Tap changer
A tap changer is a mechanism in transformers which allows for
variable turn ratios to be selected in distinct steps. This is done by
connecting to a number of access points known as taps along either
the primary or secondary winding.
Tap changers exist in two primary types,[1] no-load tap changers
(NLTC), which must be de-energized before the turn ratio is
adjusted, and on-load tap changers (OLTC), which may adjust their
turn ratio during operation. The tap selection on any tap changer
may be made via an automatic system, as is often the case for
OLTC, or a manual tap changer, which is more common for
NLTC. Automatic tap changers can be placed on a lower or higher
voltage winding, but for high-power generation and transmission
applications, automatic tap changers are often placed on the higher
voltage (lower current) transformer winding for easy access and to
minimize the current load during operation.[2]
Modern tap changer of a transformer.
Contents
Tap changing
No-load tap changer
On-load tap changer
Mechanical tap changers
Solid-state tap changer
Voltage considerations
Standards considering tap changers
Further reading
References
Tap changing
No-load tap changer
No-load tap changer (NLTC), also known as Off-circuit tap changer (OCTC) or De-energized tap
changer (DETC), is a tap changer utilized in situations in which a transformer's turn ratio does not require
frequent changing and it is permissible to de-energize the transformer system. This type of transformer is
frequently employed in low power, low voltage transformers in which the tap point often may take the form
of a transformer connection terminal, requiring the input line to be disconnected by hand and connected to
the new terminal. Alternatively, in some systems, the process of tap changing may be assisted by means of
a rotary or slider switch.
No load tap changers are also employed in high voltage distribution-type transformers in which the system
includes a no load tap changer on the primary winding to accommodate transmission system variations
within a narrow band around the nominal rating. In such systems, the tap changer will often be set just
once, at the time of installation, although it may be changed later to accommodate a long-term change in the
system voltage profile.
On-load tap changer
On-load tap changer (OLTC), also known as On-circuit tap changer (OCTC), is a tap changer in
applications where a supply interruption during a tap change is unacceptable, the transformer is often fitted
with a more expensive and complex on load tap changing mechanism. On load tap changers may be
generally classified as either mechanical, electronically assisted, or fully electronic.
These systems usually possess 33 taps (one at centre "Rated" tap and sixteen to increase and decrease the
turn ratio) and allow for ±10% variation[3] (each step providing 0.625% variation) from the nominal
transformer rating which, in turn, allows for stepped voltage regulation of the output.
Tap changers typically use numerous tap selector switches which
may not be switched under load, broken into even and odd banks,
and switch between the banks with a heavy-duty diverter switch
which can switch between them under load. The result operates
like a dual-clutch transmission, with the tap selector switches taking
the place of the gearbox and the diverter switch taking the place of
the clutch.
Mechanical tap changers
A mechanical tap changer physically makes the new connection
before releasing the old using multiple tap selector switches but
avoids creating high circulating currents by using a diverter switch
to temporarily place a large diverter impedance in series with the
short-circuited turns. This technique overcomes the problems with
open or short circuit taps. In a resistance type tap changer, the
changeover must be made rapidly to avoid overheating of the
diverter. A reactance type tap changer uses a dedicated preventive
autotransformer winding to function as the diverter impedance,
and a reactance type tap changer is usually designed to sustain off-
tap loading indefinitely.
In a typical diverter switch, powerful springs are tensioned by a
low power motor (motor drive unit, MDU), and then rapidly A mechanical On load tap changer
released to effect the tap changing operation. To reduce arcing at (OLTC), also known as under-load
the contacts, the tap changer operates in a chamber filled with tap changer (ULTC) design,
insulating transformer oil, or inside a vessel filled with pressurized changing back and forth between tap
SF6 gas. Reactance-type tap changers, when operating in oil, must positions 2 and 3
allow for the additional inductive transients generated by the
autotransformer and commonly include a vacuum bottle contact in
parallel with the diverter switch. During a tap change operation, the potential rapidly increases between the
two electrodes in the bottle, and some of the energy is dissipated in an arc discharge through the bottle
instead of flashing across the diverter switch contacts.
Some arcing is unavoidable, and both the tap changer oil and the switch contacts will slowly deteriorate
with use. To prevent contamination of the tank oil and facilitate maintenance operations, the diverter switch
usually operates in a separate compartment from the main transformer tank, and often the tap selector
switches will be located in the compartment as well. All of the winding taps will then be routed into the tap
changer compartment through a terminal array.
One possible design (flag type) of on load mechanical tap changer is shown to the right. It commences
operation at tap position 2, with load supplied directly via the right hand connection. Diverter resistor A is
short-circuited; diverter B is unused. In moving to tap 3, the following sequence occurs:
1. Switch 3 closes, an off-load operation.
2. Rotary switch turns, breaking one connection and supplying load current through
diverter resistor A.
3. Rotary switch continues to turn, connecting between contacts A and B. Load now
supplied via diverter resistors A and B, winding turns bridged via A and B.
4. Rotary switch continues to turn, breaking contact with diverter A. Load now supplied
via diverter B alone, winding turns no longer bridged.
5. Rotary switch continues to turn, shorting diverter B. Load now supplied directly via left
hand connection. Diverter A is unused.
6. Switch 2 opens, an off-load operation.
The sequence is then carried out in reverse to return to tap position 2.
Solid-state tap changer
This is a relatively recent development which uses thyristors both to switch the transformer winding taps
and to pass the load current in the steady state. The disadvantage is that all non-conducting thyristors
connected to the unselected taps still dissipate power due to their leakage currents and they have limited
short circuit tolerance. This power consumption can add up to a few kilowatts which appears as heat and
causes a reduction in overall efficiency of the transformer; however, it results in a more compact design that
reduces the size and weight of the tap changer device. Solid state tap changers are typically employed only
on smaller power transformers.
Voltage considerations
If only one tap changer is required, manually operated tap points are usually made on the high voltage
(primary) or lower current winding of the transformer to minimize the current handling requirements of the
contacts. However, a transformer may include a tap changer on each winding if there are advantages to do
so. For example, in power distribution networks, a large step-down transformer may have an off-load tap
changer on the primary winding and an on load automatic tap changer on the secondary winding or
windings. The high voltage tap is set to match long term system profile on the high voltage network
(typically supply voltage averages) and is rarely changed. The low voltage tap may be requested to change
positions multiple times each day, without interrupting the power delivery, to follow loading conditions on
the low-voltage (secondary winding) network.
To minimize the number of winding taps and thus reduce the physical size of a tap changing transformer, a
'reversing' tap changer winding may be used, which is a portion of the main winding able to be connected
in its opposite direction (buck) and thus oppose the voltage.
Standards considering tap changers
Name Status
IEC 60214-1:2014 Current
IEC 60214-2:2004 Current
IEEE Std C57.131-2012 Current
ГОСТ 24126-80 (СТ СЭВ 634-77) Current
IEC 214:1997 Replaced by a later version
IEC 214:1989 Replaced by a later version
IEC 214:1985 Replaced by a later version
Further reading
Hindmarsh, J. (1984). Electrical Machines and their Applications, 4th ed. Pergamon. ISBN 0-
08-030572-5.
Central Electricity Generating Board (1982). Modern Power Station Practice: Volume 4.
Pergamon. ISBN 0-08-016436-6.
Rensi, Randolph (June 1995). "Why transformer buyers must understand LTCs". Electrical
World.
References
1. "What are Tap-changing Transformers? Off-load & On-load transformers - Circuit Globe" (htt
p://circuitglobe.com/tap-changing-transformers.html). Circuit Globe. 2016-05-28. Retrieved
2016-11-21.
2. "Transformer Tap changer - ECE Tutorials" (http://ecetutorials.com/transformer/transformer-ta
p-changer/). ECE Tutorials. Retrieved 2016-11-21.
3. Siemens Energy Sector (2016). Power Engineering Guide. Erlangen, Germany: Siemens –
via http://www.energy.siemens.com/hq/en/energy-topics/publications/power-engineering-
guide/. {{cite book}}: External link in |via= (help)
Old References (To Do: Integrate Citations)
Raka Levi, “CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF OLTCs”, Minutes of the WECC substation
working group meeting, Salt Lake City, UT, May 2014
<http://www.dii.unipd.it/~pesavento/download/ISH2009/Papers/Paper-D-16.pdf>
G. Andersson, R. Levi, E. Osmanbasic, “Dynamic tap changer testing, reactors and
reactance”, CIRED, 22nd International Conference on Electricity Distribution Stockholm,
June 2013, Paper 0338.
<http://www.cired.net/publications/cired2013/pdfs/CIRED2013_0338_final.pdf>
Eric Back, Marcos Ferreira, Dave Hanson, Edis Osmanbasic, “TDA: Tap-changer Dual
Assessment”, TechCon USA, Chicago, paper D12, 2012
R. Levi, B. Milovic, “OLTC dynamic testing”, Proceedings TechCon USA, San Francisco
2011. <http://progusa.net/DV-Power/pdf/NOV2011/OLTC_Dynamic_Testing_P10.pdf>
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