Chapter-1 Function Concepts

1.1. Function Definition

A function from a set S to a set T is a rule that assigns

to each element of S a unique element of T .We write
f : S →T .

Example

Let S be the set of all people who are alive at noon on

October 10, 2004 and T the set of all real numbers. Let f be
the rule that assigns to each person his or her weight in
pounds at precisely noon on October 10, 2004. Discuss
whether f : S →T is a function.

Solution

Indeed f is a function since it assigns to each element of S a

unique element of T. Notice that each person has just one
weight at noon on October 10, 2004: that is a part of the
definition of “function.” However two different people may
have the same weight that is allowed.

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

Example

Let S be the set of all people and T be the set of all people.
Let f be the rule that assigns to each person his or her
brother. Is f a function?

Solution

In this case f is not a function. For many people have no

brother (so the rule makes no sense for them) and many
people have several brothers (so the rule is ambiguous for
them).

Example

Let S = R , T = R , and let f ( x ) = x 2 . This is mathematical

shorthand for the rule “assign to each x  S its square.”
Determine whether f : R → R is a function.

Solution

We see that f is a function since it assigns to each element

of S a unique element of T - namely its square.

Note:

A nice, geometrical way to think about the condition

3
 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

that each x in the domain has corresponding to it precisely

one y value is this:

If every vertical line drawn through a curve intersects that

curve just once, then the curve is the graph of a function.

graph of function not function

We usually consider functions for which the sets S

and T are sets of real numbers. The set S is called the
domain of the function. The range of the function is the set
of all possible values of f ( x ) as x varies throughout the

domain. In fact they will often consist of one or more

intervals in R.

x f (x )
f
(input) (output)

Example

What are the domain and range of the following functions:

4
 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

1
(i) f ( x ) = x (ii) f ( x ) =
x −2

Solution

(i) In the square root, we can substitute only by zero or

positive values. So the domain will be D : 0  x . The
output of the square root is always positive, since R : 0  y .

(ii) For rational functions the denominator should not equal

zero. So D : x  2 and the range R : y  0 .

Example

Find the domain and range of the function f ( x ) = 1 − x 2 .

Solution

The domain is D : x   −1,1 .

The range is R : y  0,1 .

Example

1
Find the domain of the functions f ( x ) = .
x − 3x + 2
2

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

Solution

The domain is D : x 2 − 3x + 2  0

( x − 1)( x − 2)  0
+++++ ------ +++++
1 2

D : ( −, 1) ( 2,  )

Example

The graph of a function f is shown in figure.

(i) Find the value of f (1) and the zeros of the function.

(ii) What are the domain and range of f.

Solution

(i) We see from figure that at x = 1, f = 4 . So f (1) = 4 .

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

The zero of f is the point at which the curve intersects x-

axis, the zero is at x = 6 .

(ii) We see that f is defined when −3  x  6 . So the

domain is the closed interval [-3, 6]. Notice that f on all
values from -2 to 4, so the range of f is [-2, 4].

1.2. Composition of Functions

Suppose that f and g are functions and that the domain

of g contains the range of f . This means that if x is in the
domain of f then f ( x ) makes sense but also g may be

applied to f ( x ) . The result of these two operations, one

following the other, is called g composed with f or the

composition of g with f. We write

(g f )( x ) = g ( f ( x ) )

f (x ) g (x )
x

Example

Let f ( x ) = x 2 − 1 and g ( x ) = 3x + 4 . Calculate g f and

f g.

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

Solution

We have

(g f )( x ) = g ( f ( x ) )

(
= g x 2 −1 )

( )
= 3 x 2 − 1 + 4 = 3x 2 + 1

(f g )( x ) = f ( g ( x ) )

= f ( 3x + 4 ) = ( 3x + 4 ) − 1 = 9x 2 + 24x + 15 .
2

Note:

(g f )( x )  ( f g )( x )

Example

How can we write the function h ( x ) = ( 2x + 3) as the

2

composition of two functions g and f ?

Solution

Notice that the function h can be thought of as two steps:

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

First we double and add three, then we square. Thus define

f ( x ) = 2x + 3 and g ( x ) = x 2 . Then h ( x ) = g ( f ( x ) ) .

1.3. The Inverse of a Function

Let f : S →T be a function. We say that f has an

−1
inverse (is invertible) if there is a function f :T → S such

(
that f f −1
) (t ) = t for all t T and f ( −1
f ) (s ) = s for

−1
all s  S . Notice that the symbol f denotes a new
function which we call the inverse of f .

Basic Rule for Finding Inverses to find the inverse of

a function f, we solve the equation for the function f −1
(t )

(f f −1
) (t ) = t
Example

Find the inverse of the function f ( x ) = 3 x + 1

Solution

We solve the equation

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

f f ( −1
( x )) = x

We can rewrite the last line as

−1
3f +1 = x

Thus,

x −1
f −1
(x ) =
3

Example

Let f : R → R be defined by f ( x ) = 3 x 5 . Find f −1

.

Solution

We solve the equation

f f ( −1
( x )) = x

We can rewrite the last line as

3 f ( ) −1 5
=x

Thus,

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

1/ 5
( x ) =  
−1 x
f
3

Now we consider the graph of the inverse function.

Suppose that f : S →T is invertible and that ( s , t ) is a point

on the graph of f . Then t = f ( s ) hence s = f −1

(t ) so that

(t , s ) is on the graph of f −1
. The geometrical connection

between the points ( s , t ) and (t , s ) is exhibited in the next

figures: they are reflections of each other in the line
y = x .We have discovered the following important
−1
principle: The graph of f is the reflection in the line
y = x of the graph of f .

(b, a)

(a, b)

Note:

Another useful fact is this: Since an invertible

function must be one-to-one, two different x values cannot

11
 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

correspond to (that is, be “sent by the function to”) the same

y value. Looking at the figure, we see that this means In
order for f to be invertible, no horizontal line can intersect
the graph of f more than once.

1.4. Symmetry

The function is called an even function if

f ( −x ) = f ( x )

and is called an odd function if

f ( −x ) = −f ( x )

The geometric significance of an even function is that

its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis but an odd
function is symmetric about the origin.

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

Even function
Odd function

Example

Determine whether each of the following functions is even,

odd neither even nor odd.

(i) f ( x ) = x 4 − 3 (ii) f ( x ) = x 2 − 3x

Solution

(i) f ( −x ) = ( −x ) − 3
4

= x 4 − 3 = f ( x ) even function

(ii) f ( −x ) = ( −x ) − 3( −x )
2

= x 2 + 3x neither even nor odd

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

1.5. Increasing and Decreasing Functions

The graph shown in figure rises from A to B and falls

from B to C. The function f is said to be increasing on the
interval [a, b] and decreasing on [b, c].

a b c

A function f is called increasing on an interval I if

f (x1)  f (x 2 ) whenever x 1  x 2 in I

A function f is called decreasing on an interval I if

f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) whenever x1  x2 in I

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

1.6. The Limit of a Function

1.6.1. Introduction

Suppose that f is a function whose domain contains

two neighboring intervals: f :(a,c ) (c ,b ) → R . We wish
to consider the behavior of f as the variable x approaches c.
If f ( x ) approaches a particular finite value L as x
approaches c, then we say that the function f has the limit L
as x approaches c. We write lim f ( x ) = L
x →c

Let us investigate the behavior of the function f

defined by

f ( x ) = x 2 − x + 2 , for value of x near 2

x f x f
2.1 4.31 1.9 3.71
2.05 4.153 1.95 3.853
2.01 4.030 1.99 3.97
2.005 4.015 1.995 3.985
2.001 4.003 1.999 3.997

 lim x 2 − x + 2 = 4
x →2

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

Definition:

We write, lim f ( x ) = L
x →a

and say "The limit of f ( x ) , as x approaches a, equal L"

if we can the values of f ( x ) arbitrarily close to L by taking

x to be sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.

Example

x −1
Guess the value of lim
x →1 x 2 − 1

Solution

x f x f
1.1 0.4762 0.9 0.5263
1.01 0.4975 0.99 0.5205
1.001 0.4998 0.999 0.5003
1.0001 0.4999 0.9999 0.5000

x −1
 lim = 0.5
x →1 x 2 − 1

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

1.6.2. Basic Properties and Rules for Limits

If lim f ( x ) = L and lim g ( x ) = M then

x →a x →a

1. Constant Rule:

lim k = k , for any constant k.

x →a

2. Sum and Difference Rule:

lim f ( x )  g ( x ) = lim f ( x )  lim  g ( x ) = L  M

x →a x →a x →a

3. Multiple Rule:

lim c f ( x ) = c lim f ( x ) = c L , where c is any constant.

x →a x →a

4. Product rule:

lim f ( x )  g ( x ) = lim f ( x )  lim  g ( x ) = L  M

x →a x →a x →a

5. Quotient rule:

 f ( x )  xlim f ( x )  L
lim  =
→a
= , if lim  g ( x )   0
x →a g ( x ) lim  g ( x )  M x →a
  x →a  

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

6. Power rule:

( )
n
lim f ( x )  = lim f ( x )
n
= Ln
x →a x →a

Example

Evaluate the following limits

2
x 2 −9  x +9 −3
(i) lim 3 (ii) lim  
x →3 x − 27 x →0 x
 

Solution

(i) Since

x 2 −9 0
lim 3 = ,
x →3 x − 27 0

then we cannot evaluate the limit by direct substitution. So

lim 3
x 2 −9
= lim
( x − 3)( x + 3)
x →3 x − 27
( )(
x →3 x − 3 x 2 + 3x + 9
)

= lim
(x + 3)
=
6
x →3
(x 2
+ 3x + 9 ) 27

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

2 2
 x +9 −3  x +9 −3
(ii) lim   =  lim  , we start with
x →0
 x   x →0 x 

x +9 −3 0
lim =
x →0 x 0

x +9 +3
Multiplying by the conjugate * , then
x +9 +3

lim
x +9 −3
= lim
( x + 9) − 9
x →0 x x →0 x
(
x +9 +3 )
1 1
= lim =
x →0 x +9 +3 6

2
 x + 9 − 3   1 2 1
 lim   =  =
x →0
 x   6  36

2.1.3 One-Sided Limit

There is also a concept of one-sided limit. We say that

lim f ( x ) = M
x →a −

if f ( x ) approaches M as x approaches a through the values

less than a, that is as x approaches a from left ( x  a ).

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

Likewise, we say that

lim f ( x ) = N
x →a +

if f ( x ) approaches N as x approaches a through the values

greater than a, that is as x approaches a from right ( x  a ).

Theorem:

If f is defined on an open interval containing a (may be

except a itself) and L is a real number, then

lim f ( x ) = L
x →a

if and only both the left-hand limit and right-hand limit of f

at a exist and equal L.

lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = L
x →a − x →a

Example

Find the following limits, if it exists,

(i) lim f ( x ) (ii) lim f ( x ) (iii) lim f ( x )

x → −1 x →0 x →2

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

 1 if x 0

f ( x ) =  x if 0x 2
 2 if x 2


Solution

(i) lim f ( x ) = lim 1 = 1

x → −1 x → −1

(ii) lim f ( x ) = lim 1 = 1

− −
x →0 x →0

lim f ( x )  lim f ( x )  lim f ( x ) , then the limit

− + x →0
x →0 x →0

does not exist.

(iii) lim f ( x ) = lim x = 2

− −
x →2 x →2

lim f ( x ) = lim 2 = 2
+ +
x →2 x →2

lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 2  lim f ( x ) = 2

− + x →2
x →2 x →2

y
2

x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

Example

x
Prove that lim does not exist.
x →0 x

Solution


x if x 0
We say that f ( x ) = x = 
−x if
 x 0

x 1 if x  0
Since we have, =
x −1 if x  0


x
lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1,
x →0 x x →0

x
lim− = lim+ − 1 = −1 .
x →0 x x →0

Since the right and left hand limits are different, it follows
x
that lim does not exist.
x →0 x

2.1.4. Limit at Infinity

lim f ( x ) = L
x →

22
 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

if the value of f ( x ) approaches the number L as x

increases without bound.

lim f ( x ) = L
x →−

if the value of f ( x ) approaches the number L as x

decreases without bound.

Theorem:

1 1 1
lim = 0, lim = 0, lim = 0 for any n  0 .
x → x x →− x x → x n

Example

Evaluate the following limit, if it exist

9x 2 +1 9x 2 + x 9x 3 + x
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim
x → 4x 2 + x x → 4x 3 − x x → 4x 2 − x

Solution

(i) Divided both the numerator and denominator by x 2 , then

9x 2 +1 9 + 1/ x 2
lim = lim
x → 4 x 2 + x x → 4 + 1/ x

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

9+ 0 9
= =
4+ 0 4

(ii) Divided both the numerator and denominator by x 3 ,

then

9x 2 + x 9 / x + 1/ x 2
lim = lim
x → 4 x 3 − x x → 4 − 1/ x 2

0+ 0
= =0
4− 0

(iii) Divided both the numerator and denominator by x 3 ,

then

9x 3 + x 9 + 1/ x 2
lim = lim
x → 4 x 2 − x x → 4 / x − 1/ x 2

9+ 0
= =
0− 0

Example

Evaluate the following limit, if it exist

9x 2 +1 3x 2 + x
(i) lim (ii) lim
x → x →−
4
x +3
4 x

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

Solution

(i) Divided both the numerator and denominator by

x = x 2 = 4 x 4 , then

9x 2 +1 9 + 1/ x 2
lim = lim
x → x →
4
x +3
4 4
1 + 3/ x 4

3
= =3
1

(ii) Divided both the numerator and denominator by

x 2 = −x , then

3x 2 + x 3 + 1/ x 3+ 0
lim = lim = =− 3
x →− x x → −1 −1

1.7. Continuity of functions

Continuity of functions is one of the most important

concepts of the calculus. Continuity is necessary to
guarantee a solution to many of the problems we use
calculus to solve.

When is a function continuous in the interval from x = a to

x =b ?

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

When its graph for values of x in this interval can be drawn

without lifting the pencil from the graph

1.7.1. Definition of Continuity

Let f ( x ) be a function whose domain contains the

interval ( a, b ) . Assume that c is a point of ( a, b ) .We say

that the function f is continuous at c if

lim f ( x ) = f (c )
x →c

Example

Is the function

2x 2 − x x 2
f (x ) = 
3x x 2

continuous at x = 2 ?

Solution

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

We easily check the limit lim f ( x ) , such that

x →2

lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = 6 . Also the actual value of

x →2− x →2

function at x = 2 is f ( 2 ) = 6 . By the definition of

continuity, we conclude that f is continuous at x = 2 .

Example

What value should b assigned to be make the function


x 2 +1 x 1
g (x ) = 
bx − 2
 x 1

continuous at x = 1.

Solution

g (1) = b (1) − 2 = b − 2

lim g ( x ) = lim x + 1 = 2
2
− −
x →1 x →1

Then in order that g ( x ) is continuous at x = 1 we must

have

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

g (1) = lim− g ( x )  b − 2 = 2  b = 4
x →1

Theorem:

If the function f ( x ) and g ( x ) are continuous functions at

x = c , then all of the following combinations are continuous

at x = c :

(i) f ( x )  g ( x )

(ii) f ( x ).g ( x )

(iii) k f ( x ) , ( k is any constant )

(iv) f ( x ) / g ( x ) , ( g (c )  0 )

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

Exercises (1)

[1] Which of the following is a function and which is not? Give

a reason in each case.

(a) g assigns to each man his dog.

(b) h assigns to each real number its square root.

(c) f assigns to each positive integer its cube.

[2] Which of the following graph is a function and which is

not? Find the domain and range for functions.

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

[3] Find the domain of the following functions:

1
(a) f ( x ) =
1 − x2

(b) f ( x ) = 4 x 2 − 9

(c) f ( x ) = x

[4] For each of the following pairs of functions, calculate

f g and g f

1
(a) f ( x ) = x + 2, g ( x ) =
x2 + x

(b) f ( x ) = ( x − 1)3 , g ( x ) = sin( x + 1)

[5] Determine the type of symmetry of the following

functions

(a) f ( x ) = x 4 + 2 x 2 − 3

(b) f ( x ) = x5 − 3x

(c) f ( x ) = x 4 + 2 x3 − 3

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

[6] Find the inverse of the following functions

(a) f ( x ) = 3x − 1

(b) f ( x ) = x 4 − 5

(c) f ( x ) = x 2 + 2 x + 1

[7] How can we write the function 2 x3 − 4 as the

composition of:

(a) two functions.

(b) three functions.

[8] For each of the following functions, make a guess of the

limit

(a) f ( x ) = 3x + 5 as x → 2

x −1
(b) f ( x ) = as x → 1
x −1

[9] Evaluate each of the following limits:

 x6 − 1  x −1
(i) lim  3  (ii) lim
x →1  x − 1 
 
x→1 x −1

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

1 + 3x − 2 1 + 3x − 2
(iii) lim (iv) lim
x→1 x −1 x→1 x+8 −3

x2 − 5x + 4
(vi) lim 4
x→1 x − x3 + 3 x 2 − 3

2 ( x + 1) if x  3

(vi) lim f ( x ) , where f ( x ) =  4 if x = 3
x→1
 2
 x −1 if x  3

[10] Evaluate the following limits at infinity:

3x 4 + 2 x + 1 4 x2 + 5x
(i) lim (ii) lim 5
x→ x2 + 5 x→ 3 x + 4 x 2 + 3

4 x5 + 5 x 16 x 4 + x
4
(iii) lim 5 (iv) lim
x→ 3 x + 6 x 2 + 1 x → x

3x 2 + x
(v) lim
x →− x

[11] Use the graph of the function to state the values (if it
exists) of the following:

(i) lim+ f ( x ) (ii) lim f ( x )

x→0 x→1

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 Chapter-1 Function Concepts

(iii) lim− f ( x ) (iv) lim+ f ( x )

x→2 x→2

x x0

[12] If f ( x ) =  x 2 0 x2
x − 8 x2


(a) Evaluate the following limits:

(i) lim f ( x ) (ii) lim+ f ( x ) (iii) lim f ( x )

x → 0− x→0 x →1

(iv) lim f ( x ) (v) lim f ( x ) (vi) lim f ( x )

x → 2− x → 2− x →2

[6] In each function, find a value of a so that f is

continuous, or indicate that this is impossible.

1 + x x0

(a) f (x ) =  a x=0
1 − x x0


 a x +1
 x3
(b) f ( x ) =  2
 a x −1
 3 x

33