell can be split into smaller cells.

• The original congested bigger cell is called macro-cell and the smaller cells
are called micro-cells.

• Capacity of cellular network can be increased by creating micro cells within

the original cells which are having smaller radius than macro-cells, therefore
the capacity of a system increases because more channels per unit area are
now available in a network.
• Splitting of cells causes an unbalanced situation in power and frequency
reuse distance. Hence it becomes necessary to split small cells in the
neighboring cells too. Thus cell splitting affects the neighboring cells too.
Also it adds up tower costs.

Generation of cellular networks

First generation :
• The first generation (1G) mobile phone networks used only analog signal to
transmit the voice calls between the two transmitters. The main technology of
this first generation mobile system was FDMA and analog FM.
• One example is advanced mobile phone system (AMPS) used in North
America. AMPS is an analog cellular phone system.

• It uses 800 MHz ISM band and two separate analog channels: forward and
reverse analog channels. The band between 824 to 849 MHz is used for
reverse communication from MS To BS. The band between 869 to 894 MHz
is used for forward communication from BS to MS. Each band is divided into
83230 khz channels.

• The following are the limitations of 1G:

 Supports only speech
 Low traffic capacity
 Unreliable handover
 Long-call setup time and frequent call drops
 Inefficient use of bandwidth and poor battery life
 Poor voice quality and large phone size
 Allows users to make voice calls in 1 country only
Second generation :
• Second generation (2G) mobile network is the next stage in the development
of wireless technology to overcome the limitation of 1G by primarily
focusing on transmission of voice and data with digital signal.

• 2G technology supports data, speech, FAX, SMS, and WAP services. The
frequency bands used by GSM are 890–960 MHz and 1710–1880 MHz.

• 2G digital technology is divided into two standards: time division multiple

access (TDMA) and code-division multiple access (CDMA).

• Global system for mobile (GSM) was the first commercially operated digital
cellular system and uses TDMA/frequency-division duplexing (FDD).

• Digital cell phones consumed a lot of processing power.

The following are limitations of 2G:

• Provides low data rates ranging from 9.6 kbps to 28.8 kbps.
 • Circuit-switched network, where the end systems are dedicated for the
entire call session. This causes reduction in usage of bandwidth and
resources.
• Too many 2G standards globally (e.g. GSM, CDMA, PDC, and PHS)

Interim generation (2.5G)

• The need for increased throughput data rates in data transfer (such as web
browsing and e-mail) led to the evolution of 2.5G which is between 2G and
3G. The mobile technology using GPRS standard has been termed as 2.5G.

• The 2.5G was started in 1998 with added GPRS and enhanced data rates for
GSM evolution (EDGE). In addition to the hyper text transfer protocol
(HTTP), it supports the wireless access protocol (WAP) through which web
pages can be viewed on the small screen of a mobile phone or any handheld
device, which led to mobile commerce (m-commerce).
THIRD GENERATION:
• Third Generation (3G) arrived because of low speed and incompatible
technologies used in previous generations.

• It is based on the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) family of

standards under the International Mobile Telecommunication-2000
(IMT2000).

• The aim of 3G systems is to provide communication services from person-to-

person at any place (global roaming) and at any time through any medium
with guaranteed quality of service. Examples of 3G system are universal
mobile telecommunication systems (UMTS) and international mobile
telecommunications at 2000 MHz (IMT-2000).

• The main features of (3G) is that it allows higher data transmission rates and
increased capacity for the traditional voice call and high speed data
applications such as Global roaming, Internet mobile, video conferencing,
video calls and 3D gaming.
• Goal of the 3G technologies are mentioned below:
 Allow both digital data and voice communication.
 To facilitate Universal personal communication.
 Listen music, watch movie, access internet video conferencing, etc.

The following are the drawbacks of 3G system:

• High bandwidth requirement
• High spectrum licensing fees
• Expense and bulk size of 3G phones
• Lack of interest among 2G mobile users buying 3G wireless service
• Lack of network coverage because it is still a new service
• High prices of 3G mobile services in some countries

Fourth Generation :
• 4G is called as MAGIC because the user can use the mobile multimedia at
anytime, anywhere with Global mobility support on integrated wireless
solution and customized personal service at high speed data rates than
previous generations.
• 4G will be a fully IP-based integrated system. 4G will be capable of
providing between 100 Mbps and 1 Gbit/s speed both indoor and outdoor
with premium quality and high security.

• Fourth generation (4G) is a packet switched wireless mobile communication

system with extensive area coverage and high throughput. Hence, it is called
as real world wireless or wireless world-wide web (WWWW).

• With the expected features in mind, 4G allows for video conferencing,

streaming picture perfect video (e.g. tele-medicine and tele-geo processing
application) and much more.

• Since the 4G is a research item for the next-generation wide-area cellular

radio, the technology is expected to be available around 2012–2015.
GSM Architecture
• GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is widely used
for digital cellular radio. It is the second generation cellular standard
developed to cater voice services and data delivery using digital modulation.

• GSM supports 200 full duplex channels per cell, where each channel uses
different uplink and downlink frequency.

• GSM handles channel access using a combination of FDMA, TDMA. GSM

is an open source system and it allows access to code. GSM comes in three
frequency bands 900MHz, 1800MHz, 1900MHz . The maximum distance
covered by the GSM is 35km.

Performance Characteristics of GSM:

• Communication: Mobile, wireless digital communication support for voice
and data services.
• Total Mobility: International access, chip card enables use of access points of
different providers
• World Wide Connectivity
• High Capacity: Better frequency efficiency, smaller cells, more customers per
cell
• High Transmission quality: High audio quality and uninterrupted phone calls
at higher speeds.

Security functions: access control, authentication via chip card and PIN.
The GSM network architecture consists of three major subsystems:
• Mobile Station (MS)
• Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
• Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

Base Station Subsystem

• Base station subsystem (BSS) consists of Base Transceiver System (BTS) and
Base Station Controller (BSC). The base station controller (BSC) is in control of
and supervises a number of Base Transceiver Stations (BTS).

• The BSC is responsible for the allocation of radio resources to a mobile call and
for the handovers that are made between base stations under its control. Other
handovers are under control of the MSC.

• Each BSC connects to a number of base transceiver station (BTS) which, in turn,
provide radio interfaces for mobile devices. BSC manages the radio resources for
one or more BTSs.

• It handles radio channel setup, frequency hopping and handovers. The BSC also
translates the 13kbps voice channel used over the radio link to the standard
64kbps channel used by the public Switched Telephone Network or ISDN.
Functions performed by the BSC :
• Processing of signals.
• Controlling signals to the connected BTSs and control of handover of signals
from one BTS to another within a BSS.
• Control and handover of the signals from BSC to MSC.
• Traffic control by continuous measurement of the frequency channel
spectrum being used at any given instant.
• Authentication, encryption and decryption of data.
• Updating location registry of the MSs.

Base transceiver station houses the radio transceiver that defines a cell and
handles the radio link protocols with the mobile stations. BTS serves one or
more cells in cellular Network and contains more than one transceiver.

The transceiver provides full duplex communication to the mobile stations.

Usually a BTS is used to manage one cell in the GSM cellular network, but
using a sectorized Antenna, a single BTS can be used to manage many cells.
Main functions performed by the BTS :
• Formation of cells using appropriately directed antenna.
• Processing of signals.
• Amplification of signals to acceptable strength so that they can be
transmitted without loss of data.
• Channel encoding and decoding.
• Frequency hopping so that multiple channels for various mobile stations can
operate simultaneously using different channel band frequency data.
• Encryption and decryption of data.

Network Switching Subsystem

• It acts as an interface between wireless and fixed networks. It mainly consists
of switches and databases and manages functions such as handovers between
BSCs, worldwide user localization, maintenance of user accounts and call
charges, and management of roaming.
• Mobile service switching Centre (MSC) is the main component of network
switching subsystem. It acts as switching node of PSTN. Network subsystem
includes four different type of databases:
• Home location register.
• Visitor location registers.
• Equipment identity registers.
• Authentication center.

Mobile Services Switching Centre (MSC)

• MSC mainly consists of high-performance digital ISDN switches. It connects
to a number of BSCs over the 'A' interface. It also connects to other MSCs
and to fixed-line networks.

• It is used to manage BSCs in a geographical area. MSC performs all

necessary functions in order to handle the calls to and from the mobile
station.
MSC performs following functions :
• Call routing.
• Collection and generation of billing information.
• Call setup, monitoring and release.
• Mobility management like registration, location updating and call Handoff
between BSC and MSC.
• Management of signaling protocol.

• The Home Location Register (HLR) and the Visitor Location Register (VLR)
are located within the MSC.

Home Location Register HLR

• It includes all permanent users information. HLR is a database used for
storage and management of subscription. HLR stores following information :
• Subscriptions information.
• International Mobile Station Identity (IMSI )
• One or more Mobile Station International ISDN numbers (MSISDN)
• Location information is required for billing and routing of calls towards the
MSC where the MS is registered.

• Each mobile user has only one HLR record worldwide, which is updated
constantly on a real-time basis. Each MS must register at a specific HLR of a
specific MSC. The HLR contacts AUC in the network subsystem for
authentication.

• Each HLR is associated to an MSC so that when an MS registered at a

certain HLR moves to another location area (LA) that is serviced by another
MSC, the user's home MSC updates the user's current VLR.

• The database contains other useful information like tele-services and bearer
services, subscription Information, Service restrictions etc.

• Location Area Identity (LAI) is broadcasted by the BTS. So a mobile station

can determine if it has entered a new location area. If a new location area is
entered, the MSC is informed and the VLR and HLR is updated.
• Each cell in a location area is allocated a Cell Identity (CI) consisting of 16
bits. The CI and LAI form a globally unique identifier of a cell. If the HLR
fails the system fails.

• The HLR manages the location updates as mobile phones roam. HLR
connects and interacts with a number of other components on the system like:

 The Gateway MSC for handling incoming calls.

 The VLR for handling request from mobile phones to attach to the
network.
 The SMSC for handling incoming SMS.
 The voice system for delivering notification to the mobile phone.

Visitor Location Register

• A VLR is a database similar to the HLR, which is used by the mobile
network to temporarily hold profiles of roaming users. This VLR data is
based on the user information retrieved from a HLR.
• VLR is a dynamic real time database that stores both permanent and
temporary subscriber data which is required for communication between the
MS‟s in the coverage area of the MSC associated with that VLR.

• VLR controls those mobiles roaming in its area and reduces number of
queries to HLR. Its database contains IMSI, TMSI, Location Area and
authentication key. If a roamer makes a call the VLR will have the
information needed for the call setup.

The VLR primary functions are:

a) To inform the HLR that a MS has arrived in the particular area covered by the
VLR.
b) To track where the subscriber is within a VLR area when it is not active.
c) To allocate roaming numbers during the process of incoming calls.
d) The VLR is reset daily.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR):
• The EIR keeps a black list of stolen phones that should be barred from access.
Stolen phones can be re-flashed with a new IMEI and thus avoid the EIR
check.

• EIR can also block phones that are malfunctioning and disturb the network.
The EIR feature is used to reduce the number of GSM mobile handset thefts
by providing a mechanism to assist network operators in preventing stolen or
disallowed handsets from accessing the network.

• This control is done by comparing the International Mobile Equipment

Identity that is provided during handset registration to a set of three lists
provided by the network operator.

a) Black list – Mobile Stations (MS) on the Black list will be denied access to
the network.
b) White List – MS‟s on the White List will be allowed access to the network.
c) Gray List – MS‟s on the Gray List will be allowed on the network, but may be
tracked.
Authentication Centre (AUC):
• The AUC verifies the identity of the user and ensures the confidentiality of
each call. The AUC holds a secret key that is shared between the SIM and the
network.

• The key never leaves the SIM nor the AUC. Network nodes can request the
encryption key by answering a set of challenges sent by the AUC. A challenge
is then sent to the mobile station and if the response matches the subscriber is
authenticated.

• The authentication process also controls encryption for privacy. It is generally

associated with HLR. The AUC and the EIR can be implemented as
standalone nodes or as combined AUC/EIR node.

How are the HLR and VLR used?

• Each mobile network has its own HLRs and VLRs. When a MSC detects a
mobile user‟s presence in the area covered by its network, it first checks the
database to determine if the user is in his/her home area or is roaming.
a) User in Home area: HLR has necessary information for initiating,
terminating or receiving a call.
b) User in Roaming: VLR contacts the user‟s HLR to get the necessary
information to set up a temporary user profile. The user‟s location is recorded in
the HLR, and in case the user is roaming, it is also recorded in the VLR.
Suppose that the user wants to make a call:
a) User in Home area: MSC contacts the HLR prior to setting up the call.
b) User in Roaming: MSC contacts the VLR prior to setting up the call.

Suppose that there is a call for the user (call goes to the home MSC) :
a) User in Home area: Home MSC delivers the call immediately.
b) User in Roaming: Home MSC contacts the VLR to determine the
appropriate switch in the roaming area to handle the arriving call and then
transfers the call to the roaming area MSC.

Operation and Maintenance Centre (OMC) supervises operation of particular

GSM system blocks. OMC is connected to all switching blocks and performs
management functions:
a) Traffic Accounting
b) Traffic Monitoring
c) Management in case of failure
d) HLR Management
Mobile Station
• A mobile station (MS) is equipment within the network that is used in
applications involving motion. It can be a hand-held device or any kind of
device installed in a mobile vehicle like a car, bus, boat or airplane.

• Each MS has a unique international mobile equipment identity (IMEI)

number. The IMEI is often used for preventing a stolen cell phone from
accessing the GSM network. It isn‟t used, however, for identifying the
subscriber.

• Each MS requires a Subscriber Identification Module (SIM), which stores a

unique international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI). The MS can be
locked or unlocked to a SIM provided by the operator.

• Each IMSI contains a unique mobile country code (MCC), a mobile network
code(MNC), and a ciphering key (Kc) for authentication center (AuC) in the
GSM network subsystem.
• Equipment Identity Register (EIR) contains a list of all valid mobiles.
Authentication Center (AuC) stores the secret keys of all SIM cards.

SIM Card
• Under the GSM framework, a mobile device is referred to as a Mobile
Station and is partitioned into two distinct components: the Universal
Integrated Circuit Card (UICC) and the Mobile Equipment (ME).

• A UICC, commonly referred to as an identity module (e.g., Subscriber

Identity Module [SIM], Universal Subscriber Identity Module [USIM],
CDMA Subscriber Identity Module [CSIM], is a removable component that
contains essential information about the subscriber.

• The ME and the radio handset portion cannot fully function without a UICC.
The UICC‟s main purpose entails authenticating the user of the mobile
device to the network providing access to subscribed services.
• The UICC also offers storage for personal information, such as phonebook
entries, text messages; last numbers dialed (LND) and service-related
information.

• SIM stores following types of information:

– SIM stores the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI), which is a
unique identifier for each subscriber in the system.
– Subscriber can maintain a list of the numbers they call or they are called
from more frequently.
– Information about SMS traffic.
– Information about subscriber‟s location: The SIM stores the last area
where the subscriber has been registered by the system.
– Information about calls: The last numbers dialed are stored in a file in the
SIM file system.
– Information about the provider: It is possible to extract the provider name
and the mobile network commonly used for communications, along with
mobile networks that are forbidden to the subscriber.
• Information about the system: Every SIM card has a unique ID stored in it.
• SIM card (Subscriber Identification Module (SIM)) is a type of smart card
used in mobile phone. The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the
user‟s subscription information and phone book.

• This allows user to retain his or her information even after switching off the
handset. Alternatively, the user can also change service providers while
retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. SIM card securely stores
the service subscriber key having 15 digit.

• The digits of the key are:

a) First 3 digits – Mobile country code
b) Second 2 digits – Mobile network code
c) Third 10 digits – Mobile station identification number.

BSS interface
• Um interface : Mobile station and base station subsystem communicates
across Um interface, also known as air interface or radio link.
• Abis interface : Base transceiver station (BTS) and base station controller
(BSC) communicates across Abis interface.
• A interface : Base station subsystem communicates with mobile service
switching center across A interface.

GSM Channels
• Physical channel corresponds to a time slot on a frequency carrier. There are
8 physical channels per carrier in GSM. Physical channel can be used to
transmit speech, data or signaling information.
• The channel from the base station to the mobile unit is known as the
downlink or forward channel. The channel from the mobile unit to the base
station is known as the uplink or reverse channel.
Digital cell phone components
• Cell phone is composed of two components: Radio Frequency (RF) and
baseband. RF is the mode of communication for wireless technologies of all
kinds including cordless phones, Radar, ham radio, GPS, radio and television
broadcast. RF waves are electromagnetic waves which propagate at the speed
of light.

• Base band: In telecommunications, it is the frequency range occupied by a

message signal prior to modulation. It can be considered as a synonym to low
-pass.

• Mobile phone contains microprocessor, Flash Memory etc., In addition to

the circuit board, mobile phone also has Antenna, Liquid crystal display
(LCD ), keypad, microphone, speaker and battery.

• Mobile devices contain nonvolatile and volatile memory. Volatile memory

(i.e., RAM) is used for dynamic storage and its content are lost when power
is drained from the mobile device. Nonvolatile memory is persistent as its
contents are not affected by laws of power or overwriting data upon reboot.
• Mobile devices typically contain one or two different type of non-volatile
Flash Memory. These types are NAND and NOR. NOR flash has faster read
times, slower write times than NAND and is nearly immune to corruption
and bad blocks while allowing random access to any memory location.
• NAND Flash Memory contains PIM (Passive Inter-Modulation) data,
graphics, audio, video and other user files. NAND flash memory may leave
multiple copies of transaction based files due to wear leveling algorithms and
garbage collection routines.

• Since NAND Flash Memory cells can be re-used for only a limited amount
of time before they become unreliable, wear leveling algorithms are used to
increase the lifespan of flash memory storage, by arranging data so that
erasures and rewrites are distributed evenly.

• When your mobile phone transmits audio it applies an oscillating electric

current to the mobile phone antenna. The mobile phone antenna then emits
corresponding electromagnetic waves, which are also known as radio waves.

• To receive calls the mobile phone antenna intercepts an electromagnetic

wave of a particular frequency.
• Mobile phone antennas transmit signals to radio towers and receive signals
back simultaneously. In a cellular network the towers are distributed over
portion of land called cells.

• Each cell contains at least one radio tower. Each cell is also assigned number of
frequency channels that correspond to radio base stations. Other cells can use
the same frequencies as long as they are not adjacent.

• Mobile phones uses following components:

 Digital signal processor: It is generally rated as having 40 MIPS (millions of
instructions per second ) to conduct for calculation of signal manipulation at
high speed. This chip deals with both compression and decompression of the
signal.

 Microprocessor: It performs command and control signaling with the base

station, and coordinates the rest of functions on the board.

 Flash memory and ROM chips of the mobile phone act as storage location
for the phone. The power and radio frequency section of the phone, phone
recharging and power management are controlled by this chip.
 SIM card (Subscriber Identification module (SIM)) is a type of Smart Card
used in mobile phone. The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the
user's subscription information and phone book.

• Mobile phones have special code associated with them. These include:
 Electronic serial number (ESN): It is a unique 32 bit number programmed
in the phone. ESN is a permanent part of the phone while MIN and SIC
codes are programmed in the phone when your service plan is selected and
activated.
 Mobile identification number (MIN): It is 10 digit number derived from
the phone's number.
 System Identification Code (SID): It is unique 5 digit number that is
assigned to each carrier by the FCC (Federal Communication Commission).

SHORT MESSAGE SERVICE:

• Short Message Service is a globally accepted wireless service that enables
the transmission of alphanumeric messages between mobile subscribers and
external systems such as electronic mail, paging and voice mail systems, not
requiring the end to end establishment of a traffic path.
• The service makes use of a short message service center (SMSC) which acts as
a store and forward system, for short messages. The wireless network provides
for the transport of short messages between the SMSCs and wireless handsets.

• SMS also guarantees delivery of the short message by the network. Temporary
failures are identified, and the short message is stored in the network until the
destination becomes available.

• SMS messages are transported in the core network. The SMSC can send SMS
messages to the end device using a maximum payload of 140 octets. This
defines the upper bound of an SMS message to be 160 characters using 7 bit
encoding.

• It is possible to specify other schemes such as 8 bit or 16 bit encoding which

decreases the maximum message length to 140 and 70 characters respectively.

• Send or Receive during voice or data calls: SMS messaging makes use of a
separate channel, normally used for transfer of control messaging to transfer its
packets.
• Being out of band, this means voice and data calls will not be interrupted by
SMS transfer. Furthermore, the low bandwidth requirements of transmitting
short alphanumeric strings allow messaging worldwide with very low
latency. This of course depends upon network operator agreements.

• The SMSC relays SMS messages from a Mobile Equipment (ME) to another
ME. The SMS is sent to the nearest call master, forwarded to the SMSC. The
SMSC stores the SMS and then attempts to deliver it to the destination ME.

• After a preset period of time, known as validity period, the message is

deleted from the SMSC if it cannot be delivered. The SMS can also be
forwarded on to a computer in the mobile Network‟s LAN.

• External messaging entities such as web and email are inputs to the networks.
These feed directly into the SMSC. This example has the SMSC connected to
two separate base stations. Two signal transfer points link the SMSC to the
mobile switching center.
• The HLR is accessed through the signal transfer point and the VLR feeds
directly into the MSC. Finally the MSC transmits to the base station. The base
station then provides the wireless link to all mobile stations, mobile phones.
Step 1: The mobile station is powered on and registered with the network.

Step 2: The MS transfers the SMS to the MSC.

Step 3: The MSC interrogates the VLR to verify that the message transfer does
not violate the supplementary services invoked or the restrictions imposed.

Step 4: The MSC sends the short message to the SMSC using the forward short
message operation.

Step 5: The SMSC delivers the short message to SME (acknowledgement is

optional).

Step 6: The short message is submitted from the ESME (External Short
Message Entity) to the SMSC.

Step 7: After completing its internal processing, the SMSC interrogates the
HLR.
Step 8: The SMSC sends the short message to the MSC using forward short
message operation.

Step 9: The MSC retrieves the subscriber information from the VLR. This
operation may include an authentication procedure.

Step 10: The MSC transfers the short message to the mobile station.

Step 11: The MSC returns to the SMSC the outcome of the forward short
message operation.

Step 12: If requested by the ESME, the SMSC returns a status report indicating
delivery of the short message.

Step 13: The SMSC acknowledges to the MSC the successful outcome of the
forward short message operation.
VOICE CALLS:
• Cell Phones are used to - Store contact information, Make task or to-do lists,
Send or receive e-mail, Get information (news, entertainment, stock quotes)
from the Internet, Play games, Watch TV, Send text messages, Take photos
and videos etc.

• A single cell in an analog mobile phone system uses one-seventh of the

available duplex voice channels. That is, each cell (of the seven on a
hexagonal grid) is using one-seventh of the available channels so it has a
unique set of frequencies and there are no collisions:
A cell phone carrier typically gets 832 radio frequencies to use in a city.
Each cell phone uses two frequencies per call -- a duplex channel -- so
there are typically 395 voice channels per carrier. (The other 42
frequencies are used for control channels).
Therefore, each cell has about 56 voice channels available. In other
words, in any cell, 56 people can be talking on their cell phone at one
time. Analog cellular systems are considered first-generation mobile
technology, or 1G.
• With digital transmission methods (2G), the number of available channels
increases. For example, a TDMA-based digital system can carry three times as
many calls as an analog system, so each cell has about 168 channels available.

• Cell phones have low-power transmitters in them. Many cell phones have two
signal strengths: 0.6 watts and 3 watts. The base station is also transmitting at low
power. Low-power transmitters have two advantages:

• The cellular approach requires a large number of base stations in a city of any
size. A typical large city can have hundreds of towers. But because so many
people are using cell phones, costs remain low per user.

• Each carrier in each city also runs one central office called the Mobile Telephone
Switching Office (MTSO). This office handles all of the phone connections to
the normal land-based phone system and controls all of the base stations in the
region.

Cell-phone Codes
• All cell phones have special codes associated with them. These codes are
used to identify the phone, the phone's owner and the service provider.
• When the phone is switched on, it listens for an SID (System Identification
Code) on the control channel. The control channel is a special frequency that
the phone and base station use to negotiate about call set-up and channel
changing. If the phone cannot find any control channels to listen to, it knows it
is out of range and displays a "no service" message.

• When it receives the SID, the phone compares it to the SID programmed into
the phone. If the SIDs match, the phone knows that the cell it is
communicating with is part of its home system.

• Along with the SID, the phone also transmits a registration request, and the
MTSO keeps track of the phone's location in a database -- this way, the MTSO
knows which cell you are in when it wants to ring your phone.

• The MTSO gets the call, and tries to find you. It looks in its database to see
which cell you are in. The MTSO picks a frequency pair that your phone will
use in that cell to take the call.

• The MTSO communicates with your phone over the control channel to tell it
which frequencies to use, and once your phone and the tower switch on those
frequencies, the call is connected.
• As you move toward the edge of your cell, your cell's base station notes that
your signal strength is diminishing. Meanwhile, the base station in the cell
you are moving toward (which is listening and measuring signal strength on
all frequencies, not just its own one-seventh) sees your phone's signal
strength increasing.

• The two base stations coordinate with each other through the MTSO, and at
some point, your phone gets a signal on a control channel telling it to change
frequencies. This handoff switches your phone to the new cell.

• If the new cell is covered by another service provider, then instead of

dropping the call, it'll actually be handed off to the other service provider.

• If the SID on the control channel does not match the SID programmed into
your phone, then the phone knows it is roaming. The MTSO of the cell that
you are roaming in contacts the MTSO of your home system, which then
checks its database to confirm that the SID of the phone you are using is
valid. Your home system verifies your phone to the new MTSO, which then
tracks your phone as you move through its cells.
Difference between CDMA and GSM:
1. Explain the various multiple access techniques in detail.
2. Compare the various multiple access techniques.
3. Explain in detail about channel sharing, channel borrowing and
Hand-off.
4. Explain the various generations of cellular mobile system.
5. Explain the various components of a cellular mobile system.
6. Explain in detail about GSM architecture.
7. Explain the components of digital cell phone.
8. Explain the SMS operation of cellular phones.
9. Explain the voice call operations of cellular phone.