Diglossia
The relationship between Classical/Standard
Arabic and Moroccan Arabic is a symbiotic one.
They complement each other to fulfil the needs
of the Moroccan speech community. This
symbiotic relationship is linguistically known as
diglossia which is part and parcel of the
Moroccan sociolinguistic landscape.
(Jamai, 2010:10)
Marçais’s (1930:402) Diglossia
Marçais (1930:402) was the first to put forward the notion of diglossia.
He defines it as:
… la concurrence entre une langue savante écrite et une
langue vulgaire, parfois exclusivement parlée. (Marçais,
1930:402)
… the competition between a learned written language
and a common language, sometimes exclusively spoken.
(My Translation)
Marçais’s definition of “la diglossie” can arguably be viewed as
archaic in its choice of terms but not scope. Marçais talks
about “competition” between “learned” and “common”
languages. In later stages of development of the theory of
diglossia, the notion of “competition” is replaced by
“distribution” and the concepts of “learned” and “common”
are substituted by “High” and “Low”. The two varieties do not
compete with each other. Instead, they are in complementary
distribution and have compartmentalised functions.
Each has carved for itself a socially predetermined role to play,
hence, the notion of complementary distribution.
• Marçais summarises the qualities and characteristics of the H
variety as a “learned written language” (Marçais, 1930:402).
• One may suggest that the term “learned” in this context
refers to the same qualities and characteristics Ferguson
(1959, in 1996:35) gives to the H variety, i.e., “a very
divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more
complex) superposed variety, in the vehicle of a large and
respected body of written literature”.
• On the other hand, the term “common” reflects lack of
prestige – an attitude, which socio‐culturally characterises
the L variety in Ferguson’s notion of diglossia.
For these reasons, among others, Marçais’s
definition of “la diglossie” sets the pace for its
present day concept of diglossia. From this
perspective, one can argue that Marçais’s
definition, in scope, is not markedly different from
the one presented by Ferguson in 1959. While
Marçais’s definition was precisely restricted to
Arabic, Ferguson’s gives some leeway to include
similar diglossic situations in other linguistic
settings.
Ferguson’s Diaglossia
Ferguson’s contribution was crucial at least in two
aspects. He not only introduced diglossia to the
Anglo‐Saxon linguistic tradition, but he also
developed it into a viable inclusive framework
tool, to better understand and research this
linguistic phenomenon in natural linguistic
systems (Eid, 1990; Kaye, 2001).
Ferguson (1959, in 1996:34‐35) suggests that,
Diglossia is a relatively stable language situation in
which, in addition to the primary dialects of the
language (which may include a standard or regional
standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified
(often grammatically more complex) superposed variety,
in the vehicle of a large and respected body of written
literature, either of an earlier period or in another
speech community, which is learned largely by formal
education and is used for most written and formal
spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the
community for ordinary conversation. (Ferguson, 1959,
in 1996:34‐35)
The concept of diglossia Ferguson envisages, and which is sometimes
referred to as the Fergusonian diglossia, as a reference to the classic
concept of diglossia, is limited, at least in theory, to the interactions of
varieties within the same language. Each variety plays a pre‐designated
role and fulfils a particular communicative function. Ferguson calls
these “High” and “Low” varieties. This makes it a stable linguistic
situation. As mentioned earlier, H variety is characterised as a complex,
preferably written variety, which is culturally and literarily richer. It is
used in official and formal situations in both of its forms – oratory as
well as writing. L variety, on the other hand, and to some degree, is
related to the H variety. It is unwritten and un‐codified, with limited
literary heritage. It is also structurally much simplified, as “in diglossia
there are always extensive differences between the grammatical
structures of H and L” (Ferguson, 1959, in 1996:32). L variety use is
limited to informal day‐to‐day social matters and dealings.
(Jamai, 2010:11‐12)
Ferguson’s criteria for defining diglossia
Ferguson’s (1959 in 1996) analyses of what he terms “the
defining languages” led him to categorise, Haitian Creole,
Swiss German, Modern Greek and Arabic as models that could
be said to fulfil the criteria of diglossia (Ferguson, 1959 in
1996). For diglossia to exist, at least two varieties of each of
these languages should exist in a situation where they are able
to interact. They are labelled as H and L varieties and each of
them play a different role in specific circumstances. Ferguson
(1959 in 1996) discusses characteristics and the defining
elements of diglossia as well as the areas within which the
two varieties act together in a diglossic manner.
(Jamai, 2010:12)
a. Function
At the heart of the notion of diglossia is the distribution of
roles and functions between H and L varieties. All along the
spectrum of the diglossia debate, there is a consensus on this
position (Marçais, 1930; Ferguson, 1959; Stewart, 1962;
Fishman, 1967; Kaye, 1970; Jamai, 2008). The use of variety in
the concept of diglossia is demarked by formal/official
situations where the H variety is the overriding mode of
communication, and informal/social environments where the
L variety is the prevailing means of communication. Much
debate about the issue of role distribution and
compartmentalisation is still going on as part of the general
debate on diglossia.
While the fundamental idea of diglossia is based, in this
respect, on role distribution and compartmentalisation, the
demarcation line of the appropriate use of a given variety in a
particular situation is not always very clear. Ferguson (1959
in1996:28) clearly illustrates this situation when saying:
In all the defining languages it is typical behavior to have
someone read aloud from a newspaper written in H and
then proceeds to discuss the contents in L. In all the
defining languages it is typical behavior to listen to a
formal speech in H and then discuss it, often with the
speaker himself, in L.
The scene becomes more complex and the demarcation lines between
functions get more blurred as Ferguson (1959 in 1996:28) explains:
The situation in formal education is often more complicated than
is indicated here. In the Arab world, for example, formal
university lectures are given in H, but drills, explanation, and
section meetings may be in large part conducted in L, especially
in the natural sciences as opposed to the humanities. Although
the teachers’ use of L in secondary schools is forbidden by law in
some Arab countries, often a considerable part of the teachers’
time is taken up with explaining in L the meaning of material in H
which has been presented in books or lectures.
Ferguson (1959 in 1996:35) states:
“diglossia is apparently not limited to any
geographical region or language family”.
b. Prestige
Prestige is a question of perception. It is about how a variety is
perceived and what makes a speech community perceive such a variety
in a given light. With respect to diglossia, the interacting varieties have
a perception of prestige or lack of it embedded in them primarily and
mostly if not always by the speech community itself. An extreme
manifestation of prestige would be as illustrated by Ferguson (1959 in
1996:29) when he says:
Sometimes the feeling is so strong that H alone is regarded as
real and L is reported ‘not to exist’. Speakers of Arabic, for
example, may say (in L) that so‐and‐so doesn’t know Arabic. This
normally means he doesn’t know H, although he may be a fluent,
effective speaker of L.
(Jamai, 2010:14)
• Jamai’s (2010:14) interpretation is that politicosocio‐
linguistics in the Arab world has moved on dramatically
during the past four to five generations. The call for Arab
nationalism, which was strongly advocated by the Arab
renaissance, liberation movements, nationalists, Nasserists
and Ba’atists has become somewhat irrelevant at least from
a politico‐linguistic perspective.
• The Arab nationalist movement saw Classical/Standard
Arabic as a positive asset uniting the Arab nation.
Movements of Liberation, too, saw in classical Arabic a
unifying factor against the hegemony of the colonial powers,
their cultures and languages.
(Jamai, 2010:14)
This is true in the case of Morocco. The Berber [Amazigh] Act
(Le Dahir Berbère) of 1930 by the French which aimed at
dividing Morocco down the ethno‐linguistic line between
Amazigh and Arabs was the catalyst for the Moroccan
Movements for Liberation. One of their ways to express their
opposition to the “Berber [Amazigh] Act 1930” was the
rejection of education in French which was imposed on
Morocco by France after it occupied the country in 1912. The
Moroccan Movement for Liberation advocated the
replacement of the French education system by a nationalist
system based on classical Arabic. In this respect, one can
argue that the process of Arabisation started at least as early
as 1930, not after Morocco’s independence in 1956.
But, by far, it is the religious dimension of Classical
Arabic that gives it such an eminence and prestigious
position amongst Arabic speech communities and their
respective varieties. This respect and prestige can even
be extended to non‐Arabic speaking Muslim
communities around the world. It is a question of faith
for a Muslim to believe in Arabic as the language by
which God has chosen to reveal the holy book ‐ the
Qur’an.
The purpose of introducing these verses from the Qur’an is to demonstrate
two points:
• First, the importance of Classical Arabic in the religious and cultural psyche
of Arabs as well as Muslims is crucial.
• Second, as stated in chapter 14: verse 4, God reveals his message in the
language of the people to whom it is intended; therefore, Arabic does not
represent an exception, if one accepts the argument that God also sent
other messages to other peoples. For this reason, classical Arabic has been
privileged to fulfil a divine function for which it is still highly respected. In
other words, Arabic is like any other natural linguistic system, except in the
sense that it was chosen, as were many other languages before it (Qur’an,
Ch 14: Vs 4), to fulfil a religious function, which means a lot to those of the
Muslim faith, transcending any ethnic and linguistic backgrounds. This
situation leads many varieties of these speech communities to take the
back seat in the presence of Classical/Standard Arabic. (Jamai, 2010:15)
c. Literary heritage
Literary heritage plays an important role in serving as a focal point of
reference for the speech community in their use of H variety. It is the same
literary heritage, which is the source of identity and cultural pride for a
speech community. The steeper the literary heritage in history the more it is
referred to it in different ways as Ferguson (1959 in 1996:30) remarks:
… it may be good journalistic usage in writing editorials, or good
literary taste in composing poetry, to employ a complicated Classical
Greek participial construction or a rare twelfth‐century Arabic
expression which it can be assumed the average educated reader will
not understand without research on his part.
This situation is a clear reflection of the high influence literary heritage has
on the speech community and the value it gives to H variety.
• Writing and style have a direct impact on the emergence of diglossia.
Speech communities, which have a written language, will also most
likely have a spoken form of it. They feel that each has a role to play.
The difference between the two linguistic systems can be as close as a
stylistic difference or can be as wide apart as two distinct varieties.
• Ferguson(1968) suggests that when a language acquires a written
form and becomes codified, it usually evolves into becoming another
variety. The moment demarcation between these varieties is
established and roles are distributed, the surfacing of diglossia
becomes a real possibility, if not a fact.
Ferguson (1959 in 1996) clearly does not exclude the
scenario whereby oral literature has the same roles and
functions reserved in principle to written literature. He
comments on this issue by saying:
All clearly documented instances known to me are
in literate communities, but it seems at least
possible that a somewhat similar situation could
exist in a non‐literate community where a body of
oral literature could play the same role as the
body of written literature in the examples cited.
(Ferguson, 1959 in 1996:35)
• As Ferguson (1959) before him, Ennaji (2005) makes a valid point by
questioning the issue of writing as a prerequisite for the establishment of
diglossia. Ennaji (2005) puts forward as a suggestion the consideration for
the replacement of written literary tradition as one of the criteria that play
a role in diglossia with oral literary ones in the cases of those varieties that
play the function of the H variety, but which lack a written literary
tradition.
• The point Ennaji (2005) may be suggesting is that literary tradition is of
utmost importance regardless of whether it is expressed in written or oral
form. This, no one can deny. However, an unwritten form of the H variety
will lead to an “unbalanced” diglossia as one of the most important
functions of the H variety in a diglossic situation is the ability of using the H
variety for writing purposes not just for formal oratory ceremonies and
speeches though their social function and importance cannot be denied,
regardless of the written or oral nature of its literary heritage.
d. Acquisition
The position of varieties is somewhat reflected in their way
of acquisition. H is a formal variety that is acquired in a
formal and controlled environment. This takes the shape of
a systematic programme and syllabus of acquisition
implemented by a tutor/teacher in a location such as a
school or a place of worship, as is the case in some
traditional Muslim speech communities. Enormous efforts
and resources are required by this process of education.
The level of literacy within a speech community or a nation
reflects the degree of socio‐politico‐economic
commitments invested in this process.
On the other hand, L represents the informality of
use as a variety, and it is acquired as a native variety.
…adults use L in speaking to children and
children use L in speaking to one another. As a
result, L is learned by children in what may be
regarded as the ‘normal’ way of learning one’s
mother tongue. (Ferguson, 1959 in 1996:30)
As long as speech communities in a diglossic situation bring up
their children with the L variety as their mother tongue, there is
no chance for the H variety to become the native variety. For both
social and practical reasons, the H variety is very unlikely to be
used as a native variety. The case of Arabic does indeed support
this hypothesis. “By Mubarrad’s time [AD. 898] Classical Arabic
was dying out as a native language” (Owens, 1988:3). Classical
Arabic has ever since been, for more than eleven centuries, in a
diglossic relationship with the different L Arabic varieties. The
spread of education, especially after the independence of the
Arab states, led to the birth of what has become known as
Educated Spoken Arabic (ESA) rather than a displacement of local
L varieties by the H variety, be it Classical Arabic or Standard
Arabic.
e. Standardization
Standardisation is about the codification of a natural linguistic
system. Although all natural linguistic systems have some degree
and elements of codification built in them in their syntax and
phonology, H varieties often considered to be linguistically highly
codified and more complex than L varieties even within the same
language family. A spoken variety of any language tends to be
more simplified than standard form, especially with regard to
syntax. The degree of simplification and divergence determines
the level of intelligibility between the two varieties. Since L
varieties are used mostly in an oral form, their codification has
been seen as irrelevant as the speech communities do not write in
L varieties.
f. Stability
Diglossia is a relatively stable linguistic situation contrary to
what some may claim, and it should not be seen as a
transitional phase. Generally speaking, stability and
acquisition are largely interlinked. As I argued earlier with
respect to acquisition, Classical Arabic has been in a
diglossic situation with the local L varieties in the Arab
world at least for the past eleven centuries. So far, there are
no signs of any destabilisation of this status quo. It seems
that diglossia has a built‐in safety device to ensure its
continuity.
Ferguson (1959 in 1996:31) explains:
In Arabic, for example, a kind of spoken Arabic much
used in certain semiformal or cross‐dialectal situations
has a highly classical vocabulary with few or no
inflectional endings, with certain features of classical
syntax, but with a fundamentally colloquial base in
morphology and syntax, and a generous admixture of
colloquial vocabulary. In Greek a kind of mixed
language has become appropriate for a large part of
the press.
These forms of Arabic varieties which some term as Educated
Spoken Arabic (Ennaji, 2005) and Middle Arabic Language
(Ferguson, 1959) may be seen as what guarantees the continuity of
diglossia and prevents classical Arabic from dislodging any L variety
from its position because they act as a buffer between
Classical/Standard Arabic and Arabic Dialects. This is also due to
social attitudes and perceptions. As long as H varieties are
perceived in such prestigious light, it seems difficult to see a
speech community using the H variety instead of the L variety as
this will be perceived not only as a form of downgrading of the H
variety to another form of L variety, but also the H variety is ill
equipped to step in the shoes of the L variety, especially in certain
social and cultural functions such as humour.
g. Grammar
Ferguson’s diglossia refers to H and L varieties of the same linguistic family
origin. Grammatical differences between these H and L varieties are very
extensive. It is a rule of thumb that the H variety’s grammatical system is
always more complex than that of the L variety. Ferguson (1959 in 1996:32)
remarks that:
It is certainly safe to say that in diglossia there are always extensive differences
between the grammatical structures of H and L. This is true not only for the four
defining languages, but also for every other case of diglossia examined...
In many cases where the H and L varieties belong to the same language
family, the grammatical system of the L variety is usually a simplified version
of the H variety’s grammatical system. This is the case of the relationship
between Classical Arabic as an H variety and the Arabic L varieties. One may
explain this by the fact that Arabic L varieties have evolved from and are still
being influenced by Classical Arabic, although not everyone agrees with this.
h. Lexicon
The fact that Arabic L varieties have evolved from and still being influenced
by Classical Arabic, much of the lexicon is borrowed by the L variety from the
H variety, where the two varieties belong to the same language family.
But a striking feature of diglossia is the existence of many paired
items, one H one L, referring to fairly common concepts frequently
used in both H and L, where the range of meaning of the two items is
roughly the same, and the use of one or the other immediately
stamps the utterance or written sequence as H or L. (Ferguson, 1959
in 1996:33)
Although a percentage of the lexicon is reserved to L variety, it originates
from H variety. As Ferguson remarks, it is no longer acceptable for stylistic
reasons more than anything else, to use interchangeably between varieties
lexicons that have become the monopoly of a given variety.
i. Phonology
Phonology is probably the most fluid area in cases of diglossia. The
possibilities of phonological similarities and differences are numerous than it
is the case in most if not all the other areas. As Ferguson (1959 in 1996:34)
illustrates:
H and L phonologies may be quite close, as in Greek; moderately different,
as in Arabic or Haitian Creole; or strikingly divergent, as in Swiss German.
Usually, the phonology of H and L varieties stem from the same root. The
differences can be seen as a simplified version of that of H variety.
The sound systems of H and L constitute a single phonological structure of
which the L phonology is the basic system and the divergent features of H
phonology are either a subsystem or a parasystem. (Ferguson, 1959 in
1996:34)
Neutrality
Neutrality is a concept advanced by Jamai (2008; 2010) suggesting that the
H variety must never be the native language of any community or section
of a community within a given society that uses diglossia.
Hudson (2002:7) stresses that:
Given the express, widely held view that only L is acquired as the
natural mother tongue in a diglossic speech community, it is remarkable
that time after time in the sociolinguistic literature this critical feature
of diglossia is disregarded, as, for instance in the case of Paraguay,
where Spanish and Guarani are in fact the mother tongues of two
distinct segments of the community.
Language is power. It is the key to all aspects of life. The speech community
which holds the key, therefore, holds power in a society that uses diglossia.