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Luther Leads the Reformation
MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES
REVOLUTION Martin Luther’s Nearly one-fifth of the Christians • indulgence • Peace of
protest over abuses in the in today’s world are Protestants. • Reformation Augsburg
Catholic Church led to the • Lutheran • annul
founding of Protestant churches. • Protestant • Anglican
SETTING THE STAGE By the tenth century, the Roman Catholic Church had
come to dominate religious life in Northern and Western Europe. However, the
Church had not won universal approval. Over the centuries, many people criti-
cized its practices. They felt that Church leaders were too interested in worldly
pursuits, such as gaining wealth and political power. Even though the Church
made some reforms during the Middle Ages, people continued to criticize it.
Prompted by the actions of one man, that criticism would lead to rebellion.
TAKING NOTES
Recognizing Effects
Causes of the Reformation
Use a chart to By 1500, additional forces weakened the Church. The Renaissance emphasis on
identify the effects the secular and the individual challenged Church authority. The printing press
of Martin Luther's
protests.
spread these secular ideas. In addition, some rulers began to challenge the
Church’s political power. In Germany, which was divided into many competing
states, it was difficult for the pope or the emperor to impose central authority.
effect 1
cause: Finally, northern merchants resented paying church taxes to Rome. Spurred by
Luther these social, political, and economic forces, a new movement for religious
effect 2
protests
abuses reform began in Germany. It then swept much of Europe.
effect 3
Criticisms of the Catholic Church Critics of the Church claimed that its lead-
ers were corrupt. The popes who ruled during the Renaissance patronized the arts,
spent extravagantly on personal pleasure, and fought wars. Pope Alexander VI,
Causes of the Reformation
Social Political Economic Religious
• The Renaissance • Powerful monarchs • European • Some Church
values of challenged the Church princes and leaders had
humanism and as the supreme power kings were become worldly
secularism led in Europe. jealous of the and corrupt.
people to question • Many leaders viewed Church’s wealth. • Many people
the Church. the pope as a foreign • Merchants and found Church
• The printing press ruler and challenged others resented practices such as
helped to spread his authority. having to pay the sale of
ideas critical of taxes to the indulgences
the Church. Church. unacceptable.
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for example, admitted that he had fathered several children.
Many popes were too busy pursuing worldly affairs to have
much time for spiritual duties.
The lower clergy had problems as well. Many priests and
monks were so poorly educated that they could scarcely
read, let alone teach people. Others broke their priestly vows
by marrying, and some drank to excess or gambled.
Early Calls for Reform Influenced by reformers, people
had come to expect higher standards of conduct from priests
and church leaders. In the late 1300s and early 1400s, John
Wycliffe of England and Jan Hus of Bohemia had advocated
Church reform. They denied that the pope had the right to
worldly power. They also taught that the Bible had more
authority than Church leaders did. In the 1500s, Christian
humanists like Desiderius Erasmus and Thomas More added
their voices to the chorus of criticism. In addition, many
Martin Luther
Europeans were reading religious works and forming their 1483–1546
own opinions about the Church. The atmosphere in Europe In one way, fear led Luther to become
was ripe for reform by the early 1500s. a monk. At the age of 21, Luther was
caught in a terrible thunderstorm.
Luther Challenges the Church Convinced he would die, he cried
out, “Saint Anne, help me! I will
Martin Luther’s parents wanted him to be a lawyer. Instead, become a monk.”
he became a monk and a teacher. From 1512 until his death, Even after entering the monastery,
he taught scripture at the University of Wittenberg in the Luther felt fearful, lost, sinful, and
German state of Saxony. All he wanted was to be a good rejected by God. He confessed his sins
regularly, fasted, and did penance.
Christian, not to lead a religious revolution.
However, by studying the Bible, Luther
The 95 Theses In 1517, Luther decided to take a public came to the conclusion that faith alone
stand against the actions of a friar named Johann Tetzel. was the key to salvation. Only then
Tetzel was raising money to rebuild St. Peter’s Cathedral in did he experience peace.
Rome. He did this by selling indulgences. An indulgence
was a pardon. It released a sinner from performing the RESEARCH LINKS For more on Martin
penalty that a priest imposed for sins. Indulgences were not Luther, go to classzone.com
supposed to affect God’s right to judge. Unfortunately,
Tetzel gave people the impression that by buying indul-
gences, they could buy their way into heaven.
Luther was troubled by Tetzel’s tactics. In response, he wrote 95 Theses, or formal
statements, attacking the “pardon-merchants.” On October 31, 1517, he posted these
statements on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg and invited other scholars
to debate him. Someone copied Luther’s words and took them to a printer. Quickly,
Luther’s name became known all over Germany. His actions began the Reformation,
a movement for religious reform. It led to the founding of Christian churches that did
not accept the pope’s authority.
Luther’s Teachings Soon Luther went beyond criticizing indulgences. He wanted
full reform of the Church. His teachings rested on three main ideas:
• People could win salvation only by faith in God’s gift of forgiveness. The
Church taught that faith and “good works” were needed for salvation.
• All Church teachings should be clearly based on the words of the Bible. Both
Summarizing
the pope and Church traditions were false authorities.
What were the
main points of • All people with faith were equal. Therefore, people did not need priests to
Luther’s teachings? interpret the Bible for them.
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The Response to Luther
Luther was astonished at how rapidly his ideas spread and attracted followers.
Many people had been unhappy with the Church for political and economic rea-
sons. They saw Luther’s protests as a way to challenge Church control.
The Pope’s Threat Initially, Church officials in Rome viewed Luther simply as a
rebellious monk who needed to be punished by his superiors. However, as Luther’s
ideas became more popular, the pope realized that this monk was a serious threat.
In one angry reply to Church criticism, Luther actually suggested that Christians
drive the pope from the Church by force. Vocabulary
In 1520, Pope Leo X issued a decree threatening Luther with excommunication Excommunication is
unless he took back his statements. Luther did not take back a word. Instead, his the taking away of
a person’s right to
students at Wittenberg gathered around a bonfire and cheered as he threw the
membership in the
pope’s decree into the flames. Leo excommunicated Luther. Church.
The Emperor’s Opposition Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, a devout Catholic,
also opposed Luther’s teaching. Charles controlled a vast empire, including the
German states. He summoned Luther to the town of Worms (vawrmz) in 1521 to
stand trial. Told to recant, or take back his statements, Luther refused:
PRIMARY SOURCE
I am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word
of God. I cannot and I will not retract anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go
against conscience. I cannot do otherwise, here I stand, may God help me. Amen.
MARTIN LUTHER, quoted in The Protestant Reformation by Lewis W. Spitz
A month after Luther made that speech, Charles issued an imperial order, the Vocabulary
Edict of Worms. It declared Luther an outlaw and a heretic. According to this edict, A heretic is a per-
no one in the empire was to give Luther food or shelter. All his books were to be son who holds
beliefs that differ
burned. However, Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony disobeyed the emperor. For
from official Church
almost a year after the trial, he sheltered Luther in one of his castles. While there, teachings.
Luther translated the New Testament into German.
Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1522. There he discovered that many of his
ideas were already being put into practice. Instead of continuing to seek reforms in
the Catholic Church, Luther and his followers had become a separate religious
group, called Lutherans.
The Peasants’ Revolt Some people began to apply Luther’s revolutionary ideas to
society. In 1524, German peasants, excited by reformers’ talk of Christian freedom,
demanded an end to serfdom. Bands of angry peasants went about the countryside
raiding monasteries, pillaging, and burning. The revolt horrified Luther. He wrote
a pamphlet urging the German princes to show the peasants no mercy. The princes’
armies crushed the revolt, killing as many as 100,000 people. Feeling betrayed, Analyzing Causes
many peasants rejected Luther’s religious leadership. Why did
Luther’s ideas
Germany at War In contrast to the bitter peasants, many northern German princes
encourage the
supported Lutheranism. While some princes genuinely shared Luther’s beliefs, oth- German peasants
ers liked Luther’s ideas for selfish reasons. They saw his teachings as a good to revolt?
excuse to seize Church property and to assert their independence from Charles V.
In 1529, German princes who remained loyal to the pope agreed to join forces
against Luther’s ideas. Those princes who supported Luther signed a protest
against that agreement. These protesting princes came to be known as Protestants.
Eventually, the term Protestant was applied to Christians who belonged to non-
Catholic churches.
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Protestantism PROTESTANTISM
TODAY
Protestantism is a branch of Christianity. It developed out of the
Membership:
Reformation, the 16th-century protest in Europe against beliefs and practices
of the Catholic Church. Three distinct branches of Protestantism emerged at
• Nearly 400 million
Protestants worldwide
first. They were Lutheranism, based on the teachings of Martin Luther • About 65 million
in Germany; Calvinism, based on the teachings of John Calvin in Switzerland; Protestants in the
and Anglicanism, which was established by King Henry VIII in England. United States
Protestantism spread throughout Europe in the 16th century, and later, the Branches:
world. As differences in beliefs developed, new denominations formed. • More than 465 major
Protestant denominations
The Division of Christianity worldwide
• Major denominational
families worldwide:
Anglican, Assemblies of
God, Baptist, Methodist,
Lutheran, and Presbyterian
East-West Schism
(1054) • More than 250
denominations
in the United States
The Reformation
(16th Century) • About 40 denominations
with more than 400,000
members each in
the United States
Religious Adherents in
the United States:
Roman
Catholic Protestant
21% 23%
Religious Beliefs and Practices in the 16th Century Non-
Christian
Roman Independent
Lutheranism Calvinism Anglicanism 14%
Catholicism Christian
28%
Leadership Pope is head of Ministers lead Council of English monarch
the Church congregations elders govern is head of the
each church Church Unaffiliated
Christian
14%
Salvation Salvation by faith Salvation by faith God has Salvation by faith
and good works alone predetermined alone Sources: Britannica Book of the Year 2003
who will be saved
Bible Church and Bible is sole Bible is sole Bible is sole
Bible tradition source of source of source of
are sources of revealed truth revealed truth revealed truth
revealed truth
Worship Worship service Worship service Worship service Worship service
Service based on ritual focused on focused on based on ritual
preaching and preaching and preaching
ritual 1. Comparing Which of the branches
on the chart at left are most different
Interpretation Priests interpret Believers Believers Believers
Bible and interpret the interpret the interpret the and which are most similar?
of Beliefs
Church Bible for Bible for Bible using See Skillbuilder Handbook, page R7.
teachings for themselves themselves tradition and
believers reason 2. Developing Historical Perspective
Do research on Protestantism. Select a
denomination not shown on this page
RESEARCH LINKS For more on Protestantism, go to classzone.com and write a paragraph tracing its roots
to Reformation Protestantism.
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Still determined that his subjects should remain Catholic, Charles V went to war
against the Protestant princes. Even though he defeated them in 1547, he failed to
force them back into the Catholic Church. In 1555, Charles, weary of fighting,
ordered all German princes, both Protestant and Catholic, to assemble in the city
of Augsburg. There the princes agreed that each ruler would decide the religion of
his state. This famous religious settlement was known as the Peace of Augsburg.
England Becomes Protestant
The Catholic Church soon faced another great challenge to its authority, this time
in England. Unlike Luther, the man who broke England’s ties to the Roman
Catholic Church did so for political and personal, not religious, reasons.
Henry VIII Wants a Son When Henry VIII became king of England in 1509, he
was a devout Catholic. Indeed, in 1521, Henry wrote a stinging attack on Luther’s
ideas. In recognition of Henry’s support, the pope gave him the title “Defender of
the Faith.” Political needs, however, soon tested his religious loyalty. He needed a
male heir. Henry’s father had become king after a long civil war. Henry feared that
a similar war would start if he died without a son as his heir. He and his wife,
Catherine of Aragon, had one living child—a daughter, Mary—but no woman had
ever successfully claimed the English throne.
By 1527, Henry was convinced that the 42-year-old Catherine would have no
more children. He wanted to divorce her and take a younger queen. Church law did
not allow divorce. However, the pope could annul, or set aside, Henry’s marriage
if proof could be found that it had never been legal in the first place. In 1527,
Henry asked the pope to annul his marriage, but the pope turned him down. The
pope did not want to offend Catherine’s powerful nephew, the Holy Roman
Emperor Charles V.
The Reformation Parliament Henry took steps to solve his marriage problem
himself. In 1529, he called Parliament into session and asked it to pass a set of laws
Henry’s many marriages led to conflict with the Catholic
1529 1534
Church and the founding of the Church of England. Henry summons the Reformation Act of
Parliament; dismantling of pope’s Supremacy
power in England begins. names Henry
and his
1509 1527 successors
Henry VIII becomes 1516 Henry asks the pope supreme head
king; marries Daughter Mary to end his first marriage; of the English
Catherine of Aragon. is born. the pope refuses. Church.
1510 1520 1530
1531
Parliament recognizes Henry
as head of the Church.
1533
Parliament places clergy under Henry’s
control; Henry divorces Catherine,
marries Anne Boleyn (at left);
daughter Elizabeth born.
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that ended the pope’s power in England. This Parliament is known as the
Reformation Parliament.
In 1533, Henry secretly married Anne Boleyn (BUL•ihn), who was in her twen-
ties. Shortly after, Parliament legalized Henry’s divorce from Catherine. In 1534,
Henry’s break with the pope was completed when Parliament voted to approve the
Act of Supremacy. This called on people to take an oath recognizing the divorce
and accepting Henry, not the pope, as the official head of England’s Church.
The Act of Supremacy met some opposition. Thomas More, even though he had
strongly criticized the Church, remained a devout Catholic. His faith, he said,
would not allow him to accept the terms of the act and he refused to take the oath.
In response, Henry had him arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London. In
1535, More was found guilty of high treason and executed.
Consequences of Henry’s Changes Henry did not immediately get the male heir
he sought. After Anne Boleyn gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth, she fell out of
Henry’s favor. Eventually, she was charged with treason. Like Thomas More, she
was imprisoned in the Tower of London. She was found guilty and beheaded in
1536. Almost at once, Henry took a third wife, Jane Seymour. In 1537, she gave
him a son named Edward. Henry’s happiness was tempered by his wife’s death just
two weeks later. Henry married three more times. None of these marriages, how-
ever, produced children.
After Henry’s death in 1547, each of his three children ruled England in turn.
This created religious turmoil. Henry’s son, Edward, became king when he was just
nine years old. Too young to rule alone, Edward VI was guided by adult advisers.
These men were devout Protestants, and they introduced Protestant reforms to the
English Church. Almost constantly in ill health, Edward reigned for just six years.
Mary, the daughter of Catherine of Aragon, took the throne in 1553. She was a
Catholic who returned the English Church to the rule of the pope. Her efforts met
with considerable resistance, and she had many Protestants executed. When Mary
died in 1558, Elizabeth, Anne Boleyn’s daughter, inherited the throne.
1536
Anne Boleyn is
beheaded.
1547
1537 Henry dies;
Henry’s third Catherine Parr, his
wife, Jane sixth wife, outlives 1558
Seymour, has him; Edward VI Elizabeth I (at
son, Edward. begins six-year right) begins rule;
She dies from rule; Protestants she restores the
complications. are strong. Protestant Church.
1540 1550 1560
1540-1542 1553
Henry divorces Mary I (at left)
Anne of Cleves, begins rule and
his fourth wife, restores the
and executes Catholic Church.
Catherine
Howard
(above), his
fifth wife.
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Elizabeth Restores Protestantism Elizabeth I was deter-
mined to return her kingdom to Protestantism. In 1559,
Parliament followed Elizabeth’s wishes and set up the
Church of England, or Anglican Church, with Elizabeth as
its head. This was to be the only legal church in England.
Elizabeth decided to establish a state church that moder-
ate Catholics and moderate Protestants might both accept.
To please Protestants, priests in the Church of England were
allowed to marry. They could deliver sermons in English,
not Latin. To please Catholics, the Church of England kept
some of the trappings of the Catholic service such as rich Recognizing
robes. In addition, church services were revised to be some- Effects
Elizabeth I what more acceptable to Catholics. How did
1533–1603 Henry VIII’s mar-
Elizabeth Faces Other Challenges By taking this moder-
riages and divorces
Elizabeth I, like her father, had a ate approach, Elizabeth brought a level of religious peace to cause religious tur-
robust nature and loved physical England. Religion, however, remained a problem. Some moil in England?
activity. She had a particular passion
for dancing. Her fondness for exercise
Protestants pushed for Elizabeth to make more far-reaching
diminished little with age, and she church reforms. At the same time, some Catholics tried to
showed amazing energy and strength overthrow Elizabeth and replace her with her cousin, the
well into her sixties. Catholic Mary Queen of Scots. Elizabeth also faced threats
Elizabeth also resembled her father from Philip II, the Catholic king of Spain.
in character and temperament. She
Elizabeth faced other difficulties. Money was one prob-
was stubborn, strong-willed, and
arrogant, and she expected to be
lem. In the late 1500s, the English began to think about build-
obeyed without question. And ing an American empire as a new source of income. While
Elizabeth had a fierce and colonies strengthened England economically, they did not
unpredictable temper. To her enrich the queen directly. Elizabeth’s constant need for
subjects, Elizabeth was an object of money would carry over into the next reign and lead to bitter
both fear and love. She was their
conflict between the monarch and Parliament. You will read
“most dread sovereign lady.”
more about Elizabeth’s reign in Chapter 21. In the meantime,
the Reformation gained ground in other European countries.
SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT
TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.
• indulgence • Reformation • Lutheran • Protestant • Peace of Augsburg • annul • Anglican
USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING
2. Which effect do you think had 3. What political, economic, and 6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Explain how Elizabeth I was
the most permanent impact? social factors helped bring able to bring a level of religious peace to England.
Explain. about the Reformation? 7. COMPARING Do you think Luther or Henry VIII had a
4. From where did the term better reason to break with the Church? Provide details to
Protestantism originate? support your answer.
effect 1
cause: 5. What impact did Henry VIII’s 8. ANALYZING MOTIVES How did the Catholic Church
Luther
effect 2 actions have on England in the respond to Luther’s teachings? Why do you think this
protests second half of the 1500s? was so?
abuses
effect 3 9. WRITING ACTIVITY REVOLUTION Imagine Martin Luther
and a leader of the Catholic Church are squaring off in a
public debate. Write a brief dialogue between the two.
CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A GRAPHIC
Use library resources to find information on the countries in which Protestantism is a major
religion. Use your findings to create a graphic that makes a comparison among those countries.
494 Chapter 17
