What do successful

language learners and

their teachers do?
Part of the Cambridge Papers in ELT series
January 2017

CONTENTS

2 Learning a language: What is there to learn?

5 The good language learner

9 What is important for instructed

language learning?

12 Strategies to support effective

language learning

17 Concluding remarks
 Learning a language:
What is there to learn?

When it comes to language teaching and learning, there

are very different ideas about what is important to learn
and how best to learn it, and much depends upon the
context and goals of the learner. Traditional approaches
Language learning involves much
to language learning often focus on knowledge about more than grammatical or lexical
language, and involve memorizing vocabulary lists knowledge: it involves developing
and learning the grammar of a language. These often
include explicit instruction of rules about language
the competence to communicate
use, and use grammatical terminology to explain their in ways that are appropriate to
reasoning. This approach has been associated with the ‘who, what, when, where
formal exams in school and university settings.
and why’ of communicating.
However, both our ideas about language, and our teaching
and assessment practices have changed over the past two
decades, reflecting a shift to a focus on communicative
language ability1. The emphasis of learning is placed on Figure 1 gives a snapshot of the kind of input learners might
our ability to use language for everyday purposes, rather hear. They may notice the phrase 'could be' used in different
than to know about language. In place of rote learning, contexts, and come to recognize a pattern in which this
translation, exercises that focus on the patterns of language, phrase, often followed by a verb in the past tense, carries
and the use of simplified texts created just for language the meaning of a hypothetical suggestion – something
learners, there is more time spent on reading and hearing that has not yet happened. In this way, students develop
'authentic' spoken and written texts, and more time using awareness of particular lexico-grammatical features through
language for 'real world' purposes. In this case, second2 input and through trying out the language themselves.
language learning involves developing experience using Such 'corpora' (large collections of authentic samples of
the target language3 and becoming familiar with the the target language, spoken or written) can be used to
ways in which this language system works – that is, how help learners identify patterns of the language system.
phonology, syntax, morphology, lexis and paralinguistic
components work together for communication4.

1  Hymes (1972); Bachman (1990).

2  The term ‘second’ language is used here to refer to any additional

language and encompasses varying learning contexts, whether learning
the language of the majority in the community or where the classroom
represents the sole or primary context for use of that language.
3  The term ‘target language’ refers to the language that is being learned. 2
4  Coffin, Donohue & North (2009).
 Learning a language: What is there to learn?

... Some people even argue that they could be used as cover by enemy aircraft in time of ...
... the public interest. "I just wish I could be convinced we're not reacting too much to ...
... Obviously, if a useful payload could be launched to escape velocity, it could also be ...
... instead of homeless. The vibrations could be felt from Los Angeles to Oregon and all the ...
... of the Perseus myths. This could be Medusa, don't you think? And then here, ...

Figure 1 — An excerpt from corpus data, showing

the use of 'could be' in different contexts5

As well as coming to understand how specific concepts DID YOU KNOW?

such as modality6, time and relationships7 are indicated Communicative competence is a term first
in another language system, learners need to work coined by sociologist Dell Hymes (1972), who
out how to express these meanings in ways that are recognised that use of a language involves more
appropriate to the context. In all languages, meaning is than just grammatical knowledge. It also involves
expressed in different ways depending on the audience, social and cultural knowledge about how to
communicate with whom about what, when,
the relationship between those involved, and the mode of
and where. Based on this work, linguists such as
communication (oral or written, by phone, internet, email,
Bachman & Palmer (1996) developed a description
social media, face-to-face …). It also changes according to
of 'Communicative Language Ability'. This
what we are talking about and where we are. So language includes the ability to use language appropriate
learning involves much more than grammatical or lexical to context, and to understand, recognise and use
knowledge: it involves developing the competence to different types of discourse according to specific
communicate in ways that are appropriate to the ‘who, purposes. It also allows one to compensate for
what, when, where and why’ of communicating. limited resources by using other communication
strategies such as hand gesture, body language,
For teachers, this suggests that we need to provide facial expression and context. These are all
learners with a wide variety of contexts in which language aspects that are focused on in language classes.
is used. Competence is reflected, for example, in our
ability to recognise what different texts mean and what
their purpose is, such as – to recognise the purpose of a
recipe, a newspaper article, a formal email or a postcard
to a friend. Helping students identify the features of
different texts can provide strategies for both receptive
and productive use of language specific to purpose.
For example, in talking to one’s teacher to apologize for
handing in a late assignment, one chooses to use particular
words, and a particular way of structuring the apology
which is very different to the language choices made in
texting a friend to say sorry for not turning up to a party.
Similarly, writing a formal letter for a job application would
be entirely different in content, grammar, vocabulary
and structure to writing a letter to one’s grandmother to
recount progress at school and recent experiences.

5  Examples taken from the Cambridge English Corpus,

a database of spoken and written English.
6  Modality expresses the degree of possibility or
impossibility (e.g. 'will', 'must' versus 'might', 'could').
7  Relationships can be described in terms of the social distance
between the people involved in the communication (e.g. by 3
terms of address, use of more or less formal language).
 Learning a language: What is there to learn?

Understanding how people learn to use a second language

is essential for thinking about strategies for learning and
DID YOU KNOW?
teaching. Over 50 years of theory and research about
When learners recognise language as a set of
instructed second language acquisition provides a useful
choices rather than a set of rules, they can start to
base for this. What we do know is that language learning,
see the patterns of how particular meanings are
attributed to specific language forms in specific
like any learning, requires time on task and involves
contexts. Coffin, North, & Donohue (2009) learners’ individual differences8 in ways of perceiving and
suggest each choice gives particular meanings thinking. Learning is a cumulative process9. Through our
to the topic or activity involved, the status of the experience with the target language we steadily increase
participants and the roles they play, as well as the and build up familiarity. We adjust our understanding,
mode of communication. For this reason, learners interpretations and language use as we accommodate
benefit when they have varied opportunities to new input, sometimes modifying our internal system
see how language is used in different types of of the target language. For this reason, language input
oral, written and multimodal texts and to identify and opportunities to actively use the target language to
the particular language features of each. communicate are crucial components, as well as paying
attention to how language works, and spending time
practicing, building up fluency10. These four elements
are explored in more detail later, but first let’s focus on
language learners themselves (and their teachers) and how
they can make the most of learning in classroom settings.

8  Dörnyei & Ryan (2015).

9  N. Ellis (2015).
4
10  For an overview of the theory behind
this see Mackey, Abbuhl & Gass (2012).
 The good language learner

Aptitude the following strategies suggest. Each of these strategies15

help learners (1) increase their exposure to language input,
What characterizes a 'good language learner'? Language or (2) provide opportunities to use the target language
learning involves abilities everyone possesses, but to to communicate with others, or (3) pay attention to
varying degrees. Some people might be 'naturally good' language itself, or (4) practise as much as possible16.
because they may possess certain cognitive abilities, to a
higher degree than average, which give them an aptitude
for learning. These include, for example, the ability to hear
read, watch, listen to join a club, use social
and discriminate between different sounds, and imitate media, get a pen pal
them accurately (phonemic coding ability). Such people are real world examples
e.g. through surfing
good at hearing distinctions between sounds that are similar the net, social 2
but different, and they are good at mimicking. Language media, books,
aptitude includes the ability to recognise patterns in magazines, YouTube,
movies, music
language (grammatical sensitivity), and infer rules that seem find ways to
to underlie these patterns (analytic language ability)11, to 1 prac tise vocab,
notice for example the different functions words have, and rules, expressions,
pronunciation, that
recognise how meaning is expressed. The ability to retain note down language you find fun and
and process input simultaneously (that is, one’s working you hear or see motivating e.g. do with
that puzzles you, a friend – draw and
memory capacity)12 is also important. This has advantages
say – record yourself –
for listening and speaking, reading and writing. Students keep a learning diary
make a movie – create
with high aptitude in any or all of these areas can learn
help check each a song –play a game
more quickly and more efficiently than others13. Happily other’s written or – create an acrostic
though, language aptitude is just one part of the story. oral production or mnemonic to
remember, vocab and
language patterns
3
4
Motivation

Motivation contributes greatly to success as a language Successful language learners are often those who are able
learner, and can compensate for lower aptitude. Most would to imagine themselves as capable second language users in
recognise motivation and self-regulation as two of the key the future, or as part of a community who speak the target
attributes of a 'good learner'14. That is, successful learners language17. Such students have worked out strategies that
are often those who are autonomous in their learning – enable them to continue language learning in spite of times
they are not dependent on the teacher alone, but take of tedium and inevitable setbacks. Ushioda18 suggests this
initiative in how they manage their learning. For example, ability to persevere in learning a second language may be
they involve themselves in language use beyond the fuelled by strategies such as being involved in activities
classroom in ways that are personally appealing to them, as the individual finds intrinsically motivating. For example,

15  For more ideas see Cohen (2011).

11  Skehan (2002).
16  For an overview of the theory behind
12  Skehan (2002). this see Mackey, Abbuhl & Gass (2012).
13  Dörnyei & Ryan (2015). 17  Dörnyei (2009). 5
14  Ushioda (2003; 2008). 18  Ushioda (2003; 2008).
 The good language learner

such students may watch movies or cartoons in the target According to the teacher’s relationship to the students,
language, make up plays or stories in the target language and their ability to manipulate the learning environment
with a friend, use the target language over social media, to suit their needs, they can help students make the most
create chants or mnemonics19 to remember patterns of of their abilities, to develop and maintain motivation25
verb forms or vocabulary, use colourful pens on paper or and to learn through the teacher’s explicit support to
a stylus pen on a digital pad to draw, or highlight or make do those things others do intuitively26. There are many
notes on a written text to make memory work more fun. strategies to help make the work of language learning
more efficient, and language teachers and teaching
We focus here mainly on motivation and strategies materials can play a vital part in fostering this. This can
to support learner autonomy, as there is general be both through introducing a range of strategies to
agreement among researchers that, along with aptitude, their students and by including 'real-world' tasks that
motivation is one of the two primary characteristics of motivate language use, both receptive and productive27.
successful language learners. Language learning is a
long-term goal, often involving unexpected difficulties.
Motivation has often been described as the driving DID YOU KNOW?
force behind learning, pushing us to greater effort in
About 10% of students in any class are likely
the face of adversity, helping to sustain that effort and
to show signs of a specific learning difference
not to give up20. Motivation can come from a range of
(SpLD), that poses challenges for language
sources, among them, a positive relationship between learning (e.g. dyslexia or autism). Kormos
teacher and students21, a sense of confidence and high & Smith (2012) suggest that by using more
expectation from the teacher22, and affiliation with peers. inclusive ways of teaching, all students have the
Success on challenging tasks and encouragement during means to be successful language learners. This
difficulties can also stimulate motivation, particularly if the includes providing a range of task-types and a
willingness to try to meet a challenge is followed by the variety of input and response formats (visual,
experience of success. Self-esteem and self-perception auditory, kinaesthetic), as well as frequent well-
as a good language learner makes a huge difference23. spaced practice opportunities for production
and reception activities, with built in repetition
possibilities and the chance to revisit material.

Individual learner differences

Other individual differences such as personality, cognitive Teacher and peer support
and learning preferences, and willingness to communicate
can also contribute to relative success at learning. However, Both teacher scaffolding and peer assistance can promote
this is dependent on the match between the individual, motivation. Rather than doing the task for the student,
the teaching focus and the instructional method. Crucially, scaffolding enables the student to complete the task
the teacher can make a difference in promoting learner successfully. Faced with a difficult reading or listening task
autonomy and helping learners to develop strategies that for example, a student may initially be overwhelmed and
match their particular strengths and needs. For example, give up. But through progressive stages, with scaffolding
based on their research among learners with specific by the teacher28, students can be stretched to achieve
learning differences, Judit Kormos & Margaret Smith24 their goals. For example, the teacher can reduce the
suggest building habits such as consistently building up complexity of the task into a series of manageable chunks,
and revisiting vocabulary collections, and using multi- or help the student focus on key language and ideas
sensory techniques are particularly helpful. Strongly within the text, rather than trying to understand every
visual learners can benefit from using colours to highlight single word. Peer group activities can provide the space
different parts of language, helping them to notice different to think through problems at their own pace and level.
functions or important beginnings and endings to words.

19  A mnemonic involves using letters, images,

ideas or word associations as a memory aid.
20  Dörnyei & Ryan (2015).
25  Dörnyei & Kubanyiova (2014).
21  Hattie (2012).
26  Erlam (2005); Kormos & Smith (2012).
22  Rubie-Davies (2007).
27  Nation & Newton (2009); Oliver & Philp
23  Dörnyei (2005). (2014); Shapiro, Farrelly & Tomaš (2014). 6
24  Kormos & Smith (2012). 28  Gibbons (2006).
 The good language learner

For example, peer interaction may help relate the topic (a, an, the), or the choice of third person possessive
of a difficult text to the students’ own experience so that determiner (his or her)29. For stress patterns, this could
they are able to exploit personal knowledge and make simply be clapping the beat on the main syllable of a
more informed guesses about unclear sections of a text. multi-syllabic words, such as comparative (a physical
This can train students to draw on a variety of sources to and audio cue); or using hand movements to indicate
make sense of unfamiliar language or complex ideas. pitch and stress (a physical cue); or highlighting the
stressed syllable on the board (a visual cue). Teachers
can train learners to use particular strategies to better
understand underlying patterns in the target language.
DID YOU KNOW?
When students use these patterns in practice sessions
‘Scaffolding’ (Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976) was a
they not only develop better understanding, but also
term first used to describe the kind of assistance
learn to apply like strategies to other language forms.
adults provide to children that enables them to
complete a task they could not do independently
(solve a puzzle, work out a maths problem).
A scaffold temporarily provides the shape of DID YOU KNOW?
a structure as it is being built. This metaphor
Young children are particularly good at learning
applies to many kinds of teacher assistance too:
implicitly based on large amounts of input they
a process in which the teacher’s support is in line
hear and see. However, from pre-adolescence
with the learner’s level of expertise – it fits what
upwards, learners start to make use of a
the student needs, providing what the student is
developing ability to think about language
unable to do independently, leaving the student
(their metalinguistic ability), and can use explicit
to complete as much as possible. Scaffolding is
knowledge to help make sense of the language
reduced in step with the growing competence of
system. Researchers Joanne White and Leila
the student – the more the student can manage,
Ranta (White, 2008) found that French-Canadian
the less the teacher provides. Eventually, the
12-year-olds learning English benefited from
student can complete the task autonomously.
receiving simple explicit information about the
Examples of scaffolding language learning
possessive in English. The strategy of learning
include modelling key language for a specific task,
a rule of thumb when using the possessive
highlighting key ideas in a text through asking
('Ask yourself whose ___ is it?'), helped learners
students questions, reducing the complexity of
to be more accurate as they practiced using
a task, and helping a group of students work
this form. Drawing arrows to show what was
collaboratively by giving them specific roles.
referred to also encouraged understanding of
Training learners to use appropriate strategies
how each system worked. (In English his / her
for reading is another type of scaffolding.
refers to the possessor, but in French it refers
to the gender of the possessed) (p. 210).

Similarly, during activities that require students to exchange

information or share ideas, teachers support students’ own
use of the target language through a range of scaffolding English: French:
techniques. This can include using visuals as prompts, 'Bill and his mother ...' 'Bill et sa mère ...'
providing questions to guide production, and giving
feedback to improve accuracy or to model language use.

With regard to paying attention to the language system The children were less confused when able to use
itself and its particular forms and patterns (sound, the rule of thumb to help decide on the correct
vocabulary, grammar, pragmatics), research has found pronoun, and they could discuss and justify their
that explicit instruction, followed by practical repeated choice with their peers as they practiced on
application, is particularly useful where there are differences examples. Using visuals of arrows and colours
also made the gender marking more salient.
between the students’ first language and the target
language and where the form itself is not easily noticed,
such as stress patterns in English, the use of articles

7
29  White (2008).
 The good language learner

Such strategies assist learners to make the most of practice

time. Training on peer collaboration can also help students
make the most of working together: The teacher plays When students enjoy working with
an important role in developing a supportive learning their peers in class, and feel supported
environment in which students are able to work together and safe in their learning environment,
with a high degree of mutuality, showing that they value one
another’s contributions irrespective of relative proficiency they are much more likely to
levels. Even younger students can be trained to provide participate fully and be prepared to
support for one another through explicit instruction and take the risk of making mistakes.
modelling. For example, they learn to ask questions that
elicit more ideas from their partners ('What do you mean?';
'Why?'; 'What do you think?'), to negotiate difficulties in
communication ('say that again?') and to provide feedback
to their peers30. When students enjoy working with their
peers in class, and feel supported and safe in their learning
environment, they are much more likely to participate fully
and be prepared to take the risk of making mistakes.

8
30  Sato & Ballinger (2012); Philp (2016); Dörnyei & Malderez (1997).
 What is important for
instructed language
learning?

The factors involved in effective language learning, Developing the ability

outlined previously, suggest four key dimensions to
be covered in any language course (Nation, 2007): to communicate
Input alone, however, is insufficient: how do learners
: Meaning-focused input move from comprehending to actually communicating?
Some applied linguists32, looking at second language
learning, note that it is in using language, through
: Meaning-focused output observation and trial and error, that learners start to
really think about how the target language system
'works'. Having to produce language forces learners to
: Language-focused learning
go beyond the general understanding of key words and
start to work out specific connections between forms
: Fluency development and their meaning33, that is, to see how phonological
and grammatical forms communicate meaning, too.

For example, a student might first see a puzzling phrase

Developing comprehension 'in case of' in a reading exercise assigned for homework.

The teacher in class may use an apparently similar phrase
Some researchers31 describe learning as largely implicit the next day several times 'in case you can’t', 'in case I
– something we do just by being exposed to large forget...' and the student hears it in its spoken form. Later
numbers of examples of the new language (as we do in in group work the same phrase may come up again. This
fact for our first language(s)), as we saw in Figure 1. In time the student hears peers use it in context, and may
this view, language learning is somewhat like building then start to use it independently, perhaps stumbling
up a database of examples, and progressively making over the pronunciation or not quite using it correctly
sense of the system the more examples we have. This for its meaning. These experiences all contribute to a
is certainly part of how we learn: through language growing understanding and use of particular language,
input, both spoken and written, by observing and whether vocabulary, grammar or phonology. Students
experiencing how people interact and communicate. may move from passively noticing a word without
Indeed, we can’t do without input, and lots of it! This understanding it, to more active use. This then leads to
is a significant challenge for second language learning modification of initial false ideas about its meaning or use.
contexts where target language input is not plentiful.

32  For review see Mackey, Abbuhl & Gass (2012). 9

31  e.g. N. Ellis, (2015); Krashen (1985). 33  Swain (1995).
 What is important for instructed language learning?

The same is true of grammatical and phonological forms. the language to “procedural knowledge”, in other words,
It is when learners start to use language in context that when we are able to use language without having to rely
they focus more on the features of the language and on explicit rules, for example being able to automatically
how it works. We noted previously that implicit learning use ‘s’ at the end of a verb referring to the action of a single
through exposure to language is a big part of developing person without thinking of the rule (e.g. “she sings well”).
an understanding of how the new system works. Paying This applies to both receptive and productive skills – we get
attention is also crucial, however. Communicating with better at hearing and interpreting sounds that are new to us
others provides a context in which learners may start in a language, and we improve in our ability to pronounce
to notice particular features of the target language: it is those sounds more accurately and more quickly until it
when learners hit problems, either in understanding or becomes automatic. In learning new words, we hear them or
in trying to be understood, that they notice mismatches see them, start to pronounce them, and start to use them in
between the target language and their own version of it34. context. In Figure 2 below and other classroom examples in
the next section, learners start off haltingly, with many false
starts and errors, until eventually they can use forms without
Becoming more accurate in thinking about it. To develop fluency in a classroom setting,
learners need time on task, continuing to productively
use and knowledge use language they have used before, and reading and
listening to texts that are already mostly familiar to them36.
The term 'language-focused learning' (Nation, 2007)
can be used to describe the action of paying conscious
attention to specific features of language, whether written
or spoken (this might range from simply noticing stress
or intonation patterns in speech to working with a 'rule of How do learners move from
thumb', as seen above). Paying attention helps learners comprehending to actually
to strengthen connections in memory, and in the case of communicating? It is in using
language, it can strengthen the links we make between
particular forms and the meanings they have35. Not just language, through observation
noticing, but also being required to do something with and trial and error, that learners
the input can further strengthen memory of that form. For start to really think about how
example, for vocabulary, playing a card game of matching
words with those of similar or opposite meaning involves the language system works.
processing the input at a deeper level. Continuing to revisit
these features over intervals (e.g. playing the game again
over subsequent days, a week later, a few weeks later …) What this suggests for teachers and course design
further strengthens that memory. Thus, paying deliberate is that students should experience a balance of all
attention and practising those features is a means of four different aspects of learning over their course:
developing greater accuracy in use, whether the focus is opportunities to receive meaning-focused input,
on pronunciation, grammar, pragmatics or vocabulary. opportunities to communicate through the target
language, time spent focusing specifically on language
form, meaning and use, and of course, time developing
fluency in receptive and productive skills.
Becoming more automatic in
our use of the target language

As is true of any skill, whether it is learning to write, read,

ride a bike, follow a map or draw a picture, time on task
is crucial: fluency only really comes through practice. It is
through continuous use that we gradually build up speed
and accuracy in a language. Through using the target
language, we move from factual “knowledge about”

34  For review see Philp, Adams & Iwashita (2014). 10

35  Baars (1997); N. Ellis (2005). 36  Nation (2007).
 What is important for instructed language learning?

Using a common topic over a unit of work is one way of health questionnaire, they hear their teacher talk about
building up familiarity with specific vocabulary or particular the questions, and gradually they start to produce that
phonological or grammatical features. This provides language themselves with varying success, and in different
possibilities for recycling and revisiting language through contexts (with the teacher, within pair work and delivering
a range of different texts. Figure 2 below37 represents a class presentation)40. Meaning-focused input and output
two learners’ experience in an adult English for Academic experiences as seen here in three of the four lessons in
Purposes class, recorded by Katherine Cao over a four- this unit, help to develop both language comprehension
week unit of work on health38. Through creating their own and production. When students strategically follow up
questionnaires and carrying out a school survey on a health these experiences with language-focused learning, this can
related issue, the students ('Shu-Wei' and 'Jos')39 gradually promote greater accuracy and declarative41 knowledge.
develop understanding and use of associated vocabulary Similarly, fluency-based activities can help develop greater
and particular grammatical forms. We see them exposed automatic skill in language use and comprehension, and
to target language through a variety of experiences in contributes to procedural knowledge42. In the following
class – they receive input by filling in a government section we explore these four aspects in more detail.

After collecting responses

to their final questionnaire,
The whole class fill in a they present the results
health questionnaire – they Students work in small groups. As they struggle in class, using the same
see and hear examples of to create their questionnaire, they discover language again, not
language they need later. problems and seek the teacher’s expertise. quite accurately yet.

Lesson 1 Lesson 2 Lesson 4

FILLING IN A HEALTH SHU-WEI AND PEER CORRECTION PRESENTING THE
QUESTIONNAIRE JOS CREATE A AND CONFUSION RESULTS IN CLASS
QUESTIONNAIRE
Looking at language J: At what age have you Sh: the majority of them
Shu-Wei asks the gone the surgery? didn’t had any um plastic
T: [reading] "Have you had teacher for help surgeries before
a drink containing alcohol Sh: Have you done
in the last year, yes, go to Sh: but can I ask if I want have you done?
15", what does it mean? to say did you did you
have ever (.) tried or S: Gone
T:all right, question
number 4, "have you ever T: Have you ever J: Its not Its not done
decided to quit smoking?" because done is the one
Sh: Have you ever tried or who the doctor done the
S: No surgery but you gone
T: plastic surgery
T: Have you ever DECIDED Sh: Teacher, a question,
to quit smoking Sh: Yeah its her and here, it will
be like how many how
Sh: I have decide T: Have you had many times did you do
Sh: Had OK yeah yeah or have you gone
T: What does that mean?
thank you, have you J: How many times
ever had any any plastic have your gone
surgeries before OK

Figure 2 — A unit on health issues Key: 'Sh' = Shu-Wei

'J' = Jos
'S' = other unidentified student

40  Cao (2009), cited in Philp et. al (2014, pp. 192,

194). See also Batstone & Philp (2012).
41  Declarative knowledge refers to theoretical
37  Batstone & Philp (2013).
knowledge about something, e.g. a grammar rule.
38  Cao (2009). 42  Procedural knowledge refers to the practical 11
knowledge we may not be able to explain but
39  Pseudonyms given in the original research report (Cao, 2009). enables us to do something e.g. tie a shoelace.
 Strategies to support
effective language learning

1. Meaning-focused input This support can come in many different forms, such
as through pre-teaching of key words, providing
When teachers choose to use primarily the target language context through images, through activating interest
in the classroom, whether for the purpose of classroom and knowledge of the topic, and by providing
management or for classroom activities, this provides a specific purpose for listening or reading.
opportunities for students to hear and see the target
language used for different purposes, and helps to create an For example, in listening to a short story, students wouldn’t
environment where use of the target language is expected. be expected to understand all the words or details.
Given the predictability of many classroom management Simply gaining the gist of the story is the first step towards
commands and requests, and the degree of repetition their being able to work out particular parts they didn’t
of particular language day-to-day, over time students understand before. Through the use of pictures, through
can build up quite a repertoire of language they can familiarity with the main characters in the story and by pre-
understand. Figure 3 shows everyday language collected teaching key words that arise, students can piece together
from English classes in two secondary schools in Croatia43. the meaning of the text. For many kinds of spoken and
written texts, the use of 'information transfer activities'44
can help students to identify key information and make
sense of the overall meaning in spite of complex ideas
You will be the first group.
and terminology, such as a description of a process (e.g.
The trick now is to organize who will do what, water purification), an explanation of a procedure (e.g. a
don’t let the same person do everything. recipe, or instructions). In such tasks, students fill in missing
Can you come and join? information on a table, chart, diagram or picture by writing
Next, girls. a word or drawing ideas from the text. The provision of
visual information reduces the burden of having to produce
I'll give you maybe five minutes.
complex language, allowing the student to focus on the
What’s the term? message and identify the meaning. Input activities can
include texts such as oral stories, short extracts from a
Figure 3 — Classroom management in the second novel, personal experiences, a talk by a visitor, a sample
language classroom travel brochure, a two-minute segment from a film or
YouTube video reflecting everyday conversation (e.g.
As we saw in Figures 2 and 3, when students have to cope buying vegetables, meeting someone, asking directions).
with language that is a little beyond their comprehension,
this provides the opportunity to move further along in
learning. This is only the case, however, if they have sufficient
support to work out the meaning of the new language.

12
43  Unpublished data, Mifka-Profovic & Philp (2016). 44  See Nation & Newton (2009).
 Strategies to support effective language learning

This is seen too in Figure 4 from a German mixed-

age high school class from a study by Tomas Kos46.
When students have to cope
with language that is a little In this example, Gussi (8th grade) and Jossi (7th grade)47
beyond their comprehension, help one another by adding to each other’s ideas as
they reconstruct a text together. It is obvious that the
this provides the opportunity to two are enjoying working together, laughing and making
move further along in learning. jokes while staying on task. Their conversation reflects
affiliation and ability to collaborate on the task. The
social aspect of peer interaction, when students work
well together, is a motivating factor that keeps them
talking and trying to improve on their sentences.
2. Meaning-focused output

When teachers provide opportunities for learners to start
to rely on their own language resources to communicate Jossi: Ok. His parents didn’t have a lot (reading)
with others, learners can begin to engage with language
in a new way. As for 'meaning-focused input', students are Gussi: Jaaaa (in a funny tone)
largely working with language that is already familiar to
them. While their production of this language may not be Jossi: money so they couldn’t spend
fully on target, it is through expressing themselves using the
target language system, however imperfectly, that they start Gussi: hundreds=
to notice what they don’t know, what they can and can’t ^both involved in talking

express well, and how the language fits together. We saw Jossi: =hundreds (repeating) of dollars for smart
this previously in Figure 2, for example: the learners build up clothes for their son.
their ability to use new vocabulary terms and grammatical
forms that they encountered in different ways through the Gussi: Na, das ist ja Schade. (that’s a pity) (laughter)
various activities of a unit of work. While the students made
many mistakes both in comprehension and in production, Jossi: Some of the kids laughed at him but Rico
they steadily learn over time through a range of experiences was an alien… (laughter).
in class and with different members of the class. ^enjoying making jokes

Gussi: Nee. (laughter)

We can see that the two students, Shu-Wei and Jos, use
a range of strategies to try to work out how to say what Gussi: was intelligent
they want to say: they try out possibilities and think about
the use of different verbs from other examples to work Jossi: more intelligent
out the matching verb. Their learning is cumulative and ^adding to each other’s ideas

gradual, developed both through peer work, in which Gussi: ne, ach doch (no, I mean yes)
they engage with problems of language use and benefit
from target language examples from written resources, Jossi: more intelligent than many of the other kids
and through teacher input. It is important to note that in his school
this stage provides an opportunity for learners to try
out language they are largely familiar with, and to push
themselves further to find out how certain language is Figure 4 — Peer work among German students learning English48
expressed. This allows them to notice when they hear
or see a particular grammatical structure or lexical item
expressed later in another context, perhaps by the teacher,
another student, or in a text they later see or hear45.

46  Kos (2016).

47  Pseudonyms given in the original

research report (Kos, 2016). 13
45  Batstone & Philp (2013). 48  Kos (2016).
 Strategies to support effective language learning

Opportunities for trying out new language together

provide a significant context for enabling students to
notice connections between form and meaning. Through
peer interaction, learners have the chance to try out new
language, to not be afraid to make mistakes, to puzzle
over solutions and to contest one another’s ideas in a
way that isn’t possible in teacher-student interaction due
to the equality between the two peers49. Teachers play
a vital supporting role in this, not only in being a source
of consultation, but, critically, through ensuring viability
of task, language, and social setting. The teacher is in
a very good position to work out how to make the task
relevant and engaging for their students, and to assess
the language and knowledge required to succeed.
This may involve some pre-teaching of vocabulary, or
modelling, feedback and / or practice of key grammatical
forms. In addition to building students’ familiarity of
required vocabulary, familiarity with key concepts
involved in task content is also important to consider (as
seen in Figure 2 above, from a unit on health issues).

Oral interactive tasks such as interviewing a partner Saki: .. I couldn’t get well, so I .. woke up woke my friends
about his / her experiences, creating a narrative together, up, and tell.. tell her about my stomach ache, and .. it’s it’s
discussing a particular topic, or providing instructions or really bad for me, so my friends call to 119 [emergency].
directions in response to a partner’s needs, all provide
engaging contexts for students to communicate in the Ina: Oh, my…
target language, whether spoken or written. In Figure 550,
involving a pair of adult learners of English in Japan, one Saki: And the am- ambrella?
^unsure of word
student recounts a personal story to her partner who
is so interested that she asks a series of questions in Ina: Ambulance.
^provides correct word
order to understand what happened. Recent research
suggests that learners’ personal investment or interest Saki: Ambulance. Come.. Came my hotel, and I was took
in a task can foster deeper involvement in interaction, to the hospital in Osaka. Yeah. I felt really bad. And, what,
leading learners to try harder to communicate clearly51. I don’t know I don’t know why I had bad stomach ache,
Although the storyteller, Saki, pauses, often repeats ‘cause I had the same food with my friends, but only I had
herself and frequently makes mistakes, her partner, a very bad stomach ache.
^repeats correct word
Ina helps her along, providing the correct word
('ambulance') and clarifying her intended meaning. Ina: Did you eat something raw food?
^asks a question

Saki: No, maybe .. that .. only difference was .. uh,

dinner? It or was con- convenience store’s.
^ unsure of word

Ina: Oh, convenience. You bought you bought your

^provides correct word

dinner at at convenience store?

Figure 5 — Two Japanese students of English52

engaged in recounting personal stories

49  Philp, Adams & Iwashita (2014).

50  Lambert, Philp & Nakao (2016). 14

52  Pseudonyms given in the original research
51  Lambert, Philp & Nakao (2016). report (Lambert, Philp & Nakao, 2016).
 Strategies to support effective language learning

Research suggests that in these kinds of oral tasks, learners Figure 6 illustrates language-focused learning. Two German
often make many errors – but the focus here is not accuracy. teenagers are using English in a high school class, Lara (year
What is important is the opportunity for learners to put 9) and Ella (year 8)55. Here they transform cartoon speech
their resources into action by trying to communicate 'Sandy tells others that the mural looks great' into reported
something that is meaningful to them. In such oral tasks, speech 'Sandy told others that the mural looked great' to
students tend to focus on lexical items or pronunciation recount the story of the cartoon. They assist one another
rather than on grammatical form53. In contrast, collaborative in this, and depend on metalinguistic knowledge to think
tasks that involve a written component (e.g. creating about the language, relying on their first language to do so.
a story, report, or questionnaire together) tend to
encourage greatest focus on form (as we saw in Figure
2). This may push learners to try to articulate their ideas
more carefully, and to pay attention to grammatical forms Lara: Sandy tells others …
that are often non-salient. This kind of work may be
followed up by work within language-focused learning. Ella: told!

Lara: ja. (yes)

3. Language-focused learning
Lara: na ja look ist kein unregelmäßiges (well, look is
Language-focused learning can be described as involving not an irregular verb)
'the deliberate learning of language features such
as pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary, grammar and Ella: also looked
discourse'54. Unlike meaning-focused output, there is a
greater focus on accuracy. In this case, work can reflect Lara: Sandy told others that the mural … [writing the
the kind of intentional learning we associate with building sentence down].
up new knowledge about language, and developing
habits that promote greater accuracy in use. Nation Ella: looked great
(2007) suggests the following examples: 'pronunciation
practice, using substitution tables and drills, learning
vocabulary from word cards, intensive reading, translation, Figure 6 — Teenage learners help each other work
memorising dialogues and getting feedback about out what to write
writing' (p.6). This kind of focused attention on language,
coupled with a focus on meaning, can help learners In addition to grammar, examples of language-focused
build up and consolidate receptive and productive learning of pronunciation might include the teacher
vocabulary knowledge. It can also provide strategies for raising awareness of intonation patterns in English, or
developing more consistent grammatical accuracy. listening and identifying specific phonemic contrasts
in words. A focus on vocabulary might include group
It is important to emphasise that such work would ideally activities, such as finding collocations of a word and
represent a much smaller portion of class time than the creating sentences to illustrate each use, developing a
other three aspects discussed, each of which also involves visual 'word family web' showing related words such as
time on task to build awareness of language features and create/created/creation/creative/creatively and their use
increase accuracy, as well as developing implicit knowledge. in sentences56, or playing 'word dominoes' by adding
In language-focused learning, in addition to deliberate work suffixes to keywords for new meanings e.g. un-kind, dis-
by the learner, explicit feedback provided by the teacher taste-ful, pro-active. An example of language-focused
can help learners pay particular attention to specific areas. learning of pragmatics could involve selecting appropriate
It can also provide direction as to how the learners might language to be used in contrasting scenarios, such as
further develop their understanding autonomously. apologising, with language differing according to the
misdemeanour and relationship to the injured party57.

55  Kos (2016). Pseudonyms given in the

original research report.
56  Students can check the British
Council site to find word families: www.
53  Philp et. al (2014). enchantedlearning.com/rhymes/wordfamilies 15
54  Nation (2007: 6). 57  Halenko & Jones (2011).
 Strategies to support effective language learning

4. Fluency development According to Nation (2007), two other key elements in

building fluency are quantity (more input and output)
Fluency development involves increased efficiency in all and time pressure, whether for receptive or productive
four skills of listening, reading, speaking and writing. As skills. When developing fluency, students learn to cope
with meaning-focused input and meaning-focused output, with understanding more rapid speech through practice,
developing fluency requires a focus on meaning, and learning to speak in 'real time' in conversation with others,
involves use of language already familiar to the learners. reading with comprehension at greater speed and so
For example, repetition of a speaking task can help learners on. This is an area in which learners can be encouraged
to improve on their original attempts and consolidate their to take responsibility for their own learning. They can
use of appropriate language to express their ideas58. In develop their fluency by seeking opportunities to gain
the pair task performed by the students in Japan, as seen greater experience in using the target language either
in Figure 4 above, all students shared their story a second productively or receptively, through television, print,
time with another student. Having a different audience internet and social media, as well as by conversing with
meant the story was meaningful both times. Having fluent speakers of the language where possible.
several attempts on a task can provide opportunities for
improved accuracy and use of more complex language59.

58  Bygate & Samuda (2005). 16

59  Bygate & Samuda (2005).
 Concluding remarks

In this paper we have explored three questions: What does The four aspects of learning encountered in the language
it mean to learn a language? What characterises a 'good class become mirrored in the autonomous work of the
language learner'? What can learners and teachers do to learner. For example, students can build up exposure to
support learning a language in the classroom? This paper meaning-focused input by using the internet, watching
has suggested, on the basis of over 50 years of research television or films, listening to songs or spending time
on instructed language acquisition, that, while learners on extensive reading in the target language (whether
require rich exposure to new language forms, much of this be blogs, social media, comic books, magazines,
language learning is a cumulative process that requires newspapers, novels or other books). The internet provides
working on familiar language in order to develop accuracy many possibilities for meaning-focused output, whether
and fluency. Over the length of a language course, learners oral or written, through social media, gaming, or online
need a balance of experiences with the target language. dialogue, whether face-to-face or by text chat. Keeping a
To summarise, this is made up of opportunities for: vocabulary journal, playing language games or practicing
the use of new grammatical forms with a fellow student
• Meaning-focused input: Learners experience target
all provide opportunities to focus on language forms.
language input a little beyond their comprehension
yet within their ability to make sense of.

• Meaning-focused output: Learners might struggle

to express their ideas or needs, yet manage to do While learners require rich exposure
so with help, making use of the linguistic resources
they have already built up in their repertoire.
to new language forms, much of
language learning is a cumulative
• Language-focused learning: Sometimes learners
also need to pay deliberate attention to unfamiliar process that requires working
language features, whether through individual on familiar language in order to
work, peer work, or teacher-direction instruction. develop accuracy and fluency.
• Fluency development: Complementing the first three
aspects is time spent building fluency in language that
is already familiar but not yet automatic or accurate.
Teachers support these practices by modelling strategies
We have seen that the teacher plays a vital role in for coping with unfamiliar input, for negotiating problems in
encouraging learners, in providing sufficient support output and by providing feedback that highlights problem
during challenging tasks so that learners are pushed, areas and encourages self-correction or further exploration
yet successful. We noted too that 'good language by the learner. Ultimately, when teachers foster learner
learners' are self-motivated, so what are some ways that autonomy, and the ability to be self-regulated, they foster
students take responsibility for their own learning? the possibility of lifelong learning and realisation for each
learner’s own aspirations for learning another language.

17
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Jenefer Philp is a senior lecturer at Lancaster University. Her research concerns how interaction
promotes adult and child language learning in classroom settings. Her interests include individual
differences and L2 learning, peer interaction, learner engagement, and the use of tasks in the
language classroom. In addition to publications in international journals based on classroom
and experimental studies, she has published three books: Focus On Oral Interaction (with
Rhonda Oliver), a book specifically written for primary and secondary teachers of English as
a second or foreign language, Peer interaction and second language learning (with Rebecca
Adams and Noriko Iwashita), and Second Language Acquisition and the Younger Learner: Child’s
Play?, an edited collection (with Rhonda Oliver and Alison Mackey). Her research interests are
sparked by her experience as a high school teacher and as an EFL and ESP teacher and teacher
trainer in schools and universities in Australasia, South East Asia, the USA and the UK.

To cite this paper:

Philp, J. (2017). What do successful language learners and their teachers do? : Part of
the Cambridge Papers in ELT series. [pdf] Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Available at cambridge.org/betterlearning

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