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History of Physics

Article · August 2022

DOI: 10.47363/JPSOS/2022(4)169

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Gunel T. Imanova
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 ISSN: 2754-4753

Journal of Physics & Optics

Sciences

Review Article Open Access

History of Physics
Gunel Imanova

Institute of Radiation Problems, Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, AZ 1143 - Baku, Azerbaijan

ABSTRACT
Physics is an exact science and studies the quantitative regularities of natural phenomena at both the macroscopic and microscopic levels. The term "physics"
first appears in the works of Aristotle in antiquity. In the early days, the terms "physics" and "philosophy" (natural) were used as synonyms, as both were
intended to explain the laws of the universe. However, as a result of the scientific revolution, physics began to take shape as a separate field of science in the
16th century. A [1-50] reference was used in writing the review article.

*Corresponding author
Gunel Imanova, Institute of Radiation Problems, Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, AZ 1143 - Baku, Azerbaijan.
E-mail: gunel_imanova55@mail.ru

Received: July 12, 2022; Accepted: July 18, 2022; Published: July 25, 2022

Famous physicists

The Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) is

remembered for his development of a heliocentric model of
the Solar System
Aristotle (384–322 BCE)

The ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes, famous for

his ideas regarding fluid mechanics and buoyancy Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695)

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Citation: Gunel Imanova (2022) History of Physics. Journal of Physics & Optics Sciences. SRC/JPSOS/194. DOI: doi.org/10.47363/JPSOS/2022(4)169

Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) Ibn al-Haytham (965 - 1040), optics

James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)

Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782)

Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906)

Michael Faraday (1791–1867)

Marie Skłodowska-Curie (1867–1934)

William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824–1907)

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Citation: Gunel Imanova (2022) History of Physics. Journal of Physics & Optics Sciences. SRC/JPSOS/194. DOI: doi.org/10.47363/JPSOS/2022(4)169

Galileo Galilei gave a modern assessment of the relationship

between mathematics, theoretical physics and experimental
physics

The 1927 Solvey Conference with the participation of prominent

physicists such as Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, Max
Planck, Hendrik Lawrence, Niels Bohr, Maria Curie, Erwin
Schrödinger and Paul Dirac

General Information
Physics was formed mainly as an experimental science: its laws
are based on facts obtained experimentally. These laws are based
on certain quantitative relations and are expressed in mathematical
language. Physics is divided into two sections - experimental
physics and theoretical physics. In experimental physics, special
conditions are created for the observation and experimental
study of physical phenomena. The methods and equipment
Isaac Newton (1643-1727). His laws of motion and the law of used to conduct experiments can vary widely, depending on
universal gravitation laid the foundations of classical physics the specific field of physics, from simple devices (such as the
Cavendish experiment) to giant mega-projects such as the Large
Hadron Collider. Theoretical physics, on the other hand, seeks
to explain real events in nature by creating mathematical models
of physical objects and systems, and predicts the possibility of
new effects and phenomena unknown to science. Of course, the
achievements and development of modern physics is the product
of the mutual exchange of the two approaches mentioned above.
Thus, experimental physics provides theoretical physics with
both experimental facts and confirms experimentally whether
the theoretical propositions are true. Also, at the beginning of
the 21st century, the whole set of physical knowledge, depending
on the size of the objects studied, was applied to microphysics
(in the order of 10–18–10–8 m), macrophysics (10–8–1020 m) and
mega physics (section 1020–1026 m). has been; microphysics
studies elementary particles and the atomic nucleus, as well as
Max Planck (1858–1947), founder of quantum mechanics atoms and molecules, macrophysics studies the physical objects
that make up animate and inanimate nature, and mega physics
studies cosmic objects. In order to systematize the diversity of
the world's objects of study and forms of motion, physics is
divided into several interrelated sections at one level or another.
This separation is not monolithic and can be based on different
criteria. According to the objects of research, physics is divided
into elementary particle physics, nuclear physics, atomic and
molecular physics, gas and liquid physics, solid state physics,
and plasma physics. According to the forms of motion of matter,
there are divisions such as mechanical motion, thermal processes,
electromagnetic phenomena, gravity, weak, and strong interactions.
From a macroscopic point of view, physics includes mechanics
(classical mechanics, relativistic mechanics, mechanics of solids
Albert Einstein (1879—1955). His work on the photoelectric - including hydrodynamics, acoustics, and solid state mechanics),
effect and the theory of relativity revolutionized 20th-century thermodynamics, optics (physical optics, crystal optics, and
physics nonlinear optics), electrodynamics, electrodynamics, and

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Citation: Gunel Imanova (2022) History of Physics. Journal of Physics & Optics Sciences. SRC/JPSOS/194. DOI: doi.org/10.47363/JPSOS/2022(4)169

electrodynamics. Electro Hydrodynamics). From a microscopic the development of optics, laws of mechanical motion (statics,
point of view, physics includes atomic physics, statistical physics dynamics, kinematics), mechanisms, hydrostatics and astronomy.
(statistical mechanics, statistical field theory, physical kinetics), Some of the negative aspects of Aristotle's teaching, canonized
quantum physics (quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, by the church in Europe, hindered the development of science
quantum electrodynamics, quantum chromo dynamics, theoretical until the Middle Ages. It was only in the 15th and 16th centuries
physics of wires, theoretical physics, theory). Can be divided that science was able to break free from Aristotle's scholastic
into sections. teachings. In the middle of the 16th century, Copernicus advanced
the heliocentric system of the world, freeing the natural sciences
In physics, the teaching of dances and waves is often referred to as from theological influences. The needs of the manufacturing
a special section. This is due to the fact that many of the various industries, as well as the development of crafts, shipbuilding and
phenomena that occur in nature can be explained by regularities artillery, stimulated experimental research. However, in the 15th
inherent in dance processes and studied by general methods. In this and 16th centuries, experimental research was largely episodic.
section, mechanical, acoustic, electrical, optical oscillations and It was not until the 17th century that the experimental method
waves are considered from a single position. Sometimes applied began to be systematically applied to physics, and this led to the
physics is also distinguished as one of the branches of physics. emergence of the first fundamental theory, classical Newtonian
Despite all the diversity of the physical world, modern physics mechanics.
is based on several fundamental theories. These theories, which
are the quintessence of knowledge about the nature of physical Formation of Physics as a Science
processes and events, allow us to explain the different forms of The development of physics as a science in the modern sense
movement of matter in nature. is associated with the works of G. Galilei (first half of the 17th
century). Galileo showed that the effect of a given body on a given
Formation of Physics body determines its acceleration, not its speed, as is accepted
From ancient times the physical phenomena of the environment in Aristotle's mechanics. The initial expression of the law of
have attracted people's attention. Attempts to understand and inertia, the discovery of the principle of relativity in mechanics,
explain the causes of these events have played an embryonic the experimental proof that the acceleration of the independence
role in the development of physics. During the Greco-Roman of objects does not depend on their mass and density, and the
period (6th-2nd centuries BC), the first ideas about the atomic confirmation of Copernicus' theory are associated with Galileo's
structure of matter were formed (Democritus, Epicurus, Lucretius); name. He also made many astronomical discoveries (mountains
the geocentric system of the world was created (Ptolemy); the on the surface of the moon, Jupiter's satellites, etc.) by creating
simplest laws of statics (ling's rule) were defined, the laws of a telescope with high magnification. The first thermometer,
linear propagation of light, as well as the laws of return were developed by Galileo, paved the way for the quantitative study
discovered; the initial regularities of hydrostatics (Archimedes' of thermal phenomena. During this period, advances were also
law) were discovered; elements of the manifestations of electrical made in the study of the properties of gases. Thus, Galileo's student
and magnetic phenomena began to take shape. BC Achievements E. Torricelli confirmed the existence of atmospheric pressure and
up to the 4th century were summarized by Aristotle. In addition created the first barometer. R. Boyle and E. Marriott correctly
to individual correct propositions, Aristotle's physics had some studied the elastic compression properties of gases and correctly
flaws; he did not reflect in his work the progressive ideas of some expressed the first gas law named after them. W. Snellius and
of his predecessors, such as the atomic hypothesis. Although R. Descartes discovered the law of refraction of light. It was
Aristotle emphasized the importance of experience, he preferred during this period that the microscope was created. A new step
abstract ideas as the main criterion for the accuracy and validity in the study of magnetic phenomena was taken by U. Gilbert.
of knowledge. In the later stages of history, the process of He proved that the Earth resembles a large magnet, and for the
development and dissemination of ancient knowledge stopped, first time explained the significant difference between electrical
and over a long period of time this knowledge was lost and and magnetic phenomena. The greatest achievement of the 17th
reached the point of extinction (Europe's "Dark Ages", 5th-15th century was the emergence of classical mechanics. Developing the
centuries). It was only in the middle Ages, as a result of the efforts ideas of Galileo, H. Huygens and other predecessors, I. Newton
of Eastern thinkers, that Aristotle's works were translated into systematically expressed all the basic laws of mechanics in his
Arabic and reborn in the scientific and philosophical environment work "Mathematical Foundations of Natural Philosophy" (1687).
of the East. These scholars not only gave a detailed explanation For the first time in the creation of classical mechanics, the idea
of the scientific and philosophical views of antiquity, but also of scientific theory, which is still used today, was applied. The
enriched them with new ideas. Thus, in the Middle Ages, Ibn greatest achievement of Newtonian mechanics was the creation
al-Haytham (Latin name Alhazen; 965, Basra - 1039, Cairo) is of a universal law of gravitation that explained the motion of
considered the creator of a scientific method based on experiment celestial bodies. With the help of this law, it has been possible to
and mathematical explanation. In his 7-volume Book on Optics, calculate the motion of the planets and comets of the Moon and the
written by Ibn al-Haytham from 1011 to 1021, he described his solar system with great accuracy, and to explain the phenomena
experiments to prove his theory of vision and showed that the of swells and contractions in the oceans. Newton's law was based
eye only perceives other objects. Until then, Euclid-Ptolemy's on the concept of long-term effects. According to this concept,
teaching was that the eye itself radiates light. Ibn al-Haytham the interactions between objects (particles) in space propagate
studied the laws of light propagation in his experiments using instantly. Newton also articulated classical concepts such as the
an observation camera. Later, research on optics was further absolute space in which all matter is located and the absolute time
developed by the founder of the Istanbul Observatory, Tagi al-Din flowing with a single decision, regardless of its properties or the
(1526, Damascus - 1585, Istanbul). In general, during the 8th and properties of motion. Until the theory of relativity emerged, these
15th centuries, Nasreddin Tusi, Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi notions of space and time remained unchanged. It was during
(Alpharabius), Ibn Rushd (Avverroes), Ibn Sina (Avisenna), Abu this period that Huygens and G. Leibniz discovered the law of
Rayhan al-Biruni, Omar -Khazini, Ibn-Bajja (Avempace), Jabir- conservation of momentum; Huygens, the founder of the theory
ibn-Khayyam and other scientists - philosophers contributed to of physical dancing, created the first dancer (kaffir) watch. The
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scientific review of the principle of operation and construction of molecular-kinetic heat, proposed by Newton, R. Hooke, Boyle,
stringed musical instruments began after M. Mersenn discovered Bernoulli, and others, who took heat as the result of the internal
the regularities of the oscillation frequency of a stretched wire; motion of the particles that make up matter.
Mersenn also experimentally determined the speed of sound in the
air for the first time, and Newton theoretically obtained the formula Classical Physics
for the speed of sound. Beginning in the second half of the 17th The rivalry between the corpuscular and wave theories of light
century, the installation of new telescopes and optical devices led finally culminated in the victory of wave theory in the early 19th
to the rapid development of geometric optics, as well as physical century. One of the main reasons for this was the convincing
optics. The physicist Grimaldi discovered the diffraction of light, explanation of the phenomena of diffraction and interference of
and Newton conducted fundamental research on the dispersion light by T. Jung and O.J. Fresnel, as well as the wave theory of
of light, thus laying the foundations for optical spectroscopy. polarization. Corpuscular theory could not explain these events.
In 1676, O. Romer first measured the speed of light. At about Fresnel, who imagined light as transverse waves propagating in
the same time, two different theories about the physical nature an elastic medium (ether), proposed the law that determines the
of light — corpuscular and wave theory — began to develop. intensity of refracted and returning streams of light as light waves
According to Newton's corpuscular theory, light is a stream of pass from one medium to another, as well as the double refraction
particles emanating from a source and propagating in all directions. of light. The discovery of electric current by L. Galvani and A.
According to Huygens, light is a wave of waves propagating in the Volta was of great importance for the development of physics.
air, in a hypothetical environment that fills all space and penetrates The emergence of strong direct current sources - galvanic batteries
all objects. In the 18th century, the development of classical - has led to the study of various effects of electric current. The
mechanics, especially celestial mechanics, became even more chemical effects of electric current have been studied by H. Devi
widespread. The mathematical explanation of a small anomaly and M. Faraday. The discovery of the effect of an electric current
in the motion of the planet Uranus made it possible to predict the on a magnetic needle (H.K. Ersted, 1820) proved that there is a
existence of a new planet, Neptune (discovered in 1846). Such close connection between electrical and magnetic phenomena,
achievements increased the belief in the correctness of Newtonian and on this basis A. Ampere said that all magnetic phenomena
mechanics, and thus the diversity and diversity of all events in the are charged particles that move a moving particle. As a result of
world. Such a description of the world has long influenced the these studies, Ampere determined the value of the interaction
development of physics. The scientific and complete explanation of force between electric wires experimentally (Ampere's law). In
a physical phenomenon was measured by its degree of conformity 1831, Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic
to mechanical laws. One of the factors driving the development of induction. Attempts to explain this phenomenon with a long-term
mechanics was the ever-increasing demand for production. Thus, concept have failed. To explain such phenomena, Faraday (before
L. Euler et al. they worked out the dynamics of an absolutely the discovery of the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction)
rigid body. Along with the development of the mechanics of puts forward a new hypothesis: the electromagnetic interaction
particles and solids, the mechanics of liquids and gases were takes place through an intermediate agent - the electromagnetic
also developed. Already in the first half of the 18th century, as field (the concept of proximity). This hypothesis led to the
a result of the efforts of D. Bernoulli, J. Lagrange, L. Euler and formation of a new science about the properties and regularities
others, the foundations of the hydrodynamics of an ideal fluid - a of a special type of matter - the electromagnetic field. In the early
non-compressible fluid with no viscosity and thermal conductivity 19th century, Dalton introduced the idea of atoms, the smallest
- were laid. In Lagrange's Analytical Mechanics (1788), the indivisible part of matter, to science (1803). The foundations of
equations of mechanics were expressed in such a general way that solid state physics were laid in the first quarter of the 19th century.
they could be easily applied to non-mechanical processes, such as In the 17th and 18th and early 19th centuries, data were collected
electromagnetic processes. In other fields of physics, the process on the macroscopic properties of solids (metals, technical
of collecting experimental data and finding simple experimental materials, minerals, etc.) and on external influences (mechanical
laws was also developing. Dufe discovered the existence of two forces, heat, electric and magnetic fields, light, etc.). empirical
types of electric charges and showed that objects with charges laws concerning Thus, the study of the elastic properties of solids
of the same name repel each other, and objects with charges of is based on Huck's law (1660), the study of their thermal properties
different names attract each other. B. Franklin discovered the law is based on Dulong-Pti's law for heat capacity (1819), and the
of conservation of electric charge, H. Cavendish and S. Coulomb study of the electrical conductivity of metals is based on Ohm's
discovered the basic law of electrostatics (Coulomb's law), which law (1826). During this period, a general theory of the elastic
determines the force of interaction between electric charges at properties of solids was developed (L.M.A. Navye 1819–26, O.L.
rest. Franklin, G. Richman, and M. Lomonosov, who studied Cauchy, 1830), as well as a scientific idea of the basic magnetic
electrical phenomena in the atmosphere, proved that lightning properties of solids. It should be noted that in the explanation of
and thunder were of an electrical nature. In the field of optics, most of the results obtained in this field, solids were considered
P. Buger and I. Lambert laid the foundations of photometry; as a solid medium (although most scientists of that time knew
infrared (U. Herschel, U. Wollaston) and ultraviolet rays (I. Ritter, that crystals have an internal microscopic structure). The discovery
Wollaston) were discovered. Significant progress has also been of the law of conservation of energy, which encompasses all the
made in the study of thermal events; after the discovery of the phenomena that occur in nature, was of great importance not only
latent melting temperature by C. Black and the experimental for physics, but also for the natural sciences in general. In the
proof of heat retention in calorimetric experiments, the concepts middle of the 19th century, the amount of heat and the equivalence
of temperature and heat quantity began to be differentiated. The of work were proved experimentally and it was shown that heat
concept of heat capacity was introduced into science; the study is a type of energy and that no hypothetical substance - calories
of heat transfer and thermal radiation phenomena has begun. It - is needed to explain it. It was during this period that YR Mayer,
should be noted that during this period, misconceptions about C. Cole and G. Helmholtz discovered the law of conservation and
the nature of heat were created - a calorie theory that perceived conversion of energy independently of each other. The law of
heat as an indestructible, weightless special liquid (caloric) that conservation of energy, called the first law of thermodynamics,
could flow from heated objects to cold objects. The theory of became the basic law of the theory of thermal phenomena
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(thermodynamics). Even before the discovery of this law, S. Carnot Maxwell's theory was that the light flux had a pressure. At the
in his book "Thoughts on the driving force of fire and the machines end of the 19th century, PN Lebedev observed this in practice and
that can develop this force" (1824) introduced another fundamental measured the pressure of light, while AS Popov and G. Marconi
law of thermal theory - the second law of thermodynamics. R. were the first to transmit electromagnetic waves wirelessly. During
Clausius (1850) and W. Thomson (1851) correctly stated this law this period, G. Kirchhoff and P. Bunzen laid the foundations of
in their works. This law, arising from the generalization of spectral analysis (1859). The theory of elastic oscillations and
experimental facts proving the irreversibility of thermal processes waves in acoustics (Helmholts, C.U. Reley, etc.) was developed.
occurring in nature, also determines the direction of possible The mechanics of wet environments continued to develop. The
energy processes. J.L. Gay-Lussac's research played an important technique of obtaining low temperatures was developed. All gases
role in the formation of thermodynamics as a doctrine. Based on except helium were obtained in liquid form; at the beginning of
these studies, B. Clapeyron obtained the equation of state for an the 20th century, H. Kamerling-Onnes (1908) was able to liquefy
ideal gas, and later D. Mendeleev generalized this law. Along with helium.
the development of thermodynamics, the molecular-kinetic theory
of thermal phenomena was developing, and soon a new type of Relativist and Quantum Physics
probabilistic law, the statistical law, was discovered between Nuclear and Elementary Particle Physics
physical quantities. In the early stages of the development of The discovery of the electron in 1897 by C. Thomson marked a
kinetic theory, a simple medium for gas - Coul, Clausius, etc. new era in the development of physics. It turned out that atoms
average values of different physical quantities: velocity of are not elementary particles, but complex systems with electrons
molecules, one sec. the number of their collisions during the inside. The study of electrical discharges in gases played an
period, the number of free runs, and so on. They managed to important role in this discovery. In the late 19th and early 20th
calculate. A formula was obtained that expressed the dependence centuries, Lawrence laid the foundations of electronic theory.
of the gas pressure on the number of molecules in a single volume Albert Einstein (1879—1955). His work on the photoelectric
and the average kinetic energy of their forward motion. Such an effect and the theory of relativity revolutionized 20th-century
approach to thermal phenomena has made it possible to characterize physics. At the beginning of the 20th century, it became clear that
the physical nature of the concept of temperature as a measure of in order to explain electrodynamics, it was necessary to radically
the average kinetic energy of gas molecules. The second stage in change the notions of space and time that underlie Newton's
the development of molecular-kinetic theory began with the work classical mechanics. In 1905, A. Einstein created a new doctrine
of C.K. Maxwell. In 1859, he was the first to introduce the concept of space and time - a special theory of relativity. The works of
of probability into physics, discovering the law of distribution of Lawrence and H. Poincaré played an important role in the
molecules by speed (see Maxwell's distribution). After that, the development of this theory. According to Galileo's principle of
possibilities of molecular-kinetic theory expanded and led to the relativity, mechanical events occur in the same way in all inertial
emergence of statistical mechanics. L. Boltsman developed the computational systems. It was considered that electromagnetic
kinetic theory of gases and gave a statistical explanation of the phenomena should also follow this principle, and therefore the
laws of thermodynamics. Boltsman contributed to the solution of form of Maxwell's equations should not change (remain invariant)
a major problem - the fact that macroscopic processes do not as it passes from one inertial system to another. However, research
return in nature when the motion of individual molecules rotates has shown that electromagnetic phenomena do not conform to
with time. According to Boltzmann, the thermodynamic Galileo's principle of relativity. Although the formulas for the
equilibrium state of the system is max. that is, the irreversibility transformation of coordinates and time to keep Maxwell's
of the process is due to the system becoming more probable. equations invariant were found by Lorentz, he was unable to
Boltsman also proved the theorem of equal distribution of the correctly interpret these transformations. Einstein clarified this
average kinetic energy of the molecules that make up a gas issue with the help of his special theory of relativity. The discovery
according to the degrees of independence. The method of of the special theory of relativity showed the limitations of the
calculating the distribution function for any system in mechanical model of the world, and proved that attempts to explain
thermodynamic equilibrium was proposed by C. Gibbs (1902), electromagnetic processes by mechanical processes occurring in
and thus the process of formation of classical statistical mechanics the air, which is a hypothetical environment, proved futile. Thus,
was completed. After A. Einstein and M. Smoluxowski correctly it became clear to science that the electromagnetic field is a special
explained the Brownian motion observed experimentally by J. B. type of matter and does not obey the laws of mechanics. In 1916,
Perren on the basis of molecular kinetic theory, statistical Einstein approached the concepts of space, time and gravity from
mechanics was universally accepted in the 20th century. In the a single point of view, creating a physical theory that unites them
second half of the 19th century, Maxwell's long-term study of in the form of unity - the general theory of relativity. At the turn
electromagnetic phenomena was completed. Thus, in his Treatise of the twentieth century, with the emergence and development of
on Electricity and Magnetism (1873), he used the equations of quantum theory, the foundations were laid for great change in the
the electromagnetic field (named after him) to explain the facts field of physics. As far back as the late 19th century, it became
up to that time from a single point of view, and even to predict clear that classical statistical physics, which assumed an equal
the possibility of new events. Maxwell described the phenomenon distribution of energy according to degrees of freedom, could not
of electromagnetic induction as the process of creating a vortex explain the experimental facts about the spectrum of thermal
electric field by means of a changing magnetic field. He also radiation. According to the existing theory, an object had to radiate
predicted the possibility of the opposite effect - the creation of a electromagnetic waves at any temperature and thus had to cool
magnetic field by means of an alternating electric field. The most to absolute zero temperature, i.e. the heat balance between matter
important result of Maxwell's theory is that the speed of propagation and radiation was impossible. But daily experience showed the
of an electromagnetic interaction is finite (equal to the speed of opposite. M. Planck found a way out in 1900. He showed that if
propagation of light). H. Hertz's experimental observation of we accept that the electromagnetic energy emitted by atoms
electromagnetic waves (1886–1889) confirmed Maxwell's theory. (according to classical electrodynamics) is not continuous, but
According to his theory, light is electromagnetic in nature. Thus, irradiated in the form of separate portions - quanta, we can explain
optics became a subject of electrodynamics. One of the results of the experimental facts. The energy of each quantum is directly
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proportional to the frequency of the radiation; later called Planck's of metals began to develop. In this theory, the electrons inside the
constant in honor of Planck, this ratio is called the quantum of metal were considered to be ordinary dilute molecular gas-like
influence (h = 6,626 • 10–34C • sec). In 1905, Einstein extended free electrons that filled the crystal lattice and were subject to
Planck's hypothesis to show that electromagnetic energy is not classical Boltzmann statistics. With the help of electron theory, it
only irradiated in portions, it is also absorbed in portions, and thus became possible to explain Ohm's and Wiedemann-French laws
it behaves like a particle (later called a photon). Einstein also (P. Drude) and the basis for the theory of dispersion of light in
explained the phenomenon of the photoelectric effect, which crystals. However, many facts could not be explained with the
cannot be explained by classical electrodynamics, on the basis of help of classical electronic theory. Thus, the temperature
this hypothesis. Thus, the corpuscular theory of light has already dependence of the specific resistance of metals, as well as the fact
been developed to a qualitatively new level. The dualism in the that the share of electron gas in the heat capacity of metals is
nature of light allows it to be interpreted, on the one hand, as a insignificant, remained unexplained. It was only after the
stream of particles (corpuscles) and, on the other hand, as a wave application of quantum mechanics to these issues that these dark
(interference, diffraction). Based on the "quantization" of points were clarified. In the 1920s, the movement of microparticles,
electromagnetic radiation, in 1913, N. Bor concluded that the as well as many physical phenomena occurring in macroscopic
energy of intra-atomic processes must also change by leaps and objects, consistently, logically explained, and developed into a
bounds. This result of the tube made it possible to explain modern theory (theory). The basis of quantum theory was the idea
Rutherford's atomic model. Thus, in 1911, E. Rutherford created of quantization by Planck-Einstein-Bohr, as well as the hypothesis
a planetary model of the atom by experimentally studying the put forward by L. de Broglie (1924) - corpuscular dualism is not
scattering of alpha particles from matter. According to this model, only about electromagnetic radiation (photons), but also about
electrons revolve around the nucleus, and planets revolve around the hypothesis of matter in general. According to this hypothesis,
the Sun. However, according to Maxwell's electrodynamics, such all microparticles (electrons, protons, atoms, etc.) have not only
an atom cannot be stable, because electrons moving in elliptical corpuscular properties but also wave properties: each particle has
orbits must constantly emit electromagnetic radiation, lose energy, a specific wavelength λ (λ = h / p), where h is the plan frequency
and fall on the nucleus in about 10 to 8 seconds. It was not possible (ν = E / h, E is the energy of the particle) corresponds to the wave.
to explain the stability of atoms and their linear, discrete spectra De Broglie waves describe free particles. Experimental
within the framework of classical laws. Bor showed the way out observations of electron diffraction in 1927 proved that they had
of this difficult situation. According to his postulate, atoms are in a wave nature. Later, diffraction was observed in other
special stationary states, in which case the electrons do not radiate microparticles (including molecules) (see Diffraction of Particles).
energy. Radiation occurs only when moving from one stationary 1929 Solvey Conference with the participation of prominent
state to another. The study of the collision of atoms with electrons physicists such as Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, Max
accelerated in an electric field by C. Frank and H. Hertz (1913–14) Planck, Hendrik Lawrence, Niels Bohr, Maria Curie, Erwin
proved that the energy spectrum of atoms is discrete. For hydrogen, Schrödinger and Paul Dirac. In 1925, W. Heisenberg and M. Born
the simplest atom, boron developed a quantitative theory consistent established matrix mechanics that explained quantum phenomena
with the experiments of the radiation spectrum. During this period, with the help of a special mathematical apparatus. In 1926,
a modern view of solid state physics began to take shape as a Schrödinger, who tried to explain the discrete energy spectrum
condensed system consisting of a large number of particles (~ of the atom by wave equations, obtained the basic equation of
1022 cm – 3). Until 1925, solid state physics developed in two quantum mechanics. In 1925, C.Y. Ulenbeck and S.A. Gaudsmith
directions: the physics of the crystal lattice and the electron physics discovered by spectroscopic experiments that an electron had a
of crystals (mainly metals). Later, these directions merged on the specific moment of motion - a spin (as well as a specific spin
basis of quantum theory. Crystals - The idea of a multitude of magnetic moment associated with it). The size of the spin is usually
atoms arranged in space in order and balanced by the forces of expressed in units ћ = h / 2π; with this unit the spin of the electron
interaction was already fully formed in the early 20th century. At is equal to 1/2. V. Pauli obtained the equation of motion of a non-
the end of the 19th century, ES Fyodorov laid the foundations of relativistic electron, taking into account the interaction of the
theoretical crystallography with his work in the field of structure magnetic field with the magnetic field in the external
and symmetry of crystals; he proved the possibility of 230 electromagnetic field and the spin magnetic moment. He also
symmetry groups for crystals in 1890–91 — regular types of atoms formulated the principle (Pauli's principle) that only one electron
in a crystal lattice (Fyodorov groups). In 1907, according to can be located in a quantum state (1925). Pauli's principle was of
Einstein's crystal model, which was accepted as a set of quantum great importance in the construction of the quantum theory of
harmonic oscillators of the same frequency, the decrease in the systems consisting of many particles. Thus, with his help, it was
heat capacity of solids, which contradicted Dulong-Pti’s law but possible to explain the laws of electron filling of electron shells
was observed in practice, led to a decrease in temperature? In and layers in multi-electron atoms, and thus Mendeleev's theory
1912, M. Laue and his colleagues discovered the diffraction of of the periodic table of elements. In 1928, P.A.M. Dirac received
X-rays in crystals and conclusively confirmed that crystals have the quantum relativistic equation of electron motion. It follows
a regular atomic structure. On the basis of this discovery, a from this equation that the electron has a spin. On the basis of
methodology for the experimental determination of the regularities this equation, in 1931, Dirac announced the existence of a positron
of the arrangement of atoms in crystals and the distance between (the first antiparticle), and in 1932, K.D. was discovered
atoms was developed, and the method was developed by U.L. experimentally over the years). Along with quantum mechanics,
Bregg, U.H. Bregg (1913) and G. Wolf (1913). In 1907–14, a quantum statistics also developed. In 1924, the Indian physicist
dynamic theory of the crystal lattice based on quantum imagery S. Boze applied the principles of quantum statistics to a photon
was developed. The more complete dynamic theory, which with spin 1 to express Planck's formula for the energy spectrum
presents the crystal lattice as a set of interconnected quantum of equilibrium radiation. In 1926, Dirac and the Italian physicist
oscillators of different frequencies, was further developed by P. E. Fermi showed that a different statistical distribution law - Fermi-
Debay (1912), M. Born, T. Karman (1913) and E. Schrödinger Dirac statistics - should be applied to electrons and other particles
(1914). After the discovery of the electron, the electronic theory with 1/2 spin. Quantum statistics played a very important role in

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the development of solid state physics. In 1929, I.E. Tamm the work of a quantum field theory that has not yet reached the
proposed to look at the thermal motion of crystal atoms as a level of maturity. In 1917, Einstein, who put forward the quantum
collection of quasi-particles - phonons. Such an approach explained theory of the process of radiation, showed the possibility of a
the decrease in the heat capacity of metals with decreasing mechanism of forced radiation. Intensive research in the field of
temperature at low temperatures according to the law ~ T3, and generation and amplification of electromagnetic waves by quantum
also showed that the main reason for the electrical resistance of systems in the 1950s NG Basov, AM Prokhorov and independently
metals is the scattering of electrons from phonons. In 1928, the Ch. Towns (these three scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize
German physicist A. Sommerfeld used the Fermi-Dirac distribution in 1964). led to the development of the laser, a quantum generator
function to explain the transfer processes in metals. This step gave operating in the visible light range. The creation of modern
impetus to the development of quantum theory of kinetic accelerators and the improvement of methods for observing
phenomena (electrical and thermal conductivity, galvanomagnetic, elementary particles led to the emergence of high-energy physics.
thermoelectric, etc. effects) on solids. According to Pauli's The development of high-energy physics increased confidence in
principle, even at absolute zero, the total energy of the electrons the validity of the hypothesis that hadrons were composed of
inside such a metal is different from zero that is, in the unexcited quarks and that strong interactions were carried by gluons, and
state, all energy levels start at zero and reaches a certain maximum that experiments with weak interactions W ± (1982) and Zº (1983)
value of the electron (Fermi). Using this model, Sommerfeld were discovered in practice.
explained the small contribution of electrons to the heat capacity
of metals: when heated, only excited electrons near the Fermi Physics in Modern Times (Development of Microphysics)
level contribute to the heat capacity. In 1928–34, F. Blox, H.A. According to the modern level of knowledge, elementary or
Bethe, and L. Brilluen developed a theory of the zonal energy fundamental particles are called particles that do not consist of
structure of crystals, and with the help of this theory the electrical simpler particles. Numerous experiments have revealed 12 elemental
properties of dielectrics and metals were easily explained. In 1928, fermions (leptons) and 4 massive vector bosons, notwithstanding
YI Frankel and Heisenberg showed that ferromagnetism occurs the corresponding anti-particles. Elemental fermions - 6 species
on the basis of the interaction of quantum exchange; in 1932–33, or fragrances, quarks are combined in 3 generations and form the
the French physicist L. Neel and, independently, L.D. Landau "bricks" of the world. According to the confinement, quarks do
predicted the existence of antiferromagnetism. Kamerlinq-Onnes not exist in the form of freely isolated particles; they combine in
tәrәfindәn ifratkeçiriciliyin (1911) vә P.L.Kapitsa tәrәfindәn maye the form of hadrons (nucleons and mesons) through gluons. Thus,
heliumda ifrataxıcılığın (1938) kәşfi kvant statistikasında yeni vector bosons "bricks" play the role of "glue" to each other, that
metodların inkişafına tәkan verdi: Landau tәrәfindәn ifrataxıcılığın is, bosons transmit fundamental interactions. Although there is a
fenomenoloji nәzәriyyәsi (1941), daha sonra isә Landau vә hypothesis of the existence of "protocquarks" or preons in nature,
V.L.Ginzburq tәrәfindәn ifratkeçiriciliyin (1950) fenomenoloji it has not yet been confirmed. For quarks, a one-dimensional wire
nәzәriyyәsi was created. The application of new, powerful theory model is usually adopted. At high energies, a new state of
computational methods to the statistical quantum theory of matter is formed - quark-gluon plasma. One of the main problems
multiparticle systems in the 1950s by J. Bardin, L. Cooper, J. of microphysics that Einstein still wanted to solve was the creation
Schriffer (USA) and NN Bogolyubov (USSR). In the second of a single field theory that combines all four fundamental types
quarter of the 20th century, significant progress was made in the of interactions known in the universe: gravity, electromagnetic,
study of the structure of the atomic nucleus and in the development weak and strong interactions. The emergence of such a theory
of elementary particle physics. Before Rutherford's discovery of could be a fundamental breakthrough in all areas of science. At
the atomic nucleus, radioactivity was discovered in the late 19th present, a well-tested theory of weak interactions and quantum
century (A. Beckerel, P. and M. Curie, France), and isotopes were chromodynamics describing the strong interaction quark-gluon
discovered in the early 20th century. In 1919, Rutherford was able hypothesis has been developed. In 1964, Peter Higgs proposed the
to convert stable nitrogen nuclei into oxygen nuclei by bombarding idea of a new boson with a mass of 125 GeV. The combination of
them with α-particles. The discovery of the neutron by J. Chadwick the quark-gluon hypothesis and the theory of strong interactions
in 1932 led to the creation of the modern proton-neutron model are called the standard model. The main component of this model
of the nucleus (D.D. Ivanenko, Heisenberg). In 1934, French is the Higgs boson, the existence of which was predicted by
physicists I. and F. Jolio-Curie discovered the phenomenon of P. Higgs in 1964, with a mass of 125 GeV. The Higgs boson
artificial radioactivity. The discovery of charged particle was experimentally observed in July 2012 at the Large Hadron
accelerators has made it possible to study various nuclear reactions. Collider (CERN); the result was confirmed in March 2013. The
Nuclear fission was discovered. In 1939–45, for the first time, a fundamental role of this boson is that, according to modern ideas,
chain reaction of 235U nuclei resulted in the release of nuclear the mechanism of the formation of the mass of elementary particles
energy and the creation of the atomic bomb. Along with the is a spontaneous violation of symmetry as a result of interaction
development of nuclear physics, the rapid development of with the Higgs boson. The most pressing issue in microphysics is
elementary particle physics began in the 1930s. Thus, muons, the subsequent unification of all fundamental interactions and the
pi-mesons, K-mesons, and the first hyperons were discovered. As transition from the standard model to the Great Consolidation, in
the power of charged particle accelerators increased, so did the which the existing particles - fermions and bosons - are described
discovery of new elementary particles, their properties, and the in a unified manner. Within this generalization, the baryon
study of their interaction properties. Along with many new asymmetry of the universe, the small rest mass of the neutrino,
particles, extremely unstable particles with an average lifespan the quantization of the electric charge, as well as the existence of
of 10–22–10–24 seconds — resonances — have been discovered a magnetic monopoly predicted by P. Dirac, can be explained. The
and the existence of two types of neutrinos has been experimentally most convincing evidence in favor of a large compound would be
confirmed. The interchangeability of elementary particles showed the discovery of a very rare event, the splitting of a proton (the
that they were not necessarily elementary and that they had a lifespan of a proton is estimated at 1.6 ∙ 1033 years) into positrons
complex internal structure. A coherent, logical explanation of the and -mesons. One of the important directions in microphysics is
elementary particles and the mechanisms of their interaction is the supersymmetric expansion of the standard model, in which a

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boson is placed on it, which is supersymmetric for each fermion. optical resonator. These achievements became possible after the
New particles must have a very large mass, which makes them development of methods for "capturing" and cooling atoms by
difficult to observe. However, in 2015, a new particle with a mass laser beams (K. Cohen-Tannuci, Nobel Prize, 1997). Purposeful
of 700 QeV split into 2 photons in the Large Hadron Collider, selection of different physical properties of layers in multilayer
which may indicate the existence of a supersymmetric partner of structures - for example, spintronics (sequence of magnetic and
the Higgs boson. non-magnetic layers), Josephon electronics (sequence of normal
and superconducting layers; see Josephon effect), molecular
Development of Macrophysics electronics (molecular electronics). It is possible to create a new
Macrophysics is currently the most intensive field of physics type of electronic devices based on. A new type of associative
due to its large number of objects and the maximum number of memory device that can be used in quantum computers can be
practical applications. Atomic nuclear physics can be attributed created from a two-dimensional Josephon network of contacts.
to macrophysics, because in many respects, the nucleus of Macroscopic quantum effects are manifested in all nanostructured
especially heavy and extreme chemical elements is similar to a functional electronic devices. In the future, it will be possible to
liquid droplet. Artificial synthesis of heavy nuclei is one of the reach quantum limits where only one electron, one spin, energy,
main problems of modern macrophysics; for 2016, elements with magnetic flux, and so on. let a quantum “work”. Within these
atomic numbers up to 118 were synthesized. Also, exotic nuclei limits, the basic parameters of prospective computers will be
of unusual (non-spherical) shape, hadron atoms (for example, 1THs many times higher than the corresponding parameters of
an atom consisting of a proton and an antiproton), nuclei with a current computers - processing speed (speed), information write
density greater than that of an ordinary nucleus (≈ 3 ∙ 1017 kg / frequency ~ 103 Tbit • cm – 2 - times, energy consumption.
m3), and so on is studied. Controlled thermonuclear fusion (ITS)
is a problem of great practical interest. Its solution can meet Development of Mega Physics
people's energy needs. For 2016, in 1950, I.Y. Tamm and A.D. The development of mega physics, although paradoxical at first
The plasma temperature in the weave proposed by Sakharov is glance, is closely connected with the problems of microphysics,
approx. 1.5 ∙107 K and the research is being carried out within above all with the cosmological problem - the problem of the
the framework of the International Experimental Thermonuclear creation and renaissance scenario of the universe. At present, the
Reactor ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental idea of the Big Bang with the next stage of inflation is widely
Reactor, Kadarash, France; planned commissioning period - 2025) accepted. In the earliest stages of evolution (less than 10–3
project. Another direction in the development of macrophysics seconds), as well as in less than 10–35 seconds, the problem of the
is low-tempo physics. Macroscopic quantum phenomena such hypothetical state of the initial cosmological singularity remains
as superconductivity in liquid 4He (P.L. Kapitsa, 1938) and unsolved. It is in these dimensions that mega physics merges with
superconductivity in Hg (H. Kamerling-Onnes, 1911) have been microphysics, so that the cosmological problem can be solved by
studied. In 1986, high-temperature (T≈100 K) superconductivity the construction of quantum gravity. The cosmological hypothesis
was discovered (Y.Q. Bednorts, K.A. Müller). At present, the is very difficult to test experimentally (perhaps not at all) due to the
main issue is the purchase of superconductors with a crisis excessive amount of energy required. For example, Planck's energy
temperature of T≈ 300 K (room temperature). Its solution could is 1019 GeV, while the largest modern accelerator (Large Hadron
revolutionize energy. Rev.1970s. A unique anisotropic magnetic Collider) has a total of about 1.4 • 104 GeV. The most important
superconducting liquid at temperatures of 300 μK and a superheat problem of mega physics is the experimental verification of the
3He with liquid crystalline properties have been discovered. The existence of gravitational waves predicted by the general theory
record low temperature range for 2016 is picoquelvin (10–12 K). of relativity. At present, this hypothesis is fully confirmed with
In modern times, the interests of macrophysics have focused on the help of the LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave
the study of other different (practically unlimited) forms of matter Observatory) device, released in 2002 in the United States. Many
(soft matter) from regular and irregular (both homogeneous and astrophysical objects - the nuclei of neutron stars and pulsars,
alloyed) solids (hard matter). Substances of this type include extreme new stars, black holes, quasars and galaxies, and, in
liquid crystals, polymers (including biopolymers), colloids and recent years, new exotic (unusual) objects with a thickness of 10–2
other dispersed systems, metallic hydrogen, graphene, graphene, cm. It includes the study of the physical nature of cosmic wires,
fullerons and various heterostructures (J. Alfyorov, 2000; H. which are made up of strings stretched between the boundaries
Alfyorov, H. Alfyorov). An example can be given. Such physical of the universe. The relatively recent problem of both mega- and
objects are used to create the systems needed to process and microphysics, the dark matter responsible for the rapid expansion
describe information, as well as the elements of integrated circuits. of the universe, and especially the dark energy hypothesis (since
In the manufacture of nanoelectronic elements, materials with the late 1990s), is a serious problem.
high electrical conductivity and mechanical properties - new
allotropic modifications of carbon, such as fullerons exhibiting The Role of Physics in the Modern World
semiconducting properties (when they are alloyed, have The development of physics has radically changed not only the
superconducting properties) are studied. Of particular interest is shape of the natural-scientific landscape of the world, but also the
graphene, a two-dimensional modification of carbon as a material material and technical support of modern civilization. The close
that could stimulate the future development of nanoelectronics - a connection of physics with other branches of natural science led
structure consisting of an atomic thickness layer with a hexagonal to the development of astronomy, geology, chemistry, biology,
two-dimensional crystal lattice - because of its high thermal and so on. Penetrated other natural sciences with very deep
conductivity and high thermal conductivity. Obtaining Bose- roots. A number of frontier disciplines emerged: astrophysics,
Einstein condensate (BEC), one of the (new) aggregate states geophysics, chemical physics, biophysics, medical physics,
of matter - boson gas cooled to absolute zero temperature (T molecular biology, and so on. Methods of physical research were
<10–6 K), storage in magnetic traps (H. Demelt, V. Pauli, Nobel crucial for all the natural sciences. Physics lays the foundation
Prize, 1989) and the study of their physical properties plays an for the main directions of technology. Construction equipment,
important role in the modern development of macrophysics; In hydraulic engineering, electrical engineering and energy, radio
2010, it was possible to observe the BEC of photons in a limited engineering, lighting engineering, military equipment, electronics,
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computer technology have developed on the basis of physics. The 23. Mario Biagioli (1993) Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of
development of technology, in turn, has a great impact on the Science in the Culture of Absolutism, Chicago. University
perfection of experimental physics. Electrical engineering, radio of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-04559-5, OCLC 185632037.
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accelerators, semiconductor devices, and so on. It would not be in Rousseau, G. S.; Porter, Roy (eds.), The Ferment of
possible to create. Knowledge: Studies in the Historiography of Eighteenth
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