Information Sheet 1.

1-1

Learning Objectives:
After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, YOU MUST be able to:
1. Understand the Essentials of welding
2. Understand the Acceptable weld profiles
3. Understand Weld defects, causes and remedies
4. Understand Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS)
5. Understand Welding techniques and procedures for 2G
6. Understand Safe welding practices

Time Allotment: 23 hours

Introduction:
This module is designed for the trainees to acquire knowledge in reviewing the
information sheet 1.1-1 mention above under Learning Objectives. It also provides the
skills for the trainees/students in dealing with a day to day huge, complex, and
successful welding operations and for the company and industry itself achieving goals.
 Understanding the Essentials of welding
Besides the steady sizzling sound that a correct arc produces the shape of the molten pool and the
movement of the metal at the rear of the pool serve as a guide in checking weld quality. In a correctly
made deposit the ripples produced on the bead will be uniform and the bead will be smooth no overlaps
or undercuts.

1. CORRECT ELECTRODE SIZE

The correct choice of electrode size involves consideration of a variety of factors, such as the
type, position, preparation of the joint, the ability of the electrode to carry high current values
without injury to the weld metal or loss of deposition efficiency, the mass of work metal and its
ability to maintain its original properties after welding, the characteristics of the assembly with
reference to effect stresses set up by heat application, the practicability to heat treatment before
and / or after welding, the specific requirement before and / or after welding, the specific
requirements as to welding quality and cost of achieving the desired results.

2. CORRECT CURRENT
If current on equipment is too high or too low, you are certain to be disappointed in your weld. If
too high, the electrode melts too fast and your molten pool is large and irregular, if too low, there
is nor enough heat to melt the base metal and your molten pool will be small, will pile up, look
irregular.

3. CORRECT ARC LENGTH

If the arc is too long or voltage too high the metal melts off the electrode is large globules which
wobble from side to side as the arc wavers, giving a wide, spattered and irregular bead-with poor
fusion between original metal and deposited metal.

If the arc is too short, or voltage too low, there is not enough heat to melt the base metal properly
and the electrode quite often sticks to the work, giving a high, uneven bead, having irregular
ripples with poor fusion.

4. CORRECTTRAVEL SPEED
When your speed is too fast your pool does not last long enough, impurities an gas locked in. The
bead in narrow and ripples pointed. When speed is too slow the metal piles up, the bead is high
and wide with a rather straight ripple.

5. CORRECT ELECTRODE ANGLE

The electrode angle is of particular importance in fillet

welding and deep groove welding. Generally
speaking, when making a fillet weld, the electrode should be
held so that ir bisects the angle between the plates (as shown
at right) and is perpendicular to the line of weld, ifunder cut
occurs in the verticle member, lower the angle of the arc and
direct the arc toward the vertical member.
Understand the Acceptable weld profiles
An acceptable weld is defined as a weld that meets the applicable requirements.
The requirements for an acceptable weld depend on:

 the type of welding being done,

 the materials being used,
 the environment in which the welding is taking place,
 and the purpose of the weld.
For example, a weld that is strong enough to hold two pieces of metal together
in a factory setting may not be strong enough to hold together two parts of a car
frame during a car crash. Similarly, a weld that is adequate for use in an outdoor
setting may not be adequate for use in an underwater setting.

A fillet weld is an internal or external join between two members, in which the
weld profile is triangular in cross-section. The term “fillet weld” originates from
the Latin word for “little fish” due to its similarity in shape to a small fish.
An acceptable fillet weld must meet the following criteria:

 The root face of the weld must be flush with or below the original
surface of the members being joined.
 The weld bead must be continuous and free of cracks, voids, or other
defects.
 The welding current must be within the range specified by the
manufacturer of the welding machine.

Understanding Weld defects, causes and remedies

What is Welding Defects?
Welding Defects can be defined as the irregularities formed in the given weld metal due to
wrong welding process or incorrect welding patterns, etc. The defect may differ from the desired
weld bead shape, size, and intended quality. Welding defects may occur either outside or inside
the weld metal. Some of the defects may be allowed if the defects are under permissible limits
but other defects such as cracks are never accepted.

Welding defects can be classified into two types as external and internal defects:

External Welding Defects:

1.Weld Crack
2. Undercut
3. Spatter
4. Porosity
5. Overlap
6. Crater
Internal Welding Defects:
1. Slag Inclusion
2. Incomplete Fusion
3. Necklace cracking
4. Incompletely filled groove or Incomplete penetration

External Welding Defects:

The various types of external defects with their causes and remedies are listed below:

1. Weld Crack
This is the most unwanted defect of all the other welding defects. Welding cracks can be
present at the surface, inside of the weld material or at the heat affected zones.

Crack can also appear at different temperatures:

Hot Crack –
It is more prominent during crystallization of weld joints where the temperature can rise more
than 10,000-degree Celsius.

Cold Crack –
This type of crack occurs at the end of the welding process where the temperature is quite low.
Sometimes cold crack is visible several hours after welding or even after few days.

Causes Of Weld Crack:

1. Poor ductility of the given base metal.
2. The presence of residual stress can cause a crack on the weld metal.
3. The rigidity of the joint which makes it difficult to expand or contract the metals.
4. If there is high content on sulfur and carbon then also the cracks may appear.
5. Using hydrogen as a shielding gas while welding ferrous materials.

Remedies for Weld crack:

1. Using appropriate materials may decrease the chances of crack.
2. Preheating the weld and reducing the cooling speed joint helps in reducing crack.
3. Reduce the gap between the weld joints by using reasonable weld joints.
4. While welding releases the clamping force slowly which increases fill to capacity of
welding material.
2. Undercut

When the base of metal melts away from the weld zone, then a groove is formed in the shape of
a notch, then this type of defect is known as Undercut. It reduces the fatigue strength of the
joint.

Causes
1. If the arc voltage is very high then this defect may occur.
2. If we use the wrong electrode or if the angle of the electrode is wrong, then also the defect
may form.
3. Using a large electrode is also not advisable.
4. High electrode speed is also one of the reasons for this defect.

Remedies
1. Reduce the arc length or lower the arc voltage.
2. Keep the electrode angle from 30 to 45 degree with the standing leg.
3. The diameter of the electrode should be small.
4. Reduce the travel speed of the electrode.

3. Spatter

When some metal drops are expelled from the weld and remain stuck to the surface, then this

defect is known as Spatter.

Causes
1. High Welding current can cause this defect.
2. The longer the arc the more chances of getting this defect.
3. Incorrect polarity.
4. Improper gas shielded may also cause this defect.
Remedies
1. Reducing the arc length and welding current
2. Using the right polarity and according to the conditions of the welding.
3. Increasing the plate angle and using proper gas shielding.

4. Porosity

Porosity in the condition in which the gas or small bubbles gets trapped in the welded zone.
Causes
1. It occurs when the electrode is not coated properly.
2. Using a longer arc may also increase its chances.
3. Increased welding currents.
4. Rust or oil on the welding surface.

Remedies
1. Proper selection of the electrode.
2. Decreasing the welding current.
3. Using smaller arc and slowing the process to allow the gases to escape.
4. Remove rust or oil from the surface and use a proper technique.

5. Overlap

When the weld face extends beyond the weld toe, then this defect occurs. In this condition the
weld metal rolls and forms an angle less than 90 degrees.
Causes
1. Improper welding technique.
2. By using large electrodes this defect may occur.
3. High welding current

Remedies
1. Using a proper technique for welding.
2. Use small electrode.
3. Less welding current.

6. Crater
It occurs when the crater is not filled before the arc is broken, which causes the outer edges to
cool faster than the crater. This causes a stress and then crack is formed.

Causes
1. Incorrect torch angle.
2. Use of large electrode:
3. Improper welding technique

Remedies
1.Using a proper torch angle may reduce the stress on the metal
2. Using a small electrode may also decrease the crater.
3. Use a proper technique.

Internal Welding Defects

The various types of internal welding defects with their causes and remedies are listed below:

1. Slag Inclusion
If there is any slag in the weld, then it affects the toughness and metal weldability of the given
material. This decreases the structural performance of the weld material. Slag is formed on the
surface of the weld or between the welding turns.

Causes
1. Slag is formed if the welding current density is very small, as it does not provide the required

amount of heat for melting the metal surface.

2. If the welding speed is too fast then also slag may occur.

3. If the edge of the weld surface is not cleaned properly then also slag may form.

4. Improper welding angle and travel rate of welding rod.

Remedies
1.Increase the current density

2. Adjust the welding speed so that the slag and weld pool do not mix with each other.

3. Clean the weld edges and remove the slags of previous weld layers

4. Have a proper electrode angle and travel rate.

2. Incomplete Fusion

Incomplete fusion occurs when the welder does not accurately weld the material and the metal

pre solidifies which leads to a gap which is not filled with the molten metal.

Causes
1. It occurs because of the low heat input.

2. When the weld pool is very large and runs ahead of the arc.
3. When the angle of the joint is too low.

4. Incorrect electrode and torch angle may also lead to incomplete fusion.

5. Unproper bead position.

Remedies
1. Increasing the welding current and decreasing the travel speed helps in removing the

chances of incomplete fusion.

2. Reducing the deposition rate.

3. Increasing the joint angle.

4. Try to position the electrode and torch angle properly so that the edges of the plate melt

away.

5. Positioning the bead properly so that the sharp edges with other beads can be avoided.

3. Necklace Cracking
It occurs in the use of electron beam welding where the weld does not penetrate properly.
Therefore, the molten metal does not flow into the cavity and results in a cracking known as
“Necklace Cracking”.

Causes
1. Improper welding technique.
2. It occurs in materials such as nickel base alloys, stainless steel, carbon steels and Tin alloys.
3. Using high speed of electron beam welding

Remedies
1. Using a proper welding technique reduce the chances of necklace cracking.
2. Using proper materials for welding.
3. Using a constant speed during the welding process.
3. Improper welding technique
4. Incompletely Filled Groove or Incomplete Penetration

Causes
1. Less deposition of the weld metal
2. Use of improper size of the electrode
3. Improper welding technique

Remedies
1. More deposition of the weld metal.
2. Use the proper size of the electrode.
3. By using a proper welding technique.

Reference:
https://www.theweldingmaster.com/welding-defects/#google_vignette

Understand Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS)

Welding Procedure Specification has several variables which should be carefully specified.  The
values selected for the variables discussed below have a significant impact on weld soundness
and mechanical properties. It is critical that these values be appropriate for the specific
requirements of applicable code and job specifications.  Some of the most important variables in
a WPS are the following.

1. Process – The ideal welding process is that which provides the highest
efficiencies while still achieving at the very least the minimum required
mechanical properties. Common arc welding processes is SMAW

2. Electrode Specification – This is the specification assigned by AWS to the

electrode ( E7018, ER70S-6, EM12K, etc.).

3. Electrical Characteristics – Preferred or required polarity (DC+, DC-, AC)

4. Base Material Specification – ASTM number or other designator for the base
material or materials being joined.
 5. Minimum Preheat and Interpass Temperature – If required, the temperature
that the base material needs to reach before welding can commence (preheat),
and the temperature at which the material needs to be between welding passes
(interpass temperature).

6. Welding Current– Amperage at which welding will be done.  This can be

expressed as current (amps) or inches per minute For current and/or WFS a
range is usually specified instead of a specific value.

7. Arc Voltage – Welding voltage, usually specified for a wire process, but can be
dictated for a constant current process such as SMAW and GTAW. In a constant-
current processes the voltage is determined by the arc length that the welder
maintains, it is not a pre-settable variable.

8. Travel Speed – How fast the welding is done.  It can also be a range.  Welding
speed is dictated by the weld size and the deposition rate, which is a factor of
wire feed speed.

9. Position of Welding – Specifies whether welding is done in the flat, (2G)

horizontal, vertical up,    overhead or other positions

10. Post Weld Heat Treatment – If required, instruction on the temperature that the
welded assembly needs to maintain and for how long.  Post weld heat treatment
is done with the intent to preserve or improve mechanical properties.

11. Joint Design Details – Provide a description of the joint.  This can include
material thickness, type of joint, gap (if any), land (if any), if it has backing, etc.
https://weldinganswers.com/14-welding-procedure-specification-variables/

Pipe Welding – Techniques, Positions & Procedures

As you advance through your welding career, you’ll be expected to be able to work on various
jobs using various materials. By far the most difficult process you will come up against is pipe
welding, where you will be expected to join cylindrical metal tubes using either gas shielded arc
or SMAW welding processes. Pipe welding is often an uncomfortable position and technique
and is even worse if the pipe is in a restricted place. Welders who excel at this skill often go
further with their welding career and earn high salaries than those who can’t perfect it. The
certification which recognizes this is called the 6G pipe welding certification. This certificate is
the most recognized in the industry. Pipe welding often uses thick and heavy-duty materials, the
open root nature of the welds mean that penetration can be poor if not done correctly. Leaving a
poorly penetrated weld on tough can turn out very badly, so you’ll need to ensure that you
achieve full penetration. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) operation requires a setup
and then weld. In general, the operator factor, or the percentage of the operator’s time spent
laying weld, is approximately 25%. The rest is spent in preparation and in removing slag. The
actual welding technique utilized depends on the electrode, the composition of the workpiece,
and the position of the joint being welded. The choice of electrode and welding position also
determines the welding speed. Flat welds require the least operator skill and can be done with
electrodes that melt quickly but solidify slowly. This permits higher welding speeds. Sloped,
vertical or upside-down welding requires more operator skill and often necessitates the use of
an electrode that solidifies quickly to prevent the molten metal from flowing out of the weld pool.

Positions
On a pipe there is a sequence of letters and numbers which acts as a code. This indicates what joint type
and position you need to use. In pipe welding positions, there are four main ones: 1,2,5 and 6.
 1G – 1G is very uncommon. It’s almost a flat weld because the pipe will be lying on its side and
can be rotated if needed.
 2G – This position is fixed, which means the pipe cannot be turned as you weld. This helps in the
process of a weld because the pipe is much sturdier and more stable to work with.
 5G – The 5G is similar to 1G in that the pipe is placed horizontally, except that it is fixed and
cannot move. This requires the welder to weld in various positions including overhead.
 6G – This is the most challenging, as mentioned before, because it involves the pipe being fixed
in a 45-degree position. The is hard because it requires the welder to use both their left and right
hand.

Reference:

https://pces.uk.com/?s=techniques
https://weldguru.com/smaw-tips-techniques/

Understand Safety welding practices

The electric arc welder remains one of our most useful and timesaving pieces of shop
equipment. Almost every farm, ranch, and Vocational Agriculture shop is equipped with one or
more welders which are used for fabrication, repair, and/or educational programs. Most of these
welders are typically AC/DC, 240 volt transformer types using electricity as the energy source.
Portable welders are of the diesel/gasoline engine powered type. Properly installed and used
the arc welder is very safe, but if used improperly the operator can be exposed to a number of
hazards including toxic fumes, dusts, burns, fires, explosions, electric shock, radiation, noise,
and heat stress. Any of these hazards can cause injury or death. By following suggestions and
guidelines in this pamphlet the risks can be greatly minimized.
SELECTING THE ARC WELDER
When purchasing an arc welder you can be assured of design safety if the unit complies with
National Electric Manufacturers Association (NEMA) standards or the safety standards for arc
welders as determined by the Underwriters Laboratories (UL). Be sure that the welder you
purchase carries the seal of approval of one of these
organizations.

INSTALLING THE ARC WELDER

Prior to installing the arc welder you should determine if your
present electrical system is adequate to handle the increased
load required by the welder. Your local power supplier or a
qualified electrician can assist you in determining this. It is
very important for your safety to install the welder in
compliance with State of Arizona, Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (AOSHA) regulations and the National
Electric Code (NEC) by a qualified electrician. Failure to do
so could cause fire, a ground fault, or equipment failure. The
following rules are not a complete list but are especially
important guidelines which should be adhered to:

 The frame or case of the welder shall be properly

grounded.
 A safety-type disconnecting switch or controller shall
be located near the machine (See Figure 1).
 The welder or welders shall be protected by a
properly sized fuse or circuit breaker on an
independent circuit.

VENTILATION

The welder should be located in an area with adequate ventilation. In general, when
welding is being done on metals not considered hazardous, a ventilation system that will
move a minimum of 2000 cubic feet per minute (CFM) of air per welder is satisfactory.
However, many materials are considered very hazardous and should be welded only in
adequately ventilated areas to prevent the accumulation of toxic materials or to
eliminate possible oxygen deficiency not only to the operator but to others in the
immediate vicinity. Such ventilation should be supplied by an exhaust system located as
close to the work as possible (See Figure 2). When welding or cutting metals with
hazardous coatings such as galvanized metal the operator should use a supplied-air
type respirator or a respirator specially designed to filter the specific metal fume.
Materials included in the very hazardous category are welding rod fluxes, coverings, or
other materials containing fluorine compounds, zinc, lead, beryllium, admium, and
mercury. Some cleaning and degreasing compounds as well as the metals they were
cleaned with are also hazardous. Always follow the manufacturers precautions before
welding or cutting in the presence of these materials.

FIRE PREVENTION

The arc welder is capable of producing temperatures in excess of 10,000 degrees F.,therefore it
is important that the workplace be made firesafe. This can be accomplished by using metal
sheets or fire resistant curtains as fire barriers. The floor should be concrete or another fire
resistant material. Cracks in the floor should be filled to prevent sparks and hot metal from
entering. When work cannot be moved to a firesafe area then the area should be made safe by
removing or protecting combustibles from ignition sources. In certain welding situations it may
be necessary to ask someone to watch for fires that could go undetected until the welder has
finished the job.
Suitable fire extinguishing equipment such as buckets of sand or a dry chemical
extinguisher of the ABC type should be readily available. The extinguisher should be
large enough for the situation with a 10# size adequate for most farm and school shops.

PERSONAL PROTECTION

It is essential that the operator and helpers be

properly clothed and protected because of the
heat, ultra-violet rays, and sparks, produced by
the arc welder (See Figure 3). For body
protection a pair of fire retardant long sleeved
coveralls without cuffs is a good choice. Always
avoid clothing with tears, snags, rips, or worn
spots as these are easily ignited by sparks. The
sleeves and collars should be kept buttoned.
The hands should be protected with leather
gauntlet gloves. A pair o high top leather shoes,
preferably safety shoes, is good protection for
the feet. If low shoes are worn the ankles should
be protected by fire resistant leggings. Eyes
should be protected by transparent goggles if
the person wears prescription glasses or safety
glasses if not. A welding helmet or hand shield
with filter plate and cover plate is mandatory for
eye protection from the harmful rays of the arc.
The filter plate should be at least shade #10 for
general welding up to 200 amps. However,
certain operations such as carbon-arc welding
and higher current welding operations require
darker shades. Never use a helmet if the filter plate or cover lens is cracked or broken. A flame-
proof skull cap to protect the hair and head as well as hearing protection in noisy situations is
recommended.
Plastic disposable cigarette lighters are very dangerous around heat and flame. It is very
important that they not be carried in the pockets while welding. Always provide protection to
bystanders or other workers by welding inside a properly screened area, if possible. If unable to
work inside a screened area then protection to others should be provided by a portable screen
or shield, or by their wearing anti-flash goggles.
SAFE OPERATION OF THE WELDER

It is important that anyone operating an arc welder be instructed on its safe use by a qualified
teacher or welder.
Because of their potentially explosive nature, we strongly recommend that no welding, cutting,
or hot work be attempted on used drums, barrels, tanks, or other containers under any
circumstances.
If possible, work to be welded should be placed on a firebrick surface at a comfortable height.
Welding should never be done directly on a concrete floor. Heat from the arc can cause steam
to build-up in the floor which could cause an explosion. The welder cables should be positioned
so that sparks and molten metal will not fall on them. They should also be kept free of grease
and oil and located where they will not be driven over.
Electric welders can kill by electric shock. If the welding operation must be done on steel or
other conductive material an insulating mat must be used under the operator. If the welding area
is wet or damp or the operator is actively perspiring then he/she should wear rubber gloves
under the welding gloves.
It is easier and safer to establish an arc on a clean surface than a dirty or rusty one. Therefore,
metal should always be thoroughly cleaned by wire brushing or other method prior to welding.
When chipping slag or wire brushing the finished bead the operator should always be sure to
protect his eyes and body from flying slag and chips. Unused electrodes and electrode stubs
should not be left on the floor as they create a slipping hazard. Hot metal should be handled
with metal tongs or pliers. When quenching hot metal in water it should be done carefully to
prevent painful burns from the escaping steam. Any metal left to cool should be carefully
marked "HOT" with a soapstone. When welding is finished for the day or suspended for any
length of time electrodes should be removed from the holder. The holder should be placed
where no accidental contact could occur, and the welder should be disconnected from the
power source.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR ENGINE POWERED WELDERS

 Always operate in an open well-ventilated area or vent the engine exhaust directly
outdoors.
 Never fuel the engine while running or in the presence of an open flame.
 Wipe up spilled fuel immediately and wait for fumes to disperse before starting the
engine. *Never remove the radiator pressure cap from liquid cooled engines while they
are hot to prevent scalding yourself.
 Stop the engine before performing any maintenance or trouble shooting. The ignition
system should be disabled to prevent accidental start of the engine.
 Keep all guards and shields in place.
 Keep hands, hair, and clothing away from moving parts.

FIRST AID

The welding area should always be equipped with a fire blanket and a well stocked first aid kit. It
is desirable that one person be trained in first aid to treat the minor injuries that may occur. All
injuries, no matter how minor they may seem can become more serious if not properly treated
by trained medical personnel.
KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER

 Be sure the welder is properly installed and grounded.

 Never weld without adequate ventilation.
 Take proper precautions to prevent fires.
 Protect your entire body with fire retardant clothing, shoes, and gloves.
 Wear eye protection at all times.
 Weld only in a firesafe area.
 Never do any welding, cutting, or hot work on used drums, barrels, tanks, or other
containers.
 Mark metal "HOT" with a soapstone.
 Keep a well stocked first aid kit handy.

Reference:

https://nasdonline.org/1083/d000873/arc-welding-safety.html