W1 ⮚ Learn about both the biological and

Starting Points for the Understanding of cultural aspects of humanity around the
Culture, Society, and Politics globe and throughout time; and
⮚ Apply anthropological knowledge to help
Anthropology is dubbed as the “the prevent or solve problems of living peoples,
science of humanity,” the study of human including poverty, drug abuse, and
beings, their origin, their societies, and their HIV/AIDS
cultures. It roots its observations to the
origin of humans to understand fully the Anthropological Perspectives
societies and cultures of the human Anthropologists across the subfields use
organisms through time. It branches into unique perspectives to conduct their
two subdivisions: social anthropology, which research. These perspectives make
studies humans in relation to societies; and anthropology distinct from related
cultural anthropology, or the study of human disciplines — like history, sociology, and
cultures. psychology — that ask similar questions
Through anthropology, one can thoroughly about the past, societies, and human
analyze the different phenomena that nature. The key anthropological
happen in society. perspectives are holism, relativism,
Nature of Anthropology comparison, and fieldwork.
The nature of anthropology can be viewed Holism
from its historical perspective because is a Anthropologists are interested in the whole
global discipline involving humanities, social of humanity, in how various aspects of life
sciences and natural sciences. Its roots go interact. One cannot fully appreciate what it
back to the Intellectual Enlightenment of the means to be human by studying a single
18th and early 19th centuries in Europe and aspect of our complex histories, languages,
North America. As European nations bodies, or societies. By using a holistic
developed colonies in distant parts of the approach, anthropologists ask how different
world and Americans expanded west and aspects of human life influence one another.
south into the territories of Indians, it For example, a cultural anthropologist
became apparent to them that humanity studying the meaning of marriage in a small
was extremely varied. village in India might consider local gender
Anthropology began, in part, as an attempt norms, existing family networks, laws
by members of scientific societies to regarding marriage, religious rules, and
objectively record and comprehend this economic factors. A biological
variation. Curiosity about strange people anthropologist studying monkeys in South
and customs in far off parts of the world is America might consider the species’
what primarily motivated these early physical adaptations, foraging patterns,
amateur anthropologists. ecological conditions, and interactions with
humans in order to answer questions about
Goals of Anthropology: their social behaviors. By understanding
⮚ Understand the fossil record of early how nonhuman primates behave, we
humans and their ancestors as well as the discover more about ourselves (after all,
archaeological record of more recent humans are primates)! By using a holistic
prehistoric societies; approach, anthropologists reveal the
⮚ Understand how we adapt to different complexity of biological, social, or cultural
environmental conditions and how we vary phenomena. Anthropology itself is a holistic
as a species; discipline, comprised in the United States
⮚ Understand the behavior of monkeys and (and in some other nations) of four major
apes in their natural settings; subfields: cultural anthropology,
biological anthropology, linguistic
anthropology, and archaeology. While
anthropologists often specialize in one interactions such that we can learn from
subfield, their specific research contribute to others.
a broader understanding of the human Comparison
condition, which is made up of culture, Anthropologists of all the subfields use
language, biological and social adaptations, comparison to learn what humans have in
as well as human origins and evolution. common, how we differ, and how we
Cultural Relativism (versus change. Anthropologists ask questions like:
Ethnocentrism) How do chimpanzees differ from humans?
The guiding philosophy of modern How do different languages adapt to new
anthropology is cultural relativism—the idea technologies? How do countries respond
that we should seek to understand another differently to immigration? In cultural
person’s beliefs and behaviors from the anthropology, we compare ideas, morals,
perspective of their culture rather than our practices, and systems within or between
own. Anthropologists do not judge other cultures. We might compare the roles of
cultures based on their values nor do they men and women in different societies, or
view other ways of doing things as inferior. contrast how different religious groups
Instead, anthropologists seek to understand conflict within a given society. Like other
people’s beliefs within the system they have disciplines that use comparative
for explaining things. approaches, such as sociology or
The opposite of cultural relativism is psychology, anthropologists make
ethnocentrism, the tendency to view one’s comparisons between people in a given
own culture as the most important and society. Unlike these other disciplines,
correct and as a measuring stick by which anthropologists also compare across
to evaluate all other cultures that are largely societies, and between humans and other
seen as inferior and morally suspect. As it primates. In essence, anthropological
turns out, many people are ethnocentric to comparisons span societies, cultures, time,
some degree; ethnocentrism is a common place, and species. It is through comparison
human experience. Why do we respond the that we learn more about the range of
way we do? Why do we behave the way we possible responses to varying contexts and
do? Why do we believe what we believe? problems.
Most people find these kinds of questions Fieldwork
difficult to answer. Often the answer is Anthropologists conduct their research in
simply “because that is how it is done.” the field with the species, civilization, or
People typically believe that their ways of groups of people they are studying. In
thinking and acting are “normal”; but, at a cultural anthropology, our fieldwork is
more extreme level, some believe their referred to as ethnography, which is both
ways are better than others. the process and result of cultural
Ethnocentrism is not a useful perspective in anthropological research. The Greek term
contexts in which people from different “ethno” refers to people, and “graphy” refers
cultural backgrounds come into close to writing. The ethnographic process
contact with one another, as is the case in involves the research method of participant-
many cities and communities throughout the observation fieldwork: you participate in
world. People increasingly find that they people’s lives, while observing them and
must adopt culturally relativistic taking field notes that, along with interviews
perspectives in governing communities and and surveys, constitute the research data.
as a guide for their interactions with This research is inductive: based on day-
members of the community. For to-day observations, the anthropologist asks
anthropologists, cultural relativism is increasingly specific questions about the
especially important. We must set aside our group or about the human condition more
innate ethnocentric views in order to allow broadly. Oftentimes, informants actively
cultural relativism to guide our inquiries and participate in the research process, helping
the anthropologist ask better questions and society so that you can observe it from an
understand different perspectives. objective point of view.
The word ethnography also refers to the Nature of Sociology
end result of our fieldwork. Cultural As a discipline, sociology arose early in the
anthropologists do not write “novels,” rather nineteenth century in response to rapid
they write ethnographies, descriptive social change. Major transformations in the
accounts of culture that weave detailed eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, such
observations with theory. After all, as rapid industrialization resulting in a large,
anthropologists are social scientists. While anonymous workforce.
we study a particular culture to learn more With workers spending most of their time
about it and to answer specific research away from families and traditions; large-
questions, we are also exploring scale urbanization throughout Europe and
fundamental questions about human the industrializing world; and a political
society, behavior, or experiences. revolution of new ideas (individual rights
In the course of conducting fieldwork with and democracy), directed a spotlight on the
human subjects, anthropologists invariably nature of societies and social change.
encounter ethical dilemmas: Who might be The French social thinker Auguste Comte
harmed by conducting or publishing this (1798– 1857) first coined the term sociology
research? What are the costs and benefits to describe a new way of thinking about
of identifying individuals involved in this societies as systems governed by principles
study? How should one resolve competing of organization and change.
interests of the funding agency and the Most agree that Émile Durkheim (1858–
community? To address these questions, 1917), the French sociologist, made the
anthropologists are obligated to follow a largest contribution to the emergence of
professional code of ethics that guide us sociology as a social scientific discipline
through ethical considerations in our Sociology has developed as a value-free
research. discipline. It is concerned with is, not with
what ought to be. Sociology is an empirical
Sociology discipline like Physics, Chemistry, or
It is significant for a person to learn about Mathematics, and not as an applied science
his/her society. To co-exist with other like Engineering or Computer Science.
people in peace, one must first discover A Sociologist analyses society from different
who he/she is, who the co-members in angles and acquires knowledge about
society are, understand the internal and society and patterns of social interactions.
external factors that contribute to their Goals of Sociology:
personalities, and their functions in society. The ultimate goal of sociology is to acquire
Sociology is the scientific study of society - knowledge about society like all the other
its origin, development, networks, and social sciences discipline, as Samuel
functions. Its primary purpose is to explain Koenig has pointed out the ultimate aim of
how different elements in the environment sociology is” to improve man’s adjustment
affect and influence the growth and life of a to life by developing objective knowledge
person. The term was first coined by French concerning social phenomena which can be
essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in 1780 used to deal effectively with social
and was later defined by French problems”.
philosopher and “father of sociology” ⮚ Understand how membership in one’s
Auguste Compte in 1838. social group affects individual behavior.
In studying society, being human or ⮚ Understand the meaning and
grounding your arguments on your consequences of modernity, postmodernity
experiences is not enough. You must look and the new globalization.
at society in a sociological perspective. You ⮚ Understand how cultures and institutions
must conceptually detach yourself from your interact in different societies.
⮚ Understand the causes and and gestures to reach a shared
consequences of social change in terms of understanding of their interaction.
general causes and effects as well as
unique historical circumstances. Political Science
⮚ Understand the causes and Every society has a specific body which
consequences of population composition governs it–the government. Like society, it
and pressures and how population affects is a complex institution that has the power
the environment and development of and authority to manage a large number of
societies. people. One must have full knowledge of all
⮚ To provide information that reflects upon the processes related to the government
different policy initiatives before he/she can become a part of it. For
to know much about the government,
Sociological perspective introduces the she/he must have knowledge of politics or
discipline of sociology, including something the science of governance.
about its history, questions, theory, and The study of politics, its institutions and
scientific methods, and what distinguishes it processes, is called political science. It
from other social science disciplines. covers matters relating to the allocation of
Central features include social interaction power, the roles and systems of
and relationships, social contexts, social governance, political behavior, and public
structure, social change, the significance of policies.
diversity and human variation, and the
critical, questioning character of sociology. It Nature of Political Science
also explores what sociologists do. Politics is not only a mere institution of
Sociology includes three major governance but also a mechanism for
theoretical perspectives: achieving societal goals. Nature of Political
1. The functionalist perspective - Social Science is a social science concerned with
stability is necessary for a strong society, the theory and practice of politics and the
and adequate socialization and social description and analysis of political systems
integration are necessary for social stability. and political behavior.
Society’s social institutions perform It includes matters concerning the allocation
important functions to help ensure social and transfer of power in decision making,
stability. Slow social change is desirable, the roles and systems of governance
but rapid social change threatens social including governments and international
order. organizations, political behavior and public
2. The conflict perspective - Society is policies.
characterized by pervasive inequality based Political science is thus a study of the state
on social class, race, gender, and other in the past, present and future of the
factors. Far-reaching social change is political organization, political processes
needed to reduce or eliminate social and political functions of political institutions
inequality and to create an egalitarian and political theories. Political science has
society. several subfields, including political theory,
3. The symbolic interaction perspective - public policy, national politics, international
People construct their roles as they interact; relations, human rights, environmental
they do not merely learn the roles that politics and comparative politics.
society has set out for them. As this The antecedents of Western politics can
interaction occurs, individuals negotiate trace their roots back to Greek thinkers
their definitions of the situations in which Socrates, Plato (427–347 BC) and Aristotle
they find themselves and socially construct (384–322 BC). The studies were philosophy
the reality of these situations. In so doing, oriented. Plato wrote The Republic and
they rely heavily on symbols such as words Aristotle wrote the Politics. Aristotle is
known as the Father of Political Science. He
is famous for his statement “Man is a
political animal”.
Goals of Political Science:
The main goal of political science is the
concern with the process of growth,
industrialization and change and the impact
on government forms and policies.
The goal of political science also is to
describe how various political systems
function, and to find more effective political
systems. In addition, the goal of political
science is to measure the success of
governance and specific policies by
examining many factors, including stability,
justice, material wealth, peace and public
health.
In conclusion on the nature and goals of
anthropology, sociology, and political
science we can say that each discipline has
its own unique origin, nature and goals but
they are all study human and their
environment.
Political science perspective studies the
tendencies and actions of people which
cannot be easily quantified or examined.
Political science is more focused than most
social sciences. It sticks to the political
arena and to the realm of politics, either
dealing with situations with two competing
sides or the lateral decisions that affect the
group as a whole. An example is the study
of democracy as a form of government and
why is democracy considered as the best
form of government.
W2 • Through culture, people and
Concept, Aspects, and Changes in Culture groups define themselves,
and Society conform to society's shared
values, and contribute to society.
SOCIETY
• The “complex whole” above
• is defined as a group of people
suggests that culture cannot be
living together in organized
simply broken down into a set of
communities, following common
characteristics. It means that an
laws, values, customs, and
understanding of a part can only
traditions.
be achieved in relation to other
• Every human being belongs to a parts of the system.
certain kind of society – including
• This requires an approach where
you, for instance. From the
all at once, one can get an
moment you were born, you
appreciation of what culture is all
inevitably become a part of a
about without being bothered by
society, with your family as your
its complexity or by any definition
first encounter in this complex
that attempts to capture such
group.
complexity. A society cannot exist
• Latin words socius and societas, apart from culture.
which mean “companion”
• No culture can exist without
• French term societe, meaning social interaction in society;
“companionship.” meanwhile, society cannot exist in
the absence of people who have
CULTURE learned to live and work together.
• Culture refers to a group or • The major elements of culture are:
community which shares • 1. A symbol is anything that is used
common experiences that shape to stand for something else. People
the way its members understand who share a culture often attach a
the world. specific meaning to an object,
gesture, sound, or image. For
• It can also include a group we join example, a cross is a significant
or become part of. Culture is a symbol to Christians. It is not simply
strong part of people's lives. It two pieces of wood attached to each
influences their views, values, other, nor is it just an old object of
humor, hopes, loyalties, worries torture and execution. To Christians,
and fears. It helps to have some it represents the basis of their entire
perspective and understanding of religion, and they have great
their cultures reverence for the symbol.
• 2. Language is a system of words
CULTURE and SOCIETY as a COMPLEX and symbols used to communicate
WHOLE with other people. This includes full
languages as we usually think of
• Edward Tylor, one of the founders them, such as English, Spanish,
of modern anthropology, French, etc. but, it also includes
characterize culture as a body language, slang, and common
“complex whole”
 phrases that are unique to certain cultural behaviors are handed up to
groups of people. elders. Transmission of culture is
• 3. Systems of values are culturally made possible by language.
defined standards for what is good Language is the main vehicle of
or desirable. Members of the culture culture. Transmission of culture may
use the shared system of values to take place also through imitation as
decide what is good and what is well as through instruction.
bad. • 6. Culture exists as a continuous
• 4. Norms are expectations or rules process. In its historical growth, it
of behavior that develop out of a tends to become cumulative. Ralph
group’s values. Linton called culture “the social
• CHARACTERISTICS of CULTURE heritage” of man. No culture ever
• 1. Culture is social because it is remains constant or permanent. It is
the product of behavior. Culture subject to slow but constant
does not exist in isolation. It is a variation. Likewise, culture is
product of society. It develops responsive to the changing
through social interaction. No man conditions of the physical world;
can acquire culture without hence, it is dynamic.
association with others. • 7. Culture is gratifying and
• 2. Culture varies from society to idealistic. Culture provides proper
society. Every society has a culture opportunities for the satisfaction of
of its own that differs from other our needs and desires. Our needs,
societies. The culture of every both biological and social, are
society is unique by itself. Cultures fulfilled in cultural ways. Culture
are not uniform. Cultural elements consists of the intellectual, artistic,
like customs, traditions, morals, and social ideals, and institutions
values, and beliefs are not constant.
where members of the society
• 3. Culture is shared. Culture is not
something that an individual alone profess and strive to confirm.
can possess. Culture, in sociological
sense, is shared. For example,
people of a society share all W3
customs, traditions, beliefs, ideas, The Importance of Cultural Relativism in
values, morals, etc. Attaining Cultural Understanding
• 4. Culture is not inborn. It is
learned. Unlearned behavior then, is CULTURAL RELATIVISM
not culture. Shaking hands, saying
• Cultural relativism is a perspective
thanks, etc. are cultural behaviors.
Not all behaviors are learned, but which suggests that culture may
most of these can be. Combing hair, vary from one another, but all are
standing in line, telling jokes, equally valid and no one system is
criticizing the president, and going to deemed better than another. This is
movies all constitute behaviors that based on the idea that there is no
need to be learned. standard of good or evil, and in
• 5. Culture is transmitted among effect, every judgment about right
members of society. Cultural ways and wrong is a product of society.
are learned by people from others.
Many of these ways are handed • Cultural Universals are patterns or
down from elders, parents, teachers, traits that are globally common to all
and others (most likely individuals of
older generation), while other • societies.
• One example of cultural universal is • are forbidden because it says in their
the family unit. Every human group Holy Quran while for Christian
community,
• recognizes family as the building
blocks of the society that regulates • pork is a part of their meal.
sexual
• As people travel farther, moving
• reproduction and care of their from different regions to entirely
children. different
• Another example of cultural • parts of world, certain aspects of
universal is the language and the culture becomes dramatically
concept of unfamiliar. What
• giving names to member of the • happened when we encounter
family. different cultures? As we interact
with different
• The variation in human conditions
promotes diversity and plurality in • cultures other than our own, we
cultural tradition. This could lead to become aware of the differences or
discrimination and ostracism. diversity and
Normally, it is to be expected that a
• commonalities between our own and
certain type of practice is culturally
the others’ world.
acceptable in one group while being
considered a cultural deviation in • Note: We must remember that
another group. cultural variation or diversity do not
only occur between
• Cultural Variation refers to the rich
diversity in social patterns that • people’s culture coming from
different different countries, but also between
people with different
• human group exhibit around the
world. Music, dance, languages, • practices within the same country.
cuisine, and art • Cultural relativism is a concept of
understanding how different cultures
• are different from one culture to
respond to their own beliefs. It
another.
promotes that culture must be
• The variation in human conditions understood in the context of their
promotes diversity in cultural locality. The concept of cultural
traditions. relativism was first formulated by
William Graham Summer in his book
• What may be considered good
“Folkways.”
practice in one culture may be
• Appreciating and accepting the
considered bad practice
uniqueness of one society’s cultural
• in one another. trait does not mean that universal
human moral traits of right or wrong
• Comparing the traditions practiced no longer apply.
by Muslims that pork serve in their • For instance, cultural traits that
meals promote suppression of women by
hurting or killing them do not
 necessarily mean that they are right • and appropriate as compared to
by virtue of one society’s inner logic. other cultures thus an ethnocentric
• By acknowledging cultural relativism, attitude can be
we can recognize that our culture
• a problem in understanding each
shapes what we consider to be
other culture and foster tensions,
beautiful, ugly, appealing,
disgusting, virtuous, funny, and • misunderstanding and conflicts
abhorrent. between societies.
• It shapes what we consider to be
good and bad art, music, and film, • Ethnocentrism can be so strong but
as well as what we consider to be when confronted with all of the
tasteful or tacky consumer of goods. • differences of a new culture, one
Advantages of Cultural Relativism may experience culture shock.

Culture is evolving. New things are • Culture Shock is the feeling of

added to material cultures every day can disoriented, uncertain, out of place
or even
cause cultural change.
• fearful when immersed in an
Cultural Change is observed when new unfamiliar culture.
opens up new ways of living and when
• As people experience unanticipated
new ideas enter a culture as a result of differences from their own culture,
globalization. their
Ethnocentrism • excitement gives way to discomfort
and doubts how to behave
• The opposite of cultural relativism is
appropriately in the
ethnocentrism, the tendency to view
one’s own culture as the most • new situation. However, while
important and correct and as a people learn more about the culture,
measuring stick by which to evaluate eventually they
all other cultures that are largely
seen as inferior and morally suspect. • will recover from culture shock.
As it turns out, many people are • Culture shocks may appear because
ethnocentric to some degree; people aren’t always expecting
ethnocentrism is a common human cultural
experience.
• differences. People evaluates the
• Ethnocentrism is the regard that particular culture based on their own
one’s own culture and society is the culture which
center
• often give problems and bias due to
• of everything and seen as the most his or her own perspective that his or
efficient and superior among the her culture
cultures in the
• is the efficient and appropriate for
• world. the environment.
• A person who exhibits ethnocentrism
feels that his or her culture is correct
• When faced with plurality of culture,
one must adapt the conceptual tool
of
• cultural relativism.
• People typically believe that their
ways of thinking and acting are
“normal”; but, at a more extreme
level, some believe their ways are
better than others.
• Ethnocentrism is not a useful
perspective in contexts in which
people from different cultural
backgrounds come into close
contact with one another, as is the
case in many cities and communities
throughout the world.
W4: and forms, such as banners, flag, motto,
The Significance of Cultural, Social, etc.)
Political and Economic Symbols and ● Economic symbols – used in the
Practices production, distribution and consumption of
goods and services like currency, market,
According to Nandkumar (2014), “The labor, and other economic activities.
symbol, it would appear then, is a natural ● Cultural practices are the manifestations
starting point of a journey of discovery and of a culture or sub-culture, especially
realization: the starting point, the face set regarding the traditional and customary
towards the goal, the ardour of the journey, practices of an ethnic or other cultural group
all are somehow implied in the symbol.” (i.e. traditional medical practices,
Anything can become a symbol if people religious/spiritual practices).
interpret it to mean something other than its
literal definition. A symbol is an object, ● Social practices refer to everyday
word or action that stands for something practices and the ways these are typically
else without natural relationship that is and habitually performed in a society. Such
culturally defined. Symbols, such as practices like going to work, cooking, and
gestures, signs, objects, signals, and words showering are meaningful to people as
help people understand the world. They parts of their everyday life activities.
provide clues to understanding experiences
● Political practices are common things that
and convey recognizable meanings that are
are done within a state or country. It is
shared by societies. These symbols usually
related to the practices done in
originated from many types of heritage that
administration, distribution, and attainment
represent our culture.
of power, bureaucratic composition (i.e.
Cultural heritage is the legacy of physical
political dynasties, “palakasan” system),
artifacts and intangible attributes of a group
among others.
or society that are inherited from the past
Sociologists have classified the different
generation, maintained in the present, and
types of societies according to their
bestowed for the benefit of future
generations. Physical artifacts or tangible subsistence into six categories, each of
heritage or material cultures, which are which possesses their own unique
visible, include the material objects such as characteristics:
artifacts, buildings, landscapes, tools,
furniture, bridges, and any physical
1. Food Gathering Societies. This is the
substance used by people, which are
earliest form of socio-cultural society. The
worthy of preservation for the future. Non-
people subsisted from day-to-day through
material or intangible heritage consists of
hunting larger animals, collecting shellfish,
abstractions that include knowledge, beliefs,
and vegetable gathering. Their tools were
values, rules for behavior, traditional skills
made of stones, woods, and bones.
and technologies, religious ceremonies,
performing arts, and storytelling. 2. Horticultural Societies. As means of
● Cultural symbols – manifestations that production, the people planted seeds for
signify the ideology of a culture that has subsistence.
meaning within that culture (i.e. religious 3. Pastoral Societies. Most of the people
symbols, museums) were nomadic who follow their herds in
● Social symbols – relating to human quest of animals for food and clothing to
societies and its modes of organization (i.e. satisfy their needs. They raised animals to
social classes, social problems, social provide milk, furs and blood for protein.
issues, etc.) These societies typically are relatively small,
wandering communities organized along
● Political symbols – used to represent a
male-centered kinship groups.
political standpoint seen in various media
4. Agricultural Societies. In the early said, that a person becomes social when he
agriculture societies, people used plow and learns to get along with other people
the hoe in food production.
5. Industrial Societies. These societies Socialization focuses on the following.
began in the 18th Century during the • Acquisition of Knowledge - is the
Industrial Revolution and gained momentum process of absorbing and storing new
by the turn of the 19th Century. This period information in memory, the success of
was characterized by the use of machines which is often gauged by how well the
as means of food production. information can be later remembered.
6. Post- Industrial Societies. Information • Language - is a structured system
and communication technology is the of communication used by humans, based
hallmark of these modern societies. Post- on speech, gesture and writing
industrial society is characterized by the • Values - are basic fundamental
spread of computer technology. Advances beliefs that guide or motivate attitudes or
in this technology are made of highly-trained actions.
computer specialists who work to increase • Habits – a settled tendency or usual
the capabilities of computers and internet. manner of behavior.
The use of modern technology gave rise to • Skill in the Society – are essential
several technological problems such as in building both personal and professional
pollution, lung-illness, asthma, skin relationships.
problems, and others.
Context refers to the culture, language,
social structures and one’s position
within that particular society. It also includes
W5: history and the roles people and
Context, Content, Processes and institutions around them performed in the
Consequences past. One's life context will significantly
of Socialization affect the socialization process. For
example, a family's economic class may
Society is a group of individuals engaged in have a
continuous social interaction, or a large huge impact on how parents associate or
social group sharing the same or special deal with their children.
social territory, often governed by the same
political authority and same cultural TYPES OF SOCIALIZATION
expectations. Culture provides people with 1. Primary Socialization – is the
the norms, values, expectations, and other acceptance and learning of a set of norms
information needed to live with other and values establish through the process of
members of the group. The values and socialization. It occurs when a child learns
norms of a society are imparted or the attitudes, values and actions appropriate
internalized by its members through to individuals as members of a particular
socialization or cultural processes. culture.
Socialization is the process of learning to
behave in a way that is acceptable like the Example: Mano or pagmamano as an
values and customs of our society or social "honoring-gesture" to the elders.
group. According to Fichter, socialization is 2. Secondary Socialization – is the wider
a process of mutual influence between a process of learning where a child learns
person and his fellowmen, a process that what is expected of them, and what is
acceptable or appropriate behavior for them
results in an acceptance of, and adaptation
within a small group that is part of a larger
to, the patterns of social behavior. He also society and culture.
Example: Joining a club or organization in While context sets the stage for
college, getting employed in a new socialization, the content and process
workplace. comprise the work of this undertaking. How
parents assign chores or tell their
3. Anticipatory Socialization - children to interact with police are examples
Adolescence is initiated between the ages of content and process, which are also
of childhood and adulthood. During this defined by the span of socialization, the
stage, children start to participate in methods used, the people involved, and
Anticipatory Socialization. They also learn the type of experience.
about their group culture and what they School plays an important role in
should expect in the future. socialization of students of all ages. In
4. Professional or Developmental class, young people receive instructions
Socialization - This process of socialization related to their conduct, tasks, authority,
occurs during the early years of an schedules and deadlines. Teaching this
individual's life. It develops his skills and content requires social interaction between
attitudes for the future and prepares him for educators and students. Typically, the
the various roles and responsibilities that he policies and expectations are both written
will assume as an adult. and spoken shall be reiterated thoroughly.
5. Re-Socialization - When an individual In this manner, the student conduct is
moves to a new group, he has to learn the either rewarded or punished. As this occurs,
new values and beliefs of the new group. students learn standards of proper
This process of re-socialization helps him to suitable for school.
get used to the new ways of life. 2. Results and Outcomes - refers to
what happens to an individual after
PARTS OF SOCIALIZATION being exposed to a particular
1. Context - denotes culture, contents and process.
language, social structures, and the Results are the outcome of
individual’s rank within them. It socialization and refer to the way a person
includes the history and roles played conceives and conducts after undergoing
by the people and institutions in the this process. For example, with small
past. children, socialization exhibits focus on
Context refers to the culture, language, control of biological and emotional
social structures and one’s position impulses, such as drinking eating with bare
within that particular society. It also includes hands rather than eating with spoon
history and the roles people and and fork or asking permission before picking
institutions around them performed in the something up.
past. One's life context will significantly As children mature, the results of
affect the socialization process. For socialization include knowing how to obey
example, a family's economic class may rules, wait for their turn or organize their
have a schedule to be productive. We can see the
huge impact on how parents associate or results of socialization in everything, from
deal with their children. men hitting the gym to achieve appealing
1. Content and Process - the work or biceps to women wearing make ups to look
activity in socialization. Content more attractive.
refers to the details of what passed
from a member to a new member. CONTEXT OF SOCIALIZATION
While process means the o Biological Context - Socio-biologist
interactions and ways these new suggests that some human capacities may
norms, values and customs are be "wired into" our biological makeup. Some
taught to a novice. hormones (i.e. vasopressin and oxytocin)
encourage human to interact and socialize implies certain roles that must be
with other people. performed.
o Psychological Context - composed of Types of Status
emotional states and unconsciousness, o Achieved status is one that a person has
cognitive theories of development, social earned or chosen based on his/her abilities
and historical events and social position as and hard work. This is usually signified by a
part of the context. certain profession, such as a professional
Socialization is also known as enculturation. athlete.
Enculturation occurs when cultural o Ascribed status is not earned, and it is
knowledge is passed on to the next bearer not something that people have control
which will perpetuate and ensure the over. For instance, it can be ascribed to a
continuance of their traditions and practices person's race or sex. Also, it is not usually a
(Santarita and Madrid, 2016). choice in most matters.
For an individual to become a member of a Consequences – an action or response
society he/she must go through these two that follows behavior.
processes: socialization / enculturation. For Types of Sanctions
instance, act of courtesy and hospitality of o Formal Sanctions – These are the
Filipinos are acquired through socialization rewards or forms of punishment that are
because these two values learned with their formally awarded by an institution such as
nearest group like family and friends. On the government, council or establishment.
other hand, enculturation takes place when o Informal Sanctions – These are the
one culture or tradition is adopted. rewards and forms of punishment that are
spontaneously given by an individual or a
Overall enculturation and socialization group of people as a response to a behavior
process results to: that was either accepted or disapproved.
o Identity formation – An individual’s o Positive Sanctions – These are the
identity is formed through his interaction actions or statements that reward a
with other people. A person’s socialization particular behavior, which reinforce its
with individuals or groups allows him or her repetition.
to imbibe certain characteristics and
interests that contribute to his/her identity W6:
(idea derived from Newman, 2012). For Analyze the Forms and Functions of Social
example, the centuries of Philippine Organizations
Chinese expose to Filipino culture made
them imbibe facets of Filipino character in
the same way Filipinos learned to love This lesson explores our membership in
Chinese culture like food (e.g. preference social groups, and brings us to the topic of
for noodle-based cuisine like pancit). social structure, or the organized aspects of
o Norms and values – norms are culturally social life. At a smaller level, social structure
determined rules that guide people refers to the interrelationships between
regarding what is right, wrong, proper, or particular social groups in a society such as
improper. Norms create predictability in kinship and barkada. In the broader sense,
daily affairs and interactions, making it it refers to the interrelationships of the social
easier to live with other members of society institutions of a society.
(Newman, 2012). These norms are Understanding how society is organized
fundamental to the establishment of social helps us probe how social interactions
order in any society (Newman, 2012). influence the role we play and the power we
Status – position that an individual can wield as an individual, a group, and a
occupy in society (Newman, 2012). It is not nation.
ranked position, but simply a label that Social Organization
A concept that social scientists have identify themselves as one unit. It is a
developed for the scientific study of society, collection of people interacting together in
culture, and personality. The concept an orderly way based on shared
“organization” was used by sociologist in expectations about another’s behavior.
two different ways: 1. Primary groups- those which are small
but intimate, direct access and interaction
⮚ to stand for relationship among with each other, emotional bond (i.e. close
people, and friends and family).

⮚ as a type of a particular social 2. Secondary groups- formed to perform a

system called formal organization specific purpose, members interact for the
Also, is a process of bringing order and accomplishment of purpose, usually formal
significance into human social life and impersonal (i.e. becoming friends with
(Olsen 1986:2). It has roots in social one’s seatmate in a Math class).
interaction. 3. In-groups- those groups in which one
belongs and those which elicit a sense of
Also, is a process of bringing order and loyalty from the individual (i.e. being part of
significance into human social life the women’s basketball team allows one
(Olsen 1986:2). It has roots in social bond with teammates and join pep rallies to
interaction. support the team).
Also, is a process of bringing order and 4. Out-groups- those groups in which one
significance into human social life does not belong and those which elicit
(Olsen 1986:2). It has roots in social sense of antagonism from the individual (i.e.
interaction. being part of the women’s basketball team
Social Structure gives one a sense of antagonism toward the
Refers to the independent network of roles men’s basketball team as the latter gets
and hierarchy of statuses which define the more funding despite a bad performance
reciprocal expectations and the power during the last season).
arrangement of the members of the social 5. Reference groups- are those that
unit guided by norms (Sheriff and Sheriff provide an individual with a set of standards
1969:150). to check against and to know if one is doing
Social Function well or where he or she needs improvement
Refers to the results of action that occur in (i.e. neophyte scientist considers his
relation to a particular structure and superiors as reference groups).
includes the results of the activities of Social institutions – “consists of all the
individuals occupying particular statuses structural components of a society through
(Schwartz 1986:181). which the main concerns and activities are
organized, and social needs are met”. Some
Sociological Perspective of Society examples of social institutions are the
Social groups are fundamental parts of following:
human life. They are a multitude of 1. Family is a social institution found in all
people who see each other often and think societies that unites people in cooperative
of themselves as part of a group. There group to care for one another including any
appears to be groups of people everywhere. children.
We could be a member of a church group,
2. Economy is the social institutions that
college class, workplace, sports team, club,
organizes a society’s production,
and others. The discipline of Sociology
distribution, and consumption of goods and
focuses primarily on the study of social
services”.
groups in a society.
Social Group is a unit of people who 3. Education is the “acquisition of
interact with some regularity, and who knowledge, skills, values and beliefs”.
4. Civil society is the population of groups values, languages, and symbols. Durkheim
formed for collective purpose primarily believed that individuals may make up
outside of the State and marketplace. society, but in order to study society,
5. Religion is a set of symbols that invoke sociologists have to look beyond individuals
feelings of reverence or awe, which are to social facts. Social facts are the laws,
linked to rituals practiced by the community morals, values, religious beliefs, customs,
of believers. fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules
that govern social life (Durkheim 1895).
Each of these social facts serves one or
Sociological Theories or Perspectives. more functions within a society. For
Different sociological perspectives example,
enable sociologists to view social issues one function of a society’s laws may be to
through a variety of useful protect society from violence, while another
lenses. is to punish criminal behavior, while another
is to preserve public safety.
Although suicide is generally considered an
individual phenomenon, Émile
Durkheim was interested in studying the
social factors that affect it. He studied
social ties within a group, or social
solidarity, and hypothesized that
differences in
Structural – Functional Theory
suicide rates might be explained by religion-
Structural-functional theory, also called
based differences. Durkheim gathered a
functionalism, sees society as a
large amount of data about Europeans who
structure with interrelated parts designed to
had ended their lives, and he did indeed
meet the biological and social needs of
find differences based on religion.
the individuals in that society. Functionalism
Protestants were more likely to commit
grew out of the writings of English
suicide
philosopher and biologist, Hebert Spencer
than Catholics in Durkheim’s society, and
(1820–1903), who saw similarities
his work on this topic demonstrated the
between society and the human body. He
utility of theory for sociological research.
argued that just as the various organs of
Another noted structural functionalist,
the body work together to keep the body
Robert Merton (1910–2003), pointed
functioning, the various parts of society
out that social processes often have many
work together to keep society functioning
functions. Manifest functions are the
(Spencer 1898). The parts of society that
consequences of a social process that are
Spencer referred to were the social
sought or anticipated, while latent
institutions, or patterns of beliefs and
functions are the unsought consequences
behaviors
of a social process. A manifest function of
focused on meeting social needs, such as
college education, for example, includes
government, education, family, healthcare,
gaining knowledge, preparing for a career,
religion, and the economy.
and finding a good job that utilizes that
Émile Durkheim, another early sociologist,
education. Latent functions of your college
applied Spencer’s theory to explain
years include meeting new people,
how societies change and survive over time.
participating in extracurricular activities, or
Durkheim believed that society is a
even
complex system of interrelated and
finding a spouse or partner. Another latent
interdependent parts that work together to
function of education is creating a
maintain stability (Durkheim 1893), and that
hierarchy of employment based on the level
society is held together by shared
of education attained. Latent functions
can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful. Social German sociologist Max Weber agreed with
processes that have undesirable some of Marx’s main ideas, but
consequences for the operation of society also believed that in addition to economic
are called dysfunctions. In education, inequalities, there were inequalities of
examples of dysfunction include getting bad political power and social structure that
grades, truancy, dropping out, not caused conflict. Weber noted that different
graduating, and not finding suitable groups were affected differently based on
employment. education, race, and gender, and that
people’s reactions to inequality were
Conflict Theory moderated by class differences and rates of
Conflict theory looks at society as a social mobility, as well as by perceptions
competition for limited resources. This about the legitimacy of those in power.
perspective is a macro-level approach most Ida B. Wells articulated the conflict
identified with the writings of German perspective when she theorized a
philosopher and sociologist Karl Marx connection between an increase in lynching
(1818–1883), who saw society as being and an increase in black socio-economic
made mobility in the United States from the late
up of two classes, the bourgeoisie 1800s into the mid-20th century. She also
(capitalist) and the proletariat (workers), examined competition within the feminist
who movement as women fought for the right
must compete for social, material, and to vote, yet the presumably egalitarian
political resources such as food and mainstream suffragist movements were
housing, headed by white women who excluded
employment, education, and leisure time. black women from suffrage. W.E.B. DuBois
Social institutions like government, also examined race in the U.S. and in U.S.
education, and religion reflect this colonies from a conflict perspective, and
competition in their inherent inequalities and emphasized the importance of a reserve
help labor force, made up of black men. Race
maintain the unequal social structure. conflict paradigms will be examined later in
In the economic sphere, Marx focused on the course in the module devoted to race
the “mode of production” (e.g., the and ethnicity.
industrial factory) and “relations of
production” (e.g., unequal power between Symbolic Interactionist Theory
workers and factory owners). The Symbolic Interactionist Theory is a micro-
bourgeoisie owns and controls the means of level theory that focuses
production, which leads to exploitation due on meanings attached to human interaction,
to the profit motive. In this arrangement, both verbal and non-verbal, and to
proletarians have only their labor to sell, and symbols. Communication—the exchange of
do not own or control capital. False meaning through language and
consciousness is Marx’s term for the symbols—is believed to be the way in which
proletarian’s inability to see her real position people make sense of their social worlds.
within the class system, a mis-recognition
that is complicated by the control that the Charles Horton Cooley introduced the
bourgeoisie often exerts over the media looking-glass self (1902) to describe
outlets that disseminate and normalize how a person’s self of self grows out of
information. These are just some of the interactions with others, and he proposed a
structural constrains that prevent workers threefold process for this development: 1)
from joining together in what Marx called we see how others react to us, 2) we
class consciousness, or a common group interpret that reaction (typically as positive
identity as exploited proletarians and or negative) and 3) we develop a sense of
potential revolutionaries.
self based on those interpretations. sociologists like Erving Goffman (1922–
“Looking-glass” is an archaic term for a 1982) to develop a technique
mirror, called dramaturgical analysis. Goffman
so Cooley theorized that we “see” ourselves used theater as an analogy for social
when we interact with others. interaction and recognized that people’s
George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) is interactions showed patterns of cultural
considered a founder of symbolic “scripts.” Since it can be unclear what part a
interactionism, though he never published person may play in a given situation,
his work on this subject (LaRossa and as we all occupy multiple roles in a given
Reitzes 1993). Mead’s student, Herbert day (i.e., student, friend, son/ daughter,
Blumer, actually coined the term “symbolic employee, etc.), one has to improvise his or
interactionism” and outlined these basic her role as the situation unfolds (Goffman
premises: humans interact with things 1958).
based on meanings ascribed to those
things; the ascribed meaning of things Forms of Social Group
comes Groups are formed as an assemblage of
from our interactions with others and people who often interact with
society; the meanings of things are each other on the basis of a common
interpreted outlook concerning behavior and a sense of
by a person when dealing with things in common identity. A social group may
specific circumstances (Blumer 1969). This consist of two or more individuals who do
sounds close to Cooley’s looking-glass self, things together with a common goal and
but Mead’s contribution was really to the interest.
development of self, especially in childhood, Examples:
which we’ll discuss in more detail when Family church mate neighborhood
we address theories of socialization. If you Relatives schoolmate organization
love books, for example, a symbolic Couples co-workers team
interactionist might propose that you mate
learned that books are good or important in Friends business
the interactions you had with family, friends, clubs
school, or church; maybe your family
had a special reading time each week,
getting your library card was treated as a Group
special event, or bedtime stories were - is any collection of people who interact on
associated with warmth and comfort. the basis of shared expectations
Social scientists who apply symbolic- regarding one another’s behavior
interactionist thinking look for patterns ( Kornblum, 2003).
of interaction between individuals. Their - is consist of two or more people who are
studies often involve observation of one- bound together in relatively stable
onone patterns of social interaction and who share
interactions. For example, while a conflict a feeling of unity ( Hughes and
theorist studying a political protest Kroeler, 2009)
might focus on class difference, a symbolic - is comprised of two or more persons who
interactionist would be more interested are in social interaction, who are
in how individuals in the protesting group guided by similar norms, values and
interact, as well as the signs and symbols expectations, and who maintain a stable
protesters use to communicate their pattern of relationship over a period of time.
message and to negotiate and thus develop - Is a specified number of individuals where
shared meanings. each recognizes members from
The focus on the importance of interaction nonmember;
in building a society led
- it is a collection of individuals characterize Eg. Crowds, masses, public and social
by: movements are temporary groups
a) Communication IMPORTANCE OF A GROUP
b) Recognition 1. A group is a major source of solidarity
c) Specialized roles and cohesion.
Three Requirements for a group 2. A group reinforces and strengthens our
1. There must be two or more people. integration into society.
2. There must be interaction. 3. A group shares basic survival and
3. The members must be together problem-solving techniques to satisfy
physically. personal and emotional needs.
Factors that influence Groups 3. A group gives meaning and support
1. Motivational base shared by individuals to an individual.
(based on needs, interests, desires,
noble activities, insecurities, or problems) HOW IS A GROUP FORMED?
2. Size of the group 1. The desire to achieve an objective
3. Type of group goals 2. To meet the needs of the individual
4. The kind of a group cohesion/unity (the member
capability to function and interact 1. 3. People are treated alike by others
collectively in the direction of their goals)
General Characteristics of a Group
Group is characterized by the following:
1. A group has identity identifiable by both
its members and outsiders.
2. A group has a social structure in the
sense that each part or member has a
position related to other positions.
3. Each member in a group has roles to
play. GROUP BOUNDARIES
4. There is mutual reciprocity among A. IN- GROUP
members in a group. - group with which the individual identifies
Group as distinguished from other and which gives him sense of
Collection of People like: belonging, solidarity, camaraderie, esprit de
1. Aggregate - a simple collection of people corps, and a protective attitude
who are in the same place at the toward the other members.
same time without interacting with each - The members are loyal to each other and
other share common norms, activities,
Eg. People inside the movie house, people goals and background.
riding in an LRT/MRT B. OUT-GROUP
2. Category - a simple collection of people - viewed as outsiders by the in-group;
who share distinctive characteristics - Any member of the in-group has
(age, sex, race, income/social class, insufficient contact with the members of the
occupation, religion, political beliefs, out-group
ethnicity - Members of the in-group have feelings of
Eg. Males/females in the society; the strangeness, dislikes, avoidance,
infants; children; youth; adults/ the antagonism, indifference and even hatred
aged; slum dwellers; the middle class; the toward the out-group
millionaires C. REFERENCE GROUP
3. Collectivity - Collection of people in a - Group that is significant to us as models
given place and time even though we ourselves may not
be a part of the group.
- Is one which an individual does not only An in-group may form within our secondary
have a high regard for but one after group such as our workmates,
which he or she patterns his/her life group mates, or assembly which functions
- Its central aspect is self-identification as a group of people who can connect with
rather than actual membership each other because of their sense of identity
TYPES OF GROUP BOUNDARIES and belongingness while out group
A. FORMAL GROUP BOUNDARIES functions as a competitor or rival group that
- groups in which duties and privileges are an individual is opposed to.
clearly defined and expectations Reference group provides a standard of
are prescribed, independent of the person measurement. This group has a
who happens to occupy a given strong impact on how a person thinks and
position acts as it may serve as guide to a member’s
- Individual roles are explicitly designed as behavior and social norms. Thus, networks
president, v-president, secretary, function as a social media influencer.
and treasurer Social networks are influential in a wide
- With constitution or set of by-laws range of online platforms used
B. INFORMAL GROUP BOUNDARIES for building social relationships with other
- Arises spontaneously out of the people including sharing of political
interactions of two or more people opinions, likes and dislikes, and can even
- They are unplanned, have no explicit rules show trending societal issues or
for membership, and do not have personalities.
specific objectives to be attained
- The members exchange confidences,
share a feeling of intimacy and acquire
a sense of belongingness.
CONSEQUENCES OF GROUP
BOUNDARIES
a. people gain a clearer sense of their
diversity
b. ethnocentrism may grow
c. serious personal and social problems
may arise
Functions of Social Groups
We typically belong to a certain type of
social group, with each group
having its own functions.
The primary group plays a vital part in the
socialization process. It forms
the social nature and ideals of individuals
especially in shaping the culture and
personality where a person learns social
norms, beliefs, morals, and values. On the
other hand, secondary group members tend
to relate to others only in specific roles
and for practical reasons. This group helps
in fulfilling various types of human needs
and brings about social awareness and
social change. Also, this group helps fulfill
various special interests in such fields as
sports, dance, music, and others.