INTRODUCTION TO IMMUNE SYSTEM patterns (PAMPs) on the surface that
found on WBC
- PAMPs are found on microbes or
different types of parasites.
Indirect- via opsonization. Opsonins? Substance
induce opsonization- attach to foreign
substances and prepare for phagocytosis. Act by
neutralizing on foreign particles
Engulfment- Or ingestion. Where pseudopodia
First line defense surround the pathogen fuse to call vacuole
- If sees antigen not familiar, it will called phagosomes. Oxidative burst occurs
immediately attack it
- Ex: skin, sweat, lysozymes, urinating, Digestion- Granulation or killing. Occurs
body temp regulation= everything your phagolysosomes. Produce nitric oxide toxic to
born with pathogens.
2 ways of digestion can occur
- Oxygen dependent mechanism- utilizes
myeloperoxidase + H202+ fluoride=
hypochlorite
*Superoxide are converted to more
stable which is H2o2, by the action of
myeloperoxidase.
*Functions to decarboxylase
- Oxygen independent mechanism-
defensins, antibiotic like.
Netrophils encounter site of injury, adhere with
In vivo- occurs inside the body- efficacy the poly the diff receptore found in endothelial of the
In vitro- outside the body- occurs in blood vessel the penertrate by diapodesi s=
laboratories. process dedby chemotaxis
Initiation- result of tissue damage. Paano
nagsimula, what is the cause.
Chemotaxis- movement of the cells in the
certain direction under the simulation of
chemotaxins (chemicals release by different
wbc ex: c5a)
- Positive- means migration to the site of
infections
- Negative- migration away from the
stimulation
Adhesion
- Direct- via Primitive recognition Complement System- erie of steps enhance the
receptor (PRP) or primitive pattern phagocytic via opsonization
recognition receptor Acute Phase reactants- proteins substance aid
(PPRP)=phagocytes use this to adhere th ediferent immune cells to work
to pathogen associated molecular
Adaptive- internal defense system of the body or addition of chemicals =ex: rabies vac,
or polio vac
- Live, attenuated- made up of non-
pathogenic but immunogenic. Not
disease causing but trigger immune
response ex: BCG(Bovis), HBV
(saccharomyces cerevisiae, measles,
rubella, typhoid LAV.
- Toxoids (inactivated via addition of
Rubor- dilation of blood vessels
formalin)
Tumor- Fluid accumulation
- Acellular- comprise of mere fraction-
purified capsular material ex:
pneumococcal.
Natural- passive- transfer of antibodies from
mother to child, or via transplacental=igG
Artificial- Passive- Inoculated with serum
globulins.
Active- Lymphocyte activation, antibody
production and lymphokines release.
- Ones own immune system produces
antibody.
Route of injections (active)– Intramuscular or
intradermal
Route of injections (passive)- Intravenous
Natural- active- part of normal life experience.
Antigen acquired naturally. If you get sick , you
will get immunity after.
Natural- artificial- pertains to vaccines
- killed attenuated(weakened)-contains
inactivated pathogens through heating
Primary or the important or generative. Antigen
independent.
- Lymphocytes mature in bone marrow.
Bursa fibricious
- Tcells mature in Thymus.
- The size of the thymus until puberty-
begins to atrophy or lessen in size.
*Ex of MALT- GALT, BALT (Lines bronchi), CALT
(pertain to skin)
Appendix- normal good flora after injection of
bacteria on your GUT or intestines.
Secondary (peripheral) Lymphoid organ-
Antigen induced
Spleen- almost of total blood circulation enters
the spleen in a day.
White pulp- contains arterioles lined by T cells
Bone Marrow-
Thymocytes migrate to thymus, enter to cortex,
and goes to different stages.
TCR? Important for antigen presentation.
MHC II = CD4
MHC I = CD8
Normal ratio of CD4: CD8= 2:1
- 500- 1300 cells/uL
*<(less than)200 cells/ uL indicates of HIV
disease
T-helper subsets:
1. Th1- produce interferon gamma, and
tumor necrosis actor beta.
- Activates CD8 positive cells. Sensitivity
(by Robert Koch)
2. Th2 mediates immune Reponses against
intracellular pathogens. Produces
interleukin 4 and 5=b cells growth
factors
3. T reg- produce interleukin 10, 35 ,Tgf
beta- downregulatory(stop immune
response). There may be T helper
1=produces interleukin 17, 21, 22 acts
to mediate the immune response
against extracellular pathogen
Ficcol Hypaque(denser than mononuclear)=
Specific gravity= 1.077 or 1.114
a. heavy chains are gamma, beta, alpha, Fluorescence Microscope:
delta, and epsilon. Commonly detected in TCELLS: CD2, 3,4, 7,8
- Most abundant Commonly detected in BCELLs: IgM, IgD,
Immunoglobulin(longest serum half life) CD19 ,20,22
=IgG
b. Light chains – chromosome 2, 22
- Kappa= chrom 2
- Lambda= Chrom 22
c. MHC class II- requirement to be
characterized as an antigen presenting
cell
d. Also called as resting or naïve B cells
e. IL-2 =Tcell growth factor (production/
proliferation of the cell) Lymphokine
activated cells LAK with the help of
interferon gamma
f. Plasma is distinguishable because it has
a basophilic cytoplasm in the present or
perinuclear halo.
RED BLOOD SUSPENSION a. Blood typing
b. Crossmatching
RED BLOOD CELL SUSPENSION i. In transfusion medicine, washed red
● Acts as indicator cells in the demonstration of blood cells are indicated for:
antigen and antibody reactions in vitro- ab and 1. Patients with history of severe allergic
ag cannot seen on naed eye. We need bigger reactions (anaphylactic or
cells to see their reactions. Perform in the labs urticarial)
2. Patients with IgA deficiency with documented
● Between 2-5% cell suspension provides anti-IgA antibodies
optimum antigen concentration for the tube 3. Patients with recurrent febrile transfusion
method for red blood cell typing reactions not prevented by Leukocyte
reduction(take away a certain amount of
1. Purpose of Washing Red Cells wbc=initiate immune reactions)
4. Neonates or fetus patients with renal failure,
a. To remove the unwanted plasma proteins before transfusion of potassium depleted units
including antibodies that might interfere
with the reactions 3. Preparation/ Procedure:
a. Pipette 3 mL of whole blood (from EDTA
b. Washing is done by repeatedly suspending tube) into a 10 mL capacity conical
the whole blood with normal saline centrifuge tube
solution (NSS), mixing, centrifuging, and b. Fill the tube with normal saline solution until
decanting completely the supernatant fluid it reaches the 10mL mark
c. Cover the tube with its screw cap or (nesco
Sidenote: film) and mix the suspension by gentle
● The following may be in the plasma which inversion
may interfere with testing: d. Centrifuge for 5 minutes at 3,400 rpm (other
books say 3,000-5,000 rpm)
○ Soluble antigens such as A and B (may e. Decant by aspirating the supernatant using a
neutralize the reagent)- rbc sus use blood type pasteur pipette (or by simply pouring
O= because it has no antigen the supernatant on to the sink). Be sure that the
packed red cells are not disturbed.
○ Wharton’s jelly in cord blood, cold reacting f. Resuspend the cells with another volume of
autoimmune antibodies, and increased NSS until it reaches the 10 mL mark again.
levels of immunoglobulins that may cause g. Repeat steps b-e (this process is called
either agglutination or rouleaux=static of point washing and is preferably done 3 times)
appearance, looks lie agglutination or looks 4. Preparing red cell suspension of desired
stoking of coins concentration
Formula: % Red cell suspension =
○ Hemolyzed red blood cells due to a difficult Amount of packed red blood cell (PRBC) x100
draw will interfere in grading/ TotalVolume
Interpretation= this happen because of difficult
draw Total volume =amount of washed PRBC +
amount of nss(if unknown= total vol – Packed
○ Fibrinogen (important clotting component) cell vol.)
can result in the formation of fibrin strands that
will make grading reactions difficult DILUTION
● Indicates relative concentration
2. Application/ Indication: ● Involves two entities
○ Solute : the material being diluted(any
substance)
○ Diluent : the medium making up the rest of
the solution (liquid of solution)
● Importance:
○ For detection of the amount of antibodies
○ Serological tests require a visible end point in
order to establish the concentration of iii.
antibodies and this is achieved by dilution
● General formula for dilution:
1= Amount of Solute
Dilution TotalVolume
1. Simple dilution
a. Involves a single dilution
b. To calculate the concentration of a
single dilution, multiple the original
concentration
by the dilution expressed as a fraction
example:
i. A specimen contains 500mg of
substance per deciliter of blood.A
1:5 dilution of this specimen is
prepared volumetrically measuring
1mL of the specimen adding 4mL of
diluent.The concentration of
substance in the dilution is:
500 mg/dL x 1⁄5 = 100 mg/dL
ii.
2. Compound dilutions
a. Process of making a very large dilution from a
small sample
A 1:500 dilution is to be prepared.
To calculate compound dilution, the first step is
to plan the number and sizes of simple
dilutions to reach the desired endpoint.
● A 1:500 dilution can be achieved by making a
1:5 dilution of the original serum, a 1:10
dilution from the first dilution, and another 1:10
dilution
3. Serial dilutions
a. A dilution series in which ALL dilutions
including or following the first one, are THE The concentration of serum in terms of
SAME milliliters in each tube is calculated by
b. A general rule for calculating the multiplying the previous concentration (mL) by
concentrations of solutions obtained by dilution the succeeding dilution.
series is to multiple the original concentration
by the first dilution (expressed as a
fraction), and then this by the second dilution
and so on until the desired
concentration is known
1. A five-tube twofold dilution is to be
prepared. A series of five tubes is
prepared in which each succeeding tube
is re-diluted 1:2. This is accomplished by
placing 1mL of diluent into each four
tubes (tubes 2-5)
Tube 1 contains 1mL of UNDILUTED serum.
Tube 2 contains 1mL of UNDILUTED serum +
1mL of diluent, resulting in a 1:2 dilution of
serum.
Tube 3 contains 1mL portion of the tube 2 (1:2
dilution) resulting in a 1:4 dilution of serum (1⁄2
x 1⁄2 = 1⁄4)
Tube 4 contains 1 mL portion of the tube 3 (1:4
dilution) resulting in a 1:8 dilution
(1⁄4 x 1⁄2= 1⁄8)
Tube 5 contains 1mL portion of the 1:8 dilution
from tube 4 resulting in a 1:16 dilution (1⁄8 x
1⁄2= 1/16)
COMPLEMENT SYSTEM initiator in the recognition of mannose
- cascade binding lectin
- Series of proteins
- To mediated or potentiate
inflammation
Pathways:
1. Classical pathway- C1qrs- recognition
meet, which will bind to c4,c2 then
attack c49 and c2b. After binding it will
now activate to c4b2a, it will remove
c3a, now forms c4b2a3b………….and so
on =cell lysis, pores in antigen
2. Alternative pathway- c3b+B acts to
factor d, c3bBb is the convertase.
3. Mannose lectin- almost similar in
classical, the only difference is the
From Stevens b. humoral immunity.
1. Which of the following can be attributed to c. adaptive immunity.
Pasteur? d. cross-immunity.
a. Discovery of opsonins 8. A cell characterized by a nucleus with two to
b. Observation of phagocytosis five
c. First attenuated vaccines lobes, a diameter of 10 to 15 μm, and a large
d. Theory of humoral immunity number
2. Which WBC is capable of further of neutral staining granules is identified as a(n)
differentiation in a. eosinophil.
tissues? b. monocyte.
a. Neutrophil c. basophil.
b. Eosinophil d. neutrophil.
c. Basophil 9. Which of the following is a primary lymphoid
d. Monocyte organ?
3. The cells that Metchnikoff first observed are a. Lymph node
associated b. Spleen
with which phenomenon? c. Thymus
a. Innate immunity d. MALT
b. Adaptive immunity 10. What type of cells would be found in a
c. Humoral immunity primary follicle?
d. Specific immunity a. Unstimulated B cells
4. Where are all undifferentiated lymphocytes b. Germinal centers
made? c. Plasma cells
a. Bone marrow d. Memory cells
b. Spleen 11. Which of the following is a distinguishing
c. Thymus feature
d. Lymph nodes of B cells?
5. Which of the following statements is true of a. Act as helper cells
NK cells? b. Presence of surface antibody
a. They rely upon memory for antigen c. Able to kill target cells without prior exposure
recognition. d. Active in phagocytosis
b. They have the same CD groups as B cells. 12. Where do lymphocytes mainly come in
c. They are found mainly in lymph nodes. contact
d. They kill target cells without prior exposure with antigens?
to a. Secondary lymphoid organs
them. b. Bloodstream
6. Which cell is the most potent phagocytic cell c. Bone marrow
in the d. Thymus
tissue? 4466_Ch01_001-015 30/08/16 5:01 PM Page 14
a. Neutrophil Chapter 1 Introduction to Immunity and the
b. Dendritic cell Immune System 15
c. Eosinophil 13. Which of the following is found on the T cell
d. Basophil subset
7. The ability of an individual to resist infection known as helpers?
by a. CD19
means of normally present body functions is b. CD4
called c. CD8
a. innate immunity. d. CD56
14. Which of the following statements best a. cytokines.
characterizes b. clusters of differentiation (CD).
adaptive immunity? c. neutrophilic granules.
a. Relies on normally present body functions d. opsonins
b. Response is similar for each exposure
c. Specificity for each individual pathogen
d. Involves only cellular immunity
15. The main function of T cells in the immune
response
is to
a. produce cytokines that regulate both innate
and
adaptive immunity.
b. produce antibodies.
c. participate actively in phagocytosis.
d. respond to target cells without prior
exposure.
16. Which of the following is a part of humoral
immunity?
a. Cells involved in phagocytosis
b. Neutralization of toxins by serum
c. Macrophages and mast cells in the tissue
d. T and B cells in lymph nodes
17. Immunity can be defined as
a. the study of medicines used to treat diseases.
b. a specific population at risk for a disease.
c. the condition of being resistant to disease.
d. the study of the noncellular portion of the
blood.
18. A blood cell that has reddish staining
granules and is
able to kill large parasites describes
a. basophils.
b. monocytes.
c. neutrophils.
d. eosinophils.
19. Which of the following statements best
describes a
lymph node?
a. It is considered a primary lymphoid organ.
b. It removes old RBCs.
c. It collects fluid from the tissues.
d. It is where B cells mature.
20. Antigenic groups identified by different sets
of
antibodies reacting in a similar manner to
certain
standard cell lines best describes
From Turgeon Cellular Mast cells
1-5. Match the following terms to Neutrophils
their appropriate definitions or descriptions. 8. ________
(Use each answer only once.) Humoral Complement
1. _____ Immune system Lysozyme
2. _____ Lymphocytes 9. _______
3. _____ Cooperative interaction 10. Another term for adaptive
4. _____ Nonspecific immune immunity is:
elements a. Antigenic immunity
5. _____ Autoimmune disorder b. Acquired immunity
a. T and B types c. Lymphocyte reactive immunity
b. Specific cellular elements, cell d. Phagocytosis
products, and nonlymphoid elements 11. Humoral components of the
c. Mononuclear phagocytes adaptive immune system
d. Condition in which the body’s include:
own tissues are a. T lymphocytes
attacked as if they were foreign b. B lymphocytes
e. Can protect against or be c. Antibodies
manipulated to treat d. Saliva
disease 12-23. Complete the table below,
6. The first line of defense in choosing from the
protecting the body from following answers:
infection includes all the following components Possible answers for questions 12-15:
except: a. Infusion of serum of plasma
a. Unbroken skin b. Transfer in vivo or by colostrum
b. Normal microbial flora c. Vaccination
c. Phagocytic leukocytes d. Infection
d. Secretions such as mucus Comparison of the Types of Adaptive Immunity
7. Natural immunity is Type Mode of Acquisition
characterized as being: Active natural 12. _____
a. Innate or inborn Artificial active 13. _____
b. Able to recognize exogenous or Passive natural 14. _____
endogenous agents Artificial passive 15. _____
specifically Comparison of the Types of Adaptive Immunity
c. Able to eliminate exogenous or Possible answers for questions 16-19:
endogenous agents a. Yes
selectively b. No
d. Part of the first line of body CHAPTER 1 An Overview of Immunology 9
defenses against Type
microbial organisms Antibody Produced
8 and 9. Complete the chart below from by Host
the following list of Active natural 16. _____
choices: Artificial active 17. _____
a. Lymphocytes Passive natural 18. _____
b. Macrophages Artificial passive 19. _____
c. Mucus Comparison of the Types of Adaptive Immunity
d. Interferons Possible answers for questions 20-23:
Components of the Natural Immune System a. Short
b. Long
Type Duration of Response
Active natural 20. _____
Artificial active 21. _____
Passive natural 22. _____
Artificial passive 23. ____
