Professional Documents
Culture Documents
UCSP Notes Week 1 6
UCSP Notes Week 1 6
Starting Points for the Understanding of cultural aspects of humanity around the
Culture, Society, and Politics globe and throughout time; and
⮚ Apply anthropological knowledge to help
Anthropology is dubbed as the “the prevent or solve problems of living peoples,
science of humanity,” the study of human including poverty, drug abuse, and
beings, their origin, their societies, and their HIV/AIDS
cultures. It roots its observations to the
origin of humans to understand fully the Anthropological Perspectives
societies and cultures of the human Anthropologists across the subfields use
organisms through time. It branches into unique perspectives to conduct their
two subdivisions: social anthropology, which research. These perspectives make
studies humans in relation to societies; and anthropology distinct from related
cultural anthropology, or the study of human disciplines — like history, sociology, and
cultures. psychology — that ask similar questions
Through anthropology, one can thoroughly about the past, societies, and human
analyze the different phenomena that nature. The key anthropological
happen in society. perspectives are holism, relativism,
Nature of Anthropology comparison, and fieldwork.
The nature of anthropology can be viewed Holism
from its historical perspective because is a Anthropologists are interested in the whole
global discipline involving humanities, social of humanity, in how various aspects of life
sciences and natural sciences. Its roots go interact. One cannot fully appreciate what it
back to the Intellectual Enlightenment of the means to be human by studying a single
18th and early 19th centuries in Europe and aspect of our complex histories, languages,
North America. As European nations bodies, or societies. By using a holistic
developed colonies in distant parts of the approach, anthropologists ask how different
world and Americans expanded west and aspects of human life influence one another.
south into the territories of Indians, it For example, a cultural anthropologist
became apparent to them that humanity studying the meaning of marriage in a small
was extremely varied. village in India might consider local gender
Anthropology began, in part, as an attempt norms, existing family networks, laws
by members of scientific societies to regarding marriage, religious rules, and
objectively record and comprehend this economic factors. A biological
variation. Curiosity about strange people anthropologist studying monkeys in South
and customs in far off parts of the world is America might consider the species’
what primarily motivated these early physical adaptations, foraging patterns,
amateur anthropologists. ecological conditions, and interactions with
humans in order to answer questions about
Goals of Anthropology: their social behaviors. By understanding
⮚ Understand the fossil record of early how nonhuman primates behave, we
humans and their ancestors as well as the discover more about ourselves (after all,
archaeological record of more recent humans are primates)! By using a holistic
prehistoric societies; approach, anthropologists reveal the
⮚ Understand how we adapt to different complexity of biological, social, or cultural
environmental conditions and how we vary phenomena. Anthropology itself is a holistic
as a species; discipline, comprised in the United States
⮚ Understand the behavior of monkeys and (and in some other nations) of four major
apes in their natural settings; subfields: cultural anthropology,
biological anthropology, linguistic
anthropology, and archaeology. While
anthropologists often specialize in one interactions such that we can learn from
subfield, their specific research contribute to others.
a broader understanding of the human Comparison
condition, which is made up of culture, Anthropologists of all the subfields use
language, biological and social adaptations, comparison to learn what humans have in
as well as human origins and evolution. common, how we differ, and how we
Cultural Relativism (versus change. Anthropologists ask questions like:
Ethnocentrism) How do chimpanzees differ from humans?
The guiding philosophy of modern How do different languages adapt to new
anthropology is cultural relativism—the idea technologies? How do countries respond
that we should seek to understand another differently to immigration? In cultural
person’s beliefs and behaviors from the anthropology, we compare ideas, morals,
perspective of their culture rather than our practices, and systems within or between
own. Anthropologists do not judge other cultures. We might compare the roles of
cultures based on their values nor do they men and women in different societies, or
view other ways of doing things as inferior. contrast how different religious groups
Instead, anthropologists seek to understand conflict within a given society. Like other
people’s beliefs within the system they have disciplines that use comparative
for explaining things. approaches, such as sociology or
The opposite of cultural relativism is psychology, anthropologists make
ethnocentrism, the tendency to view one’s comparisons between people in a given
own culture as the most important and society. Unlike these other disciplines,
correct and as a measuring stick by which anthropologists also compare across
to evaluate all other cultures that are largely societies, and between humans and other
seen as inferior and morally suspect. As it primates. In essence, anthropological
turns out, many people are ethnocentric to comparisons span societies, cultures, time,
some degree; ethnocentrism is a common place, and species. It is through comparison
human experience. Why do we respond the that we learn more about the range of
way we do? Why do we behave the way we possible responses to varying contexts and
do? Why do we believe what we believe? problems.
Most people find these kinds of questions Fieldwork
difficult to answer. Often the answer is Anthropologists conduct their research in
simply “because that is how it is done.” the field with the species, civilization, or
People typically believe that their ways of groups of people they are studying. In
thinking and acting are “normal”; but, at a cultural anthropology, our fieldwork is
more extreme level, some believe their referred to as ethnography, which is both
ways are better than others. the process and result of cultural
Ethnocentrism is not a useful perspective in anthropological research. The Greek term
contexts in which people from different “ethno” refers to people, and “graphy” refers
cultural backgrounds come into close to writing. The ethnographic process
contact with one another, as is the case in involves the research method of participant-
many cities and communities throughout the observation fieldwork: you participate in
world. People increasingly find that they people’s lives, while observing them and
must adopt culturally relativistic taking field notes that, along with interviews
perspectives in governing communities and and surveys, constitute the research data.
as a guide for their interactions with This research is inductive: based on day-
members of the community. For to-day observations, the anthropologist asks
anthropologists, cultural relativism is increasingly specific questions about the
especially important. We must set aside our group or about the human condition more
innate ethnocentric views in order to allow broadly. Oftentimes, informants actively
cultural relativism to guide our inquiries and participate in the research process, helping
the anthropologist ask better questions and society so that you can observe it from an
understand different perspectives. objective point of view.
The word ethnography also refers to the Nature of Sociology
end result of our fieldwork. Cultural As a discipline, sociology arose early in the
anthropologists do not write “novels,” rather nineteenth century in response to rapid
they write ethnographies, descriptive social change. Major transformations in the
accounts of culture that weave detailed eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, such
observations with theory. After all, as rapid industrialization resulting in a large,
anthropologists are social scientists. While anonymous workforce.
we study a particular culture to learn more With workers spending most of their time
about it and to answer specific research away from families and traditions; large-
questions, we are also exploring scale urbanization throughout Europe and
fundamental questions about human the industrializing world; and a political
society, behavior, or experiences. revolution of new ideas (individual rights
In the course of conducting fieldwork with and democracy), directed a spotlight on the
human subjects, anthropologists invariably nature of societies and social change.
encounter ethical dilemmas: Who might be The French social thinker Auguste Comte
harmed by conducting or publishing this (1798– 1857) first coined the term sociology
research? What are the costs and benefits to describe a new way of thinking about
of identifying individuals involved in this societies as systems governed by principles
study? How should one resolve competing of organization and change.
interests of the funding agency and the Most agree that Émile Durkheim (1858–
community? To address these questions, 1917), the French sociologist, made the
anthropologists are obligated to follow a largest contribution to the emergence of
professional code of ethics that guide us sociology as a social scientific discipline
through ethical considerations in our Sociology has developed as a value-free
research. discipline. It is concerned with is, not with
what ought to be. Sociology is an empirical
Sociology discipline like Physics, Chemistry, or
It is significant for a person to learn about Mathematics, and not as an applied science
his/her society. To co-exist with other like Engineering or Computer Science.
people in peace, one must first discover A Sociologist analyses society from different
who he/she is, who the co-members in angles and acquires knowledge about
society are, understand the internal and society and patterns of social interactions.
external factors that contribute to their Goals of Sociology:
personalities, and their functions in society. The ultimate goal of sociology is to acquire
Sociology is the scientific study of society - knowledge about society like all the other
its origin, development, networks, and social sciences discipline, as Samuel
functions. Its primary purpose is to explain Koenig has pointed out the ultimate aim of
how different elements in the environment sociology is” to improve man’s adjustment
affect and influence the growth and life of a to life by developing objective knowledge
person. The term was first coined by French concerning social phenomena which can be
essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in 1780 used to deal effectively with social
and was later defined by French problems”.
philosopher and “father of sociology” ⮚ Understand how membership in one’s
Auguste Compte in 1838. social group affects individual behavior.
In studying society, being human or ⮚ Understand the meaning and
grounding your arguments on your consequences of modernity, postmodernity
experiences is not enough. You must look and the new globalization.
at society in a sociological perspective. You ⮚ Understand how cultures and institutions
must conceptually detach yourself from your interact in different societies.
⮚ Understand the causes and and gestures to reach a shared
consequences of social change in terms of understanding of their interaction.
general causes and effects as well as
unique historical circumstances. Political Science
⮚ Understand the causes and Every society has a specific body which
consequences of population composition governs it–the government. Like society, it
and pressures and how population affects is a complex institution that has the power
the environment and development of and authority to manage a large number of
societies. people. One must have full knowledge of all
⮚ To provide information that reflects upon the processes related to the government
different policy initiatives before he/she can become a part of it. For
to know much about the government,
Sociological perspective introduces the she/he must have knowledge of politics or
discipline of sociology, including something the science of governance.
about its history, questions, theory, and The study of politics, its institutions and
scientific methods, and what distinguishes it processes, is called political science. It
from other social science disciplines. covers matters relating to the allocation of
Central features include social interaction power, the roles and systems of
and relationships, social contexts, social governance, political behavior, and public
structure, social change, the significance of policies.
diversity and human variation, and the
critical, questioning character of sociology. It Nature of Political Science
also explores what sociologists do. Politics is not only a mere institution of
Sociology includes three major governance but also a mechanism for
theoretical perspectives: achieving societal goals. Nature of Political
1. The functionalist perspective - Social Science is a social science concerned with
stability is necessary for a strong society, the theory and practice of politics and the
and adequate socialization and social description and analysis of political systems
integration are necessary for social stability. and political behavior.
Society’s social institutions perform It includes matters concerning the allocation
important functions to help ensure social and transfer of power in decision making,
stability. Slow social change is desirable, the roles and systems of governance
but rapid social change threatens social including governments and international
order. organizations, political behavior and public
2. The conflict perspective - Society is policies.
characterized by pervasive inequality based Political science is thus a study of the state
on social class, race, gender, and other in the past, present and future of the
factors. Far-reaching social change is political organization, political processes
needed to reduce or eliminate social and political functions of political institutions
inequality and to create an egalitarian and political theories. Political science has
society. several subfields, including political theory,
3. The symbolic interaction perspective - public policy, national politics, international
People construct their roles as they interact; relations, human rights, environmental
they do not merely learn the roles that politics and comparative politics.
society has set out for them. As this The antecedents of Western politics can
interaction occurs, individuals negotiate trace their roots back to Greek thinkers
their definitions of the situations in which Socrates, Plato (427–347 BC) and Aristotle
they find themselves and socially construct (384–322 BC). The studies were philosophy
the reality of these situations. In so doing, oriented. Plato wrote The Republic and
they rely heavily on symbols such as words Aristotle wrote the Politics. Aristotle is
known as the Father of Political Science. He
is famous for his statement “Man is a
political animal”.
Goals of Political Science:
The main goal of political science is the
concern with the process of growth,
industrialization and change and the impact
on government forms and policies.
The goal of political science also is to
describe how various political systems
function, and to find more effective political
systems. In addition, the goal of political
science is to measure the success of
governance and specific policies by
examining many factors, including stability,
justice, material wealth, peace and public
health.
In conclusion on the nature and goals of
anthropology, sociology, and political
science we can say that each discipline has
its own unique origin, nature and goals but
they are all study human and their
environment.
Political science perspective studies the
tendencies and actions of people which
cannot be easily quantified or examined.
Political science is more focused than most
social sciences. It sticks to the political
arena and to the realm of politics, either
dealing with situations with two competing
sides or the lateral decisions that affect the
group as a whole. An example is the study
of democracy as a form of government and
why is democracy considered as the best
form of government.
W2 • Through culture, people and
Concept, Aspects, and Changes in Culture groups define themselves,
and Society conform to society's shared
values, and contribute to society.
SOCIETY
• The “complex whole” above
• is defined as a group of people
suggests that culture cannot be
living together in organized
simply broken down into a set of
communities, following common
characteristics. It means that an
laws, values, customs, and
understanding of a part can only
traditions.
be achieved in relation to other
• Every human being belongs to a parts of the system.
certain kind of society – including
• This requires an approach where
you, for instance. From the
all at once, one can get an
moment you were born, you
appreciation of what culture is all
inevitably become a part of a
about without being bothered by
society, with your family as your
its complexity or by any definition
first encounter in this complex
that attempts to capture such
group.
complexity. A society cannot exist
• Latin words socius and societas, apart from culture.
which mean “companion”
• No culture can exist without
• French term societe, meaning social interaction in society;
“companionship.” meanwhile, society cannot exist in
the absence of people who have
CULTURE learned to live and work together.
• Culture refers to a group or • The major elements of culture are:
community which shares • 1. A symbol is anything that is used
common experiences that shape to stand for something else. People
the way its members understand who share a culture often attach a
the world. specific meaning to an object,
gesture, sound, or image. For
• It can also include a group we join example, a cross is a significant
or become part of. Culture is a symbol to Christians. It is not simply
strong part of people's lives. It two pieces of wood attached to each
influences their views, values, other, nor is it just an old object of
humor, hopes, loyalties, worries torture and execution. To Christians,
and fears. It helps to have some it represents the basis of their entire
perspective and understanding of religion, and they have great
their cultures reverence for the symbol.
• 2. Language is a system of words
CULTURE and SOCIETY as a COMPLEX and symbols used to communicate
WHOLE with other people. This includes full
languages as we usually think of
• Edward Tylor, one of the founders them, such as English, Spanish,
of modern anthropology, French, etc. but, it also includes
characterize culture as a body language, slang, and common
“complex whole”
phrases that are unique to certain cultural behaviors are handed up to
groups of people. elders. Transmission of culture is
• 3. Systems of values are culturally made possible by language.
defined standards for what is good Language is the main vehicle of
or desirable. Members of the culture culture. Transmission of culture may
use the shared system of values to take place also through imitation as
decide what is good and what is well as through instruction.
bad. • 6. Culture exists as a continuous
• 4. Norms are expectations or rules process. In its historical growth, it
of behavior that develop out of a tends to become cumulative. Ralph
group’s values. Linton called culture “the social
• CHARACTERISTICS of CULTURE heritage” of man. No culture ever
• 1. Culture is social because it is remains constant or permanent. It is
the product of behavior. Culture subject to slow but constant
does not exist in isolation. It is a variation. Likewise, culture is
product of society. It develops responsive to the changing
through social interaction. No man conditions of the physical world;
can acquire culture without hence, it is dynamic.
association with others. • 7. Culture is gratifying and
• 2. Culture varies from society to idealistic. Culture provides proper
society. Every society has a culture opportunities for the satisfaction of
of its own that differs from other our needs and desires. Our needs,
societies. The culture of every both biological and social, are
society is unique by itself. Cultures fulfilled in cultural ways. Culture
are not uniform. Cultural elements consists of the intellectual, artistic,
like customs, traditions, morals, and social ideals, and institutions
values, and beliefs are not constant.
where members of the society
• 3. Culture is shared. Culture is not
something that an individual alone profess and strive to confirm.
can possess. Culture, in sociological
sense, is shared. For example,
people of a society share all W3
customs, traditions, beliefs, ideas, The Importance of Cultural Relativism in
values, morals, etc. Attaining Cultural Understanding
• 4. Culture is not inborn. It is
learned. Unlearned behavior then, is CULTURAL RELATIVISM
not culture. Shaking hands, saying
• Cultural relativism is a perspective
thanks, etc. are cultural behaviors.
Not all behaviors are learned, but which suggests that culture may
most of these can be. Combing hair, vary from one another, but all are
standing in line, telling jokes, equally valid and no one system is
criticizing the president, and going to deemed better than another. This is
movies all constitute behaviors that based on the idea that there is no
need to be learned. standard of good or evil, and in
• 5. Culture is transmitted among effect, every judgment about right
members of society. Cultural ways and wrong is a product of society.
are learned by people from others.
Many of these ways are handed • Cultural Universals are patterns or
down from elders, parents, teachers, traits that are globally common to all
and others (most likely individuals of
older generation), while other • societies.
• One example of cultural universal is • are forbidden because it says in their
the family unit. Every human group Holy Quran while for Christian
community,
• recognizes family as the building
blocks of the society that regulates • pork is a part of their meal.
sexual
• As people travel farther, moving
• reproduction and care of their from different regions to entirely
children. different
• Another example of cultural • parts of world, certain aspects of
universal is the language and the culture becomes dramatically
concept of unfamiliar. What
• giving names to member of the • happened when we encounter
family. different cultures? As we interact
with different
• The variation in human conditions
promotes diversity and plurality in • cultures other than our own, we
cultural tradition. This could lead to become aware of the differences or
discrimination and ostracism. diversity and
Normally, it is to be expected that a
• commonalities between our own and
certain type of practice is culturally
the others’ world.
acceptable in one group while being
considered a cultural deviation in • Note: We must remember that
another group. cultural variation or diversity do not
only occur between
• Cultural Variation refers to the rich
diversity in social patterns that • people’s culture coming from
different different countries, but also between
people with different
• human group exhibit around the
world. Music, dance, languages, • practices within the same country.
cuisine, and art • Cultural relativism is a concept of
understanding how different cultures
• are different from one culture to
respond to their own beliefs. It
another.
promotes that culture must be
• The variation in human conditions understood in the context of their
promotes diversity in cultural locality. The concept of cultural
traditions. relativism was first formulated by
William Graham Summer in his book
• What may be considered good
“Folkways.”
practice in one culture may be
• Appreciating and accepting the
considered bad practice
uniqueness of one society’s cultural
• in one another. trait does not mean that universal
human moral traits of right or wrong
• Comparing the traditions practiced no longer apply.
by Muslims that pork serve in their • For instance, cultural traits that
meals promote suppression of women by
hurting or killing them do not
necessarily mean that they are right • and appropriate as compared to
by virtue of one society’s inner logic. other cultures thus an ethnocentric
• By acknowledging cultural relativism, attitude can be
we can recognize that our culture
• a problem in understanding each
shapes what we consider to be
other culture and foster tensions,
beautiful, ugly, appealing,
disgusting, virtuous, funny, and • misunderstanding and conflicts
abhorrent. between societies.
• It shapes what we consider to be
good and bad art, music, and film, • Ethnocentrism can be so strong but
as well as what we consider to be when confronted with all of the
tasteful or tacky consumer of goods. • differences of a new culture, one
Advantages of Cultural Relativism may experience culture shock.