GWI Hydrothermal 2018 US-final-updated 1125191

GUIDE TO
HYDROTHERMAL
SPA & WELLNESS
DEVELOPMENT
STANDARDS
What You Need to Know Before Building Wet Areas
THIRD EDITION
Guide to Hydrothermal
Spa & Wellness
Development Standards
What You Need to Know

Before Building Wet Areas
Cassandra Cavanah
© 2018 by Global Wellness Institute. All rights reserved.
ISBN 978-0-578-17820-2
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission
of the copyright owners. All images in this book have been reproduced with the
knowledge and prior consent of the owners and no responsibility is accepted by
producer, publisher or printer for any infringement of copyright or otherwise,
arising from the contents of this publication. Every effort has been made to ensure
that credits accurately comply with information supplied.
First published in the United States of America by the Global Wellness Institute
333 S.E. 2nd Avenue, Suite 3750, Miami, FL 33131

Telephone: +1 (212) 716 1205
www.globalwellnessinstitute.org
Disclaimer
The content of this book is for general information purposes only and has been
obtained from many sources, professional organizations, manufacturers’ literature
and codes. The author and publisher have made every reasonable effort to ensure
that this work is accurate and current, but do not warrant, and assume no liability
for, the accuracy or completeness of the text or illustrations, or their fitness for any
particular purpose. It is the responsibility of the users of this book to apply their
professional knowledge to the content, to consult sources referenced, as appropriate,
and to consult professionals for expert advice.
Editor: Cassandra Cavanah

Design and illustrations: Amy Detrick
Third Edition 10/2018

Second Edition 10/2016
First Edition published 09/2014
Contents
Foreword V
Introduction VII
Chapter One: Overview of Hydrothermal Bathing 1
Chapter Two: Hydrothermal Wellness Benefits 15
Chapter Three: Project Planning:Architecture & Design 31
Chapter Four: Thermal Bathing Areas – Function and Design 47
Hot and Dry: Finnish Sauna/ Russian Banya/ Bio Sauna/ Infrared Sauna 49
Hot and Humid: Steam Room/Caldarium/Sudatorium 55
Warm and Humid: Turkish Hamam/Moroccan Hammam 61
Warm and Dry: Laconium; Tepidarium/Warm Relaxation Room 66
Warm/Cold and Wet: Experience Showers; Foot Bath/Kneipp Walk 71
Cold: Plunge Pool/Frigidarium; Snow Room; Snow Shower/Snowfall 75

Chapter Five: Specialist Hydrothermal Treatments & Therapies 83
Specialist Rooms 87
Specialist Water Treatments 90
Specialist Beds/Tables 93
Chapter Six: Pool Areas – Function and Design 97
Lap/Exercise Pool 99
Hydrotherapy/Vitality Pool 100
Onsen Pool 102
Cold Plunge Pool 10 4
Specialty Pools: Floatation Pools; Watsu Pool; Mineral Pool; Kneipp Walk 105
Chapter Seven: Hot Springs & Geothermal Mineral Waters 121
Chapter Eight: Construction Materials and Building Services 137
Chapter Nine: Health, Safety and Hygiene 159
Chapter Ten: Sustainability and Regenerative Design 167
Glossary 175
Index 179
Photo Credits 182
Notice to Readers
Key terminology will be explained in the text. A glossary at the back of the book goes into further detail to help
minimize confusion regarding the terms associated with modern hydrothermal spa areas.
There will be references to building codes and other safety guidelines the global hydrotherapy industry follows, but these
references are not exhaustive and you will need to consult your relevant local codes and guidelines.
IV | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

Foreword
I have been in the spa and wellness industry for decades, and have been lucky enough
to visit thousands of spas and sample hydrothermal experiences in every corner of
the world…smoky saunas in the forests of Finland, historic hamams in Turkey, hot
Russian banyas, sweet-smelling mud baths in Italy, sizzling Ayurvedic steam cabins
in India and fun Arctic ice rooms in Las Vegas—to name a few. And I’ve loved each
and every experience and have benefited from them both physically and mentally.
With extraordinary growth in the global spa/wellness industry—fueled by a rise

in stress levels—these diverse experiences are becoming more important, and,
fortunately, far more accessible.
By Susie Ellis However building hydrothermal facilities entails major challenges. And, if not built
Chairman and CEO right, there can be serious consequences. The design, the “fit,” the installation and
Global Wellness the maintenance of all these experiences—from a steam room to a cold plunge
Institute pool—are unique and tricky. I’ve seen many “fails” firsthand: whirlpools where the
jets hit me in all the wrong places; a burnt hand from door handles made out of
materials clearly not designed for a hot, wet environment; steam room ceilings that
drip, drip, drip as I try to relax. And, of course, there are the saunas or steam rooms
that were too hot, too cold, smelly or moldy. I have faced dreaded “out of order”
signs too many times to count.
Yet when done right, hydrothermal experiences can become the highlight of a spa’s
offering, with unrivaled wellness benefits that are difficult to achieve in any other
way. And, the bonus is that all the health benefits are self-administered so they can
be achieved without high labor costs, making a dedicated hydrothermal area a great
revenue booster.
Foreword | V
In order to build these diverse facilities correctly, precise technical knowledge is
required: from material choice to complex drainage or electrical issues—this goes far
beyond knowing which tiles withstand high temperatures or what wood holds up
best in a sauna. Too often wet area specialists are consulted too late in a project – and
unnecessary costs are incurred.
That’s why I’m so thrilled that you’re holding the Guide to Hydrothermal Spa &
Wellness Development Standards in your hands. It’s designed to provide a 360-degree
overview of what you need to know: from concepts and definitions; to how to
assemble a project team; to design requirements for different types of hydrothermal
experiences; to guidance on the correct building materials.
This guide is not written as a step-by-step manual for building hydrothermal

experiences. Nor is it designed to cover all the standards and practices one must be
familiar with—there are too many specific regional/national regulations to make
that possible. Properties will always need to use wet area specialists/suppliers, but it
is the first—and only—guide to provide a universal bird’s eye view of what all players
need to know before they embark on one of these builds.
Because hydrothermal technology evolves rapidly, this book has been updated
regularly (every two years since it’s introduction in 2014), and is constantly improved,
with new ideas and best practices incorporated. You are currently reading the 3rd
edition, published by the Global Wellness Institute’s Hydrothermal Initiative, whose
focus is to increase transparency and awareness in the design and implementation of
all elements of spa and wellness facilities involving thermal and wet treatments. Many
thanks go to the Initiative’s members and the sponsors of this important resource!
Sincerely,
Susie Ellis
Chairman and CEO
Global Wellness Institute
Updated September 2018 for 3rd edition
VI | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

Introduction
As the popularity of spa and wellness continues to grow—there are over 100,000
spas worldwide—more people are seeking authentic ways to positively impact their
long-term wellbeing. Hydrothermal bathing, with its benefits of improving the
immune system, managing high blood pressure and body detoxification and the
potential for so much more, is one of the most ancient and proven spa treatments
available. This is driving a significant increase in installations both in residential and
commercial builds.
The main objective of the Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development
Standards is to provide the spa, architectural and interior design communities with
distinct, modern guidelines for the design and build of hydrothermal areas in public
spas and private residences.
The goal is to provide readers—whether they be spa owners, consultants, developers,
interior designers, architects, builders, professors, students or anyone embarking on
the study or build of a hydrothermal facility—with a consistent and effective means
to approach the planning and construction of these unique areas. More importantly,
this guidance is also intended to help readers avoid costly mistakes.
In general, there are numerous design considerations, rules and codes to follow. In
addition, there are specific building materials and technologies to consider. This
handbook looks at all these areas, plus, common pitfalls and repeated mistakes that
occur in the planning and building of hydrothermal bathing areas. And, of course,
offers tips, tools and solutions for avoiding them.
The Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards has the benefit of
incorporating the accumulated experience of the leading practitioners in the modern
spa industry. Spas around the world reflect the “good, the bad and the ugly” of
hydrothermal design and implementations; by reading this book and using it as
a reference, you are helping to make sure new builds include only the very best of
hydrothermal spa standards.
This handbook is not designed as an exhaustive guide to a “model” hydrothermal
build from beginning to end—you will need to employ specialist suppliers and/or
consultants for this. It is, instead, a first step to familiarizing yourself with the key
areas, understanding their functions and benefits and getting an overview that can
guide you in your decision-making.
Introduction | VII
Industry Praise
“In the 40 years I have been designing spa and wellness destinations, one of the areas most prone to on-going
maintenance problems and too-high capital costs, are the heat experiences and thermal areas. This book has
been put together by those in the industry who understand these complexities and who have credibility
and track record. It gives reassurance to developers, architects and designers who are not familiar with the
technical expertise needed to deliver experiences which are now expected by well traveled consumers.”
Sue Harmsworth MBE, Founder of ESPA International
“The beauty of this guide is that it addresses all aspects of these builds: including financial/business issues;
design, development and construction; health and wellness benefits and even recommended guest usage for
each experience. If a commitment to a hydrothermal area is made, it’s imperative that experts are involved
from the beginning of the project to ensure best results. WTS is thrilled to have this resource - it’s a treasure
trove of information and our whole team refers to it often.”
Kim Matheson Shedrick, Senior Vice President, WTS International
“This is a much-needed resource produced by hydrothermal veterans who really understand the challenges
in building innovative hydro and thermal features. The wisdom in this book is hard-earned and we encourage
anyone looking to build a hydrothermal area to utilize it to its fullest!”
Cary Collier and Doug Chambers, Principals of Blu Spas, Inc.
“The financial success of any hydrothermal project depends on its careful planning and preparation—and this
is exactly what this guide helps readers achieve. The insight into the overall design, construction and use of
these spaces is unparalleled.”
Lynn Curry, President & Co-Owner, Resources For Leisure Assets USA
VIII | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

Contributors & Hydrothermal Experts
The Global Wellness Institute would like to thank the following companies for their contributions and support
in making this guide come to life.
Introduction | IX
Chapter One
Overview of
Hydrothermal Bathing
In this book, we explore the world of hydrothermal spa
bathing, also known as “aquathermal spa,” depending on the
use of either the Greek or Latin root of “water.” Put simply,
these are areas where people get either wet (hydro) and/or
experience a change of temperature (thermal).
For thousands of years, different cultures have sought

to harness the cleansing and healing power of water
and heat—both considered luxuries in ancient times.
Access to either was often difficult. This prompted
more civilized societies throughout the world to find
creative ways to deliver “hydro” and “thermal” to
their citizens.
Often the easiest way to do this was through natural
hot springs, areas that have always played a key role in
hydrothermal bathing. The abundance of hot springs
around the globe made it possible for many cultures
to take advantage of these sites to construct dedicated
buildings on or around them, prompting the concept
of public bathing.
The geo-thermally warmed waters that bubbled up
Hydrothermal bathing from the earth’s core not only served to cleanse its
has been practiced users, but “taking the waters” was also believed (and is
for thousands of years. now medically proven) to deliver minerals to improve
The pools at Bath certain skin conditions and relieve pain from arthritis
Spa, UK. and other musculoskeletal ailments. As far back as
Overview of Hydrothermal Bathing | 1

The inhabitants
of Northern Europe
invented the sauna.
Sauna at the Faena
Credit: Faena Hotel, Miami Beach (Nik Koenig) Hotel, Miami Beach.
the 7th century B.C., there are mentions of a “spring a cleansing/detoxifying ritual that is valued to this day
which contains sulfur to treat disease” in Chinese and has been proven to improve the immune system
history books. and reduce blood pressure.
Private bathing areas were virtually unheard of in It should be noted that though Finland is often
ancient times, so the most efficient means for washing recognized as the birthplace of the sauna, the whole
was to gather in these public bathing spaces. Perhaps of the frozen northern Europe was known to have
the best known and most cited examples of public invented similar forms of bathing—for example,
bathing houses come from the Romans—their the Russian banya is almost identical in design and
advanced technology and grandiose architecture purpose.
(not to mention their geographical domination of In Eastern Europe, the Jewish people have had a
Europe and Asia) positioned them as forerunners in tradition of sweating for their health that goes back
hydrothermal bathing. But there are plenty of other more than 2,000 years. There are even frequent
cultures that also take credit for the invention of some mentions of bath houses in the Talmud, the religious
of today’s popular hydrothermal applications. authority for traditional Judaism. Known as taking the
For example, a highly popular and long enduring ‘shvitz,’ the practice was originally adopted by Russian
hydrothermal treatment is the Finnish sauna. With Jews in Russian banyas and was popular with Jewish
heat being such a prized resource in freezing Finland, immigrants in America during the 1920s. Also popular
the Finns devised a means to heat a wooden cabin to with orthodox Jewish men and women is the ‘mikvah,’
the highest degrees, causing the occupants to become which literally translates as ‘a gathering or collection
very hot. Leaving the cabin, sweating profusely, they of water’. This water served as to ceremonially clean
then used the snow outside to wipe off the sweat and people prior to entering the temple and ultimately
dirt skin—and repeated the process as several times as became a basis for the ritual immersion of baptism.
the need to be clean dictated. This is why, even today, Today, mikvahs are not only built in a communal
the Finns typically take a “roll in snow” after bathing setting, but also constructed in private homes. There
in the sauna. The practical reason for diving into the are some specifics for constructing mikvahs—they
snow is because running water was in short supply must be below ground and cannot be portable. A
during the frozen winters of the north. But the result is mikvah must have contact with natural water, so
2 | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

Turkish hamams
feature a heated belly
stone (gobek tasi)
as their centerpiece.
This is where the
traditional soap
massage takes place.
mikvahs constructed in modern homes will normally of Istanbul boast beautiful interiors including fantastic
have one primary pool filled with tap water and used examples of traditional Muslim ceramic and mosaic art
for immersion, and a secondary pool where rain water with inscriptions from the Koran often being present
or water from some other natural source is collected. on the walls. You can also find fine examples of hamams
A hole between the two pools will allow the water to in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Tunisia, Libya, Algeria and
mix, thus rendering the primary pool fit for ceremonial Morocco. Note: The Turkish hamam has a single central
cleansing. Each Jewish sect has different practices “m,” while the Moroccan hammam is spelled with two.
regarding the use a mikvah, but the theme of spiritual Japan is also known for its extensive bathing culture
purification and cleansing is common to all of them. with an ethic of cleanliness rooted deep in its culture.
On the American continent, there is early evidence of As long ago as the 3rd century, references to the Japanese
“sweating” as a form of cleansing, including the use habits of cleanliness surface in writings, and, in the
of aromatic herbs and flowers (or “aromatherapy,” as 6th and 7th centuries, the rise of Confucianism and
it’s known today). The Aztec tribes were particularly Buddhism further solidified the virtues of cleanliness
influential in their creation of two-story wattle- in general along with the love of the ritual of bathing.
and-daub sweat rooms. In Mexico, the temazcal or Japan’s more than 20,000 natural hot springs formed
“sweat lodge” is another example of thermal bathing; the original onsens. The Japanese also developed a
today, you can visit an excellent example of a Mayan form of steam bath called the sento, a type of vapor
steam room at the Chechen Itza site in the Mexican bath that used aromatherapy elements and included
Yucatan Peninsula. body scrubbing. And, finally, the furo is a bath made
During the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire gave of wood long enough for the bather to lie flat; it’s often
rise to the now-famous hamam (or Turkish bath). found in private homes.
There is evidence, however, to show this form of Another type of thermal bathing —mud bathing—
bathing predates the Ottomans and was used widely originated in the Middle East thousands of years
in North Africa and the Middle East even prior to the ago. This form of bathing wasn’t necessarily devised
rise of Islam. Once again using sweating as a form of to “cleanse the masses,” but, instead, was a medicinal
cleansing, the traditional hamam became particularly and beautifying ritual using the mineral-rich silt of
popular before a visit to the mosque. The old hamams the Dead Sea to treat skin conditions. Similarly, the

Ancient Egyptians valued the healing powers of the circulation and gives the body functions a positive jolt.
mud of the Nile delta, which delivered minerals and The importance of thermal bathing, and the pleasure
deposits from the high mountain ranges of Ethiopia. derived from it, is undisputed and well-recorded over
And then in the 1900s, the French began harnessing the centuries, but it has only really been in the last
the restorative properties of the sea—which is rich 200 years or so that the medical profession has looked
not only in sodium chloride (salt) but also minerals into the physical benefits, rather than just the ability
and trace elements. Known as “thalassotherapy,” to cleanse. In particular, there are multiple medical
treatments evolved to use warm seawater to allow the studies that confirm the reduction of hypertension with
minerals to pass through the skin, complemented by use of saunas. Evidence-based studies can be found at
algae, seaweed and alluvial mud applications. www.wellnessevidence.com, a portal designed to help
people explore thousands of studies that have been
Benefits of Hydrothermal done on common wellness therapies.
Experiences Although not scientifically proven at the time, the effect
So the origin of hamams, saunas, onsens, etc., of the heat, and the minerals, along with the social
ultimately derived from the need to cleanse the body. aspect of communal bathing and the hygiene benefits
However, there are now recognized health and aesthetic that resulted, combined to create almost miraculous
benefits associated with all forms of hydrothermal results. Even fertility was seemingly improved—in the
bathing. In recent years, medical science has explored 1700s, Queen Mary “took the waters” at the thermal
the effects the immersion in hot temperatures, and the springs in Bath, England while apparently suffering
subsequent transfer to cold, has on the body—and from infertility and 10 months later gave birth to a
have determined that a key benefit of such temperature son.
change is detoxification. Getting hot and sweating out In addition to the medical benefits, there is the
impurities is important to our health, and experiencing simple notion of “thermal pleasure”—the feeling
extreme changes in body temperature also increases the a person experiences when moving from a place
Japan is known for

its extensive bathing
culture; an onsen at
Hoshino Resorts Co.,
Ltd. In Hakone, Japan.

Roman Baths, Caesar’s
Palace, Las Vegas,
Courtesy: Design For Leisure Ltd. Nevada, U.S.
where the temperatures have eventually made Many of the now-famous European spa towns were
them uncomfortable to one where the contrasting actually put on the map over two thousand years
temperature brings immediate relief and an almost ago during the Roman invasion of Europe, when the
euphoric feeling of pleasure. Hydrothermal spa areas Romans brought their already advanced bathing culture
provide this pleasure while delivering a social and to the lands they conquered. For example, Emperor
ritualistic experience. Caracalla believed the hot springs of Baden-Baden
In the modern world, public bathing has evolved in Germany cured his arthritis, and he consequently
from being a necessity (i.e., the only way to cleanse built one of the finest bathing houses outside Rome in
the masses) to a ritual (and often a private one) that this location.
not only helps purify the body, but also one that gives It has often been said that a visit to a spa should be
us a chance to take a break from our busy, stressful a journey of discovery—not just of new experiences,
lifestyles—allowing for complete and utter relaxation. but a discovery of the joy of true relaxation and of
self-indulgence. Spa and hotel developers, as well
Modernization of Hydrothermal as homeowners, are realizing more and more that
Spa Bathing this journey can be significantly enhanced with the
addition of hydrothermal experiences.
What is a “spa” anyway? Many think the term
originates from the Latin “sanus per aquam,” which The ability to rest in the intense warmth of the
translates into “health through water,” while many sauna, to enjoy the benefits of steam bathing or salt
Europeans associate the word with old European spa inhalation, to exhilarate in a cold plunge, to refresh in
towns where natural springs, hot or cold, saline or the more gentle, cooling atmosphere of a snow cavern,
sulfuric, produce endless quantities of natural water. and to invigorate with dips in specially designed
Britons of the Victorian era were famous for traveling hydrotherapy pools without the worry of time, is
widely to “take the waters” of spa towns throughout perhaps the ultimate in relaxation.
Europe, which were believed to have medicinal or And, if between these experiences you can relax in
healing powers. Another suggestion is that the term comfort, either in silent relaxation spaces or, more
“spa” comes specifically from another famous bathing sociably, on heated loungers that may surround a
site of the same name: “Spa” in Belgium. hydrotherapy pool, the experience is enhanced.

Overview of Popular Hydrothermal Experiences
This section provides a brief overview of the areas seen most frequently in both
commercial and residential builds, from the hottest to the coolest space.
Sauna
Generally a simple timber cabin with a heat source
radiating warmth from the wood-clad walls via heated
stones, warmed by electricity or gas, but traditionally
by log fires, and normally operating between 70° C
and 105° C. Many versions are available, but the most
authentic are Kelo log-house saunas, which replicate
the early origins of this form of bathing. However,
as these are traditionally designed as independent
external structures, the sauna has undergone
substantial modernization as it has been brought
inside spa buildings to form part of a hydrothermal
bathing suite.
Learn more on page 49.
Infrared Sauna
Infrared saunas have grown in popularity in recent
years due to their particular health benefits and because
they are able to heat a bather’s body without warming
the air around it. Infrared radiation is on the longer
range of the electromagnetic spectrum – and, because
of this, is considered more gentle and comfortable and
can penetrate the body’s tissues more deeply.

Russian Banya
The term Russian banya literally means Russian
bathhouse, but the term has been adopted to refer to
the sauna-like room found in a Russian bathhouse.
It’s almost identical to a Finnish sauna in design and
purpose, however it can have higher rates of humidity
and bathers are encouraged to hit themselves or another
person with “veniks” or bunches of dried branches and
leaves from white birch, oak or eucalyptus trees to help
improve circulation. In addition, there is usually an
antechamber next to the banya for socializing, playing
games and enjoying refreshments.
Steam Bath or Steam Room

Often called a caldarium or sudatorium from
its Roman bath equivalent, a steam bath (or
steam room) is typically a tiled or stone room
reaching temperatures of between 42° C and
48° C with 100% humidity provided by hot steam,
which is either created from heated waters in the room
itself or, more commonly, pumped into the room
using a steam generator. Aromatic extracts of essential
oils can be injected concurrently to give the steam bath
an added sensory element.
Hamam or Hammam
Also known as “Turkish baths,” or Moroccan hammams,
modern hamams are normally larger than a steam
bath. Turkish hamams have a traditional heated “göbek
tasi,” or, literally, “belly stone,” as their centerpiece. A
smaller replica located in an adjacent room will enable
bathers to receive the soap massage in private. The
heated floor, walls and benches warm the room to
40° C to 42° C with, possibly (but not essentially),
40% to 60% humidity from an independent steam
source. An authentic atmosphere is achieved when the
room is finished in traditional Turkish “Iznik” tiles and
Carrara Blanco marble, although dramatic effects have
been created in modern hamams using very different
finishes.

Laconium
Again a name from the Roman era, this is a
warm ceramic room, with a temperature of
38° C to 42° C, in which bathers can relax for long
periods of time in comfortable ergonomically designed
benches or individual, heated loungers or chairs. The
walls, floors and benches are heated to enable deep
penetration of the warmth to the body, promoting
a feeling of wellbeing and relaxation. Aromas can be
introduced via a humidifier to enhance this beneficial
treatment and maintain a comfortable atmosphere.
Heated loungers are often provided in ceramic or
stone (or other impervious finishes) to the quiet spaces
around the wet areas of the spa, as they are particularly
suitable for relaxation between thermal treatments/
baths.
Tepidarium or Relaxation Spaces

Once again taking origins from the ancient bathing
cultures, these areas were known as tepidariums
by the Romans; sometimes smaller, more intimate
spaces were provided for rest—and even sleeping—
and were known as refugiums. Fitted with a range
of different beds and loungers, these spaces are
essential to any spa. When allocating space to
a relaxation area, consideration should be given
to the fact that after bathing in a sauna for 10
minutes, it will take at least 20 minutes for the
bather’s body temperature to equalize, which is
the only time he/she should return to a warm/hot
cabin or pool. Logically, there should at least be
as many seats/loungers as there are total places in
the thermal cabins and pools.

Salt Room
Salt rooms have steadily grown in popularity—
however, it should be noted that though a “salt wall”
is aesthetically pleasing and salt on the floor has a
welcoming feel neither of these uses of salt provide any
real benefits. The only way to truly benefit from salt is
via inhalation—which is proven to cleanse respiratory
passageways and promote long-lasting lung health.
For a salt room to be effective, finely powdered salt
must be introduced into the air via a halo generator
or by nebulizing brine vapor into the space. Among
other things, salt therapy relieves asthma, improves
circulation and may lower blood pressure.
Mud Bath
Mud bathing originated thousands of years ago as a
medicinal and beautifying ritual—depending on the
minerals inherent in the mud, these baths can cleanse,
exfoliate, absorb toxins, increase circulation and soften
the skin. The bather can either be fully immersed in
mud, or the mud can be applied by a therapist or a
bathing partner.
Vitality Pool
A vitality pool is the generic name for what people
commonly refer to as a “Jacuzzi” (the brand name that
has become synonymous with pools with water jets).
Vitality pools offer a mini-hydrotherapy experience
and are typically used where space will not permit
the inclusion of a full-size hydrotherapy pool. These
pools typically operate at 35° C to 38° C and will have
underwater pressurized air and water features.

Kneipp Walk
Kneipp therapy was founded in the 19th century by
Sebastian Kneipp, a Bavarian parish priest, who was
ill with tuberculosis and developed this “water cure”
to heal himself. Kneipp therapy does not always take
place in a pool—in fact hot and cold compresses can be
used—but, pools are most common. The Kneipp walk
uses a mix of hot- and cold-water actions (stepping
through the water) to stimulate the circulation of
blood. Pebbles on the bottom of the stream/walkway
massage the feet, and the alternation of hot and cold
baths stimulate circulation of all parts of the body.
There are two walks used—the bather begins by
stepping in hot water and then moves to cold water.
Foot Spa
The foot spa is traditionally an area where warm
ceramic or mosaic benches offer a place to relax and
be comfortable, while bathing the feet in cool or warm
(never hot) water. Feet are especially important in the
heating and cooling process of a hydrothermal journey
because the small amount of flesh and fat on them,
combined with the large number of blood vessels, allow
this cooling or warming effect to be conveyed through
the body via the heated or cooled bloodstream.
Experience Shower
There are a huge variety of showers—cold waterfalls,
mists, body jets and dramatic “experience showers”—
offering multi-sensory experiences that incorporate
smells, sound and visual effects that help take the
bather to another world.

Deluge Shower
A deluge shower takes things a bit more back to basics
by delivering a huge dump of cold water on bathers so
they can adequately cool between heat treatments.
Hydrotherapy Tub
Individual hydrotherapy tubs deliver a unique
sensation of heat, buoyancy and hydro-massage.
Jets can be positioned to stimulate and relax trigger
points in the body. High-quality units will massage
body zones, beginning at the feet and going towards
the upper part of the body, and will have automatic
programs with different focuses and varying pressures.
Aromatherapy oil can be added to the baths to
intensify the bather’s relaxation and engage the other
senses. Soothing skin products are often used.The
natural healing power of mineral water or seawater can
increase their effectiveness.
Floatation Pool/Tank
A floatation pool or tank cocoons the entire body
(an experience that is often likened to going back to
the womb). The water in the tank is is kept at body
temperature and the most important ingredient is the
magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt) that is dissolved in
the tank to create a weightless “float.” The buoyancy
of a float tank’s dense salt water solution supports the
muscular, skeletal and circulatory systems with zero
pressure, while the absence of external stimuli enable
the mind and body to give itself over to complete rest,
relaxation and recovery.
Learn more on page 27 and 105.

Watsu Pool
Pools designed specifically for Watsu massage, a gentle
form of body therapy performed in warm water that
combines elements of massage, joint mobilization,
shiatsu, muscle stretching and dance. The bather is
continuously supported while being floated, cradled,
rocked and stretched.
Vichy Shower
A Vichy shower is a horizontal series of showerheads
forming a “rain bar” over a waterproof, cushioned table
that features drainage on the side for all the excess
water. This is a therapist-controlled water massage
designed to increase blood circulation, hydrate the
skin and soothe/relax muscles.
Dry Floatation Bed

Dry floatation beds offer a sense of weightlessness and
are used in combination with a body wrap and often
include soft hydro-massage features. Because the unit
can be stable, manual massages can also take place
on the bed, making it a very flexible choice in a
modern spa.
Dry Hydro Massage Bed

Dry hydro massage beds are an option for spa guests
who crave the therapeutic, massaging benefits of water
jets and pressure—without the actual water! Water
nozzles placed below a rubberized cover are used for
the application of a relaxing massage. Because there’s
no contact with water, the customer can stay fully
clothed and needs minimal assistant from a therapist,
making this a very efficient piece of equipment.

Plunge Pool/Frigidarium
Traditional cold-water pools stem from the Romans who
realized that the surge of blood, caused by contracting
blood vessels, which had previously expanded in the
hot rooms, was a particularly invigorating experience.
Purists would have it that a plunge pool should be
barely above freezing point, but temperatures of 12° C
to 20° C are effective. These were dubbed Frigidariums
by the Romans.
Learn more on page 76 and 104.
Snow Room
There can be nothing more exhilarating than stepping
from a traditional sauna into a landscape covered with
a fresh fall of real snow with which to cool the body.
Operating at -10° C to 0° C, these rooms are becoming
features in some modern spas, as we slowly, but surely,
retrace our steps to provide ever more authentic
experiences closer to the origins of the treatments we
all now desire.
Snow Shower/Snowfall
Snow showers are either open or closed areas where
a continuous snowfall can be generated by the push
of a button. They are most commonly integrated into
the hydrothermal cycle after a visit to a sauna or steam
room as a gentle way to cool down after the hot cycle.
Melting snow on the skin versus jumping into a cold
plunge pool can be an easier way to cool-down for
many bathers.
Ice Fountains
An ice fountain is often found inside a snow room. The
powdery snow can be applied to selectively to cool the
extremities of the body, such as legs and arms. The very
cold snow reaches temperatures below 0° C and the
process of rubbing the snow onto arms and legs assists
cooling in those areas.

Chapter Two
Hydrothermal
Wellness Benefits
The benefits of heat and water can be enhanced with the
addition of restorative-promoting minerals infused or naturally
occurring in the waters or externally applied muds and creams;
while aromatherapy, which incorporates all our senses, delivers
further restorative and calming benefits.
For centuries, hydrothermal treatments have been

recommended in the treatment of certain medical
issues and ailments. Today, there is mounting medical
evidence that supports the use of hydrothermal
therapies for treating a wide range of medical
conditions—including common ailments like arthritis,
sports injuries, chronic pain, and cardiac disease. This
chapter offers a primer on the wellness benefits behind
many of today’s hydrothermal treatments—whether
hot, cold, wet or muddy—and directs readers to
additional resources for further research.
As noted throughout this guide, the healing powers
of water and heat have been harnessed throughout
the ages to provide physical solace, comfort, healing
and, of course, simply bathing. Even as far back as
339 BC, history notes that some Roman baths were
specifically used for healing purposes and people
visited them to help with rheumatic diseases, paralysis
and injury recovery. And, of course, the people of the
Hydrothermal Wellness Benefits | 15

Nordic countries have a long tradition of hot and cold Hydrothermal and Physical
contrast therapy—using the hot, dry heat of saunas in
Therapy
combination with a freezing “roll in the snow”—has
been shown to promote heart health, detoxification According to the aforementioned white paper, the
and even reduce blood pressure. physical benefits of using water in therapeutic exercises
can be attributed to four main properties: heat transfer,
Medical Evidence for Archimedes forces, hydrostatic pressure and sensory
Hydrotherapy input.
Hydrotherapy, using water and heat together to treat In addition to reducing pain, hydrotherapy can be
conditions, relieve pain and increase muscular power used to specifically improve:
and a range of joint movement, has been a mainstay • Strength and/or prevent muscle wastage
of managing many medical conditions. These include • Posture, flexibility and/or prevention of contracture
arthritis, neurological conditions and rehabilitation (shortening and hardening of muscles, tendons or
from sports injuries. Mark Liponis, M.D., Chief other tissue)
Medical Officer at Canyon Ranch (Lenox, MA, USA),
• Ability to perform normal everyday activities,
observes that the wide-ranging health and well-being
including walking
benefits of hydrotherapy include: general relaxation;
counteraction of gravity and a creation of buoyancy; • Exercise and work tolerance
fluid dynamics for bodywork/massage/rehabilitation; • Cardiovascular fitness
water’s unique molecular and electric healing
• Balance and reaction times
properties; water’s ability to deliver healing additives,
such as magnesium salts, sulfur compounds, radiation Heat Transfer
(radon); and “floatation” or sensory deprivation tanks When a body is immersed in water at a temperature
for mental health/relief of anxiety/depression, etc. greater than 35° C (36° C to 40° C), heat transfer
occurs from the water to the body. This leads to
Dr. David Marshall, a specialist physician in
cutaneous vasodilation with heating of the blood
rheumatology and professor at University of Glasgow,
circulating under the skin. Arterial blood pressure
has reviewed and catalogued more than 300 research
drops due to this vasodilation. Evaporation of the sweat
papers and articles identifying the benefits of
produced as a result of this increase in temperature is
hydrotherapy on these conditions:
impossible below the surface of the water. The core
1. Arthritis temperature therefore rises. Immersion at temperatures
2. Chronic pain conditions below 40° C leads to stimulation of warm receptors.
This leads to inhibition of the activity of motor
3. Diseases of the nervous system
neurons, which leads to muscle relaxation. An increase
4. Cardiac disease in the superficial tissue temperature creates a palliative
5. Respiratory disease effect and pain reduction may be experienced. If the
6. Miscellaneous, including obstetric care, immersed individual exercises, body temperature will
immunology, dermatology and sports medicine increase even further.
(Readers are encouraged to download the full paper at Archimedes Forces

www.globalwellnessinstitute.org/hydrothermal- Archimedes’ principle states that when a body is
resources-page.) wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences
an upthrust equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

Buoyancy-assisted
hydrotherapy sessions
provide relief of painful
weight bearing joints.
This upthrust is what we call “buoyancy,” and is the can be used therapeutically to help reduce edema and
force that counteracts gravity, supporting the body lower limb swelling (by exercising at greater depths).
in water. The more of the body that is immersed, the Hydrostatic pressure can restrict chest wall expansion,
more buoyancy there is and weight bearing is further a factor important in those with reduced pulmonary
reduced. The reduction in weight bearing leads to relief function this should be taken into account. Hydrostatic
from compressive forces on painful weight bearing pressure may be used in a progressive resistive exercise
joints. program in such individuals.
Therefore, someone who generally suffers pain in their Sensory Input

back or legs when standing or walking will find those In water there may be less fear of falling as the water
activities much less painful under water. Indeed, such provides support and stability. It is much less traumatic
individuals may well be able to exercise to aerobic to fall into a compliant medium (water) than on a
noncompliant one (ground). A less anxious person
levels in water. Buoyancy can also promote an increase
may be happier to challenge their body and, therefore,
in movement where there is muscle weakness and be
develop their balance and movement skills.
used to develop a graded program of exercises, the
An immersed body will move more slowly as the viscous
easiest of which would be buoyancy-assisted, moving
medium retards movement and sensory awareness
to buoyancy-eliminated (harder) and progressing to
may be increased by moving through a more viscous
buoyancy-resisted (hardest).
medium (water) compared to a less viscous medium
Hydrostatic Pressure (air). If a person moves quickly through water they
Pascal’s Law states that fluid pressure is exerted equally produce drag or turbulence. This is another resistive
on all surfaces of an immersed body at a given depth. force and can again be used therapeutically, for further
Pressure increases as depth increases. This principle muscle strengthening.

Courtesy: Klafs GmbH & Co.
Health Benefits of Sauna

By Dr. Mark Timmerman The use of heat while bathing has been an integral part of many cultures for centuries.
Finland is well known as a society of avid users of the sauna, which usually produces
Dr. Mark Timmerman is
a relatively dry heat between 70° C to 100° C. The traditional Finnish sauna is a
a Family Physician and
smoke sauna (“savusauna”) where stones are heated with a fire for several hours and
Sports Medicine Specialist
then the sauna is taken after much of the smoke has cleared from the sauna building.
in Wisconsin, USA. He
More commonly today, saunas are heated by stoves using wood, gas or electricity,
has a wood heated sauna
and water is used intermittently on the stones to produce steam.
in his home and takes a
sauna at least three times Other cultures known for their heat bathing traditions include Russia (Banya),
each week. Lithuania (Pirtis), Sweden (Bastu), and Turkey (Hammam). Here in the United
States, the American Indians traditionally have used sweat lodges for spiritual
ceremony. The rest of American sauna culture has been influenced by European
immigration during the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. In my own case, for instance,
I grew up in a northern Minnesotan town where many Finns immigrated in order
to work in iron ore mines. Many of us therefore had saunas in our basements or at
our lake cabins.
Sauna bathing usually involves several repetitions of alternating heat with cold, such
as 15-20 minute heat exposures interrupted by dipping in a pond, taking a cool
shower, or sitting outside. In some cultures, oak or birch twigs and leaves and/or
steam are used to provide a more intense heating and massaging experience.
Health Benefits
There are many myths regarding the physiological and psychological affects of sauna
bathing. Unfortunately, we lack sufficient large, controlled studies in the medical
literature to help fully understand the science supporting these myths. We have
learned a significant amount about the physiologic adaptations of the body to heat
bathing, however, and there is a growing body of scientific study, especially from
Germany and Finland, to help understand the real benefits and risks of the practice.

Physiologic Response decrease with regular sauna exposure (such as twice per
week) over a several month period.
Essentially, the effects of heat bathing are the body’s way
to deal with heat stress. In other words, heat exposure Congestive heart failure, which is related to poor
causes a person’s physiology to react to that form of pump function of the heart, has also been shown to
stress out of self-defense in order to prevent injury. benefit from regular sauna exposure. Both symptoms
The systemic adaptations that occur over time can and heart rhythm abnormalities improve predictably
indeed make a person stronger, similar to adaptations with regular sauna use.
to regular exercise. Importantly, because the workload on the heart
Initially, as the body is exposed to the heat of a sauna, is generally not increased in the sauna, the risk of
the skin temperature increases. As a way to dissipate myocardial infarction (“heart attack”) in the general
the heat and protect the internal organs, the body population is not higher during sauna bathing. While
decreases blood flow to those organs and increases it is usually recommended that a person who has had a
circulation to the skin. In addition, sweat glands cardiac event or procedure should wait at least 6 weeks
are stimulated in order to allow for evaporation and before going back to sauna bathing, it is considered to
further cooling effect. be safe practice for people with heart disease.
Because the blood volume to the periphery and skin is Training Effect
increased, the heart rate must also increase so that the Because many of the body’s adaptations to sauna are
internal blood pressure can be maintained. While the similar to its response to exercise, many people wonder
overall work of the heart does not change significantly, if taking a sauna can improve cardiovascular fitness.
the pulse can increase up to double the normal rate. While one recent study has suggested that endurance
Breathing becomes more rapid and shallow in the sauna, performance does improve for runners who recover in
and the overall flow rate and lung capacity increases, the sauna after training, in general one’s fitness does
suggesting more efficient pulmonary ventilation and not improve with routine sauna bathing alone.
allowing for additional heat dissipation. With regular sauna bathing, however, the body does
The sympathetic nervous system is also stimulated adapt to heat stress, so that one can tolerate longer and
as skin temperature rises, causing a “flight or fight” hotter sauna exposures without injury. People who are
response. Stimulation of the hypothalamus and new to saunas are therefore encouraged to moderate
pituitary glands in the brain, which communicate their heat exposure by limiting their time in the sauna,
with the adrenal glands near the kidneys, causes release or by sitting on a lower bench. In addition, athletes
of cortisol (“adrenaline”), creating a heightened sense who use the sauna routinely are able to exercise more
of alertness, reduced perception of pain, and elevated efficiently and perform better in warm temperatures.
mood. Interestingly, when a sauna is followed by
a plunge into cold water, this adrenaline response is
Respiratory Benefits
elevated even more. Part of the sympathetic nervous system response
also relaxes smooth muscle in the bronchioles of the
Cardiovascular Benefits lungs, allowing for more efficient respiratory function.
There is good scientific data to support the beneficial Patients with both asthma and chronic obstructive
effects of repeated sauna exposure for the heart. In pulmonary disease generally report improved
particular, a person’s resting systolic blood pressure symptoms and ease of breathing while in the sauna,
can decrease as much as 10 points after just three 20 although longer-term studies have not generally shown
minute sauna sessions several days apart. Some studies an overall improvement in lung function with regular
have found up to a 20-point systolic blood pressure sauna use.

Musculoskeletal Benefits showing longer stage 4 sleep, which provides a deeper,
more restful sleep and healthier dream activity. Sleep
During a sauna, joint synovial fluid becomes less
affects so many other aspects of health, including
viscous, allowing for improved joint mobility, and
mood, immune function, and ability to handle stress,
skeletal muscle is relaxed. These changes, along with the
that this alone would seem to suggest a significant
increased pain tolerance that one experiences, provide
health benefit from regular sauna use.
for a significant subjective decrease in musculoskeletal
pain. Interestingly, for patients with rheumatoid The psychosocial aspects of group activity such as
arthritis and other autoimmune disorders, pain and sauna bathing may also be an important part of the
inflammation have found to be increased on the day health benefits of sauna. Social connection, sharing
after taking a sauna—unless the sauna bath is followed with friends and feeling a part of a community, as well
by a cold immersion. For patients with arthritis that as the personal nature of conversation that is fostered
use cold-water bathing after sauna, there can be an in the sauna, all play parts in the cultural validity of
overall improvement in symptoms. group sweating that has existed in so many cultures
over time. In addition, for those cultures that promote
Immune System nudity in the sauna, a sense of equality and openness
There are some studies that support the notion that exists that one does not normally experience in every
regular sauna use stimulates the immune system. day life.
During a sauna session, white blood cells increase in
the bloodstream, suggesting an elevation of the body’s
Risks
natural defense against illness. With routine sauna While quite safe if done in moderation, sauna bathing
practice, at least one study has shown a decrease in the can present health risks. Because the body uses sweat
incidence of the common cold. to help regulate core temperature during a sauna,
dehydration can be a problem with excessive sauna use.
Psychological Benefits Some athletes, such as wrestlers, have used the sauna
One of the most common reactions to taking a sauna for rapid weight loss through loss of water through
is that it simply seems to make people feel better. As it sweat, and this has occasionally led to heat stroke
turns out, there are some measurable scientific reasons and sudden cardiac death. When combined with the
behind that. misuse of diuretic pills, this practice can be especially
Sauna exposure causes a significant release of dangerous.
Dopamine, a neurotransmitter, and Beta-Endorphin, a Alcohol consumption creates many potential risks for
neuropeptide hormone. These substances cause a sense the sauna user. Alcohol counteracts the anti-diuretic
of euphoria, as well as improved mood, energy, sense of hormone that the body normally secretes during
calm, and pain tolerance. (Endorphin is a combination heat stress in order to help the kidneys retain fluid.
of the words “ENDOgenous”, or occurring naturally In addition, alcohol causes the peripheral blood vessels
in the body, and “moRPHINe”, a pain-relieving to become even more dilated than usual in the sauna,
compound). The level of endorphins released during which can lead to rapid fall in blood pressure and cause
sauna bathing can be three times normal, similar to falls or fainting. Alcohol also excites cardiac muscle
a middle distance training run. This “runners’ high” and reduces coronary artery flow, increasing the risk of
that occurs can be somewhat addictive and may affect both arrhythmia and myocardial infarction.
regular sauna users in the same way it affects regular Cold-water immersion is a common practice following
exercisers. sessions in the sauna. This causes rapid constriction of
Sleep is also improved after a sauna, with some research the skin blood vessels, which causes blood pressure to

Often missing from
wellness seekers’ sauna
therapy is the cold
immersion required to
intensify the healthful
results—a snow room
or plunge pool (natural
or man made) are ideal
adjuncts to a sauna. Courtesy: TechnoAlpin S.p.A.
increase (as opposed to in the sauna where it remains As we can see, while people with heart disease can
stable). There is also a significant stimulation of the generally use the sauna safely, this is a population that
sympathetic nervous system, with rapid increase in should absolutely avoid alcohol before and during
adrenaline, heart rate, and also endorphins. Hence, the sauna bathing. In addition, these individuals should
sense of euphoria and well being that one experiences take extra caution when plunging in cold water to
following cold immersion intensifies that from taking avoid exposing the face and head. A cool shower or
a sauna alone. slower cooling simply by sitting outside is generally
Data is mixed regarding the benefit of cold immersion considered safer practice for this group.
for muscular tissue following exercise, but there are In conclusion, sauna bathing causes the body undergo
several studies that support improved blood flow and many physiologic changes in attempt to protect itself
more rapid recovery of muscular damage and soreness against heat stress. Some of those adaptations can
with cold immersion. As mentioned above, those with provide health benefit, most notably to resting blood
inflammatory conditions like rheumatoid arthritis pressure. There also evidence to suggest improved
demonstrate benefit with cold water immersion function in other aspects of cardiac, respiratory,
following sauna bathing. musculoskeletal, and immune function. Regular
Of concern, however, is the fact that cold immersion sauna use increases the ability for athletes to train or
can lead to cardiac arrhythmia and coronary artery perform in heat, and post exercise saunas may improve
spasm, making it potentially dangerous to those with endurance. Many of the benefits of sauna bathing
heart disease. There are cold receptors in the face and are psychological, including improved sleep, mood,
scalp that respond to a rapid fall in temperature. This and pain tolerance. Cold plunging following a sauna
stimulates the “diving reflex”, which is a complex can accentuate some of these benefits, but caution is
cardio respiratory reaction that causes apnea and a advised regarding immersion of the face and head.
sense of shortness of breath, decreased cardiac output, Alcohol use before and during the sauna is also ill
and rapid decrease in pulse. Heart arrhythmias are advised, as is the practice of using the sauna for rapid
common during this response, and can pose a danger weight loss. Otherwise, sauna bathing is considered
to those prone to dangerous heart rhythms or at risk very safe and regular use can benefit overall physical
for heart attack. and mental health.

Heat storage
ceramics provide mild,
pro-active infrared C
radiation to irradiate
Courtesy: Sommerhuber the whole body.
Benefits of Infrared Heat

Infrared saunas have grown in popularity in recent maintaining core body temperature of 37° C by
years due to their particular health benefits and the adapting its biological rhythms. The nerve endings
ability to heat a bather’s body without warming the in our skin respond to temperature stimuli and by
air around it. irradiating the whole body, the nervous system is
Infrared radiation is heat that is on the longer range of activated and metabolism is set in motion. Some of
the electromagnetic spectrum—and, because of this, the benefits include:
it’s considered more mild and comfortable and is able • Increased metabolism
to penetrate the body’s tissues more deeply. The water • Increased relaxation, reduced tension
molecules in our body are the first to react to infrared
• Replenished, rejuvenated skin
heat and, once activated, they dilate the blood vessels
and set the entire metabolism in motion. Infrared heat • Increased oxygen supply which, in turn, heats the
has a unique ability to penetrate into the skin—the body and burns fat
longer the wavelength, the more soothing and relaxing • Detoxification
the experience is.
• Stimulate blood flow
The longer wavelengths are absorbed by the upper
• Reduce blood pressure
layers of the skin (epidermis), where the autonomic
nervous system is located. Our autonomic nervous • Decrease pain and inflammation
system coordinates both voluntary and involuntary Heat storage ceramics (versus a separate infrared
actions, transmitting signals to and from different radiator) provides a mild, pro-active infrared experience
parts of the body. Involuntary actions, like blood flow that emits infrared C radiation (long-wave).
and the operation of internal organs, are controlled
by the parasympathetic nervous system. Its tasks
include regulating the body to its environment, like

Contrast Therapy:
The Dr. Thuile Method
Dr. Christian Thuile, Medical Director of the body. Furthermore, more oxygen and nutrients are
Department of Complementary Medicine at the transported to cells, strengthening them and benefiting
Merano Hospital in South Tyrol, Italy and author of the heart and circulatory system.
Schneesauna – Die Wellness-Revolution (Snow Sauna After spending time in a hot sauna, the body is fully
– The Wellness Revolution), has developed a guide on warmed and muscles are more mobile and relaxed,
how to most effectively use snow rooms in conjunction cramps are loosened, connective tissues are more
with saunas. elastic and pores are opened. Many people experience
The method is based on a number of scientific exertion and fatigue after a sauna experience. Cooling
studies that have assessed bodily reactions to the the body down and bringing it back to its natural
effects of the cold. The conclusion is that, when used temperature as soon as possible is a necessary step.
correctly, the hot and cold contrast can lead to a The cold of a snow room is often perceived to be
number of health benefits, including reducing fatigue, less invasive than a cold or wet option (frigidarium),
improving rheumatoid arthritis, pain reduction as allowing bathers to spend more time in the area,
well as minimizing muscle soreness after activity and thereby maximizing the effects. When in the snow
improved regeneration after intense training. room, it is highly recommended that one use the
The Dr. Thuile Method is based on the alternating powdery snow to additionally cool the extremities of
between a heat source, such as a sauna, and a snow the body, such as legs and arms. The very cold snow
room (-10° C to 0° C). By following the Dr. Thuile reaches temperatures below 0° C and the process of
Method, blood vessels extend and contract quickly rubbing the snow onto arms and legs assists cooling
resulting in improved blood circulation in the entire in those areas. The positive side effect is that one can
Snow rooms can be a

more appealing option
to jumping into the
freezing cold waters of
a plunge pool. Courtesy: TechnoAlpin S.p.A.

avoid the intensified cooling on other more sensitive Benefits of Aromatherapy
areas of the body. The cold can be specifically applied
Humans have been using aromatherapy (defined by
to assist in reducing inflammation and joint soreness
the National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy
as well.
as the therapeutic application or medicinal use
Immediately after entering a snow room, the of aromatic substances for holistic healing) to
body begins to react to the cold, causing vascular improve mood and well-being since time began.
constriction or vasoconstriction—a narrowing of the Very little specifics are known about the history
blood vessels—and, in the cold ambiance, the blood of aromatherapy, but Egyptians are credited with
flow centralizes to protect vital organs.
developing the earliest distillation process for
The contrasting vasodilation—expansion of the blood extracting oils from certain plants which they then
vessels—that occurs in the heat of sauna, followed by used to embalm the dead. It’s the Chinese who are
the vasoconstriction causes increased blood flow to the believed to have begun the practice of using infused
skin, muscles and tissue. According to Dr. Thuile, this aromatic oils as mood enhancers or to help with
can be particularly beneficial for people with low blood physical aches and pains. The Greeks also played
pressure, especially if repeated on a regular basis. a role: Greek mythology claims that the gods were
Of over 200 people studied using a snow room in gifted with the knowledge of perfume and fragrance.
combination with a Finnish sauna, subjects reported However, the term “aromatherapy” was originally
improved sleep, significant pain reduction, better coined by the French chemist Rene-Maurice
moods and an increased amount of energy, relief from Gattefosse in 1937 after discovering the healing and
stress and pressure, improved breathing, softer skin soothing effects of lavender oil on burns he suffered
and a healthier sense of self. in a lab accident; and a French surgeon, Jean Valnet,
The use of
aromatherapy to
improve mood and
well-being is long
documented in many
cultures. Today,
aromatherapy is
an important part
of any spa and
Courtesy: Gharieni Group wellness offering.

Each essential oil
has its own unique
attributes and are often
used to relieve both
mental and physical
ailments.
adopted essential oils to help heal soldiers’ wounds Essential oils are attributed with mood enhancing
during World War II. Today, the intense effect properties and are commonly used to treat the
fragrances have on our state of mind is well known following:
and aromatherapy is common not only in spas • Agitation: Chamomile (Roman), Lavender,
around the globe but everywhere humans dwell. Mandarin, Sandalwood
Scents are so powerful because our olfactory receptors • Anxiety/Fear: Bergamot, Chamomile (Roman),
transmit nerve impulses about odors to the central Cedarwood, Frankincense, Jasmine, Lavender,
nervous system. As the signals reach the brain, they Neroli, Patchouli, Rose, Sandalwood
affect our autonomic nervous system and can cause • Fatigue: Basil, Bergamot, Clary Sage,
subtle changes in our bodies, including on our heart Frankincense, Ginger, Grapefruit, Jasmine, Lemon,
rate, blood pressure, breath, memory, stress, and Patchouli, Peppermint, Rosemary, Sandalwood
even hormone balance. The olfactory pathway also
• Isolation: Chamomile (Roman), Bergamot, Clary
connects to our limbic nervous system, which is
Sage, Frankincense, Rose
responsible for processing emotions and instincts
and includes the hippocampus, which is responsible • Memory Boosters: Basil, Cypress, Lemon,
for long-term memory—something that helps Peppermint, Rosemary
explain why the whiff of certain fragrances can bring • Sadness/Grief: Bergamot, Chamomile (Roman),
up spontaneous images and memories deep in our Clary Sage, Frankincense, Grapefruit, Jasmine,
subconscious. Lavender, Lemon, Orange, Rose, Sandalwood,
Ylang Ylang
Aromatherapy is very effective in hydrothermal areas
and most commonly used as an inhalant—breathed • Self Esteem: Bergamot, Cypress, Grapefruit,
in through the nose via steam or vapors—and, of Jasmine, Orange, Rosemary
course, essential oils can also be blended with carrier • Stress Relief: Bergamot, Chamomile, Lavender,
oils and/or lotions and applied topically. Lemon, Orange, Patchouli, Vanilla, Ylang Ylang

Common Essential Oil Attributes
Essential oils all have different uses and effects, below are the attributes of some of the more widely used scents:
Basil: Used to sharpen concentration and alleviate some symptoms of depression.
Bergamot: Used to treat stress, depression, anxiety, anorexia, and a number of skin infections like psoriasis and
eczema. Can also stimulate the liver, digestive system and spleen.
Cedarwood: A calming agent that alleviates stress and anxiety. It also plays a role in aiding respiratory
problems as well as skin issues.
Chamomile: A powerful calming agent, as well as antibiotic, antiseptic, antidepressant and overall mood lifter.
Eucalyptus: Commonly used to treat respiratory issues, and also as an antiseptic, antispasmodic, decongestant,
diuretic and stimulant. Its cooling properties help with muscle aches and pains and can also be used to fight
migraines and fevers.
Jasmine: This scent increases the beta waves in the brain that are linked to alertness, it’s also thought to ease
depression and to enhance libido.
Lavender: Commonly used for stress-relief and to enhance relaxation and sleep. It is also said to relieve
headache and migraine symptoms.
Lemon: Can be used to help relieve the symptoms of stress and depression. It also helps with skin irritation,
digestion and circulation problems.
Marjoram: Aids in relieving anxiety and stress, also used to combat fatigue and depression and alleviate
respiratory and circulatory issues.
Patchouli: Said to promote skin cell growth, it also helps relieve anxiety, depression, fatigue, and reduce
bloating.
Peppermint: Cooling agent that enhances mood, sharpens focus, combats irritation and redness, alleviates
symptoms of congestion, and aids in digestion.
Rose: A multi-purpose scent that helps with depression, anxiety and digestion issues. It is also helps with
circulation, heart problems and respiratory conditions like asthma.
Rosemary: Widely known as a stimulant, its antidepressant properties make it ideal for enhanced memory,
focus and overall brain performance. It also acts as an analgesic, soothing aching, cramping muscles, headaches
and migraines. As an antiseptic it helps with digestive and liver infections.
Sandalwood: Most often used for its calming and aphrodisiac properties.
Tea tree: A natural immune booster with antimicrobial, antiseptic, and disinfectant qualities that is commonly
used in shampoos and skin care products to treat acne, burns, and bites.
Ylang-Ylang: Calming scent that soothes headaches, nausea, skin conditions, and is thought to reduce high
blood pressure and fight intestinal problems.
Essential oils have numerous benefits, but if used improperly the effects can be hazardous. For example,
photosensitive oils like bergamot, grapefruit, lemon, lemongrass, lime, and sweet orange can act as a sun
enhancer or burn the skin so should be avoided in hydrothermal areas.

Benefits of Floatation Therapy
Unlike other hydrothermal modalities discussed Stimulation Therapy) both for its benefits of alleviating
throughout this guide—which can be traced back chronic pain—the buoyancy of a float tank’s dense
centuries to ancient civilizations—the practice of salt water solution (created by the addition of Epsom
floatation therapy is part of modern history, dating salts) supports the muscular, skeletal and circulatory
back to the 1950s when Drs. Jay Shurley and John systems with zero pressure—and for the positive effects
Lilly at the National Institute of Mental Health became of the absence of external stimuli enabled the mind
interested in understanding how the human brain and body to give itself over to complete rest, relaxation
would respond to an environment devoid of external and recovery. Given that we live in a world of constant
sensory input. Since then, there have been a number sensory inputs, the benefits of spending time in
of publications that have explored the potential isolation floating weightlessly has an obvious appeal.
therapeutic benefits of floating. The most consistent Some of the most profound and interesting research
observation to date has been significant reductions in on Floatation-REST was release in 2018 when Dr.
levels of subjective stress and increases in relaxation as Justin Feinstein of the Laureate Institute for Brain
measured from pre- to post-float. In addition, floating Research (LIBR) in Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA published
has also been reported to decrease blood pressure, heart a peer-reviewed study on the use of floatation for
rate, and cortisol levels. treating severe mental issues, including PTSD, panic
In recent years, there’s been a marked increase in disorder, depression, agoraphobia and other forms of
interest of Floatation-REST (Reduced Environmental anxiety. Because Dr. Feinstein recognized that patients
Open floatation
tanks are a great
addition to any spa or
hydrothermal area,
offering guests a
unique experience that
requires minimal
staffing. Courtesy: Floataway

that already suffered from anxiety could perhaps be New research shows a deep drop in anxiety levels
after a 1-hour float. The study measured notable
made more anxious if asked to enter an enclosed pool
improvements in participants who considered
or pod, his research is based on open round pools— themselves anxious and non-anxious.
marking the first time this type of floatation tank has
been validated in a study. 50
The results were impressive—after a singe one-hour
float, all 50 participants in the study reported a strong
reduction in anxiety and stress-related disorders. 40
Beyond the immediate reduction in anxiety, the float
experience also induced a significant decrease in self-
reported stress, muscle tension, pain, depression,
along with a significant increase in serenity, relaxation, 30
happiness, positive affect, overall well-being, energy

levels and feeling refreshed.
Dr. Feinstein’s peer-reviewed paper can be 20
accessed here: http://journals.plos.org/plosone/ Pre Post Pre Post
Anxious Non-Anxious
article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0190292#sec017.
The buoyancy of
a floatation tank
and the absence
of external stimuli
helps the body
and mind give itself
over to complete
rest, relaxation
Courtesy: Floataway and recovery.

Further Resources
There is a wide world of evidence on the effectiveness of wellness therapies to explore. In order to start your
research, try these resources:
Contrast Water Therapy
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23626806
Hydrotherapy for Depression
www.psychologytoday.com/blog/inner-source/201407/cold-splash-hydrotherapy-depression-and-anxiety
Hydrotherapy in Heart Health
www.internationaljournalofcardiology.com/article/S0167-5273(14)02069-5/abstract
Hydrotherapy in Stroke Rehabilitation
Benefits of WATSU in Third Trimester of Pregnancy
Reducing Pain in Fibromyalgia
Hydrotherapy Improves Balance in Parkinson’s Patients
Hydrotherapy Improves Gait in Spastic Paraparesis
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24556467
Hydrotherapy and Social Engagement in Autism Spectrum
Recovery After Exercise
Enhanced Recovery After Exercise with Hydrotherapy
Hydrotherapy Reduces Pain in MS Patients
Hydro-rehab in Knee and Hip Arthritis
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD005523.pub3/full
Floatation-REST for Treating Depression and Anxiety
http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0190292#sec017
Altered Consciousness in Sensory Deprivation
www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR13-4/kjellgren.pdf
Floating and Muscle Tension, Stress
http://bmccomplementalternmed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6882-14-417
Aromatherapy Studies
www.wellnessevidence.com/wellnessevidence/aromatherapy/spotlight

Chapter Three
Project Planning:
Architecture & Design
This chapter gives readers a broad overview of what to
consider during the planning and building stages of a
residential or commercial spa. It is designed to help the reader
understand what goes into the build and how to prepare for
it, including assembling a project team. It outlines some of the
major oversights and how to avoid them.
Perhaps surprisingly, one of the most significant

stumbling blocks in the planning of a hydrothermal
spa area—whether it’s commercial or residential—
is a misunderstanding of basic terminology and
functionality. There can be a lot of confusion around
what each of the thermal cabins does (i.e., are they dry
or wet? hot, humid or cold?) or how a pool functions.
Because terminology can differ from country to
country, the confusion is often escalated. For example,
what’s the difference between a hamam and a steam
room? a sauna or a banya? or a steam shower and an
experience shower? If the whole team does not “speak”
the same language, it becomes impossible to deliver to
a client’s expectations.
This guide will help minimize these issues by providing
clear definitions of the hydrothermal features that are
typically included in a modern build. The reader will
find detailed descriptions of thermal rooms and other
specialist treatment rooms (see Chapters 4 and 5) and
Project Planning: Architecture & Design | 31

During the initial client
briefing, the entire
scope of the project—
including reception
area requirements—will
Courtesy: Barr + Wray Ltd. be discussed.
hydrotherapy pools (see Chapter 6), as well as a glossary personal tastes or operating experience is usually a
of key hydrothermal terms. However, it should be noted recipe for an unsatisfactory project. Instead, a spa that
that this is only a starting-off point, and, regardless of meets an owner/operator’s vision, while incorporating
the size of a build, it is always recommended that a industry best practices and unique customer selling
hydrothermal specialist be appointed at the outset of points is the ultimate desired outcome.
the project. Without a hydrothermal specialist on the In short, hydrothermal spa design is a complex process
team, there will always be a risk of overlooking some
that requires a specialist designer with expertise in
very basic requirements that could ultimately end up
both design and engineering and who has a unique
costing both time and money.
understanding and appreciation for integrating both
into a single space. Typically, lead designers on large
Assembling a Project Team
commercial projects will employ a specialist sub-
A commercial build requires not only a hydrothermal consultant to carry out the spa design.
specialist but it is also vital to engage an architect and
interior designer, preferably with spa experience. In Commercial Spa Design Stages
addition, an operational spa consultant should be a
The design stages of a project are typically as follows:
key part of the team. They will help create the business
plan; plot the flow of guests through the spa; assist 0 – Definition
in choosing the products and services required; and 1 – Prep and Brief
coordinate staff recruitment/training, etc.
2 – Concept Design
A proactive client will listen to his/her team’s advice,
3 – Schematic Design
but will also be prepared to question it. It’s highly
recommended that anyone embarking on such a 4 – Detailed Design
project makes numerous spa visits, including to spas 5 – Construction Documents (can include Bid
that members of the team have designed, operated, Documents)
built or consulted on. If possible, speak to other spa 6 – Construction
owners/operators to identify critical success factors
and the things they may have done differently. A 7 – Handover and Close Out
hydrothermal spa based on a single team member’s 8 – Operational

Stage 1: Preparation and Client Briefing Stage 2: Concept Design
The project team meets with the client to ascertain Step 1: Adjacency Plans (also known as ‘bubble
requirements, unique selling points (USPs) and overall diagrams’), including:
vision. The briefing should cover these basic points so • Architectural space (access points, lifts, and views)
that the team understands the basics of the build:
• Guest flow/journey (considering male, female and
• Architectural space allocated to spa area disabled guest)
• Cultural/regional requirements • Staff flow (discreet staff movements for guest
privacy)
• USP’s – Signature spaces/treatments
Step 2: Concept Design
• Reception requirements
This is the first time that the client will be able to
• Retail space needs
visualize their spa design, including:
• Spa food & beverage (F&B) offering
• Reception layout including consultation space
• Number of treatment rooms (privacy)
• Relaxation space • Retail space
• Changing rooms • Spa F&B
• Wet areas (pools/thermal cabins) • Changing rooms – locker/WC’s/vanity areas
• Back of House (BoH) requirement – offices; prep • Wet area design – types of pools & thermal cabins
areas; pantry/linen storage (avoiding cross over from wet to dry areas)
Typical Adjacency Plan

• Treatment rooms and types (single/double/VIP) Two major areas the hydrothermal specialist will bring
• Relaxation space – loungers/beds to the attention of the client at this stage of the design
development is:
• Plant room requirements
• Ensuring integration with general building MEP
• Back of House (BoH)
requirements (best achieved if project is utilizing the
−−Office requirements – spa director;
latest Building Information Modeling (BIM) design
administration; reservations
software)
−−Prep areas/dispensary
−−Pantry • Plant room size and location
−−Clean & dirty linen distribution −−Optimize plant room size but ensure sufficient
−−Storage space space to allow for future plant maintenance
−−Cleaners’ storage −−Plant/Mechanical rooms should never be located
−−Plant room/technical room near quiet relaxation areas.
During this phase, the hydrothermal specialist will also −−Plant/Mechanical rooms should be located near
consider areas where the client can maximize revenues, the pools (beneath the water level) and thermal
including: cabins
• Flexibilityto swing or change male/female −−Electrical loading and MEP requirements:
occupancy depending on demand Power/Water/Drainage/Ventilation

−−Sustainability – LEED/BREEAM requirements
• Special chargeable treatments (e.g. Rasul mud bath
may have to be considered
or hamam)
−−Technical equipment selections
Typical Concept Plan

Renders of all spa
areas helps a client
visualize the final
spa design. Courtesy: Barr + Wray Ltd.
Step 3 – Mood Boards & Samples and furniture fittings and equipment. Completion of
There should be careful consideration of finishes and this is frequently referred to as “100% DD.”
materials in wet areas. Stage 5: Tender & Construction
• Avoid soft stone materials that absorb water Documentation
• Consider any potential slip hazards Once the client has approved the detail design then a
full package of drawings, specifications and schedules is
• Potential oil stains should be taken into consideration
prepared with status “Issued for Construction” (IFC).
when choosing fabrics
Additional services can also be provided by the
Stage 3: Schematic Design hydrothermal/spa design specialist, including:
At this point the project drawings will ‘prove’ the
• Responding to tender queries from specialist spa fit
concept design and ensure everything fits into the
out contractors
building. Also at this stage the hydrothermal/spa
design specialist should provide a schedule of costs • Reviewing tenders from specialist spa fit-out
with budget/target prices to assist the client to finalize contractors
his overall budget for the project. • Participation in tender clarification meetings
Computer generated images (CGI renderings) will • Prepare tender evaluation report and
frequently be created at this stage to allow the client to recommendations
fully visualize the finished spa.
Stage 6: Construction Supervision
Stage 4: Detailed Design Visit site on a regular basis to ensure that the
Detailed design starts with refining the schematic spa installation contractor complies with the
design and then providing the client with a complete set design specification and witness final testing and
of drawings, room data sheets and schedules for doors, commissioning of all equipment, particularly in the
ironmongery, sanitary ware, feature lighting, finishes wet areas.

Specialist Hydrothermal Team
Don’t underestimate the complexity of the building waterproofing that are necessary; as well as providing
services associated with a wet spa. Even if the architect insight into the pipe work, sprinkler systems, concrete
and interior designer have been involved in this type of works, plant rooms, plinths, balance tanks, etc. These
build before, it doesn’t necessarily mean they have the will all be installed by various contractors, but the wet
detailed expertise required to properly execute these area specialist should help get the basics right—such
critical areas. as the floor slab, its water proofing and slope—correct
the first time around.
A successful build is based on collaboration between the
design/construction team and a specialist wet area team For a large commercial build your hydrothermal team
that will bring detailed knowledge of hydrothermal spa will look like this:
• M&E or MEP consultant: all mechanical and
requirements. Regardless of the size of the project, wet
electrical interfaces, including ventilation, plant
spa equipment supplier(s) and consultants should be
room, drainage, etc.
selected at the outset of the project, so their specific
• Structural engineer: works on the details of all
requirements are communicated to the design/
major building works, including pool structures and
construction team in order to create a successful
prefabricated cabin rooms, etc. (can be part of the
project through the conventional design phases as
architectural team)
outlined above.
• Hydrothermal equipment provider: can work
It’s important to identify early in the process who is in with a hydrothermal specialist or independently
charge of the coordination of the various subcontractors. to advise not only on equipment required but also
Ideally, this is a project manager who is able to oversee on the layout of cabins, pools and people flow and
the other contractors and has an understanding of wet will ensure plant/mechanical rooms are properly
area specifications, such as the type of insulation and provided for
A hydrothermal team
will ensure that all
wet areas in a spa are
well planned out and
installed correctly.

Sample Spa Flow
MALE ONLY FITNESS Note: Region will dictate if gender
(If possible) segregation is required
BACK
MALE RELAXATION
TREATMENT OF HOUSE
PICK UP
MALE
CHANGING TREATMENT ROOMS
MALE WET SPA
SPA
GARDEN
REFRESHMENTS
RECEPTION ADMIN JUICE BAR MECHANICAL SPACE
CAFE
SPA
GARDEN
FEMALE WET SPA
BACK-OF-HOUSE
LINK CORIDOR
FEMALE
CHANGING
TREATMENT BACK
FEMALE RELAXATION
PICK UP OF HOUSE
When designing a hydrothermal spa area,

FEMALE ONLY FITNESS the flow of both guest and staff must be well
(If possible) thought out. The above sample is suitable
for virtually any culture/region; however,
it’s becoming more common to have mixed
gender relaxation and spa areas.
Space and People in

Commercial Spas
The most crucial considerations in a new build are areas differs greatly from the way they would interact
space requirements and people flow. A common error in other public spaces. It’s important to be aware of the
is underestimating the space required for the plant need for extra personal space.
room and mechanical equipment. For example, a Additionally, the intense heat of the thermal treatments
simple hydrotherapy pool may not look too big, but it means that space must be allocated for cooling off
requires almost as much space again for the associated (through showers and plunge pools) and relaxing
plant and equipment. On the other hand, a Finnish between treatments. As an example, 10 minutes in a
sauna needs next to nothing in terms of additional sauna requires 20 minutes to 30 minutes cooling time
space, unless it features an automatic essence dosing (of course, in practice, people will listen to their bodies
system, which requires its own plant cupboard. and these times will vary significantly). Space should
Consideration for people flow (both for guests and be allocated accordingly—if, for example, the thermal
staff) is also critical. Staff should have a completely cabins in a spa seat 15 people, then the relaxation/
different flow from guests so they can perform behind- cooling areas need to accommodate at least the same
the-scenes functions without being seen, like setting number, if not more, people. The customer journey
up treatments, gathering used linens and cleaning. through the spa should also be logical and simple
Generally, the way people interact in hydrothermal to follow.

Spa Suites
Spa suites enable guests to enjoy different types of Spa suites are usually designed as “miniature spa areas”
spa applications in relatively luxurious environments, in their own right and can include separate rooms/areas
normally attracting a premium price, without having for different treatment types and are often designed to
to move around the spa. So, in addition to the positive accommodate two or more people. What is included in
effects of the treatments, the guest is more relaxed a spa suite is determined by the theme of the spa itself
because they will have the luxury of time to enjoy all and with consideration to guests’ expectations and
the equipment at their leisure. needs – some common combinations are as follows:
Sample Room 1
• Small hamam area or sauna
• Shower to rinse off and cool down
between treatments
• Two relaxation beds for relaxing after having
used the en-suite hamam or sauna
−−These beds can serve a double duty by
offering a hydro-massage feature, a fully
automatic underwater massage.
Sample Room 2
• A fully automatic massage tub for
hydro-massage
• A dry floatation bed used mostly in
combination with body wraps
• An anteroom accessible via connecting
doors with a sauna/hamam and two
relaxation/massage beds.
Sample Room 3
• Overhead Vichy/horizontal shower table
that can also be used to apply body wraps
or dry massages.
• A fully automatic Hydrotherapy tub for
underwater massages

Key Considerations
• Seek professional advice early—these are specialized • Don’t forget the plant room and equipment—the
areas; wet area specialists are required detailed plant and technical equipment requirements
• Be clear on budget—a wet area is not a place to (plant rooms, etc.) are frequently undocumented in
cut corners; understanding this at the outset will early planning stages; this omission often means
minimize frustrations going back to the drawing board partway through a
• Know your audience—preferences around the world
build—with consequent time delays and extra costs
vary greatly so make sure hydrothermal features are • Noise is the enemy—customer relaxation will be
targeted to your audience non-existent and the ambience of the spa will be
• Balance is important—achieve the correct balance
severely compromised if noise emissions aren’t kept
between water (pools) and thermal experiences to a minimum (for example, a relaxation space
(steam rooms, saunas, etc.) should not be adjacent to a vitality pool, which can
be quite noisy and often generates conversation)
• Don’t underestimate space requirements—wet spa
• Water egress is also the enemy—a lack of detailed
areas often require twice the space to accommodate
behind-the-scenes equipment and maintenance planning in the materials used, construction
techniques and drainage can result in water leakage/
• Bathers and staff require different flows—
damage throughout the facility, which can lead to
understand who will be using and working in the
health issues from mold and bacteria growth such
various spaces and plan accordingly
as legionella
Common Mistakes
• Delays and re-fits—i.e., additional costs—are • Building with substandard materials that can’t
usually caused when a wet area specialist is handle extensive heat and moisture
not involved during the preliminary design • Failing to follow proper drainage and ventilation
stages standards
• Underestimating/ignoring space required for • Lack of awareness of health, safety and hygiene
plant room and mechanical equipment in every aspect of the design
• Lack of attention to people flow—both of • Attempting to cut costs by not hiring dedicated
guests and staff specialists, such as MEP consultant or structural
• Not accounting for variances in cultures and engineers; invariably this will cost more money
the types of treatments and facilities guests in the long run
will want and use (i.e., know your target • Not specifying properly tested and certified
audience) waterproof construction materials
• Noise is the enemy of a relaxing spa • Not planning for the space required for the
experience; whether it’s a hydrotherapy pool plant room
or a plant room operating a steam room—
• Inefficient crossover of wet and dry areas
put them where they can’t be heard
• Failure to maximize operator revenue
• Lack of back of house areas

Return on Investment (ROI): Model Hydrothermal Project
When designed as a major feature of a spa or wellness center, wet areas can be significant profit centers. To help
readers understand the numbers behind a typical hydrothermal project and to illustrate revenue potential, we
have laid out the relevant numbers. The financial example on the adjoining page is in $USD and based on 2018
values. The prices are for a 4-star resort property and are indicative of costs/revenue builds in North America, the
Caribbean and much of Europe and the Middle East. (Excludes any additional costs from specialty finishes.)
Unlike wet areas traditionally installed as locker-room amenities and provided free of charge (delivering minimal
ROI), dedicated hydrothermal areas can generate significant profits—and increase guest’s satisfaction and
enjoyment with their stay—in a relatively fast timetable.
Advantages of Dedicated Hydrothermal Spa and Wellness Area
• Additional revenue opportunity
• At check-in, staff can easily upsell at a special “buy now” discount
• $45 entry fee will likely be lowest priced item on spa menu
• Low-cost DIY experience is a great way to get appeal to new spa goers
• Entry fee can be inflated to enable generous discounts to longer staying guests or as a negotiating item when
closing corporate or convention business
• Comping hydrothermal area entry for VIPs incurs minimal out-of-pocket expense, leaving treatment room and
therapist available for paying guests
A well-planned
hydrothermal area
not only generates
significant profits but
also delivers increased
guest satisfaction and
enjoyment.

Spa Features
• Male and female gender segregated areas
• Sauna, steam room, laconium, snow room, foot spa, cool down showers, hydrotherapy pool and wet lounge
area for resting between periods in thermal areas
• 230 m²/2,500 ft² per gender = 460 m²/5,000 ft² total area including circulation space
Note: For simplicity, square footage has been used in the financial example (1 m² = 10.76 ft²). Locker rooms are excluded
as they rarely are required in destination resorts as guests arrive in robes. This also exludes general building services to the
common areas—all of which would be necessary regardless of what the space was used for. Costs include all technology
and feature-specific building services and equipment, such as HVAC, specialist lighting within each experience, and all
electrical and plumbing supplies required for mechanical/plant rooms.
Estimated Building Costs
Complete Installation 5,000 ft2 x $400/ft2 = $2,500,000
Wall, Floor & Ceiling Finishes 18,500 ft2 x $50/ft2 = $1,000,000
Grand Total $3,500,000
Estimated Spa Revenue
40 guests, 3 times a day = 120 guests

Attendance Per Day (This size spa can easily support 60 guests at any one time, but let’s
assume we have just 40 guests every 4 hours during a 12-hour day.)
Revenue Per Person $45 (The average charge is $65, but we’re using a reduced rate.)
Total Daily Revenue 120 guests x $45 cost/person = $5,400/day
Total Yearly Revenue

$1,944,000
(360 operating days)
Estimated Operational Costs
35% to 50% of Spa’s Total Income

Staffing Costs (Staffing levels of hydrothermal areas are very low—no expensive
therapists or down time. Just spa attendants keeping space clean.)
Estimated ROI
ROI with Construction 22 months (less than 2 years)
33-44 months
(Given the average life of a hydrothermal spa is at least 12 years,

Total ROI
there is a significant retun on the original investment by charging a
modest $45 entry fee.)

Because of the
limited space of
a residential spa,
professional planning
is key to ensure space
Courtesy: Sommerhuber is used efficiently.
Residential or Private Spa Design

Whether it’s intended for a home or a luxury hotel wet areas are not designed by specialists. Of course,
suite, smaller spas should, ideally, be designed to the the building components, including electrical devices,
same specifications as larger, commercial spas—simply should be smaller than those included in a commercial
on a smaller scale. Limited space means that the build, but it’s important to seek out the same quality
amenities included in a smaller spa will obviously be and reliability as those found in a commercial spa
a personal decision, however, typically, there will be a so the wet area will last and maintenance costs over
steam room or sauna or a combination of both and its lifetime will be minimized. A knowledgeable spa
perhaps a hot tub and some form of cooling experience designer will look for already-available, prefabricated
such as a specialist or multi-feature shower. modular components to build a small steam room, for
Clearly, space is the biggest consideration here and example. Fitting reliable, high-grade electrical devices
clever planning is needed to achieve the spa area that and advanced functions as those found in a commercial
is desired. Combined solutions, like a steam shower spa also makes sense—just as you might use a home
that also serves as a steam room and includes effects version of the Italian espresso machine found at your
like sound, fragrances and light, are a great choice for local café or coffee house.
smaller spaces. And, if possible, a separate relaxation Automation is another big area of consideration for
area should be included to get the full benefits of the a residential spa. Technical standards are constantly
hydrothermal therapies. evolving but being able to operate your spa via an app
Because of the limited space, professional planning is on a smartphone or other device will make a residential
even more important. You will need sufficient access spa experience much better and in sync with current
to all equipment and components for maintenance trends in home automation. To learn more about
purposes—something that is often overlooked when creating a connected, smart spa, see Chapter 8.

Private Hydrothermal Areas: Design Concepts
Designing hydrothermal areas for private use requires clever planning due to limited space. Here, and on
the following page, are two different concepts—both are open-planned designs, including glass fronts for
the sauna steam rooms. In addition, because it’s an intimate living environment, the rooms also include
more space for lying down versus sitting—so the benches are wider where possible; and, to maintain
proper hygiene, large surface tiles are used. Both private hydrothermal spa areas are approximately
30 square meters.
Private Spa Design

Concept A
Includes heated
relaxation loungers;
sauna; walk in
shower; steam room
with heat-storing
ceramic benches. Courtesy: Sommerhuber
200cm 90cm 200cm

150cm
550cm
550cm

Courtesy: Sommerhuber
Private Spa Design 220cm 250cm

Concept B
Includes heated
relaxation loungers;
225cm
traditional sauna;
steam room with an
ergonomically shaped
heat storing ceramic
bench and floating
600cm
lounger; walk in
experience shower.
620cm

International Codes and Standards
Regardless of the country a project is based in, there are internationally accepted codes and standards that
hydrothermal specialists follow (be sure that your architect or builder is aware of them). In addition, you should
consult relevant local codes and guidelines before proceeding with a build. Below is a list of commonly used codes
and standards used in professional hydrothermal builds.
General Building Codes/Standards

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): The disability code adopted by most builders/architects internationally;
www.ada.gov
German DIN 18040-1: German barrier-free building standards for disabled access; www.en.lehnen.de
International Building Codes: Developed by the International Code Council, a U.S. organization that is
dedicated to developing model codes and standards used in the design, build and compliance process to construct
safe, sustainable, affordable and resilient structures. These codes are adopted globally; visit www.iccsafe.org
RIBA Plan of Work: The Royal Institute of British Architects champions better buildings, communities and the
environment through architecture; provides standards, training and support for architects; www.architecture.com
Sauna and Steam Room

German Sauna Standards: Created by the RAL standards authority; www.ral-guetezeichen.de
ÖNORM M6219: Austrian standard for planning and operation of steam rooms; www.bdb.at
Swimming Pools and Surrounding Area

BS EN 13451-1:2011, Swimming Pool Safety Requirements: UK standards for general safety and testing of
swimming pools and pool equipment; available at shop.bsigroup.com
German DIN 19643-4: German standards for swimming pool water and bath water hygiene; available in English
at www.beuth.de
German DIN 51097: German standards for slip resistance; www.beuth.de
Pool Water Treatment Advisory Group: A UK organization dedicated to raising standards in swimming pool
water treatment; www.pwtag.org
International Swimming Pool and Spa Code (ISPSC): Developed with the Association of Pool & Spa
Professionals (APSP), the ISPSC establishes minimum regulations for public and residential pools, spas and hot
tubs; https://www.iccsafe.org
Trade Rules of the Swedish Ceramic Tile Council for Wet Areas: Best practices adopted by most hydrothermal
experts for installing ceramic tile; www.bkr.se

Chapter Four
Thermal Bathing Areas:

Function and Design
This chapter focuses on thermal bathing cabins and rooms
(such as saunas and steam rooms) found in a typical modern
spa. It includes a comprehensive overview of the functionality
and health benefits of the different types of thermal cabins
and outlines special considerations required to create spaces
that not only please the user, but also comply with accepted
health and safety regulations.
First, we look at some of the guiding principles to

follow for ensuring these spaces account for the
way people typically interact within them. Design
considerations are demanding for the simple reason
that users are minimally clothed and are using areas
that are both warm and wet, presenting hygiene and
safety issues (see Chapter 9).
Human Interaction
When conceiving these areas, it is essential designers
understand people fundamentally interact differently
when they have few or no clothes on—personal space,
in particular, becomes of the utmost importance. The
way we interact in a bathing suit or completely naked
The consideration is very different to how we generally interact in public
of personal space is spaces. Take, for example, public transport—here
very important when people often touch strangers, sitting thigh-to-thigh or
designing thermal standing shoulder-to-shoulder on a subway or a bus.
bathing areas. By contrast, sitting and touching bare-thigh to bare-
Thermal Bathing Areas | 47

thigh in a sauna or steam room would be unacceptable drainage in spas is very different to any other part of
for most. It seems obvious, but not accounting for the the building, it needs to be addressed in consultation
increased need of personal space is one of the biggest with the wet-spa-area specialist.
mistakes made in a hydrothermal construction project.
In practice this means creating wider hallways in Entries and Exits
order to avoid any “pinch-points,” where people must Being able to easily enter and exit cabins is paramount.
squeeze past one another; designing benches and seats For example, in the event of a bather feeling unwell,
to allow for adequate space between bodies (600 mm he/she should be able to leave the cabin unhindered.
is recommended); and, where possible, providing This means doors must always open outwards and be
individual seating so that bathers don’t have to consider free of any mechanical latching devices.
invading another’s personal space on a communal
bench. Disabled Access
If you’re designing a co-ed (mixed male/female) area, Access for people with disabilities has become
there are other considerations. For example, a standard increasingly important in all builds, and the
practice when designing steam rooms and saunas is to hydrothermal spa area is no exception. Providing this
include a clear view into the cabin so bathers can see access is not only a law in some countries, but it’s also
exactly what is happening inside, including gauging a sign of inclusiveness and enables the facility to market
the number of current occupants. A woman bathing to a broader number of people. And, the benefits
on her own, for example, may not feel comfortable of hydrothermal treatments to disabled persons,
entering a busy sauna if there are only men inside. She particularly with motor or physical disabilities, make
may prefer to wait until some of the group exits or providing access even more important.
until other women enter the cabin.
In broad terms, disabled access means incorporating
the following basics:
Surfaces and Flooring • Entry ramps
The surface finishes in all areas of the hydrothermal • Correct door widths
spa should be chosen based on how well they will • Correct clearances on the pull and push side of doors
accommodate the users. For example, instead of • Low-level emergency button inside the room for
traditional mosaic tile, consider larger slabs of stone assisted exit
or tiling to avoid grout lines every few inches—and • Low-level bell at entrance to request assisted entry
to minimize the effects of wear and tear caused by • A disabled bathroom
the water’s properties. Also, avoid soft, porous stone, • Accessible changing and locker rooms, shower areas
such as marble, in steam and wet rooms, as it, too, is • Treatment rooms on the ground floor and/or lifts to
prone to degeneration. It’s also important to not use upper floors
very dark tiles so that cleaning staff can easily recognize • Wheelchair access to treatment rooms (corridors,
areas that need cleaning. doors, turning radiuses)
The floor finish should be chosen to minimize the • Hydraulic treatment tables
potential for slippage. Getting the floor finish and Laws related to disability are enshrined in statutes,
correct sloping angle is crucial for proper drainage, such as the Disability Discrimination Act in the UK
and to avoid accidents in wet areas. In places where and the Americans with Disabilities Act in the U.S.
a lot of water accumulates, such as those close to pool These (and others) prohibit discrimination against
exits and steam rooms, proper drains and slopes need people with disabilities, which can be visible, hidden,
to be implemented in the screed below. Because the permanent or temporary.

Hot and Dry:
Finnish Sauna/Russian Banya/Bio Sauna/
Infrared Sauna
There are several different styles of saunas in use

Finnish Sauna today. The traditional and most common are Finnish
Temperature: between 70° C to 95° C saunas and Russian banyas (“banya” actually means
Humidity: 5% to 15% at level of second “bathhouse” in Russian, but the term has been
bench; 3% to 10% at level of third bench adopted to refer to the sauna-like room in the banya).
While various sauna types all run at slightly different
Russian Banya temperatures and humidity, they are closely related in
Temperature: between 80° C to 105° C style, usage and health benefits.
Humidity: 60% to 70%
How Saunas Work
A heat source radiates warmth from wood-clad walls
Biosauna (or Soft Sauna)
via stones that are heated in an electric or gas sauna
Temperature: between 50° C to 60° C
stove, or, in traditional installations, by log fires.
Saunas typically have two or three different levels
of benches to provide room for as many people as
Infrared Sauna
possible and also offer varied temperature zones—as
the heat will be significantly stronger at higher levels.
Humidity: 55%
The benches are wooden and constructed of specialist
timber that is chosen for its low thermal conductivity
and high laminar strength. The benches have a lattice
design with broad slits to allow the air to circulate well
throughout the sauna.

Saunas are the hottest
therapy cabins in a
hydrothermal spa and
likely the one most
bathers will already be
Courtesy: Klafs GmbH & Co. familiar with.
Infusions of water bring out an increase in humidity, shower. A warm, ankle-deep footbath (outside the
subjecting the body to a short, but powerful, heat sauna cabin) should also be considered for equalizing
stimulus. Traditionally, a small wooden tub full of water body temperature. (The small amount of flesh and fat
and a ladle was used to pour water over the hot rocks. on the feet, combined with a large number of blood
In addition, the water was often infused with birch vessels, allows them to get cold and hot faster than any
twigs to give it a pleasant fragrance—birch was also other body part, so a footbath will help regulate the
believed to improve the immune system and open skin body’s temperature.)
pores. In modern installations, automated water dosing
systems are often used, and the infusions are typically Health Benefits
oil essences in a wide range of scents that offer different The alternation of heat and cold (also called contrast
aromatherapy stimuli for body and mind. In addition, therapy) ensure that a good supply of blood is pumped
there are safety and efficiency benefits associated with through the veins, helping to flush out toxins from
automated dosing systems, including the avoidance of areas of the body that aren’t normally given the ability
over-dosing fragrance and controlling the amount of to do this (namely the skin and subcutaneous tissues).
water that is used, preventing unnecessary wear on the The immersion in both hot and cold is also believed
heat source and avoiding any water puddling. to train the immune system, and regular sauna users
rarely suffer minor infections and colds.
Type of Use
Saunas are traditionally used to relax and ease muscle Heat Source
tension, as well as boost circulation and improve the Sauna Stove: Heat comes from specially sourced
immune system. stones—typically deep igneous, plutonic rocks capable
As one of the hottest therapy cabins in the hydrothermal of absorbing and emitting high levels of heat. They
spa, saunas should be used in conjunction with cold— are heated in the sauna stove, traditionally by a wood
this can be anything from a cold shower, an ice fountain fire but, more often, by electricity or gas. The size of
or a “roll in the snow” in a snow room or via a snow the sauna stove is determined by how many kilowatts

per cubic meter of heat is required—a calculation that glass). Door sizes can vary depending on application
must be done by a wet-area spa specialist. For example, and building codes, particularly in relation to access
the power requirement of the heater increases if the for the disabled. Interior door handle must be wood so
sauna has any windows or if glass is used within the it doesn’t become too hot to the touch.
design in general. If this is the case, there can be a Windows: Though not traditional, windows and/
potential health and safety issue for guests. or glass fronts are becoming more common in
modern saunas. Of course, this can change the level
Materials/Construction
of insulation and radiation provided by an all-wood
Structure: A soft, sustainable wood that is resin-free cabin; however, they have architectural and aesthetic
is recommended in classic sauna design—common merit and can allow bathers to feel more comfortable
choices are pine, hemlock, spruce and cedar. When by delivering more visibility.
choosing wood, note that minimal knots are preferred,
Floors: Saunas should be constructed on level, pre-
as they can act as hot spots and cause uneven
tiled floors. If the walking distance between the
heat radiation.
door and benches is greater than 2 meters, installing
Benches: A hard, low-thermal-conducting wood a removable wooden floor or underfloor cooling
is required for the benches. Aspen, obeche or poplar system is recommended in order to keep guests’ feet
are good choices, as they will not split and conduct comfortable.
minimal heat so will avoid burning the skin. Benches
Design Considerations
should support a minimum of 200 kg/440 lbs per
linear meter or 134 lbs per linear foot. Size/Space: When designing saunas for commercial
applications, consideration should be given to personal
Ceiling: Should not be higher than 226 mm above
space and a minimum of 600 millimeters should be
the head of the bather when sitting on highest bench. allowed for each person sitting. Bathers also like to lie
Door: Traditionally made of wood, but design trends down in a sauna so it should ideally accommodate a
have moved towards all glass (must be tempered safety two-meter-long person.
Doors were
traditionally made of
wood, but now often
feature tempered
safety glass.

Audio/Visual: Consider both lights and sounds out, usually via a duct built into the wall panel that will
to enhance the experience. In commercial builds discharge the air at roof level. Fresh air will be delivered
particularly, audio is used to help break the often- directly into the heat source, ideally exchanged and
uncomfortable silence you can have when entering refreshed seven to 10 times per hour.
a closed space with strangers. There are heat-proof Special Considerations: Users of the sauna must
speakers specifically designed for this usage, as well as be able to monitor temperature, relative humidity
specialist equipment that links both light and sound and the duration of their sauna experience. This makes
output. the inclusion of a thermometer, a hygrometer (used
Illumination: Lighting choices are fairly limited in to measure moisture content) and a timer imperative
saunas simply due to the fact that it has to be resistant (an ‘hour glass’ measuring appropriate time segments
to extremely high operating temperatures, especially is ideal).
in the higher section of the sauna, where heat is
strongest. There are specifically designed specialty How to Use a Sauna
products available for use in saunas, including sconces, • A proper sauna session will take 90 minutes
crystal glass diffusers and fiber optic lighting. Standard
• Remove clothing, jewelry and contact lenses
lighting equipment can also be sourced for installation
below the first bench level, as heat is less of an issue. • Prior to sauna, users must shower and fully dry
themselves to remove any film on the skin that
Ventilation: It is essential that saunas are properly
can delay the onset of sweating (ideally, a foot bath
ventilated to keep a continual flow of oxygen in the
should be used)
cabin. An air extractor point is located close to the
bottom of the cabin to take the cooler, more humid air • Once in the sauna, it’s ideal to lie down so that the
entire body is within the same temperature zone;
if you must sit, sit with your feet up on the same
bench you are sitting on
• First sauna session should last eight minutes to
12 minutes (depending on how the body reacts);
followed by cooling off 12 minutes to 20 minutes
• Cool off first in the air, then rinse off the sweat with
cold water
• The first session can be followed by two more
sessions, and you will note that your body will
visibly sweat more rapidly during the second and
third sessions
• After the final sauna session, it’s important to rest
and cool off your body completely
Courtesy: WDT Example of an LED spotlight designed specifically

Werner Dosiertechnik for use in high temperature saunas.

A Russian banya
is very similar to a
sauna in form and
function - with a key
differentiator: bathers
use dried branches
to hit themselves to
improve circulation. South Kensington Club Bathhouse (Credit: James Larkin, Cameron Clair)
How to Use a Banya

Common Mistakes
• A traditional banya will have a washing room
for showering before entering the banya
• Using the walls of the building when
constructing sauna: walls of a sauna must
• Do a five- to 10-minute session, followed by a be independent and have a cavity between
cooling-off period either outdoors or in cold water them and the building walls to avoid
• During the second session (or “second sweat”), condensation
veniks, or bunches of dried branches and leaves • Installing lighting that is not resistant to the
from white birch, oak or eucalyptus, may be used to intense heat of a sauna
hit bathers (this can be done by yourself or another
• Incorrect ventilation that does not provide
person) in order to improve circulation
correct airflow
• During the cooling-off period, bathers often sit
• Installing door handles on the inside of the
in an antechamber next to the sauna, socializing,
sauna made of material that conducts heat;
playing games and having refreshments
therefore, scorching bather’s hands
• Purchasing a residential sauna for use in a
commercial setting—these saunas aren’t
designed to the same standards
• Using the wrong building materials so that
the sauna doesn’t function correctly or has a
short life span

Infrared Sauna
Infrared saunas are the least hot of all the sauna types.
The biggest difference is the heat they provide—a
natural electromagnetic radiation that’s not visible
to the human eye. A traditional sauna uses heat to
warm the air, which, in turn, warms the body, while
an infrared sauna heats the bather’s body directly
without warming the air. Infrared heat is used in
medical applications, as it is believed to enhance
blood circulation and ease muscle tension, while
strengthening the immune system and reducing stress.
How Infrared Heat Works

Long-wave infrared radiation is absorbed by the upper
layers of the skin and is assimilated just under the
surface where the heat-sensitive nerves—the peripheral
nervous system—are located. This warmth is then
distributed throughout the entire body by the blood
vessels and lymph nodes and is comparable to the
pleasant warm feeling experienced from the warming
of the sun.
Two types of infrared saunas exist. Traditional

wood saunas with integrated infrared lamps (top)
feature radiation that is primarily in the shorter
electromagnetic wavelength of infrared B; while
a heat-storage ceramic sauna (left) emits longer
infrared C waves. Experts suggest that shortwave
infrared is better for curing specific physical
ailments, while longer wave infrared is beneficial
for overall well-being and prevention.

Hot and Humid:
Steam Room/Caldarium/Sudatorium
The caldarium is the Roman precursor to the steam

Steam Room/Caldarium/ room (also known as steam bath). This was the hottest
Sudatorium room in the ancient Roman baths—reaching up to
Temperature: between 40° C to 47° C 50° C and also had some of the highest humidity rates
Humidity: up to 100% and air moisture saturation (i.e., steam). This room
was heated by an underground furnace known as a
“hypocaust,” essentially an under-floor heating system
that piped hot water throughout the Roman baths.
The fire source was typically located just below the
caldarium, hence making it the hottest room in the
baths, and, above the fire, a pool or cauldron of water
resided and acted as the heat source for the room—
delivering both heat and steam.
The modern steam room is unique in that it reaches
100% relative humidity—which gives it the element
of steam/fog. It should be noted that in France, a
steam room is called a “hamam”—this can cause some
confusion as a traditional Turkish hamam or Moroccan
hammam is not equivalent to a steam room (though
smaller, private, hot rooms off the hamam have very
similar attributes [see page 61]).

Due to the high moisture, steam rooms must be great choice, but if opting for mosaic, be sure to use
constructed of waterproof materials. One option is grout that is specifically designed to withstand heat
foam building boards with reinforced cement coating and water.
that will create a waterproof tank, prior to being Because of the constant steam, the interior of this
finished with other water-resistant materials, such room isn’t often seen so it’s worth considering function
as porcelain tile, large custom ceramics, granite, or over aesthetics when choosing the materials in a
even acrylic. Thermal insulation provided by foam steam room.
boards saves not only energy by reducing the working
What makes steam rooms so compelling is the damp air
hours of steam generators and the amount of heating
they provide—when fine droplets of water come into
required, but it also reduces the maintenance costs of
contact with the air, they provide a negative, energizing
this equipment.
charge. Bathers absorb these negatively charged oxygen
Unlike saunas, steam room benches are often on a ions, which can stimulate the metabolism, bringing
single level because the temperatures are much more about increased energy and even claims of fat burning
consistent throughout the cabin, but a two-tiered or weight loss. To increase both relaxation and health
bench system can also be used. Continuous surfaces benefits, aromatherapy is often added to modern
(stone or large-area heat storage ceramics) are a steam rooms.
Type of Use
Deep relaxation, detoxification and general wellbeing
are key reasons for the enduring popularity of steam
rooms. Though not as hot as a sauna, steam rooms offer
similar benefits at a less intense heat. In traditional
Roman baths, this was the hottest area the bathers had
access to and, similar to a sauna, should also be used in
conjunction with cooling treatments—such as a cold
plunge pool (frigidarium), ice room, snow room or
shower.
Health Benefits
The intensive warmth causes the muscles to relax,
and limb and joint pain is noticeably reduced. Steam
rooms are often used to help those that suffer from
rheumatism or arthritis. The high humidity also
delivers positive moisturizing effects on the skin. As
well, the alternation of heat and cold, using a cold
plunge pool or snow room, ensures that a good supply
of blood is pumped through the veins, helping to flush
out toxins and regulate the blood.
Steam room at the Swissotel The Bosphorus,

Courtesy: Kemitron GmbH Istanbul, Turkey.

Common Steam Generator Types
Resistive Heat Electrode
Heat Source
Steam Generator: A steam generator creates steam,
which is introduced to the cabin by natural pressure The Principles of Immersion
caused by the expansion in the evaporating chamber; Heating
the steam travels through an insulated copper pipe Heater elements are placed in a closed cylinder
and should enter the cabin silently via an open and connected to alternating current. The cylinder
outlet. During the heat-up phase, steam is supplied is filled with tap water, fully demineralized water
to the still-cold steam room, increasing the relative or partially softened water. Heat generated by
humidity and the temperature. The room climate in the heater elements increases water temperature
a steam room is governed/controlled by the set-point to approximately 100° C. If fully demineralized
temperature of the room, which is usually 42° C to water is used, the feed water is practically free of
47° C. Once that temperature is reached, the steam minerals. This ensures long life for the cylinder
production is interrupted until the room has cooled and heater elements since virtually no mineral
down by 2° C to 3° C. When the steam production deposits can settle or build up, ultimately,
is off, it is recommended the air extraction fan should this should minimize the number of service/
be activated. This allows the steam generator to restart maintenance checks. If tap water is used, some of
steam production quickly and helps keep a constant the minerals that dissolve in the water will settle
room humidity of 100%. It also provides visible steam in the cylinder as solids. These scale deposits are
in the room. If the humidity does not reach 95% to removed by periodic flushing or use of a heavy-
100%, the steam won’t be visible. duty blow-down pump. The generated steam
has a temperature of about 100° C and minimal
Steam production is governed by the room’s
positive pressure (“pressure-less” steam). It is also
temperature, and a re-ignition of steam is activated
virtually demineralized and germ-free.
when the temperature falls below the desired value, so
it’s important to be aware that overheating the floors or
benches can unbalance the steam generation.

Steam generators are housed in a plant room. These
Common Mistakes can be designed into the structure or housed separately.
It’s important to get professional advice on the location
and size of your plant room.
• Overheating room with floor and wall
The two most common steam room generators
heating—this will negatively affect humidity/
steam are electrode, which pass electric current through
a stainless steel element immersed in water, and
• Installing room temperature sensors in
resistive heat. Where possible, electrode- or resistive
the wrong position, resulting in room not
heat-type generators with cleanable and reusable
reaching 100% humidity
cylinders are recommended. Their integrated drain
• Failing to install temperature sensors and pumps and flushing systems reduce lime scaling,
other cabling within electrical conduits for and this leaves a smaller footprint combined with a
ease of maintenance
more environmentally friendly operation. However, a
• Steam outlets dangerously positioned, key contributor to this decision is the type of water
causing injury to bathers available on site, as a resistant-heat steam generator
• Not installing enough correct lighting/ does not rely on water quality and can, therefore, be
illumination; lighting needed to clean the easily maintained. The water’s conductivity depends on
unit is often forgotten its inherent minerals and hardness or softness. Water
• Failing to install a way to flush/clean benches quality must be tested to determine if an electrode
(a Kneipp Hose, for example) steam generator or a resistive heat-type generator
• Use of wrong materials, such as gypsum
generator should be chosen.
boards or plywood, and/or wrong closing Steam Inlets: The point at which the steam enters the
mechanisms room should be obvious to bathers and in a position
• Tiles poorly installed with incorrect that doesn’t risk injury from either the hot steam or
grouting—so they easily pop off when the nozzle itself. Steam inlets should not be located
exposed to heat and moisture under benches or allow steam to enter the steam room
• Undersizing plant room and/or putting it in under pressure. Note: Refer to Chapter 8 for more detail
the wrong location (i.e., too far away) on ventilation and climate control.
• Incorrect ventilation and temperatures

• Using wrong slopes and drainage designs
Structure: One of the most efficient forms
• Failure to install water softeners in locations of constructing “wet” thermal rooms is using
with hard water prefabricated, polystyrene panels that are cement-
• Incorrect installation of aroma injection into coated and reinforced with fiberglass on both sides.
the steam pipe These panels are moisture- and mold-resistant, have
• Ceilings too flat with no gradient, causing high insulating values and are quickly and easily
water to drip on guests assembled on site. Other materials like acrylic or
aluminum/glass can also be used.
• Benches are often installed at an even level;
however, this will result in an accumulation of Walls/Floors: Made of standard waterproof and
water. Instead, a 2% decline is recommended mold-resistant materials; floor will have adequate
to avoid water puddling drainage and slope for the water from Kneipp hoses,
porcelain tile, granite, large-format, custom ceramics
or even man-made surfaces.

Steam Room Components (Schematic Layout)
Exhaust Fan
40mm Diameter Steam

Lights Controlled by Delivery Line for Silent
Steam Generator Steam Supply
Steam Generator
Temperature Sensor
Essence Pump,
Dosing Controlled by
Steam Generator
Steam & Air Mixing
Plenum Box
Essence Reservoir
Floor Fall to Drain
Supply Air Line from Fan Controlled
by Steam Generator; Low Volume
for 4 Air Changes/Hour
Benches: Ideally continuous stoneor large-area heat Benches: Continuous stone or large‐area heat storage
storage ceramics; can be heated to body temperature ceramics are recommended to minimize the number
from 36° C to 37° C. of joints on surfaces that bodies will come in contact
Ceiling: Plastered and painted; steam- and etheric
with. This is beneficial for both comfort and hygiene.
oil-resistant plaster; should not be higher than 200 mm Audio/Visual: Steam-proof speakers provided by a
above the head of the bather when sitting on highest specialist wet-area manufacturer can be used. Consider
bench. color-changing lighting.
Door: Tempered safety glass doors, clear glass to allow Illumination: LED spots in ceiling or under-bench
for un-obscured viewing. Handles should be stainless lighting systems are recommended for visibility and
steel and doors should push open for easy exit. Doors durability, while fiber-optic lighting in the ceiling is
should be retained, closed by a simple roller-catcher sometimes used for mood enhancement.
mechanism. Ventilation: Fresh air should be introduced with
steam flow and it’s crucial to maintain air quality
Design Considerations through proper air exchange rates: for example, the
Size/Space: Bathers like to lie down in a steam room Austrian ÖNORM M 6219 standard requires that
so it should ideally accommodate a two-meter-long steam room air is exchanged 6x each hour. An air
person. When designing steam rooms for commercial outlet in the roof will remove warm air from the steam
use, consideration should be given to personal space. room to ensure continuous steam supply and a stable
The minimum amount you should allow for each temperature control. Ideally, exhaust ducts should
person sitting down is 600 millimeters. also be installed directly above the exterior of the

steam room doors to remove steam that escapes when How to Use a Steam Room
opening and closing the door.
• Take a shower before entering the steam room—it
Special Considerations: Though it’s not helps with hygiene, plus, it’s best to remove dirt and
uncommon to use under-floor and bench heating, grime before sweating
be aware that too much heat in the steam room will
unsettle the temperature/steam balance. Nevertheless,
the surfaces that bathers sit or lie on should ideally be • Up to three sessions inside the steam room is
set at an approximate surface temperature of ~34° C recommended, each one slightly shorter than
+/‐ 2°C (~ body temperature). the previous
Mineral deposits from the water can wreak havoc on • Rest between sessions for 12 minutes to 20 minutes
the steam generator and other components, so look • When finished let yourself gradually cool down;
for easy-to-clean systems that seek to minimize these drink plenty of water
issues, and, instead of relying on tap water, think about
• Clean after use, rinse off space with water; a Kneipp
using demineralized or soft water.
hose is usually provided for this purpose
Consider installing a Kneipp hose for cooling off inside
of the cabin. This feature will double as a hygienic way
of rinsing benches before and after use.
The damp and

humid air in a steam
room can stimulate
metabolism and
increase energy, while
Courtesy: Design For Leisure Ltd. moisturizing the skin.

Warm and Humid:
Turkish Hamam/Moroccan Hammam
The word “hamam” literally translates as “bathroom”

Turkish Hamam/Moroccan
in Turkish and refers to the entire Turkish bathhouse.
(N. African) Hammam
There are two principle styles of hamams—the Turkish
hamam and Moroccan or North African hammam.
Humidity: 80% to 85% relative humidity
Both derived from the original Roman bathhouses
(built after the Romans conquered the respective
The Turkish Hamam Experience: Heat
regions). Upon the Romans’ departure, the Turks
(not steam but humidity); followed by a full,
and North Africans evolved their hamams/hammams
vigorous body scrub (with a “kese” or rough
to better suit their cultural needs—including the
mitt); water rinse; a soap massage and rinse;
fastidious cleansing of the body (and soul) as a
hair wash and rinse. Many modern versions
component of the Muslim faith. A strong byproduct
follow that cycle with a full-body oil massage
of this communal bathing was the socializing element.
outside of the hamam.
A Turkish hamam is a large domed structure with a
central room (sikaklek) in which the belly stone (göbek
The Moroccan Hammam
Experience: Heat/humidity; followed by
tasi) takes center stage. The belly stone is traditionally
a full-body, sticky, black soap massage and where attendants scrub and clean bathers, and there
exfoliation with a “gome” glove; and then are often small rooms off the large central space that
often a terracotta foot stone rub and rinse; a were used for wealthier customers to be washed in
clay/mud application to body, face and hair private—these design concepts are frequently used
(and rinse or soak). Also often followed by in modern hamams for private treatments. There
argan oil application. are a large number of basins (called kurnas) around
the room that supply water for washing and rinsing,

“Hamam” translates as
“bathroom” in Turkish
and refers to the entire
Turkish bathhouse.
Hamams were derived
from the original
Faena Hotel, Miami Beach, Photo: Nik Koenig Roman bathhouses.
Common Mistakes
and plenty of bench space where bathers can wait for
treatments or relax and socialize.
• Confusing a hamam with a steam room—
A Moroccan hammam is similar to its Turkish relation
these are different experiences and different
but has retained more of the traditional Roman bathing
room types
ritual—sending the bather on a journey through
• Improper building materials causing issues smaller chambers with varying temperatures (like the
with cleaning and maintenance Roman journey through the laconium, caldarium,
• Forgetting or not providing enough space for frigidarium and tepidarium).
plant room Note that “hamam” is sometimes confusingly used
• Poor drainage, causing water to pool on floors as a generic term to describe a steam bath or a steam
• Not installing temperature and humidity room. This is particularly common in France and the
sensors in easily accessed, maintainable conduits French-speaking territories of Switzerland. For clarity,
this reference book refers to the hamam as a bathing
• Placing steam outlet in positions where
structure (including communal and treatment areas).
bathers get injured by the hot steam
• Not installing enough lighting/illumination Type of Use
—often forgotten is the lighting required to Cleansing was the original purpose of the hamam—
clean the unit and today hygiene still plays a central role. Typical
• Failing to install a way to flush/clean benches treatments include an exfoliating rub with a “kese”
(e.g., a Kneipp hose) (Turkish) or “gome” (North African) mitten, a soap
massage (black soap in North Africa) and hair wash. In
• Ventilation is vital in all thermal rooms and
addition, socializing and relaxation are the key goals of
should be in line with the recommendations
most bathers.
on p. 144

Health Benefits
The hot air temperature and warmth of the treatment Unlike a steam room, the hamam does not operate
surface (whether a traditional belly stone or a modern at close to 100% humidity. A high level of humidity
heated treatment table) relieve muscle pain and (50% to 80%) is required, however, and this was
promote mental relaxation, while the high humidity traditionally generated by the large amount of water
produces intense sweating, which leads to a detoxifying being used in the treatments and evaporating off the
cleansing. hot floors and seating/treatment surfaces. Today’s guests
aren’t always comfortable with the public bathing rituals
Heat Source
so massage, exfoliation, shaving and hair washing may
Traditionally, a hypocaust provided warm under-floor be undertaken in private rooms. This means humidity
heating, replaced by hot water “hydronic” systems as
levels often need to be augmented in other ways—either
piped plumbing systems were developed. Often the
through a steam generator or water-misting system with
floors were heated higher than body temperature,
appropriate venting and air circulation systems.
requiring bathers to wear wooden sandals (which
became serious fashion statements in the heyday of These are connected to humidity and temperature
Turkish hamams). A modern hamam will use hydronic sensors, allowing for accurate control of the hamam
heating, a system of pipes heating the floor, walls and environment.
benches to maintain a high radiated temperature.
In ancient Roman
bathhouses, a
hypocaust system
was used to heat
the rooms—similar BUILDING
TILES
to today’s hydronic AND THERMAL UP-DRAFT
FLOOR OF POWERS AIR
systems. ROOM MOVEMENT THROUGH
HOLLOW BRICKS
SYSTEM
STORE AND
RADIATE HEAT AND
LEAD WARM AIR
FURNACE
COLUMNS OF SUPPORT
TILES UNDERNEATH
THE FLOOR HELP
DISTRIBUTE HOT AIR

Materials/Construction Benches/Göbek Tasi: Finished using continuous
stone surfaces (or similar man-made surfaces); if
Structure: One of the most efficient forms
opting for a special pattern or design, use grout that
of constructing “wet” thermal rooms is using
is resistant to water and heat.. Note the göbek tasi is
prefabricated, polystyrene panels that are cement-
often still present, usually as an acknowledgment to
coated and reinforced with fiberglass on both sides.
tradition rather than a dedicated treatment surface,
These panels are moisture- and mold-resistant, have but keeping this traditional “amphitheatre” style is
high insulating values and are quickly and easily popular and provides a large surface for lying down.
assembled on site.
Ceiling: Plastered and painted, steam- and etheric oil-
Walls: Porcelain tile, large-area heat storage ceramics, resistant plaster. May be tiled/include ornamentation
marble, granite, or even man-made surfaces like for aesthetic considerations.
Avonite, Silestone and other agglomerates.
Lighting: Traditional hamams have piercings in
Floors: Prefabricated tileable floors with integrated the domed roof, sometimes in quite intricate shapes,
gradient and warrantied waterproofing. Stone tiling allowing sunlight to shaft through these “elephant
with integral drains set into the floor to avoid pooling eyes,” which often have diameters of 10 cm to 15 cm.
of water and to aid cleaning and maintenance. Slip- Modern lighting technology can be used to replicate
resistant surfaces are essential (following the German these ideas, from simple, round downlights to complex
DIN 5109-7 standards for barefoot traffic, classification systems where lighting projectors shine through to
B, is ideal). replicate the shafts of sunlight in traditional settings.
Private scrub room

at Faena Hotel,
Faena Hotel, Miami Beach, Photo: Nik Koenig Miami Beach.

In a traditional
hamam, there are a
large number of basins
(called kurnas) around
the room for washing
and rinsing, and plenty
of bench space where
bathers can wait for
treatments or relax
and socialize. Courtesy: Barr + Wray Ltd.
Design Considerations excellent modern plasters that can achieve the same
effect, dramatic designs have been created in modern
Size/Space: The ceiling should be designed to
hamams using-less traditional types of natural stone
include a traditional domed cupola roof or vaulted
and tile.
ceiling. It may be appropriate for heat recovery systems
to be installed to re-circulate the heat at higher levels. How to Use a Traditional Hamam/
Aromatherapy: Automatic essential oil dosing Hammam
system. • Take a shower before entering hamam/hammam
Audio/Visual: Low-level audio with water/steam • In a public bath, you will be given a “pestamal”
proof speakers. (a towel with fringed ends)
Illumination: Soft, indirect lighting from LED and • Enter the dry, warm room to start the bathing
fiber optic. process
Ventilation: Fresh air supply and air extraction will • When moving to the hot room, women usually
ensure good oxygen levels. The recommended air remove their towels, while men traditionally keep
turnover is 4-7 changes per hour, with an incoming air theirs on. Women and men bathe separately.
temperature between 18-24 degrees. • Use the basins (“kurnas”) to cool down with cool
Special Considerations: An authentic atmosphere water while in the hot room
is achieved when the room is finished in traditional • Await cleansing rituals, including exfoliation, hair
Turkish “Iznik”-style tiles and Carrara Blanco marble; washing, shaving, etc. (Foam plays a large role in
while North African hammams favor a traditional these rituals. The foam can be created by a hamam/
plaster finish called “tadelakt,” which isn’t advised in hammam master or automated for self service)
commercial applications. Although there are some • This can be followed by a private massage

Warm and Dry:
Laconium; Tepidarium/Warm Relaxation
Laconium
Laconium
The laconium is a relaxing, dry heat environment with
a temperature below the aggressive levels of a Finnish
Surface temperatures: approximately
34° C +/– 2° C
sauna. In Roman times, it was seen as the dry, sweating
Humidity: between 10% to 20%
room of the thermae, adjacent to the caldarium steam
room with its higher temperature. It provides a more
relaxing, less-intense experience allowing for a longer
Tepidarium/Warm treatment—usually 20 minutes but up to an hour.
Relaxation Room It is recommended for individuals that find the dry
Temperature: between 30° C to 40° C 80° C to 105° C heat of the sauna too hot and the
Surface temperatures: approximately 100% humidity of the steam room too high.
34° C +/– 2° C
Humidity: between 20% to 40% The laconium plays an important role in many spas for
(not controlled) guests who have contra-indications (such as pregnancy
or cardiovascular conditions) that prevent them from
using the hotter rooms. Offering this option makes the
spa more inclusive.
Type of Use
At a temperature of 38° C to 45° C and relatively low
humidity, the laconium environment is relaxing.
Sitting or lying on warm/hot benches and loungers
warms the body quickly and helps start the sweating

process. Cold-water Kneipp hoses are available to wash Materials/Construction
away perspiration, creating a hot-cold purification and
Structure: Generally ample in size, with enough
detoxification cycle.
room to seat six to 16 people. The interior is usually
Health Benefits tiled to provide both the radiated heat surface and a
pleasing aesthetic.
The purpose of the laconium is to purify and detoxify
Walls/Floors: Made of standard waterproof and
the body by stimulating circulation. The heat-based
treatment improves blood flow, increases metabolism, mold-resistant materials; floor will have adequate
drainage and slope for the water from Kneipp hoses.
promotes mental and physical relaxation and reduces
Prefabricated, tileable shower bases with integrated
stress. Applying essential oils such as lavender,
gradient and sealing are an option.
eucalyptus and citrus to the skin can also enhance the
positive effects of the heat—promoting mind-and- Benches: Ideally continuous stone, heat-storing
body re-generation. Aromatherapy oils are often used ceramics or other waterproof material to minimize/
in the laconium for the same purpose. avoid grouting. Almost always static and fixed to the
floor to allow for heating element to be connected;
Heat Source temperature is between 30° C to 35° C.
The heat is radiated evenly from the walls, floor and Ceilings: Can be tiled for effect, but, otherwise,
reclining surfaces. In Roman times, this was provided coated in waterproof paint.
by under-floor hot air in the hypocaust. In modern Door: A self-closing door is required to retain the
times, the dry heat is generated by electrical elements heat in the room.
or piped hydronic hot water systems within the walls,
floors and benches themselves. The surface temperature
of the seats is around 30° C to 35° C, the floors 40° C
to 45° C and the walls 60° C to 70° C.
Heated, body form

loungers are ideal in
relaxation rooms. Courtesy: Barr + Wray Ltd.

Tepidariums were
traditionally used
to warm up before
entering warmer
rooms, but they are
now most often used
to cool down after a
sauna or steam bath.
Walls/Benches/Floors: As the laconium is a often offered in this space, even if it is only a chilled
steam-free environment that bathers remain in for water fountain.
extended periods of time; the interior usually reflects
a luxury environment and is often opulent in its tiling
How to Use the Laconium
and fittings. • The laconium can be a specific heat-based relaxation
treatment, and it can also be part of a spa cycle
Audio/Visual: Low-level and ceiling lighting,
preparing the body for more extreme temperatures
together with discreet music, can enhance the relaxing
atmosphere. Placement of equipment requires careful • Wear a towel to protect the skin from the hot
consideration; equipment must be accessible for reclining surfaces, as well as for hygienic reasons
maintenance. • Sit or lay for periods long enough to allow
Special Considerations: The room needs regular perspiration from the body
cleaning to ensure acceptable hygiene standards so • Use Kneipp hoses to wash off sweat and encourage
drainage system should take this into account. Guests blood circulation, particularly to the extremities
may be using this space to relax after the intense heat
• Repeat the cycle
of a steam room or sauna so chilled refreshments are

Tepidarium/Warm Relaxation Type of Use
Room The tepidarium is traditionally used to warm up the
In ancient Roman baths, the tepidarium had a central body before using other baths, as well as to recharge
role as a relaxation and body care room. Typically the body energy through heat from the benches, floor,
air temperature would be warm (tepidus), around walls and fixtures. It can, of course, be used for gently
cooling down following periods in a sauna or steam
30° C to 40° C with constant radiant heat, at a higher
room, or indeed warming up after using a plunge
temperature, coming from the stone walls, floors,
pool, cold shower, ice room or snow room. It provides
bench seating and individual recliners.
a counterpart to other hot and cold treatments and is
The tepidarium was often the central hub of a Roman also a key relaxation area in the modern spa.
bath, linked to other hot and cold rooms. Bathers
would use the tepidarium as a focal point for warming Health Benefits
up the body, engaging in body treatments (oils and The radiant heat offers deep tissue/muscle penetration
cleaning), as well as relaxation. In a modern spa, this to soothe and relax individuals.
area is usually referred to as the “relaxation room” and
will often have individual stone/tile recliners and bench Heat Source
seating with thermostatically controlled electric or In a modern spa, air temperature is controlled by the
hydronic heating. Of course, many “relaxation rooms” central heating system (warm air ducts) with electric or
today feature normal beds or cushioned loungers, hydronic under-floor heating. An under-floor heating
but they often have an element of warmth to them system adds considerable flexibility to the heat source,
and their concept has derived from the traditional and, although initially more expensive to install, has
tepidarium. cost efficiencies over a longer term.
An alternative to
heated, body forming
loungers are soft, warm
beds—water beds offer
a nice alternative to
traditional mattresses. Courtesy: Gharieni Group

Common Mistakes to enhance the aesthetic appeal of the room. Other
surfaces include stone and ceramic, which minimize
joints—improving comfort and facilitating cleaning.
• Room lacks the privacy guests desire or is
Ceilings: Can be tiled for effect, but, otherwise,
not big enough or too bright for relaxation
coated in waterproof paint.
• Choice of loungers uncomfortable—too
Door: A self-closing door is required to retain the heat
small, too hard, not ergonomically shaped
in the room.
• Use of incorrect building materials
• Allowing noise from plant rooms or other
treatment rooms to infiltrate relaxation area Size/Space: The overall size is generally dependent
• Incorrect ventilation and temperature

on the other bathing facilities/overall capacity of the
spa. Individual loungers need to encourage relaxation
• Aromatherapy is often overlooked because
usage and should be approximately 700 mm x
there is no carrier (like steam or water), 2,000 mm x 900 mm (w x l x h).
however, aroma systems that use evaporation
Audio/Visual: Low-level and ceiling lighting,
can be used in Tepidariums
together with discreet music, can enhance the relaxing
• Guests can consider there rooms “boring”,
atmosphere. Care needs to taken with placement
consider adding a small fountain or of equipment which needs to be accessible for
aromatherapy fog fountain to encourage maintenance. Tepidarium does not have extreme heat/
guests to spend enough time relaxing cold or specific water applications so the construction
does not necessarily have to be as robust as other
bathing areas.
Benches and recliners have additional hydronic or Surfaces and fittings should be waterproof, and
electrical heating to increase the radiated heat/infrared electrical elements must be sealed and protected (with
heat level. The benches and recliners are often fixed circuit protection/circuit breaker capability) to allow
(non-moveable) fittings. for cleaning and maintenance. As the Tepidarium is
a relaxation area, a key focus is the design aesthetics,
including audio and lighting. The provision of privacy
Structure: Generally ample in size, with enough areas using screens and curtains is common.
room to seat six to 16 people. The interior is usually
tiled to provide both the radiated heat surface and a How to Use a Tepidarium
pleasing aesthetic. • Use this area to acclimatize to higher temperatures
Walls/Floor: Usually of ceramic tile/stone to prior to using other bathing rooms
maximize the radiated heat, and, like the laconium, are • Always use a towel to recline on
often more ornate because they are dry, and bathers
• Relax in the room, following hot/cold and water/
spend a great deal of time in them.
dry treatments
Benches/Loungers: Also of stone and tile for the
• Use individual audio/other sensory facilities (if
same radiated-heat benefit. Loungers are contoured
provided) to enhance relaxation and feeling of
to allow for comfortable relaxation with individual
wellbeing
thermostats to control radiated-heat temperature.
Loungers are often two-piece—a base pedestal and a
horizontal reclining surface, often tiled with mosaic

Warm/Cold and Wet:
Experience Showers; Foot Bath/Kneipp Walk
Experience Showers
even aromatherapy to deliver a multi-sensory stimulus.
Warm and cold waters have always been integral to
The key element in the showers is the water jets that
the thermal bathing ritual—allowing the body to
can be programmed to deliver different experiences.
cool down—and are key elements of the traditional
Strong, lateral jets facilitate massage, overhead water
tepidarium and frigidarium. A more modern
buckets deliver a dump of cold water, and water
interpretation is using a standard shower for a quick
mists gently hydrate, while temperature-contrast
cool down after a sauna or steam room.
showers deliver water. Jets can also be programmed
In recent years, this has evolved into the “experience to mimic nature; for instance, rain, thunderstorm,
shower”—a combination of water, sound and smell mist and waterfall. A handheld showerhead is often
that evokes a natural “event” for the bather, with included for washing prior to a sauna or steam
themes ranging from “emotional showers” and “energy treatment, as well as for providing additional cooling.
showers” to “waterfall/deluge showers” and “monsoon Some common Experience Shower themes include
showers” to many in between. Rain Forest, Tropical Rain, Cold Waterfall, Polar Mist,
Monsoon, Summer Storm, etc. An individual shower
Type of Use enclosure often has several pre-programmed themes
An essential part of thermal bathing is cooling the body that last between 30 seconds to three minutes.
down—this is important for enjoying spa facilities A new trend gaining in popularity are rain walk or
safely and maximizing health benefits. The experience tunnel. This gives users a unique, active experience
shower goes further than a simple shower by adding because the bather is lead through the tunnel/walk
an entertainment element to the everyday activity through automated programs that lead him/her from
of showering. zone to zone. The programs are either activated by a
Typically, the experience shower combines water flow push button or photo sensors at the start of the walk/
variations, sounds and music, dynamic lighting and tunnel.

Experience showers combine water, sound and
Both images courtesy of WDT Werner Dosiertechnik. smell to evoke a natural “event” for a bather.
Health Benefits Walls/Floors: Usually tiled; drainage capacity/

floor slope is a key element of a successful design.
Body cooling after heat treatments ensures a good
Prefabricated, tileable shower bases with integrated
supply of blood to the skin and internal organs,
gradient and sealing are a good option.
helps to flush out toxins and closes skin pores. The
multi-sensory experience-shower approach also adds Design Considerations
stimulation of the senses—driving other emotional
Size/Space: Enclosures are typically for a single
responses, ranging from excitement to contentment.
This offers a unique, new element to the overall wellness person. Size is approximately 140 cm x 140 cm x
benefits. 250 cm if square and 120 cm in diameter if round.
However, a rule of thumb is to never create a shower
Heat/Cold Source smaller than 100 cm x 100 cm x 250 cm or larger than
Hot and cold water are piped to the showerheads with a 200 cm x 200 cm x 250 cm. Height can vary between
looped supply to provide the bather with instantaneous 220 cm to 300 cm. As experience showers don’t usually
hot or cold water on demand. Sufficient water pressure/ have doors, be aware that a fine mist spray can travel
capacity is essential to maintain the multi-head shower out of the enclosure into surrounding areas.
flows. Audio/Visual: Music and sounds are generated by an
integrated MP3 player with memory card and activated
Materials/Construction through the control panel. Common sounds include
Structure: Size and shape (square, round, snail, tropical rain, thunder, waterfall, birdsong, waves/sea,
etc.) depends on the site layout. Specially designed, river/stream, etc. A water-resistant, mounted speaker(s)
prefabricated, polystyrene panels that are cement- on the ceiling provides the audio. LED lighting
coated and reinforced with fiberglass on both sides, provides visual cues to support the experience—
should be moisture-resistant and waterproof. dark skies, sunset, sunrise, etc., and smells like fruit,

flowers, spices, and sea, can be added to enhance
the experience. Common Mistakes
Aromatherapy: A dosing system linked to the control
panel provides the fragrance. This level of technology
• Not having enough water pressure to make
requires adequate space for placement and easy access
shower experience operate correctly
for maintenance, as well as robust waterproofing. In
addition, it’s imperative to ensure that the aroma does • Water quality—hard or dirty water can
not flow back into the local water supply. damage equipment, increase maintenance
frequency and create a bad guest experience
Special Considerations: Positioning is usually
in proximity to heat treatment rooms. Additional • Improper sealing of electrical and hydraulic
features, such as simulated wind/breeze, can also be equipment within shower
added, requiring additional ventilation. • Improper sealing of push buttons against the
An experience shower consists of a lot of components tile often leads to damaged buttons
in a relatively small structure, so placement, access • Incorrect calculation of draining slope and
and waterproofing are key aspects of a successful draining capacity
installation—as is the overall management of water • Shower cabinets can be too big, causing an
quality, pressure and drainage. unpleasant shower experience
In order to cut corners or save money, some facilities • Plant room forgotten or too far from showers
opt for a “standard” shower, but standing under a
• Badly executed aroma dosing. New
cool/cold shower for 30 seconds to 180 seconds, the
regulations in Europe insist that a non-return
ideal time required to start the cooling process, can be
device is installed to avoid the aroma getting
very uninspiring. The features offered by Experience
sucked back into the main water supply—
Showers are designed to hold the bather’s interest and
which could be dangerous to guests.
act as a distraction; consequently, there is a greater
chance of the bather getting the full cooling treatment • General overuse of aromas
and deriving maximum benefit.
How to Use an Experience

Shower
• Pre-programmed experiences are selected from
a push-button control panel
• The user stands in the water jet area as the
program runs
• Different programs can be experienced
• Handheld showers/Kneipp hoses can be used
for individual cleaning/cooling requirements
The controller, dosing pump and other equipment

used to run an experience shower.

Foot baths are
recommended to use
in conjunction with
heat experiences.
Foot Baths
Foot baths are a major part of European spa and
wellness culture. Taking alternating hot and cold water
foot baths has been proven to reduce stress levels.
Foot baths are also said to improve the cardiovascular
system and are recommended to use in conjunction
with a sauna.
Foot baths allow for alternatively enjoying warm or
cold foot baths. At the press of a button, a basin can be
filled with either warm or cold water. Once the water
level is reached, most foot spas automatically stop
filling and begin blowing air into the basin to stimulate
the foot reflex zones. The bubbling starts automatically
for a programmable time. Once it goes through this
cycle, the bather’s feet can remain in the water a little
while longer and then the basin will be automatically
emptied.
Once a cycle is completed, the whole system is
disinfected—including drain piping, air piping and
the basin—making it totally hygienic for use by several
people one after the other
An alternative to foot baths is the Kneipp Walk Courtesy: Dornbracht International
(outlined in Chapter 6).

Cold: Plunge Pool/Frigidarium;
Snow Room; Snow Shower/Snowfall
Cold immersion is an age-old tradition in

Plunge Pool/Frigidarium hydrothermal bathing. The Finns are among the first
Temperature: 5° C to 20° C known to actively use hot and cold contrast therapy
Humidity: Not controlled as part of their cleansing ritual. After spending time in
a hot sauna, bathers would leave the cabin, sweating
Snow Room profusely, for a “roll in the snow” that not only cooled
Temperature: -15° C to 0° C them down but also cleansed the dirt from their bodies.
Humidity: Not controlled The tradition may have evolved out of a basic need to
cool down and get clean, but the Finns also enjoyed
Snow Shower/Snowfall the invigorating properties of hot and cold contrast
Temperature: 0° C to 40° C therapy which has been shown to promote heart
(4° C – 18° C recommended) health, detoxification and even reduce blood pressure.
Humidity: Not controlled Just as the Roman baths had variations on the
frigidarium, including plunge baths, cold-water pours
and cold swimming pools, the modern interpretation
also includes snow and ice treatments to maximize
the “chill” concept. And, as more bathers embrace
the power of cold (cryotherapy) to aid in recovery
and overall wellbeing, these experiences have steadily
grown more popular.

The freezing
temperatures of plunge
pools speed up the
cooling down process,
while closing the skin
pores and helping the
body flush toxins.
Plunge Pool/Frigidarium The cooling-down process accelerates the supply

of blood to the skin and internal organs, facilitates
The traditional frigidarium is a large cold-water pool,
toxin flush out and closes the skin pores to prevent
typically entered after the hot caldarium (steam room),
dehydration.
warm laconium and tepidarium (relaxation). It was
considered a key part of the thermae journey and served The vascular dilation provided by the heat and rapid
to cool down bathers between hot treatments, as well as contraction from the cold enables the slowed-down,
close the pores of the skin after exposure to heat before cooled blood to act as a “pipe cleaner” for the restricting
leaving the baths. The cold water traditionally came fine-membrane arteries.
from mountain streams, cold springs or underground
cisterns. Cold Source
A cold plunge or frigidarium pool commonly uses
Type of Use standard cold water that is filtered and treated the same
The plunge pool/frigidarium can be a starting point in way as any public bathing pool and chilled down. Heat
a spa bathing experience, or, more commonly, used as exchangers are used to maintain cool temperatures (in
a cool-down element within the spa bathing cycle. busy spas, frequent use will heat the water up).
Health Benefits Construction

After exposure to a hot environment, the body typically Frigidariums come in all shapes and sizes and can
experiences a physiological slowdown, entering a include everything from cold-water swimming pools
semi-inertia state. The surface capillaries of the skin to small-diameter plunge pools. However, a minimum
depth of 1.5 m is required. For more details on pool
are dilated, blood pressure is lowered, the skin has a
high color and there is a general deprivation of blood construction, see Chapter 6 on Pool Areas: Function
to internal organs. These conditions, plus external and Design.
sweating, persist while the body cools down. The Special Considerations: A frigidarium should be
temperature of a frigidarium speeds up the cool-down located in close vicinity to heat treatments so they can
process. be integrated into the bathing rituals. When installing

a plunge pool, be sure to install a shower nearby for Type of Use
bathers to rinse off before entering—this will vastly
The sub-zero temperatures and snow are a welcome
improve the cleanliness of the pool water, reducing
respite to the heat of various other treatments. The
pressure on the filtration system and ultimately
cold air within the snow room refreshes lungs and
reducing water loss through less-frequent need for
airways. Fresh snow is then used to cool down specific
backwashing the filters.
areas of the body and underscore the refreshing effect.
Snow rooms are usually placed near the warmer cabins,
Snow Room
allowing bathers to enjoy the health and recreational
The snow room is a modern alternative and considered benefits of the cold.
a gentler option to the “shock” that comes from
plunging into icy waters after a hot sauna or steam Cold Source
room. Advances in refrigeration technology mean that A snow room consists of an insulated room and
it’s now possible to replicate the traditional Nordic a separate snowmaking system located in a plant/
“roll in the snow” in any hydrothermal facility. mechanical room. Cold air and water are provided by
Snow rooms offer another benefit: snow simply makes the snowmaking system, which is cooled either by a
people happy, bringing out their playful, inner child. chiller condensing unit or by another cooling system
Cold crisp air combined with having real snow within available in the building.
grasp makes it a one-of-a-kind experience.
How Is the Snow Made?

Snow is made by simulating the natural
formation of snow. The difference is
that it’s accelerated using special indoor
snowmaking technologies. The modern
technologies on the market work with
a closed air refrigeration circuit system
and a nozzle system spraying water
and compressed air into the snow
room. Only the natural elements of
drinking water and air are used for the
snowmaking process—no chemicals
or biological additives are necessary.
Snowmaking is usually carried out at
night so that guests can enjoy fresh
snow the following morning.

Today’s snowmaking technology produces the These panels are moisture- and mold-resistant, have
equivalent of natural snow with just air and water - high insulating values and are quickly and easily
there are no added chemicals. Snowmaking is carried assembled on site. Another option for cold rooms are
out at night so guests can enjoy fresh snow the 10-cm metal sandwich plates, powder-coated outside.
following morning.
Walls: These reflect overall design requirements. Mosaic
Health Benefits and other small-format tiling is not recommended as
the drastic temperature changes within the room can
The near-freezing atmosphere of sof a snow room
damage the grout over time. Decorative elements
provides the same health benefits as a plunge pool does
with the an added benefit: inhaling cold air creates that are temperature stable are ideal. A good rule of
vascular dilation in the lungs, an area that is very thumb to follow is to use materials found in outdoor
difficult to reach any other way. In colder climates, construction or decoration, like glass-fiber reinforced
during evenings and autumn/winter, this cold-air plastic or glass.
benefit can also be provided with access to outside Floors: The floors should have adequate drainage,
spaces. and be completely waterproof at all joins. Tiles should
have the highest anti-slip rating possible.
Benches: Are suggested so that guests can enjoy their
Structure: One of the most efficient ways
of constructing “wet” thermal rooms is using stay in the room for the recommended timeline.
prefabricated, polystyrene panels that are cement- Ceiling: Textured/non-drip render complemented by
coated and reinforced with fiberglass on both sides. design requirements (tile, etc.).
Snow offers a
welcome respite from
the heat of the warmer
rooms/cabins in a
Courtesy: TechnoAlpin S.p.A. hydrothermal area.

Common Mistakes
• Using incorrect building materials; lacking

the insulation needed to keep room cool
• Cooling with too much air flow or incorrect
cooling systems
• Plunge pools often designed with ineffective
ways to enter and exit—stairs too high or no
railing
• Failing to create a buffer zone between
traditional heat therapies and cold treatment
rooms
Snow is considered a gentle, playful alternative to

Courtesy: TechnoAlpin S.p.A. the more traditional frigidarium.
When designing a snow room, it’s important to Ventilation: The room should be completely
remember that the snow is the feature of the room and insulated, not ventilated. In case of ventilation, the
abundant amounts of snow should be made accessible incoming air would have to be sub-zero and dry, that
to guests. So it’s important to include ledges or other would require additional air conditioning.
decorative elements where snow can fall and rest. Special Considerations: The snow room should
Size/Space: Snow rooms range in size from be located in close vicinity of heat treatments so that
approximately 4 to 16m² (up to 20m²). The they are integrated into the bathing rituals. Due to
snowmaking system is either a separate or partly the very cold temperatures within the room and the
integrated system that works together with the snow heat penetration from the spa area each time the door
room to ensure the correct temperature and snow is opened, it is highly recommended that a buffer
production. Various variations of the system are zone be created. The buffer zone should be an area of
available. All systems combine refrigeration technology approximately 2m² and temperature controlled. This
with snow making technology. The snowmaking is also more energy efficient as it reduces the cooling
system is located in a plant/technical room and necessity of the snow system. The buffer zone can
requires additional space (the minimum required is be optimally integrated into the wellness area and is
approximately 5m²). highly suggested especially for areas with high footfall.
It is not as vital in private spa settings.

Snow Shower/Snowfall Health Benefits
The sensation of melting snow on the skin is another Cooling down the body with a snow shower after
alternative for bathers looking to cool down after a exposing it to high temperatures is a gentle alternative
hot cycle. Snow showers deliver a gentle alternative to a plunge pool and the sensation of snow melting
to traditional equipment and experiences like Kneipp on the skin has the added benefit of being fun and
hoses, plunge pools, waterfall showers or crushed ice delightful—providing another positive experience for
treatments. Snow showers are either open or closed the bather.
areas where a continuous snowfall can be generated by
pushing a button. Cold Source
When using snowfall snow-making technology, there is
Types of Use no need to cool down the area using a separate cooling
This is snow on demand—the bather activates the system. This new technology means it’s possible to use
shower and snowfall begins in approximately 10 to 30 snowfall technology in other experiences, such as snow
seconds and, depending on personal preference, the rooms, snow plays and snow fountains, at temperatures
shower will last between two to five minutes. Advanced up to 40° C. The snow is simply produced from water
snowfall production technologies produce natural real and electricity—no chemical additives are used in this
snow in ambient temperatures ranging between 0° to process. A refrigeration generator and a heat exchanger
40° C. are used to cool the water down, and then freeze it
to create nice, light snowflakes. Snow showers can be
used in ambient temperatures of up to 40° C.
Snow showers can be integrated in almost any space
within a hydrothermal area. Built as either a single unit
with equipment mounted on top or as a split unit with
the cooling technology residing in an adjacent plant/
mechanical room. The latter solution keeps any noise
from the snow making away from the guest area.
There are minimal restrictions regarding the design of
snow shower areas: they can be designed as an open
space or feature walls made of glass, natural stone or
tiles. Sound or light effects can also be integrated.
Having real snow falling on a bather is a unique and

Courtesy: Snow Industries fun way to gain the benefits of hot/cold therapy.

Contrast Therapy: The Dr. Thuile
Method
Dr. Christian Thuile, Medical Director of the in those areas. The positive side effect is that one can
Department of Complementary Medicine at the avoid the intensified cooling on other more sensitive
Merano Hospital in South Tyrol, Italy and author of areas of the body. The cold can be specifically applied
Schneesauna – Die Wellness-Revolution (Snow Sauna to assist in reducing inflammation and joint soreness
– The Wellness Revolution), has developed a guide on as well.
how to most effectively use snow rooms in conjunction Immediately after entering a snow room, the
with saunas. body begins to react to the cold, causing vascular
The method is based on a number of scientific constriction or vasoconstriction—a narrowing of the
studies that have assessed bodily reactions to the blood vessels—and, in the cold ambiance, the blood
effects of the cold. The conclusion is that, when used flow centralizes to protect vital organs.
correctly, the hot and cold contrast can lead to a The contrasting vasodilation—expansion of the blood
number of health benefits, including reducing fatigue, vessels—that occurs in the heat of sauna, followed by
improving rheumatoid arthritis, pain reduction as the vasoconstriction causes increased blood flow to the
well as minimizing muscle soreness after activity and skin, muscles and tissue. According to Dr. Thuile, this
improved regeneration after intense training. can be particularly beneficial for people with low blood
The Dr. Thuile Method is based on the alternating pressure, especially if repeated on a regular basis.
between a heat source, such as a sauna, and a snow Of over 200 people studied using a snow room in
room (-10° C to 0° C). By following the Dr. Thuile combination with a Finnish sauna, subjects reported
Method, blood vessels extend and contract quickly improved sleep, significant pain reduction, better
resulting in improved blood circulation in the entire moods and an increased amount of energy, relief from
body. Furthermore, more oxygen and nutrients are stress and pressure, improved breathing, softer skin
transported to cells, strengthening them and benefiting and a healthier sense of self.
the heart and circulatory system.
After spending time in a hot sauna, the body is fully How to Use a Hot/Cold Therapy
warmed and muscles are more mobile and relaxed, • Settle in for three to four minutes; acclimatize to the
cramps are loosened, connective tissues are more hydrothermal environment. Loosen up muscles by
elastic and pores are opened. Many people experience walking or stretching.
exertion and fatigue after a sauna experience. Cooling
• Warm up for 12 to 15 minutes; dry sauna.
the body down and bringing it back to its natural
temperature as soon as possible is a necessary step. • 80° C to 100° C. Stay as long as comfortable.
The cold of a snow room is often perceived to be • Cool down (three to five minutes for women;
less invasive than a cold or wet option (frigidarium), four to eight minutes for men) in a snow room at
allowing bathers to spend more time in the area, temperatures up to -10° C. Sit or stand in the snow
thereby maximizing the effects. When in the snow room. Take deep breaths of the fresh air. Rub snow
room, it is highly recommended that one use the on arms and legs to intensify the effect.
powdery snow to additionally cool the extremities of • Relax for 15 to 20 minutes in ambient temperature;
the body, such as legs and arms. The very cold snow sit or lie down and ensure sufficient liquid intake.
reaches temperatures below 0° C and the process of
rubbing the snow onto arms and legs assists cooling

Chapter Five
Specialist Hydrothermal
Treatments & Therapies
This chapter takes a closer look at the various specialist
hydrothermal treatments and therapies found in wellness
centers and spas to help readers understand their functions
and benefits, and provides guidance on the design and
configuration of these rooms.
In addition to communal hydrothermal areas, many

wellness centers offer specialist cabins/rooms for
specific hydrotherapy treatments, including inhalation
therapy like salt, oxygen or aromatherapy and mud
bath rituals, body wraps and scrubs. Additionally,
specialist hydrotherapy equipment, like Vichy
showers, hydrotherapy tubs, and Kneipp hoses can be
offered as stand-alone experiences or add-ons to other
bodywork.
Another common trend is to offer guests access to
private spa suites that feature miniature hydrothermal
experiences—usually some combination of a sauna,
The pleasure and
hamam or steam room—so they can enjoy the positive
benefits derived from effects of thermal bathing at their leisure. This luxury
thermal bathing can will come at a premium price—and is extremely
be further enhanced popular with couples and friends who are indulging in
with add-on treatments social spa-ing.
and therapies often
conducted in private
spa areas.
Specialist Hydrothermal Treatments & Therapies | 83

Treatment rooms
should be designed
for multi-use and allow
space for a therapist
to maneuver around
Credit: Myrthia Thermal Spa treatment tables.
Treatment Room Design

Though these rooms will combine the structural and • Floor: Anti-slip tiled floor with waterproof joints
design elements of a spa’s main hydrothermal area, and an incline of at least 2% towards the floor drain.
there are some unique design considerations to be • Walls: Depending on the positioning of the unit
aware of. In general, modern treatment rooms should inside the room, tiled walls with waterproof joints
have space for a shower within the room, ideally in an are recommendable.
anteroom so the guest can shower in private. This also
• Shower: Treatments may require a shower either
means the therapist’s time can be used more efficiently
before or after so a shower should be in the room or
by tidying/cleaning the room, rather than having to
in an adjacent anteroom.
leave while the guest showers. The treatment surface
or receptacle, whether it’s a table, tub or dry floatation • Sink: Use a “kitchen”-style tap to enable easy filling
tank, must be in the center of the room to allow plenty of bowls that may be used to pour water on the
of room for the therapist to access the guest. guest during the treatment.
In addition, the room will require the • Electricity: Waterproof sockets/receptacles on the
following: floor if the treatment surface/equipment needs
power; on the walls for cleaning equipment; and in
• Drainage: Strategically placed floor drain(s) to
the cabinetry for any concealed equipment.
catch the water run-off from the treatments. Floor
drains (DN80) are in addition to any direct drain • Lighting: Indirect, dimmable lighting that is
connections required by specific pieces of equipment positioned away from the guest’s line of vision to
and should include an odor cover and waste water prevent them being dazzled.
sieve, as well as demountable grid cover.

• Ventilation/Air Conditioning: To maintain a Structure/Finish: Built or lined using a foam-cored,
comfortable environment and correct levels of waterproof, building board prior to receiving finishes,
humidity, wet treatment rooms should be heated to which can be selected from non-porous, fissure-free
25° C to 35° C. marble, granite, tile, specialist plasters or custom made,
• Floor/Wall Heating: If used for Turkish massage, large-format ceramic panels. The finishes should be
then floors and walls should be heated. easily cleaned and suitable for high volumes of water.
• Audio and Speakers: Either from a central multi- Size/Space: The room must accommodate the
channel system or localized in the room via an treatment equipment, all of which will fit into a
MP3 player docking station for a more customized space of 1.0 m x 2.5 m, with minimum additional
solution. Speaker should be out of the guest’s line of circulation space for the therapist at 0.8 m all around
sight if recessed into a wall or ceiling. the treatment equipment, while allowing space for the
shower and cabinetry. An ideal footprint for a room
• Cabinetry/Storage: Units are needed to house
with a separate shower and changing area would be 6.0
specialist equipment, such as a hot towel cabinet
m x 2.6 m measured internally.
or hot stone heater; space should be allocated for
consumables that are used in various treatments;
storage space is needed for clean and soiled linens;
and a sink and prep area is usually required.
Couples treatments are

becoming increasingly
popular. Installing a
hydrothermal spa suite
that can accommodate
two person is a wise
Courtesy: Iso Benessere, Italy
investment for any spa.

Common Mistakes
• Not paying enough attention to the such as choosing options like electrical
ergonomics of tables and equipment to create height-adjustable beds
a comfortable experience for both customer • Incorrect/insufficient electrical installations
and therapist
• Incorrect positioning of the equipment
• Creating difficult to clean areas—instead, inside the room
make cleaning easy by using flat, smooth
• Not including inspection openings for
surfaces and a removable mattress
technical components when integrating
• Vichy shower installations must cover a equipment into individual design solutions
client’s entire body—if some areas aren’t
• Lack of attention to cleaning and
reached, the client will feel unpleasantly cold
disinfection when choosing the equipment
• Forgetting to install a shower in a treatment
• Insufficient ventilation of the treatment
room that will be used for wraps and mud rooms, especially for wet rooms (e.g.,
baths equipped with Vichy showers)
• Inadequate delivery of water—both in terms • Insufficient amount of space for storing
of pressure and temperature necessary equipment and products
• Residual water remaining on floor due to poor • Not using corrosion resistance building
positioning of drains and slope calculation materials and ventilation pipework that
• Noise can be extremely disturbing during can withstand the saline mixture in a salt/
treatments. This has to be kept in mind when brine room
planning both the placement of the treatment • Installing spray nozzle in the wrong place,
rooms (e.g., distance to dressing rooms, bar, i.e., too close to the extraction fan or too
restaurant) and the interior design of the far away from the steam outlet or in the
rooms. ceiling and not in the wall as the spray jet
• Ergonomics for both guest and therapist—do has to go horizontally into the room.
everything to make both parties comfortable, • Not using sterile brine solution

Specialist Rooms
Inhalation rooms Inhalation Rooms

combine steam with
Although essential oils and aromatherapy is commonly present throughout
essential oils that
a hydrothermal area, an inhalation room is designed specifically for inhaled
target the upper
aromatherapy to treat respiratory conditions. The goal of inhalation therapy (also
respiratory tract, nose
called respiratory therapy) is to improve respiration and can be a specific treatment
and sinuses using for chronic conditions such as asthma, bronchitis and emphysema.
essential oils such as
Typically, an inhalation room will focus on steam inhalation combined with essential
cedarwood, eucalyptus,
oils that target the upper respiratory tract, nose and sinuses. A variety of essential oils
pine, sandalwood,
can be used (individually or combined); common choices are cedarwood, eucalyptus,
rosemary, tea tree and pine, sandalwood, rosemary, tea tree and frankincense. The structure of the room will
frankincense. be similar to a steam room—medium-hot with a high humidity—with ergonomic
benches, a low-volume steam generator, ventilation and an essential oil infuser or
automatic dosing system, in which the essence of essential oils is infused into the
flow of steam that enters the room.
Another option is oxygen therapy for increasing oxygen levels in the bloodstream.
This is typically administered through a tube or mask at a specific inhalation station,
or as part of an integral system built into a sauna, where guests are able to directly
inhale oxygen via dedicated dispenser hoses.

Salt Rooms
In recent years, salt therapy has steadily grown in a variety of skin issues, including decreasing itching,
popularity. The concept originated in Europe when it drying small fissures/scratches, and reducing of
was observed that workers in salt mines experienced dermatitis symptoms.
a significantly reduced number of respiratory issues The Dead Sea has attracted visitors for centuries
than their counterparts in other mines. Salt rooms (it was one of the world’s first health resorts) for it’s
and caves are specific treatment rooms that require dry healing properties and Dead Sea salt can be found in
conditions, good ventilation and, most importantly, a wide variety of skin care products. In recent years,
the introduction of finely powdered salt into the air Himalayan salt has been hailed for its perceived
via a salt aerosol device (also called a “halogenerator”) healing properties as one of the purest forms of salt
or as a saline solution from a nebulizing brine vapor. in the world and is being embraced in massages and
The treatment is passive—the individual sits in a salt scrubs—with many salt rooms featuring a wall of
comfortable recliner, often with a blanket and mood pretty pink Himalayan salt blocks. Though these are
music/lights to enhance the state of relaxation. aesthetically pleasing, they are simply for appearance
In addition to salt’s positive impact on the respiratory sake and do not provide wellness benefits on their own.
system—medical studies have shown that salt Salt Steam Room: A salty sea climate is achieved
inhalation alleviates asthma symptoms—it is also by spraying fine nebulized brine solution into the
embraced by many for its positive effect on skin room through a fine nozzle. Bathers can relax in a
conditions, with studies showing that salt can improve salty, humid room and inhale the hot steam enriched
with salt. It’s important that both the nebulized
brine solution and spraying system is sterile to avoid
bacteria and germs.
Dry Salt Inhalation Room: Salt is delivered
through a variety of means, including spraying fine,
nebulized brine solution into the room through
a nozzle, an ultrasonic mist maker or via dry salt.
Here, the Microsalt SaltProX from Klafs is small,
lightweight and portable—allowing users to bring the
purifying pleasure of salt anywhere.
Salt is delivered through a variety of means,

including spraying a fine, nebulized brine solution
into the room through a nozzle, an ultrasonic
mis maker or via dry salt. This photo shows the
Microsalt SaltProX from Klafs, a small, lightweight
portable device that lets users bring the purifying
pleasure of salt anywhere they go.

Mud Bath Rituals
Mud bathing originated thousands of years ago as a humidity must be maintained. After 20 minutes or so,
medicinal and beautifying ritual—which minerals an automatic “rain” system showers the room, starting
are inherent in the mud (or peloid), they can cleanse, the process of removing the mud. This is usually
exfoliate, absorb toxins, increase circulation and soften augmented by additional showering, followed by the
the skin. Though mud bath rituals that take place in application of moisturizer to the body.
private hamams or steam rooms are becoming more Design Considerations: A specialized mud bath
popular, the practice of immersing oneself or being room should incorporate showering facilities, steam
wrapped in mud to soak up its positive affects is a long- and heating elements, relaxation benches/recliners and
standing practice. adequate drainage. The design will normally consist
Mud bath rituals typically take place in either a of two rooms: the actual mud bathing chamber and
traditional steam room or hamam or in a specially an ante room where guests can disrobe, shower post-
designed “Rasul mud” area. Either a therapist applies treatment and, space permitting, receive the warm,
the mud or bathers apply it to one another (this is a oil moisturizing massage to complete the experience.
common couples treatment). After taking a shower, However, a spa operator who is interested in
various types of mud is applied to different parts of the maximizing the return on investment for their steam
body. Then bathers enter a warm, herb-infused steam room or hamam, could also easily use these cabins for
bath to encourage relaxation and detoxification. The mud rituals.
mud needs to be kept moist so the correct degree of
Mud bathing has

a long history and
encourages relaxation
and detoxification. Courtesy: Sommerhuber

Specialist Water Treatments
Water affects both body and spirit. After a busy day, it’s are often combined with other treatments, such as
instinctive to crave a warm bath, or, alternatively, cool massages, using specific products and/or body wraps or
water to invigorate or alleviate swelling. Thoughtfully other, classic wet table treatments. The main benefits
constructed hydrothermal experiences can tap into a of the shower itself are increased blood circulation
bather’s emotions by bringing back the memories of caused by the flow of the water, hydration of the body
standing in a summer rain or sitting underneath the to fight off fatigue and prevent acne, and the reduction
gentle massage of a waterfall. The following include of stress and toxins by stimulating the nerve response
some additional specialist water treatments to consider. in the skin.
Vichy Shower A modern Vichy shower is a horizontal series of

showerheads that form a “rain bar” over a waterproof,
The term Vichy shower originates from the thermal
cushioned table that features drainage on the side for
spa of Vichy in France. Originally, a Vichy shower
the excess water. The showerheads should be easily
was a manual massage performed by two therapists
adjustable even with wet or slippery hands, e.g. from
while taking a shower. Now, the standard treatment is
massage oil or soap. Choosing a height-adjustable
carried out by a therapist whose work is made easier by
unit adds to ergonomic working conditions for the
modern Vichy showers that allow for easy and quick
therapist and makes it easier for the customer to enter
adjustability of the showerheads.
and exit the wet table. It’s highly recommended to
The relaxing effect of the warm water on the muscles choose a Vichy shower table with a shower arm that
makes the body more receptive to the massage. The can be swiveled out of the way so that the room can
therapist gives a manual massage, and the water keeps also be used for other treatments.
the guest warm and hydrates the skin. Vichy treatments

Individual hydrotherapy
tubs deliver a unique
sensation of heat,
buoyancy and hydro-
massage. Courtesy: Unbescheiden GmbH
Design Considerations: The Vichy shower and wet soothing skin products are also often featured. The
massage table is typically a permanent, bespoke piece natural healing power of mineral water or seawater can
of equipment that requires hot/cold water supply and increase the effectiveness of the treatment. In addition,
drainage and adequate space for both the table and therapist-assisted treatments can be performed, which
therapist—typically, a table will be 1.0 m x 2.5 m and allow for the combination of both physical touch
will require a minimum of 800 mm of working room and hydro-massage. The mechanical impulse of the
around the sides of the table. The rain-bar component water nozzles provide an enhanced penetration of the
is usually designed to swivel away from the table to massage into the body, accelerate tissue metabolism
allow for an unobstructed entry and exit on the table, and enhance the reabsorption of metabolic waste
in addition to creating space so that the room and table products from the muscles which is important when
can be used for other treatments. A heated, wet table treating sore muscles. As with all hydrotherapeutic
can add a further positive effect. Room temperature applications, a key part of the underwater-pressure-jet
should be at least 27° C and forced ventilation is massage is the relaxation of the muscular system inside
required. the warm water. This enables the massage jets to deeply
penetrate the muscles. From a medical perspective,
Hydrotherapy Tub hydrotherapeutic massages can be prescribed for
Hydrotherapy tubs are a central part of today’s musculoskeletal circulatory disorders, skin diseases and
modern spa and wellness facilities. Modern units offer disorders of certain internal organs.
a sequential massage, starting with the feet and going To intensify the effects, salts, oils and other additives
towards the upper part of the body in small steps. can be put into the water or thermal or mineral water
In addition, the massage pressure can be regulated can be used. If this is desired, the tub needs to be
automatically so, for example, the intensity of the equipped accordingly to avoid any issues that can be
massage can be reduced in the beginning and at the caused by additives or aggressive water. In addition,
end of the treatment. a separate air bubble function can be installed to
Individual hydrotherapy tubs deliver a unique sensation intensify the massage.
of heat, buoyancy and hydro-massage. Often used Design Considerations: Hydrotherapy tubs
without the aid of a therapist, the jets are positioned should be installed to allow space for therapist-assisted
to stimulate and relax trigger points in the body. treatments. To achieve the most relaxing effect, choose
Aromatherapy oil can be added to the baths to intensify a tub that emanates minimal noise and keep the room
the bather’s relaxation and engage the other senses; at 24° C.

Kneipp Therapy
Kneipp therapy was founded in the 19th century by
Sebastian Kneipp, a Bavarian parish priest, who was ill
with tuberculosis and developed this “water cure” as a
way to heal himself. Kneipp therapy can be as simple
as using hot and cold compresses interchangeably;
however, Kneipp walks—in either real or manmade
streams—are a great starting off point for Kneipp
therapy. Kneipp walks use a mix of hot- and cold-water
actions (stepping through the water) to stimulate blood
circulation. Pebbles on the bottom of the stream/
walkway massage the feet, and alternating between the
hot and cold baths stimulates circulation to all parts of
the body.
Kneipp hoses are frequently found in hydrothermal
areas, allowing bathers to access as required. Kneipp
treatments are ideal for self-application either in a
hydrothermal environment or even in a bather’s own
home, where bathers can integrate the positive effects
Courtesy: Dornbracht International of Kneipp therapy into their daily routines.
Benefits of Aquapressure
Aquapressure (targeted water massage) has similar benefits as acupressure, helping blood circulate more freely
through the body, the flow of energy is stimulated and mobility can be improved. Aquapressure targets and
relieves tensions by warming the body up and then easing muscular and emotional tensions. The results are similar
to a massage and can help relieve back pain, tension headaches, sleeplessness and anxiety caused by muscular
imbalance.
Energizing Massage Shower

Targeted warm or cold water combined with a
powerful massage relaxes and loosens neck and back
muscles while creating positive energy to start the day.
Relaxing Massage Shower
Kneipp leg effusion
Less pressure firms water
and warmer the skin, lowers
helps blood
bathers unwind Kneipp face effusion promotes blood flow and
pressure
and releaseand
theencourages sleep.
tensions of the day. firms the skin. It can also offer a quick fix for
a tension headache or migraine and to calm
anxieties.

Specialist Beds/Tables
Dry Floatation Bed

Treatments on dry floatation beds are often carried In addition to the relaxing effect of “floating,” the
out in combination with a body wrap. The bather lies benefits of dry float will depend on the products being
on a membrane suspended within a tank filled with used. Cosmetic, dermatologic or therapeutic packs are
warm water that gives a sensation of weightlessness, applied. The warmth of the water supports the effect of
while the thermic effect of the water enhances blood the packs, making their absorption into the skin much
circulation and opens the pores of the skin, so that easier. An additional benefit is the feeling of sinking
active components can more easily be absorbed by the into and lying in, or rather on, a surface of water.
body. Design Considerations: The room temperature
At the start of the treatment, the dry floatation bed is should be kept at around 24° C and the necessary
in a solid state to enable easy entry and application of equipment for the body wraps (e.g., the stirrer for the
the body wrap. Once applied, the air core is deflated preparation of the media or the water for the warming
and the guest sinks onto a heated water cushion, which and storing of body wraps) should either be in the
results in the relaxing effect of “floating.” At the end same room or in a nearby central preparation unit. If
of the treatment, the air core is inflated and solidifies the latter is the case, it’s important to ensure easy and
again so as to better support the guest when leaving quick access of the necessary equipment. A shower in
the unit. the room or very nearby is vital for the guest to remove
Due to their stable lying surface, some units can also the media used during the body wrap.
be used for manual massages. A multitude of different
treatments can thus be performed inside one room
using the same unit.

Dry hydrotherapy
tubs allow bathers to
experience the healing
effects of water, heat
and massage without
Courtesy: Unbescheiden GmbH disrobing.
Body Wraps
Body wraps are often paired with dry floatation Not only does the heat used in these treatments
treatments. Body wraps can be partial (treating encourage the absorption of the media by the
only parts of the body) or full body. body, but it also helps promote relaxation, relieve
Varying products and media are used in body stress and even work to increase blood circulation.
wraps, and the benefits correlate directly to the Body wraps are often applied on a standard
components present in the media. Traditionally, therapeutic table, however, dry floatation systems
wraps were predominantly mineral-based (sludge, can offer a better experience. The dry floatation bed
mud, peat, moor) and, today, many treatments will have a solid surface in the beginning, making
still use similar organic materials. In addition, it easier for the customer to lie down and enable
wraps are now often complemented with cosmetic, the application of the body wrap. After, the guest
dermatologic or other products. sinks into a cushion of warm water and experiences
A few examples of the wellbeing benefits: a “floating” feeling. The warm temperature of the
water supports the effect of the body wrap. When
• Detoxification (peloids and algae)
the treatment is coming to an end, the surface of
• Revitalization (cosmetic wraps, peloids, algae)
the bed will become solid again, and the guest will
• Slimming (algae)
be moved up, out of the water cushion, making it
• Reduction of cellulite (algae)
easier to exit the bed.
• Moisturizing of the skin (cosmetic products)

Dry Hydro Massage Bed
Dry hydrotherapy (or a dry water massage) allows a surprisingly supportive and profoundly relaxing both
bather to experience the healing effects of water, heat physically and mentally.
and massage without ever getting wet. The benefits of Today, traditional sand baths are offered in warmer
hydrotherapy tubs are well document, however there climates, such as Egypt, Morocco and the Middle
are drawbacks, including high operating costs, risk of
East; while Japan has an extensive history of sand
injury (especially to the old or infirm) and, of course,
bathing, particularly where the sands are rich in certain
cultural aversion to disrobing in public.
minerals, and sand baths are often offered at sites where
A dry hydro massage bed’s water jets are located traditional onsen mineral baths are available.
beneath a rubberized cover and provide the effect of
Anyone can create a sand bath—simply dig a shallow
a gentle hydro massage. The units are usually height-
hole in the sand and wait until the sun has warmed it,
adjustable, allowing for ergonomic working conditions
then recline face-up while someone buries you; once
for a therapist and easier access for the guest.
cocooned, enjoy the feeling weightlessness and warmth
Design Considerations: Dry hydro massage beds
for around 10 to 20 minutes. At a professional facility,
should be installed to allow space for any therapist-
there will be attendants on hand to make sure bathers
assisted treatments.
are protected from any glaring sunshine while making
Hot Sand/Salt Beds sure they stay hydrated during the bath.
In a traditional sand bath (also referred to as psammo In a modern spa, sand or salt might be used
therapy for the Greek word for sand), bathers buried interchangeably, depending on the guest’s preference.
themselves in sand heated by the sun. The resulting Either way, these beds bring the bliss of the beach to
warm, cocoon-like environment is described as guests wherever they may be in the world.
Hot sand baths in

today’s spas are
luxurious and often
feature specialize
quartz grains that store
heat and provide a
cradle-like environment
for the body. Courtesy: Gharieni Group

Chapter Six
Pool Areas:
Function and Design
The benefits of having a pool or pools—whether full-size
lap/exercise pools or vitality pools—in a spa are numerous.
“Hydrotherapy” is a term often used to describe the use
of water therapy for relaxation, pain relief and treatment.
Specially designed pools are a great way to take advantage
of the physical properties of water, including temperature and
pressure, to promote relaxation and healing of the body.
Hydrotherapy offers a wide array of health benefits,

whether combining soothing water temperature with
jets and other features for self-massage; using a shock
of cold water to stimulate blood circulation; or using
the advantage of water for low-impact exercise—the
weightlessness of a person’s body in water means
swimming offers the only way to exercise without a
harsh impact on the skeletal system.
This chapter looks closely at how pools work and
introduces the reader to the construction and design
Pools play a key role
considerations to be made when adding a pool to a spa
in hydrotherapy,
or home.
promoting relaxation
and stress relief.
Pool Areas | 97
Common Spa Pools
Health & Wellness Temp Minimum Water

Pool Type Depth
Benefits (deg. C)* Turnover Rate
• Exercise & fitness Variable;

Lap/Exercise 27 to 29 4 hours
• Water aerobics 1.0 m to 1.2 m
• Massage and
relaxation
Hydrotherapy/ • Increase muscular

34 to 40 1.0 m to 1.2 m 0.5 to 1.5 hours
Vitality power
• Increase range of
joint movement
• Relaxes muscles
Onsen 34 to 40 1.0 m to 1.2 m 0.5 to 1.5 hours
• Improves mobility
Cold Plunge • Stimulates circulation 5 to 18 1.5 m 20 to 30 minutes
Floatation • Pain and stress relief 35 to 36 1.0 m to 1.2 m 0.5 to 1.5 hours
• Relaxes muscles
Watsu 34 to 40 1.0 m to 1.5 m 0.5 to 1.5 hours
• Improves mobility
• Stress relief
• Provides energy to the
body
Saltwater/ • Calms the nervous

32 to 36 1.0 m to 1.2 m 30 to 90 minutes
Mineral system
• Eliminates/reduces
skin irritation
• Moisture to the skin
• Stimulates circulation 15 to 20
(cold), 200 mm to
Kneipp Walk • Stress relief 0.5 to 1.5 hours
30 to 35 600 mm
• Helps relieve joints (hot)
*Temperatures may vary depending on geographical location and if pool is indoor or outdoor.

Lap/Exercise Pool
A pool that is large enough to exercise in offers significant

Lap/Exercise Pool benefits. The size of the pool will be determined by the
Temperature: 27° C to 29° C space available and the types of exercising required—
Depth: Variable; average 1.0 m to 1.2 m
for example, different specifications are required for
resistance training versus swimming lengths/laps. As
a guide, an exercise pool that can accommodate 10
people should be approximately 20 m x 6.5 m x 1.2
m deep, while a traditional lap pool is 25 m long x
12.5 m wide. Where space constraints exist, the use of
counter current/swim jets allow on-the-spot exercise.
Benefits
As mentioned previously, swimming is the lowest-
impact aerobic exercise available. When the human
body is submerged in water, it automatically becomes
lighter. In fact, when immersed to the waist, the body
bears just 50% of its weight; when immersed to the
chest, it reduces to approximately 25% to 35%; when
immersed all the way to the neck, the body bears only
10% of its own weight. This type of weightlessness is
unattainable any other way.
This means that exercising in a pool is ideal for working
stiff muscles and sore joints. The Arthritis Foundation
suggests the ideal exercise for relief is one that stretches
and strengthens muscles while delivering an aerobic
workout—such as doing laps in the pool.
Pool Areas | 99
Hydrotherapy/Vitality Pool
The combination of warm water (average temperature

Hydrotherapy/Vitality Pool 38° C) and a selection of water features, including air
Temperature: 34° C to 40° C tubs, swan-neck fountains, air loungers and water jets,
Depth: 1.0 m to 1.2 m means hydrotherapy/vitality pools provide unique
benefits, including the cleansing and detoxification of
the skin, relieving tired and aching muscles, increasing
circulation and relaxing the mind and body.
The difference between the two pools is that
hydrotherapy pools are typically much larger than
vitality pools and allow guests the ability to “walk”
or “float” a course of water features; a vitality pool is
more akin to what is often called a “Jacuzzi” (the brand
name that has become synonymous with pools with
water jets). Vitality pools offer a mini-hydrotherapy
experience and are typically used where space will not
permit the inclusion of a full-size hydrotherapy pool.
Benefits
These pools deliver true external hydrotherapy—the
complete immersion of the body in hot water, serving
to relax muscles.

FPO
Vitality pool features,

like swan-neck
fountain (top); air
recliners (middle)
and air tubs (bottom),
increase relaxation
and stress relief.
Pool Areas | 101

Onsen Pool
This pool originates from Japan—and plays a big

Onsen Pool role in the country’s ritual bathing practices. “Onsen”
Temperature: 34° C to 40° C actually translates as “hot springs” in Japanese, but
Depth: 1.0 m to 1.2 m
has come to refer to the natural spring baths found
throughout Japan.
Traditionally, onsens were used outdoor. They are most
often made from Japanese cypress, marble or granite,
while indoor tubs are typically constructed of tile,
acrylic glass or stainless steel.
Benefits
Since onsens use natural hot springs, their benefits
are closely dependent on the mineral properties and
content of the water itself. But typical benefits include
the easing of neuralgia, alleviation of muscle pain and
the reduction of the symptoms of chronic skin disease.
Onsen bathing is also believed to relieve chronic
fatigue and stress.

Due to its extensive
volcanic activity, Japan
has thousands of
geothermal hot springs
around the country.
Japanese onsens come
in all shapes, sizes and
configurations and the
health benefits derived
from each differs
dependent upon the
minerals and elements
present.
Pool Areas | 103

Cold Plunge Pool
A cold plunge pool is typically entered after and

Cold Plunge Pool between hot thermal treatments to cool bathers down.
Temperature: 5° C to 18° C
Going from a heated environment to a cold plunge,
Depth: 1.5 m
which is usually kept at about 5° C to 18° C,
stimulates the body in several ways. A quick,
30-second dip is enough to kick start circulation and
dilate the vascular system, delivering the positive
therapeutic effects of hot/cold contrast therapy.
Benefits
First, the cold water numbs the nerves around joints
and muscles. It also causes the release of endorphins
and hormones with analgesic properties. Not only does
this alleviate some joint pain but muscle aches as well.
The cold-water plunge is also believed to stimulate the
immune system.

Specialty Pools
Floatation Pools
Floatation Pools / Tanks
Temperature: 35° C to 36° C Temperature: 35° C to 36° C
Depth: Pools – 1.0 m to 1.2 m Depth: 1.0 m to 1.2 m
Tanks – Approximately 0.5 m A floatation pool or tank is usually enclosed and
typically measures approximately 2.5 m long x 1.2 m
Watsu® Pool wide. The water in the tank is kept at body temperature.
Temperature: 34° C to 40° C The most important element of the tank is the addition
Depth: 1.0 m to 1.5 m of magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt) that is dissolved
in the tank: approximately 400 kg of Epsom salt to
Mineral Pool 200 gallons of water—this is what creates the weightless
Temperature: 32° C to 36° C “float.” As opposed to a swimming pool where there is
Depth: 1.0 m to 1.2 m a sense of weightlessness, gravity in a floatation tank
is completely nullified by the buoyancy caused by the
Kneipp Walk dissolved Epsom salt.
Temperature: 15° C to 20° C (cold) and Unique to the enclosed floatation tanks is the sensory
30° C to 35° C (hot) deprivation they provide. This restricted stimulation
Depth: 250 mm to 600 mm has been proven to change the way the brain works,
showing an increase in theta waves in the brain1—
the waves that are activated by meditation and active
during REM sleep.
Pool Areas | 105

Socializing plays a
very important role in
hydrothermal bathing.
Here guests enjoy
the mineral pool at
Peninsula Hot Springs,
Victoria, Australia.
Benefits the elderly and children. The weightlessness effect

The increase in theta waves is thought to reduce stress of the water provides for gentle stretching and joint
and encourage a happy, contented brain. The physical mobilization. This treatment is often used to treat
benefits of floating in magnesium sulfate also gives different conditions like brain injury, stroke, spinal
those that suffer from joint and/or muscle pain huge cord injury, Parkinson’s disease, cerebral palsy, arthritis
relief by taking away the effects of gravity on the body. and fibromyalgia. It is also used to treat chronic pain
There is also the innate benefit of absorbing the Epsom and in post-surgical or post-trauma recoveries.
salt through the skin, which is full of magnesium,
something many people are deficient in. Raising Mineral Pool
magnesium levels can improve circulation, ease muscle
Temperature: 32° C to 36° C
pain and relieve stress2.
Depth: 1.0 m to 1.2 m
Watsu® Pool Mineral pools come in all shapes and sizes—they

Temperature: 34° C to 40° C can be full size pools, wading pools or vitality pools.
Depth: 1.0 m to 1.5 m The water temperature of mineral baths may be hot,
warm, cool or even cold. Mineral waters can have an
These are pools designed specifically for Watsu
acidic, basic or neutral pH, depending on the types
massage, a gentle form of body therapy performed
of dissolved solids in the water. Some mineral waters
in warm water. It combines elements of massage,
joint mobilization, shiatsu, muscle stretching and contain arsenic or other toxic substances and should
dance. The receiver is continuously supported while never be used for drinking water, unless specified that
being floated, cradled, rocked and stretched. This it is all right to do so.
typically requires a 3.5-meter diameter pool for single Benefits
treatments, and a larger pool if the desire is to give Throughout the centuries, mineral spas and pools
simultaneous treatments. have been enjoyed on many levels, including for
Benefits cleansing, social and health benefits. Today, the healing
Watsu massage is designed to induce a state of deep benefits of the natural mineral springs—referred to as
relaxation to the body and the mind and relieve stress. balneotherapy (see page 128)—are well-known and
Because it’s such a gentle treatment, it’s also good for usage of hot springs is on the rise.

Kneipp Walk
Temperature: 15° C to 20° C and 30° C to 35° C Benefits
Depth: 200 mm to 600 mm Kneipp therapy was created in the 19th century by
The Kneipp walk is a water treatment using a mix Sebastian Kneipp, a Bavarian parish priest, who fell
of hot and cold water actions (stepping through the ill with tuberculosis and strongly believed that his
water) to stimulate the metabolism of tissues and the use of a “water cure” healed him. Kneipp therapy is
circulation of blood. Pebbles on the bottom of the well-respected and even subsidized by the government
stream/walkway massage the feet, and the alternation in some European countries for both preventative
of hot and cold baths stimulate circulation of all parts and rehabilitative purposes. Kneipp therapy does not
of the body. have to take place in a pool—in fact, hot and cold
compresses can be used—but pools are most common.
There are two walks used—the bather begins by
stepping in hot water for one minute to two minutes Applications of hot and cold water have long been
(the water is usually lit up with color), and then moves used to cure headaches, improve lymphatic function
to the cold-water pool (usually lit light blue) for half and even eliminate hangovers. Kneipp walks are
a minute. The process is repeated approximately three often used in treatment for conditions from arthritis,
times. A handrail is often used to help the bather abscesses and heart disease to asthma, diabetes and
walk through the different water pressures. Kneipp allergic eczema.
walks can be located anywhere within the spa journey
and are often used as a feature by designers, creating
interesting paths and walkways.
Kneipp walks use hot

and cold water to
stimulate circulation
and overall wellbeing.
Pool Areas | 107

A well-designed pool
is an aesthetically-
Courtesy: Center Parcs UK pleasing focal point.
Common Mistakes Pool Area Design

When designing pool areas, it is important to
remember that people interact differently when
• Chemical smells permeating nearby areas minimally clothed. This means there is an increased
• Floor slippery and dangerous need for personal space.
• Bulbs in the pool difficult to replace Special consideration should be given to corridors,
• Poor overflow drainage passageways and circulation spaces where guests travel
in opposite directions. Pinch-points should be avoided,
• Inadequate filtration and water treatment
plant space and poolside relaxation spaces should be designed with
personal space in mind. If there is food or beverage
• Insufficient provision of MEP services—
power, water, drainage etc. service offered in these areas, than space for staff to
attend to guests and tables for service items should
• Inadequate water turnover rates leading to
poor water quality be provided.
• Adopting high filtration rates leading to poor In addition, benches and seats in the pools need to
water quality allow for adequate space between bodies (600 mm
• Lack of secondary disinfection (e.g. UV) is recommended); where possible, it’s advised to
leading to excessive chemicals in the pool provide individual seating so that bathers don’t have
• Poor provision for the delivery of chemicals to consider invading another’s personal space on a
to the plant room communal bench. Seats should also be shaped to allow
• Inadequate filtration and poor chemical for comfort and space where air jets might push the
balance causing poor water quality bather away from the seat back.
• Failing to backflush filters on a regular basis - To create a bather-friendly environment, pools should
once a week minimum or when the indicated also have sufficiently wide treads and short risers for
by inlet and outlet pressure gauges entries and exits and no sudden drops at the junction
with the floor.

Surface Finishes
Surface finishes for pools should be selected based pumped back into the pool. A skimmer pool, instead,
upon several criteria: safety, hygiene, ease of does not have the inherent benefit of constantly
maintenance and visual appearance. Natural stone is renewing its surface water because the displacement is
a popular finish in pool areas; however, these don’t handled by the water level rising versus vacating the
carry slip-resistance ratings like manufactured tile pool.
finishes. Natural finishes, such as slate, should be This means overflow pools are very efficient when it
carefully selected, as many varieties have a tendency to comes to removing and treating polluted surface water.
de-laminate, and any marble finishes with fissures This is important because surface water, which holds
should be avoided. Limestone, in all its various forms, approximately 75% of a pool’s pollution, is often
should generally be avoided in wet areas, as it is not ingested by swimmers.
only very soft and easily eroded, but species like
Travertine can be very heavily fissured. Even though
these tiles can be supplied with fissures filled with a
resin-based material, new openings will inevitably
Access for Persons with Disabilities
form during use.
• The route to the pool must not be confusing
If choosing natural stone, it’s important to use a testing
and lead directly through a shower area.
agency to test slippage. The cost for this is minimal
and is highly recommended, as it demonstrates due • Handrails should be provided between the
diligence. Of course, it’s also imperative to choose changing rooms and poolside, and tactile
floor surfaces that minimize the potential for slippage information must be placed at critical points
and use the correct sloping angle3 for proper drainage. on circulation routes.
It’s worth noting that the requirement for non-slip • Design and detailing at the pool edge is critical
surfaces is only in critical areas, including the treads of to warn swimmers they are approaching the
the steps and the top of the slope inside the pool down pool edge.
to the deeper areas. • The minimum water depth to provide
sufficient buoyancy for adult disabled
Pool Types
swimmers is 1,200 mm. However, learner
The aesthetics of a pool are very much affected by the pools should be accessible to disabled children
type of pool chosen. There are two types of pools: and other groups who may prefer a shallower
overflow and freeboard. An overflow pool is most depth of water.
commonly chosen for hydrotherapy spas because they
• Moveable floors can be particularly useful
can be level with the decking or designed as infinity
in learner pools, as they provide the deeper
pools. On the other hand, in a freeboard/skimmer
water necessary for adult swimmers with a
pool, the water level is approximately 150 mm below
lower-limb disability.
the pool deck, creating a visible edge.
• Disabled swimmers can access the pool by a
Not only do the pools look very different, but they also
variety of means with a ramped entry or hoist
function differently in terms of how they handle the
being the minimum requirement.
treatment and flow of pool water. An overflow pool
uses a balance tank to store and treat the overflow of • Floor finishes must be reliable and slip-
surface water that runs off when people get into the resistant with a non-abrasive surface.
pool. The displaced water is captured, treated and then
Pool Areas | 109

Design Considerations Common
Pool Tank/Basin Mistakes
Construction
Pools are complex to build and manage. User safety, Pool tanks or basins (the pool structure itself ) can
efficient water treatment and pleasing aesthetics start be built from various materials, including concrete,
with careful planning, specification and design. stainless steel or fiberglass. There are some functional
The water treatment system must be an integral part of and aesthetic differences between these materials.
the architectural, structural, mechanical and electrical Concrete: A common, affordable choice, but pools
design of the building. It is critical at the earliest stages rendered in concrete can suffer from water leakage.
of a project, after determining the type of pool(s) being It’s important to conduct a percolation test to ensure
installed, to consider the following key factors: water integrity before tiling a pool built from concrete.
• Anticipated bather load (required to determine pool Stainless Steel: Popular for both its aesthetic value
and plant sizing) and water retention ability. A minimum grade 316L
• Pool size and volume (length x width x depth), plus stainless steel, which is more resistant to corrosion
any hydrotherapy equipment to be incorporated than conventional stainless steel, should be used for
into the pool freshwater pools. If the pool is saltwater, a higher grade
• Pool location of stainless steel is required. Modular stainless steel is
• Balance tank location also an option. Here, the stainless steel panels have a
• Plant room location and size PVC lining. The modular design makes them quick
• Level of pool, balance tank and plant room are of to construct and removes the need for hot welding
paramount importance on site.
Indoor pool at
Tschuggen Grand
Hotel, Arosa,
Switzerland.

Fiberglass or Glass Reinforced Plastic: Offer Guide to Pool Pollution
great water retention and can be delivered as a single
Surface Pollution: Hair, dust, grease, excreta,
piece or in sections for construction on site.
floating debris, grass, etc. This can often be
Pre-Formed, Composite Shell: A next-generation handled by an efficient surface draw-off system,
pool structure. Pre-formed, composite shells combine such as those found in level-deck pools. Of course,
three materials working together to create a bespoke,
larger items of surface debris can be removed by
tiled pool that is quick and easy to install. Pool shells
the pool staff.
are manufactured out of fiberglass with an epoxy-
laminate layer to ensure waterproofing and finished in Dissolved Pollution: Urine, perspiration,
a ceramic mosaic tile; finally, the fully finished pool is cosmetics, etc. Efficient filtration and circulation
delivered directly to the site, ready for installation is critical for treatment, as well as maintaining
sufficient chlorine levels for breaking it down.
Pool Finishes
Suspended-Matter Pollution: Water treatment
Pools are usually finished in tiles, either mosaic or
larger format. And non-slip tiles are essential around and cleaning chemicals. To deal with these, use the
stairs and shallow areas. Natural stone or slate is not minimum quantities of chemicals in and around
recommended because it is porous and can discolor, the pool and maintain carefully balanced water.
leaving a residue on the pool floor. If considering Insoluble Pollution: Fluff, dirt, precipitated
such materials, test them with pool chemicals prior to chemicals, filter sand, etc. Sweep or vacuum the
installation. pool bottom daily or as required.
In order to increase waterproofing, a rendered finish
can be used. The rendered finish is applied between the
concrete structure and the finish tile.
can include: hydrochloric acid (for pH correction),
Stainless steel pools are usually left bare (versus tiled)
sodium bicarbonate (for alkalinity adjustment), alum
and can be polished to produce either a satin-brushed
(as a filter aid), calcium flake (for grout protection)
or mirror finish.
and sodium thiosulphate (used for over chlorination).
PVC liners are often used in large, public pools where Scum line cleaners and poolside cleaners can also find
there’s a need for an affordable pool finish that is their way into the pool.
watertight. These flexible membranes can be applied
With careful management and selection of the correct
to both concrete and stainless steel pools. They come
sanitizer, as few as two or three chemicals can do the
in various colors.
same job with better results.
Pollution and Cleaning
How Pools Operate
Pollution in swimming pools’ water comes from
When considering the installation of a pool, it’s
many sources; however, swimmers themselves are the
important to understand how they work, especially in
major source. In fact, it is said that each swimmer can
regards to filtration and water treatment.
introduce as much as 600 million bacteria into the
pool! In addition to bacteria, there are other pollutants All the pool water must be filtered and treated to keep
caused by swimmers, like perspiration, cosmetics, the pool safe and clean—and determining how long
suntan lotion, hair products, sweat, urine, etc. it takes to move the entire contents of a pool through
the filter system is called “turnover rate.” The turnover
Interestingly, the chemicals used to treat pool water
rate required helps determine the pool pump that is
can also create their own problems. A key mistake
needed. A higher-use pool with more water will require
in water treatment is when an operator uses five or
more frequent turnover.
six chemicals to keep the water in balance. These
Pool Areas | 111

Overflow:
Level Deck
Pool water is level with

the pool surroundings.
LEVEL DECK
Aesthetically pleasing GRATING
and inherently cleaner
because most of
the polluted surface
water flows over the
edge of the pool into
the transfer channel 1.2m
connected to the
balance tank. CHANNEL OUTLET PIPE
TO BALANCE TANK

Overflow:
Infinity Edge
Similar to level-deck
pool, but the water
is transferred to an INFINITY EDGE
overhanging channel
and gives the visual
GRATING
appearance of the
pool water blending
(merging) with the
horizon. 1.2m
CHANNEL OUTLET PIPE

TO BALANCE TANK
Pool Areas | 113

Freeboard:
Skimmer
SKIMMER
Space between the
BOX
water level and the top
of the pool deck.
SKIMMER OUTLET PIPE

1.2m TO PUMP SUCTION

Pool Water Safety
Pool staff should be trained to conduct regular testing of the pool water. Below are
testing guidelines:
Daily Tests
Water Quality Values
(Every 2-3 Hours)
Free Chlorine Range 0.5 to 3.0 mg/l (Aim for 1.0 to 2.0 mg/l)
Combined Chlorine Not more than one third of total chlorine
pH Range 7.2 to max. 7.6 (Aim for 7.2 to 7.4)
Weekly Tests Water Quality Values
100 ppm to 180 ppm Sodium Hypochlorite

Alkalinity
100 ppm to 120 ppm Calcium Hypochlorite
Calcium Hardness 200 ppm to 1000 ppm (not less than 200 ppm)
Total Dissolved Solids Max.

TDS
1000 ppm above source water
Pool Balance Refer to Langelier Saturation Index
Pool Chemical Room Safety

Careful consideration has to be given for safe delivery Segregation: Separate enclosures should be
of chemicals, including offloading and transfer within maintained for all potentially hazardous chemicals
the building, avoiding stairs where possible. (acids and alkalis) in separately ventilated rooms, with
Storage: Adequate, separate storage and a minimum of four air changes per hour.
containment space must be provided for the chemical Drench Showers/Eyewashes: Emergency drench
containers and bags required for the normal daily and showers/eyewashes are recommended in commercial
weekly refilling of the operational chemical day tanks. chemical rooms.
Containment Bunds: A chemical bund area should Eyewash: A sealed sterile type of eyewash bottle
be constructed in concrete with a cement render should be located near the intake point and in the
internally and finished with a chemical-resistant (or chemical stores
fiberglass-lined) material, providing a fully contained Sink: A large sink with hot and cold running water is
bund capable of holding 110% of the maximum required for cleaning the chemical injectors.
chemical volume.
Pool Areas | 115

Filtration Water Treatment Flow
AUTO MAKE-UP
VALVE ASSEMBLY LEVEL DECK
TP
BY OTHERS
TP
HI 2
LC
1
LEVEL DECK
LEVEL DECK
BALANCE
LC TANK POOL
LOW
DRAIN
LEVEL DECK
DOSING
PUMP MAIN CONTROL PANEL
STRAINER CIRCULATION
PUMP (DUTY) FLOCULANT
4 F
CARBOY
3 FILTER METER
STRAINER CIRCULATION
PUMP (STANDBY) FILTER FILTER
VESSEL No. 1 VESSEL No. 2
5 7
pH CI
PI PI
FS
PI PI
SAMPLE
10 BOARD
CHEMICAL STORES
DRAIN
HYPO ROOM DOSING ACID ROOM DOSING
PUMP PUMP
DRAIN DRAIN DRAIN DRAIN
9 UV
UNIT
HYPO DAY TANK ACID DAY TANK HEAT HEAT EXCHANGER
EXCHANGER BOOSTER PUMP
8
CHEMICAL STORES UV PANEL
BOOSTER PUMP
1 – Pool Tank/Basin This effectively drops the pool water level.

The pool illustrated here is a typical level-deck pool Fresh water is introduced into the system via an auto
with concentric bottom-sump outlets and wall inlets make-up system in the balance tank and the pool inlets
evenly positioned to provide the best possible water return the height of the pool water to normal.
distribution. It is recommended that outlets have a
3 – Circulating Pumps
maximum velocity of 0.5 m/second for suction and
Main circulating pumps are at the heart of the filtration
0.5 m to 1.0 m/second for inlets. All pool fittings
system, and their selection is crucial to the continuous
should be designed in compliance with international
operation of the filtration and water treatment system.
pool entrapment standards, which means no gap
Upstream of the main circulation pumps, strainers
greater than 8 mm. In larger pools, it’s recommended to
should be fitted to protect the pumps from any pool
include vacuum points for pool cleaning so automatic
debris. (These should be inspected and cleaned on a
pool cleaners can clean the pool overnight.
weekly basis.)
2 – Balance Tank
4 – Flocculation Dosing System
Balance tanks are required for all overflow pools in order
Incorporating the continuous dosing of a coagulant
to contain the “surge” caused by bather displacement,
in very small quantities is an effective way to remove
whether level deck, infinity edge or other variation.
microscopic impurities and organisms from a
Bathers entering the pool displace water to the overflow
pool, including common waterborne parasites, like
system, which feeds pool water to the balance tank.
cryptosporidium, the germ that causes diarrhea.

5 – Chemical Controller
Monitors and regulates pool chemical levels. Pool Chemical Primer
6 – Electrical Control Panel Disinfectants
Electrical control panels are required to provide power • Sodium Hypochlorite: Supplied in liquid form
to all of the electrical equipment in the plant room either in small pack or bulk with a maximum
and to provide overload protection to the equipment. chlorine strength of 15%. Widely used in pools
The electrical control panel can also be linked to the where hard water is the source water.
Building Management System, providing fault signals • Calcium Hypochlorite: Supplied in granular
to a central control room. and tablet form with a maximum chlorine
strength of 65% to 68%. Most often used in
7 – Filtration
pools where soft water is the source water.
Good filtration is essential for ensuring water quality.
• Bromine: Supplied in granular or tablet form,
The most common filtration method for commercial bromine is an alternative to chlorine. Though
usage is medium-rate, vertical sand filters, but there closely related, bromine is able to withstand
is also regenerative, diatomaceous earth and cartilage heat better than chlorine so is recommended for
filtration to consider. Of critical importance is the spa pools, but isn’t ideal for larger commercial
filtration rate—the higher the rate, the lower the pools.
filtration efficiency. Note: Filtration rates should not pH Correction
exceed 25m3/m2/hour (flow rate/area of flow rate/time). • Sodium Bisulphate: Supplied as a dry powder
8 – Secondary Disinfection to be mixed in water.
It is strongly recommended to have a secondary • Hydrochloric Acid: Supplied in concentrated
disinfection process in place to fight waterborne liquid form, requires dilution and is very
parasites. There are several options available: gaseous.
• Sulphuric Acid: Supplied in concentrated
• Full Ozone: Ozone gas is used to complement liquid form, requires dilution. An exothermic
chlorination and results in lower levels of chlorine; reaction occurs when added to water.
however this requires a good level of expertise to • CO2 Gas: Supplied in either small pack
operate, additional space in the plant room and is container or bulk, this product is not advisable
more expensive to install and run. to be used within a pool that has air features, as
• Ultra-violet (UV): Commonly used to complement the gas will escape into the atmosphere while
chlorination and allows pools to operate with lower the water is agitated, reducing the effectiveness
levels of chlorine. of the CO2 gas and making the control of the
• Partial-Flow UV or Ozone: an alternative when PH difficult to manage.
there are space restrictions as only a 10% to 25% Alternative Disinfection Treatments
of total flow rate is treated so not as effective as full- • Frequently new water treatment processes
flow treatments. enter the market with bold claims of providing
chlorine-free disinfection or chemical-free
9 – Pool Heating
disinfection. In certain circumstances some
Common methods of heating are gas and/or oil boilers;
of these treatment processes may bear further
electrical heating; heat exchanger (particularly used in consideration, but always obtain independent
very hot countries). professional advice before using and don’t
10 – Chemical Injection simply rely on the marketing claims provided
Automatic chemical dosing systems are recommended by any one supplier.
where possible.
Pool Areas | 117

Plant Room Design Noise Reduction: Plant rooms should be strategically
located to keep noise to a minimum in other areas of
Plant rooms need to be considered in the very early
the spa. In addition, every effort should be made to
stages of the design process. There are numerous
minimize noise and vibration. For example, typical
reasons for this—including the fact that they will
equipment noise levels for main circulating pumps
invariably take up more space than operators might
are >80dbA, and air blowers are >85dbA. Insulated
anticipate. They also require input from a structural
acoustic panels and/or doors should be incorporated.
engineer to ensure that the foundation is capable of
holding the weight of the balance tank and filtration Drainage: Gullies are required for main circulating
and water treatment plant. And, finally, plant rooms pump strainers, filters, chemical rooms and chemical
must be situated in areas that allow for the minimizing controllers/sample boards. In addition, a dedicated
of noise and vibration. back-wash connection is recommended for each filter.
Level: Plant room slab level needs to be a minimum of
Plant Room Design one meter below the pool static water level. If this is not
Considerations possible, than a pump pit should be incorporated into
Foundation: A structural engineer should ensure the plant room. Should the drainage level be higher
that plant room slab is capable of holding the working than the pit, a recess sump should be incorporated and
weight of the balance tank and filtration and water an automatic sump pump installed to drain.
treatment plant.
Water Hydraulics
For effective water WATER
FILTRATION &
MANHOLE
LEVEL DECK
CHANNEL
LEVEL DECK
CHANNEL
TREATMENT
hydraulics, the levels of PLANT
WATER LEVEL
PUMP PIT
the pool static water, POOL
1.5 m BALANCE TANK INLETS
balance tank and main PUMPS
OUTLETS
circulating pumps are

of critical importance;
examples of good
design are shown here. Option 1: Pool Water Treatment Plant on Same Level as Pool
LEVEL DECK LEVEL DECK

CHANNEL CHANNEL
WATER LEVEL
PLANT ROOM POOL

INLETS
OUTLETS
WATER MANHOLE
FILTRATION
&
TREATMENT BALANCE
PLANT TANK
PUMPS
Option 2: Pool Water Treatment Plant & Balance Tank on Level Below

Space: The amount of space required to house
Pool Lighting
the pool filtration and water treatment plant vary
considerably depending on the number and size of Halogen*
pools being built. Table 4:2 is supplied as a guide for Currently being phased out in most countries
spa whirlpools and vitality pools. because they are less energy efficient.
Health/Safety: The filtration plant room must be LED*

designed in accordance with published guidelines Offer longer life and varying color options;
(e.g., Pool Water Treatment Advisory Group), and the various size and styles of fitting available (flush,
water treatment plant arranged in accordance with beveled, frosted glass, strip lighting, stainless
good standard practice. Adequate provision has to be steel bezel, etc.).
made for safe daily operator access and for effective Fiber Optics
and efficient ongoing service and maintenance of the Provides lower level of illumination but offer
entire system. unrivalled effects. Can create moods and
Work plinths may be required to provide access to all sensations that cannot be achieved with most
of the filtration and water treatment plant. other lighting systems. Because fiber-optic
lights contain no heat or electricity, they are
Lighting/Power: Adequate lighting and power
well-suited for use in pools. They are also easier
supply outlets are necessary throughout plant and
to maintain, as there is no “bulb” to replace;
chemical rooms and should meet local/international
instead an illuminator or projector transmits
requirements.
the light through the fiber. This “remote light
Ventilation/Temperature: The minimum number projector” can be located conveniently for bulb
of air changes required in the plant room is four per replacement.
hour. The temperature should not fall below 10° C or
*Halogen and LED lights must have an IP68
rise above 30° C.
rating—this is the highest Ingress Protection
rating and means they are protected against
1
http://floatforhealth.net/suedfeld.pdf complete, continuous submersion in water.
2
http://www.epsomsaltcouncil.org/articles/universal_health_institute_
about_epsom_salt.pdf
3
Refer to the German DIN 51097 standard and aim for the classification
“B” (least slippery); another respected standard to follow is the British
Standard Pendulum Test BS 7976-2 and BS 13036-4
Space
Pool Balance Tank Plant Room

Volume Area
(L x W x D) (L x W x D) (L x W x D)
3 m Dia 3 m3 1.5 m x 1.0 m x 1.0 m 3.5 m x 3.0 m x 2.5 m 10.5 m2
5.0 m x 4.0 m x 1.2 m 25 m3 4.0 m x 1.2 m x 1.0 m 5.0 m x 2.5 m x 2.5 m 12.5 m2
7.0 m x 6.0 m x 1.2 m 50 m3 6.0 m x 1.5 m x 1.0 m 6.5 m x 4.5 m x 2.5 m 30.0 m2
*Note: Maximum required height of full-ozone plants must be over 3 m.
Pool Areas | 119

Chapter Seven
Hot Springs & Geothermal

Mineral Waters
This chapter covers the unique world of hot springs and
geothermal mineral waters, including the health benefits of
balneotherapy and was written in collaboration with the Global
Wellness Institute’s Hot Springs Initiative, an international think
tank dedicated to exploring the diverse values of geothermal
waters for health, recreation, tourism and community.
Wellness travelers have sought the healing powers of

hot springs since the beginning of time. The naturally
warm, mineral-rich water flowing right out of the
ground has soothed aches and pains for millennia,
while the hypnotic and magical powers of hot springs
have inspired healing lore and bathing rituals on every
continent.
In fact, hot springs and geothermal mineral waters
are experiencing a real renaissance as more modern
bathers actively seek out the healing properties of
Hot springs and balneotheraphy (defined as the immersion in mineral
geothermal waters are
water for health benefits). The Global Wellness
Institute recently projected that the sector is on track
enjoyed throughout the
to becoming a nearly $65 billion wellness category by
world and experiencing
2020 (up from $51 billion in 2015).
a renaissance. Pictured:
Ojo Caliente Mineral
What makes hot springs so magical is that no two
are alike—each has a unique spectrum of minerals
Springs Resort & Spa,
and other qualities. While all hot springs provide the
New Mexico.
familiar benefits of bathing, such as blood circulation
Hot Springs & Geothermal Mineral Waters | 121

enhancement and relaxation, the greater power of will be found adjacent to streams, lakes or seawater.
hot springs is attributed to their minerals and other In addition to bathing and soaking, the water from
qualities including texture, alkalinity, odor and flavor. hot springs can also be used for drinking, mind/body
These qualities set hot springs apart from all other cleansing, heating buildings and even generating
waters. electricity. Some hot springs facilities combine all of
The water from hot springs—called “geothermal those functions, making them one of the earth’s most
mineral water”—is typically formed as rain and sustainable and renewable resources.
snowmelt sinks through cracks and porosities in Hot springs have inspired healing and bathing rituals
the ground to collect in underground permeable in a cultures around the world, and today’s modern day
rock called “aquifers,” near volcanic or other hot wellness traveler can explore these unique destinations
underground geology. The hot water dissolves minerals to refresh, revitalize and feel re-connected with the
from surrounding rock, and carries those minerals as it nurturing energies of these places.
emerges on the surface as hot springs. Today, wellness travelers can seek out numerous types
Natural hot springs are found as geysers, streams, of hot springs—from rustic to luxurious or indigenous
seeps, bogs or steam vents. They occur in mountains, to modern urban. Visitors can soak for an hour or a
valleys, deserts, and even under polar ice sheets, lakes day and can find hot spring facilities that suit their
and oceans. Hot springs may be extremely hot or personal preferences—be it a contemplative spa with
barely warm; some have strong odors while others are massage and yoga, family recreation with a water slide,
neutral. The water may be salty, bitter, sweet, hard or or medical oversight with full lab analytics provided
soft, nutritious for microbes and plants or relatively by doctors and sometimes funded by health insurance.
sterile, even corrosive or toxic to life. Regional, national and cultural preferences often guide
In some cases, hot springs may be the only source of the design of a hot spring facility, and the ways to use
water in an area, while, in other cases, hot springs the water. However, regardless of whether it’s a water-
The natural hot springs

at Germany’s Toskana
Therme Bad Sulza are
open for public use.

Ojo Caliente Mineral
Springs Resort & Spa
opened in 1868 and is
the only hot springs
in the world that touts
four unique, sulfur-
free mineral waters
including iron, arsenic,
soda and lithia.
slide recreational park, a spa, or a medical treatment Ancient Hot Springs and Modern
facility—or just a trickle of hot water running into
Drilled Wells
the ocean—it’s important to remember that a hot
spring’s water has unique properties and potential For much of human history, naturally flowing hot
health benefits regardless of how it’s used by the springs were the only source of warm water in which
indigenous culture. to bathe. Early cultures used hand tools to dig small
pools where they could submerge their bodies into the
Hot Springs History mysteriously warm water.
Modern history shows hot springs have been health Today, well drilling technology and geologic science
and wellness destinations since the dawn of civilization
enables access to geothermal mineral water from deep
around 5,000 years ago. Before that, our Paleolithic
aquifers, even several kilometers down, and in areas
stone-age ancestors used hot springs for at least 40,000
where natural hot springs have never freely flowed to
years. Long before that, archaeological evidence reveals
the surface before.
our Cro-Magnon and Neanderthal predecessors used
hot springs sites for at least 200,000 years. The minerals Facilities built on drilled wells are commonly called
and warmth provided year-round habitat for countless “hot springs” even though a manmade well is not
species of plants and animals through winters, ice technically a “spring.” Some wells are able to produce
ages and global catastrophes. Our predecessors relied water that flows to the surface by itself without a
on hot springs year-round for hunting and foraging, manual pump—this is called “artesian flow,” while
drinking, easing the body, and harvesting of minerals other wells require pumping to lift the water to the
including salt. surface. Springs will naturally flow to the surface
without the aid of pumps, although, today, many
Natural undeveloped hot springs still exist today,
modern hot springs are a hybrid of a spring and well
often in very remote wilderness or in areas that have
because they have utilized drilled wells and pumps
challenging terrain and/or access. Adventurous hikers
will often build basic pools and diverse systems that to enhance the water flow rate and increase pool
encourage air-cooling of the steamy water or devise a bathing capacity.
way to mix it with colder water, creating a comfortable For ease of understanding, the term “hot springs” is
soaking temperature. being used to define all geothermal mineral water

Hot springs create a
natural social setting as
seen here at Australia’s
Peninsula Hot Springs.
facilities built on either naturally occurring springs water is prehistoric, having been underground for
or drilled wells, or a combination of spring and well. thousands of years—similar to oil deposits that don’t
Although all languages have words to describe both have access to the surface until a well is drilled, and
natural springs and wells, the term “hot springs” can are non-renewable. Most developed countries have
be difficult to interpret in some languages and a more regulations to ensure aquifers are not depleted.
scientifically accurate term could be “geothermal
Naturally flowing hot springs can be endangered
mineral water.”
through over pumping from aquifers for agriculture
“Hot Springs” vs “Wells” and urban use. Because aquifers are hidden deep
Springs underground, their complex flow and replenishment
• Springs may have historic and pre-historic use by dynamics are often debated as politics collide with
humans theoretical assumptions and available science. Regional
• Springs generally have long history of biology and water-laws often rule who can use the water, and for
evolution of life what purposes, especially during drought cycles. Hot
• Springs often have unique mineral deposits springs and any unique species inhabiting them may be
• Ancient animal migration paths lead to some hot disadvantaged by the demands of industry and global
springs for salt or other minerals population sprawl. For example, poorly understood
• Spring aquifers may have elaborate underground microbiomes of hot springs have sometimes been
channels emerging at springs destroyed before their potential medicinal benefits
Wells were understood. This highlights the ongoing issue of
• Wells can provide geothermal mineral water in areas human need versus habitat and resource conservation.
where no natural hot springs occur Today’s wellness travelers are usually conscious of their
• Wells rely on aquifers for their geothermal mineral ecological footprint and the sustainability of resources.
water and risk depleting this precious water resource Abundant hot mineral water flowing right out of
Sustainable use of an aquifer depends on how long it the earth is a sustainable resource. Many hot spring
takes rainwater to replenish the water that’s pulled out. facilities will share what they know about their waters,
Some aquifers replenish very slowly or not at all; some from source-to-bathing.

Facilities, Culture and Etiquette
Natural hot springs are likely the very first type of hot- are partially funded or fully funded by insurance
water bathing humans experienced, and are the first companies or national health-care programs. They
“spas” and original wellness destinations. Cultures may offer full medical treatments prescribed by doctors
throughout the ages have endowed hot springs with that can include soaking, drinking and resting in hot
magical or spiritual powers for mystical awakening, springs waters and the surrounding environment.
sacramental drinking, anointing, physical healing and
To accommodate cultural, and often religious
various religious rituals, including baptism.
differences, some facilities offer designated areas or
Modern wellness travelers can enjoy hot springs
days for women, men, and families to bath separately.
in diverse locations and regions, all with unique
Some regions have modest clothing requirements
experiences. Some facilities are designed into natural
relative and appropriate to their culture, while in other
landscapes for an organic, natural experience,
regions nudity or clothing-optional is the norm.
while others are fashioned on ancient and modern
architecture. Some hot springs facilities offer a quiet, Certain regions have long-standing cultural traditions
meditative atmosphere for self-reflection where to follow or honor, while others are entirely informal
contemplative inner focus is enabled. Some are and non-traditional. For the global wellness traveler,
more social or interactive; and others are for family it is important to be aware of these traditions since
recreation with waterslides, campgrounds and other bathing against cultural practice may be offensive or
complementary activities. even illegal. It is therefore advised to adhere to the
Medical hot springs are popular in countries where general culture and specific rules regarding bathing in
the water is part of a health cure and some treatments each location.
In Europe, facilities
are built to provide
the best possible user
experience as seen
here at Germany’s
Toskana Therme
Bad Orb.

Hot springs often
provide a connection
to local culture as
seen at Peninsula Hot
Springs, Australia.
Hot Springs Temperature Range Unique Biodiversity and Species

Some hot springs emerge from the ground at the Many unique species have evolved to inhabit certain
perfect temperature for human bathing, which is springs, including aquatic plants, algae, fungi,
often referred to by experts as the “Goldilocks Zone” fish, crustaceans, amphibians and insects. Some
because the water is considered “just right.” Others are of these are extremophiles, meaning they tolerate
either too hot or barely warm, so they must be cooled extreme environments such as heat and high mineral
or heated by non-natural means for human use. Most concentrations. One classic example is the Julimes
often, hot springs come to the surface warmer than is Pupfish that lives in a single Mexican hot springs
comfortable for soaking and with too high a mineral location, with temperatures up to 45° C/114° F, along
content. with a hot water snail and the various algae they eat.
Water temperature is easily described as “hot, warm, That temperature is far too hot for most humans to
tepid and cold.” The temperature of a baby’s bath is tolerate and very few organisms can survive in such
probably good for long-term soaking, while very hot or hot water.
ice-cold water is only good for a quick dip. The word Green and blue-green colonies of single-celled
“hot” can mean many different degrees of temperature, photosynthetic plants thrive in mineral-rich waters
which varies from culture to culture. and are often used as scrubs and masks for the body
Human bodies tolerate a narrow range of water and skin. Muds, peats and surrounding soils are also
temperature for bathing. Generally, a comfortable used for body treatments, each with their own complex
range is between just below body temperature of 36° C of microbiome species unique to that hot spring.
(98° F) to a high of 41° C (106° F). Dangerously hot The genetic repertoire of these “hot spring specific
temperatures above 111° F or 43° C are typically too species” offers a glimpse into how adaptation can
hot for most humans. occur within challenging concentrations of minerals.

Conservation of these species is critical to maintain Wilderness hot springs sometimes have signs warning
their genetic diversity and future benefit to science of various water-born pathogens, aquatic insects or
and medicine. Encroaching developments and aquifer hazardous elements in the water, in addition to biting
threats have led to closure of some hot springs to insects, spiders and mites in the surrounding vegetation
protect threatened species from extinction. of the oasis. Many species flourish at hot springs sites
as they have for millions of years, so human newcomers
Hot Springs Sanitation must be alert in the quest for a good soak!
Like all public bathing waters, hot springs must be
Before You Visit
monitored for pathogens that could cause disease, such
as E. coli and amoeba. Some facilities have sufficient Most facilities have excellent information about their
water flow that no sanitizing chemicals are needed, waters—reviewing these is highly recommended. Be
and the pure water and minerals are ideal for bathing. sure to inquire ahead of time regarding clothing and
Other facilities drain and clean the pools each day. bathing protocols as some countries require specific
Many others require sanitizing chemicals or treatments clothing, may segregate women and men, while others
will be clothing-optional or no clothing allowed. Some
to maintain healthful water quality.
facilities encourage silence in pool areas to allow a
Although hot springs connoisseurs generally prefer meditative atmosphere, while others are more social
non-sanitized hot springs, if required, most people and interactive.
agree that the chemicals are of less concern than illness
Generally, it’s good etiquette to bathe or rinse before
caused by pathogens. Most “hot springs” facilities, spas
entering a public hot springs to keep lotions, oils,
and resorts are carefully managed for water quality
scents and sunscreen out of the shared water. The
and regional governments sometimes play a role in the
natural scent of the water adds to its healthful effects.
sanitization management.
Reflexology walks
are popular in and
around hot springs and
enable visitors to treat
themselves to self-
guided foot massage.

Taking the Cure
Nearly all hot springs facilities can provide health humans throughout history have been feeling better
benefits derived from their unique mineral waters. from bathing in hot springs (balneotherapy). Many
Robust medical research, particularly in Europe, has visitors to these waters believe them to be healing in
proven the benefit of hot springs for specific ailments— an organic or spiritual way. Muds and algae from hot
often referred to as “cures.” Some cures are directly springs may be used as body scrubs or masque spa
related to trace minerals or major concentrations of treatments, with benefits coming from the minerals
macro minerals, many of which are directly absorbed and the unique microbial of species in the products.
through the skin and then circulated through the body Cold-water springs can also hold many of the properties
as they are incorporated into body tissues. Other cures found in geothermal mineral water as they are usually
are related to temperature, viscosity, alkalinity or other created by water that was very hot underground but
properties of the water. has cooled on its way to the surface, retaining much of
Throughout history, people have reported “cures” of the dissolved mineral content. Health claims for cold
various aliments and a general boost in health and water springs usually relate to drinking water, since it’s
vitality from soaking in the waters. “Feeling better” is too cool for soaking. This water is often bottled and
difficult to quantify scientifically, but it is evident that shipped globally.
Ancient humans generally relied on their senses and
local lore to understand the health merits of a hot
springs, the same process used to discern medicinal
and nutritious plants throughout history. Modern
technological analysis can supplement and validate
the ancient lore while providing additional levels of
knowledge that expand the story of water.
Of course, not all hot springs waters are healthful
or nutritious—some may contain harmful levels of
elements including arsenic or fluoride, while some
minerals are beneficial only in small amounts and can
be hazardous if consumed copiously. Many hot springs
facilities provide detailed laboratory analysis of their
water chemistry, along with recommendations for
bathing and drinking.
Part of the fun—and

benefits—of hot springs
is rolling in the mud.

Types of Balneotherapy
Balneotherapy is the immersion in mineral water Peloid Therapy: Refers to the use of mud/clay from
and/or peloid (geothermal mud/clay) for specific geothermal environs.
health benefits. It can be confused with hydrotherapy Hot-cold Immersion: Hot springs bathing followed
(the use of water for relaxation, pain relief and other by cold plunge (or increasingly, ice immersion) is a
treatments), but it’s really a category of its own. common balneotherapy practice.
Maintaining a universal definition of ‘balneotherapy’ Inhalation: Refers to therapies that focus on
is important both for global research and the industry
inhalation of geothermal mineral spring water gases.
as a whole. Readers should note that the standardized
Watsu: Increasingly common treatment that utilizes
definition of balneotherapy as agreed by the Global
Wellness Institute’s Hot Springs Initiative is “passive the elements of Shiatsu while floating in hot spring
bathing in geothermal mineral spring waters with waters.
water content that is regarded as having unique health Geothermal Water Exercise Programs: Unlike
properties.” passive balneotherapy, these programs involve
Various types of balneotherapy can be identified, performing yoga and other stretches in geothermal
including: waters.
European Program: European balneotherapy Reflexology: Stone walks through geothermal

programs are well documented and often studied. They mineral water.
usually consist of passive 20-minute bathing sessions Thermal Sound Therapy: Floatation while music is
two or three times a week over a course of three weeks. played underwater.
Some hot springs

emerge from the
ground at the perfect
temperature for human
bathing, which is often
referred to by experts
as the “Goldilocks
Zone” because the
water is considered
“just right.” Credit: Ojo Caliente Mineral Springs Resort & Spa

Classification Confusion
Unfortunately, there’s no global agreement on hot springs classification. Instead, balneologists around the globe
often create classifications of geothermal mineral springs in silos, with little or no collaboration. The lack of
a unifying and globally-accepted classification system means that researchers—along with industry groups—
continue to create their own.
For the purposes of this guide, we present a recent classification list created by the Hot Springs Australia group,
which published a national classification protocol in 2018 that is based on the fundamentals of the more regulated
definition of Japanese ‘onsens’ (the term for the popular hot springs and bathing experiences found all over Japan).
Australian Hot Springs Classification

Hot springs are classified according to four criteria: well temperature, pH, osmotic pressure and type of spring.
1: Well Temperature
Cold Spring: up to 20° C

Warm Spring: 25° C to 34° C
Hot Spring: 34° C to 42° C
Extra Hot Spring: over 42° C
2: PH
The pH of the water has a large effect on how the water feels. The more alkaline the baths, the softer and soapier the
water feels. Alkaline baths are thought to be good for the skin and are also called “beauty springs”. Acidic baths will,
conversely, feel much harder or firmer on the body. Both sensations are enjoyable and a matter of personal preference.
Acidic: pH of 3 or lower
Weak Acidic: pH of 3 to 6
Neutral: pH of 6 to 7.5
Weak Alkaline: pH of 7.5 to 8.5
Alkaline: pH of 8.5 or greater
3: Osmotic Pressure
This is the total weight of the dissolved solids in a given amount of the spring water and the water’s ability to hold those
minerals in suspension. The difference is often visible as spring water that contains a high percentage of dissolved solids
will typically be opaque.
Low: 8g/kg of dissolved solids or lower and a freezing point of -0.55° C or higher
Isotonic: 8g/kg to 10g/kg of dissolved solids with a freezing point of -0.55° C to -0.58° C
High: 10g/kg or higher and a freezing point of at least -0.58° C

4: Hot Spring Types (Based On Japan’s “onsen” classification.)
Simple Hot Spring: Water that does not contain enough minerals to be classified in detail but are still considered onsen.
• Simple hot spring
• Simple alkaline hot spring
Chloride Springs: The most common type of hot spring in Japan. The salt content helps clean the body of sweat while
helping the body retain heat.
• Sodium chloride spring
• Strong sodium chloride spring
• Sodium chloride carbonated spring
• Sodium chloride sulphate spring
• Sodium and calcium chloride carbonated spring
Carbonated Springs: These may have a softening effect on your skin and leave the body feeling refreshed and cool
after bathing.
• Sodium and calcium bicarbonate spring
• Calcium and sodium bicarbonate chloride spring
• Calcium and sodium bicarbonate sulphate spring
Sulfuric Acid Springs: These springs help reduce pain, combat liver disease and constipation. The calcium type also has
a calming effect. The magnesium helps lower blood pressure.
• Calcium sulphate spring
• Sodium sulphate chloride spring
• Magnesium sulphate spring
Iron springs: The iron in the spring is absorbed by the water and helps in blood production. Although these springs are
clear when they emerge from the earth, the iron in them will oxidize and turn a brownish color.
• Iron carbonated spring
• Acidic iron sulfuric acid spring
Aluminum Springs: These springs may have disinfectant properties and benefit some skin diseases.
• Aluminum and iron sulphate spring
Radioactive Springs: The radon is absorbed into the body and breathed in as the gas escapes from the water. The use of
radioactivity for positive medical effects is greatly debated but has been done for many years. Radon caves where people
go to breath in the gas for therapeutic reasons are still in operation in parts of North America. One should use their own
judgment when deciding to expose themselves to radioactivity like this.
• Simple radioactive spring
• Simple weak radioactive spring

Underground vapor
cave at The Historic
Wiesbaden Hot
Springs Spa &
Lodgings in Ouray.
Research and Evidence

Geothermal mineral water has long fascinated both aimed to explain the functions of the various specific
scientists and physicians. Herodotus, one of our earliest mineral elements in balneotherapy—such as sulfur,
historians (born around 484 BC) was the first to magnesium or radon— linking individual minerals to
describe the use of springs and spas for the treatment of the treatment of particular diseases, like sulfurous-rich
various diseases, prescribing a 21-day limit to therapy water and recurrent upper respiratory tract infections.1
duration, while Hippocrates, Asclepieades, Pliny the A very recent example of balneotherapy’s effectiveness
Elder and Galen all advocated bathing for a range of comes from research published in Clinical
conditions in different types of water. In addition, the Rheumatology (May 2018), which studied 100
Austrian physician Caspar Schober wrote a treatise in patients with fibromyalgia syndrome over a 15-day
the early 16th century that described a method for balneotherapy cycle at Levico Terme Spa Center
analyzing the German Gastein hot springs to examine located in Trento, Italy. Half the patients participated
their therapeutic effects. in passive balneotherapy in highly mineralized
In the 1900s, research into hot springs explored their sulfate water, while the other half bathed in plain tap
benefits for a wide range of clinical conditions. There’s water. The 50 patients that were randomly selected
a 1940’s paper on the treatment of venereal diseases; for balneotherapy treatment showed significant
research on the benefits of thermal springs treatment improvements in pain and other symptoms—even
for polio survivors, including Franklin D. Roosevelt’s when measured at two weeks, three months and six
rehabilitation at Warm Springs, Georgia; and post months post treatment—while the 50 patients in the
WWII research hypothesizing a potential cure for control group showed no significant changes.
deafness through vapor from the Brazilian Pocos
de Caldas hot springs. In this century, studies have

Additional Resources on Health Benefits of Balneotherapy
Stress Relief: A 2014 Austrian study found balneotherapy more beneficial for stress relief, measured by both
participants’ subjective reports and a decrease in salivary cortisol shown in lab results. (Matzer, Nagele et al. 2014)
https://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/360966
Immune Response: A 2016 Turkish study showed the immune system adapts to bathing heat stress with an
increase in heat shock protein 70. (Uzunoglu, 2016 #174)
https://www.scopus.com
Low Back Pain: Among the many studies in this area, 2012 Hungarian research showed beneficial effects across
a range of measures of balneotherapy in thermal mineral versus bathing in heated tap water. (Tefner, 2012 #255)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3955132/
Mental Health: A relatively recent field of interest, researchers appear increasingly active in the effects of hot
springs bathing for those with depression, anxiety, stress, insomnia and other mental health conditions. Increasingly
we see that within studies into balneotherapy effects for psoriasis, fibromyalgia, arthritis and other chronic pain
the mental health effects are measured through Quality of Life (QoL) indices.
Fibromyalgia: This is a trending focus within balneotherapy research, with 22 studies published in the past
10 years. Chronic pain, sleep deprivation and depression are often symptoms of fibromyalgia, balneotherapy
has shown beneficial impacts for all. The main drive behind these studies seems to be the interest in long-term
programs of non-pharmacological treatment for people with chronic pain.
Sleep and Quality of Life: In the past decade, hot springs research has expanded to include outcomes such
as sleep and quality of life (QoL). For example, a recent study surveyed hot spring users perception of how hot
springs influenced mood, sleep, anxiety and depression in healthy older people (Latorre-Román, Rentero-Blanco
et al. 2015).
Quality of life has featured in studies over the past decade, such as a survey of 334 Japanese civil servants (Sekine,
Nasermoaddeli et al. 2006). This study employed elements of the SF-36 QoL scale, finding better results with the
frequency of hot springs use in both men and women.
https://academic.oup.com/jpubhealth/article/28/1/63/1553669
Connection with Nature: While the core focus of most balneotherapy studies has been on minerals in
geothermal water and their effect on musculoskeletal conditions, some researchers note that we should not
discount the effects of being out in nature at hot spring resorts.
One such study was the 2011 research into mechanisms of action of spa therapies in rheumatic diseases, where
the authors note that non-specific factors may also contribute to the beneficial effects observed after spa therapy,
including effects on cardiovascular risk factors, and changes in the environment, pleasant surroundings and the
absence of work duties. (Fioravanti, Cantarini et al. 2011)

The Chemistry of Mineral Water in chronic low back pain and knee osteoarthritis cases.
Hydrogen sulfide is the chemical compound that is Another review found “100% positive outcomes for
known for its “rotten egg” smell, and its role as an clinical improvement, pain alleviation and improved
analgesic has received the most scientific attention, quality of life,” a finding that was backed five years
later by another systematic review which concluded
including a 2013 study that appeared in the European
that balneotherapy “is an effective remedy for lower
Journal of Inflammation2 and another in the same
back pain, as well as knee and hand osteoarthritis.”
year entitled “Sulphurous thermal water increases the
release of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and
1
Salami, A., M. Dellepiane, B. Crippa, F. Mora, L. Guastini, B. Jankowska
modulates antioxidant enzyme activity.3 and R. Mora (2008). “Sulphurous water inhalations in the prophylaxis
of recurrent upper respiratory tract infections.” International Journal of
Magnesium in geothermal water has been attributed Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology 72(11): 1717-1722.
to successfully treating dermatological conditions,4 2
Carubbi, C., G. Gobbi, G. Bucci, M. Gesi, M. Vitale and P. Mirandola
(2013). “Skin, inflammation and sulfurous waters: What is known, what is
while radon-enriched hot springs are thought by some believed.” European Journal of Inflammation 11(3): 591-599.
to increase the body’s resistance to cancer by elevating 3
p53 protein levels.5 4
Proksch, E., H. P. Nissen, M. Bremgartner and C. Urquhart (2005).
“Bathing in a magnesium-rich Dead Sea salt solution improves skin barrier
The effects of balneotherapy on chronic pain has function, enhances skin hydration, and reduces inflammation in atopic dry
skin.” International Journal of Dermatology 44(2): 151-157.
been studied extensively. A 2015 review of 27 studies, 5
Yamaoka, K., F. Mitsunobu, S. Kojima, M. Shibakura, T. Kataoka, K.
concluded there is a high level of evidence that spa Hanamoto and Y. Tanizaki (2005). “The elevation of p53 protein level and
SOD activity in the resident blood of the Misasa radon hot spring district.”
interventions reduce chronic pain and analgesic
J Radiat Res 46(1): 21-24.
consumption and improve function and quality of life,
Why Do Some Hot Springs

Smell?
Some geothermal mineral waters contain ingredients
with strong characteristic tastes and odors including:
hydrogen sulfide gas (the classic “rotten egg” smell),
iron, salt, magnesium, copper and other compounds.
These odors and flavors relate to the unique composition
of each source. Certain microbial species may also
contribute to distinct odors or flavors, especially as
they decompose.
As with wine and plant essence aficionados, a hot
springs’ connoisseur may be able to identify subtle odor
and essences in water samples and know its mineral
type. Some scents or flavors may not taste good, and
yet provide health benefits, as with plant alkaloids.
The taste or smell may or may not be associated with
specific health benefits.

Hot springs in natural
surroundings let
bathers get in touch
with nature, while
experiencing the
wellness benefits of
their unique water
properties.
Hot Springs Terminology

Algae: informal term for a large and diverse group of modern drilled wells, or a combination of both spring
simple organisms of aquatic or moist habitats and well
Aquifer: an underground layer of water bearing Hydrology: the scientific study of the movement,
permeable rock distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other
Balneotherapy: the practice of immersing in mineral planets
water or mineral-laden mud Microbiomes: the microorganisms in a particular
Extremophiles: an organism that thrives in environment
physically or geochemically extreme environments Mineral: a mineral is a naturally occurring substance
Gas: a substance possessing perfect molecular mobility that is solid and inorganic and has an ordered atomic
and the property of indefinite expansion, as opposed structure
to a solid or liquid Mud: wet, soft earth or earthy matter occurring in or
Geothermal: energy, generated and stored in the around hot springs.
Earth that determines the temperature of matter Peloid: mud, or clay used therapeutically, as part of
Geothermal Mineral Water: water flowing from balneotherapy, or therapeutic bathing. Peloids consist
hot springs of humus and minerals formed over many years by
geological and biological, chemical and physical
Goldilocks Zone: the natural, ideal hot springs
processes
temperature
Peat: brown soil-like material characteristic of boggy,
Ground Source Loop Heat Exchange: drilling a
acid ground, consisting of partly decomposed vegetable
dry well deep enough to access the natural underground
matter
heat of the Earth, bringing that heat to the surface with
fluids and transferring the heat to municipal water Primordial: ancient, prehistoric, from the beginning.
Halophyte: a saline-tolerant plant species Replenish Rate: the rate at which an acquifer’s water
is naturally replaced
Hot Springs: geothermal mineral water facilities
whether they’re naturally occurring hot springs or

Chapter Eight
Construction Materials
and Building Services
This chapter covers the major elements in the engineering
and management of a hydrothermal spa. It’s designed to give
readers a closer look at the “behind-the-scenes” operations
that bring a spa design to a working reality, including the
ventilation, drainage, electrical services and lighting. The choices
made in building services also play a key role in the overall
environmental impact of a building—something that is relevant
both in domestic and commercial builds of hydrothermal areas.
Please note, this chapter is meant as a general guideline

and it’s important to work with specialists who have local
knowledge on the standards and codes to follow.
Before getting into the technical, behind-the-scenes
working of a hydrothermal spa and all the specific
considerations that must be made when embarking on
one of these complex builds, we are providing readers
with an inside look at how these builds come together
from beginning to end. The pictorial on the following
A calm and confident front pages clearly illustrates how new advances in building
desk is the result of a well and construction—specifically, factory-controlled
prefabrication and on-site assemblage—are shaping
thought out hydrothermal
the future of hydrothermal areas. It shows just how
build that not only appears
much of the work can be accomplished offsite (a big
inviting but also operates bonus if the facility is already in use) by pre-configuring
so smoothly that guests are hydrothermal areas in environmentally-friendly, easy-
unaware of anything going to-customize hard foam support material that can then
on behind the scenes. be shipped and assembled onsite.
Construction Materials and Building Services | 137

Taking a concept Stages of a Hydrothermal Spa Build
design and turning it
As discussed in Chapter 3, a lot of resources go into the planning and design of a
into a fully working
hydrothermal area. Once the concept and general design parameters are in place, it’s
hydrothermal area
time to get to work building!
requires numerous
So how do the concepts and experiences that an entire team has agreed upon make
steps. This is the end
it from paper to reality?
result of an extensive
hydrothermal shower The architectural concept drawings on the adjoining page were created for Fitness
area for Fitness Palace
Palace, a high-end fitness studio located in St. Petersburg, Russia that wanted to
completely refurbish its male and female shower areas with only 30 days of downtime.
in St. Petersburg,
A St. Petersburg consultancy, LV Studio, led the design of the area.
Russia.
As is common in most of today’s hydrothermal builds, the Fitness Palace project
was constructed of prefabricated hard foam—which is not only environmentally
friendly and ideal for a moisture-rich environment but also enabled much of the
work to take place off premises so that the building could operate as normal for as
long as possible.

1: Idea and Planning 2: Technical Drawings
Plan shows separate male and female The labeled technical drawing indicates the
shower complexes featuring multiple shower intended functions of each area.
experiences, foot spas and a sauna.
3: 3-D Drawings
1:50
Bench – on site
1:25
Women
Contrast Massage
Men
Women
Hand Shower +
Men Upper Head Shower Back Massage
Hand Shower
I Set as shown
I Set mirrored
3DReprint
drawings are
and duplication, also only inthen created
extracts, only showing
with previous permission the
of LUX ELEMENTS GmbHscope
& Co. KG of the prefabricated shower complex that will be
Reprint and duplication, also only in extracts, only with previous permission of LUX ELEMENTS GmbH & Co. KG
manufactured in hard foam and will be the base for the completely waterproof, finished product.

4: Assembly
While still in the factory, boards are routed for pipes, shower valves and conduits to carry wiring for
buttons and lighting. Pre-plumbing even takes place in the factory.
The pipes and conduits are stubbed out at ceiling height ready for site connection by the various on-site
subcontractors and engineers.

5: Assembly: Dry Build
Once completed in the factory, all components are dry built before shipping and labeled for
easy on-site assembly.
Pre-assembling in the factory eliminates any unwanted surprises at the building site.

6: Construction
Once on site, the installation commences and all the components are set out and glued together.
Services are connected, with convenient niches between the showers that enable access panels.

6: Construction (Continued)
Work is easily coordinated with local contractors, such as drywall and tiling contractors. Electrical
heating cables can be seen buried in the insulated construction of the bench (right).
This is transformed... Into this!

All Images Courtesy: Lux Elements GmbH

Ventilation and Climate Control
Typical Steam Room Equipment TECHNICAL SPACE
(MECHANICAL CLOSET)
and Recommendations To be installed at maximum
distance of 5m
AIR EXHAUST
STEAM, AIR AND ESSENCE INLET To be installed away from
Located in central position, in clear view of all door and steam inlet
guests. Do NOT hide under benches or position so
steam enters downwards or parallel to the floor.
Steam Should never enter under pressure. THERMOSTAT
Location depends on the
model of the steam
generator; normally 1.5m
from floor level
LOW-LEVEL
VENTILATION INLET
Not always necessary as
air is also introduced with
the steam
FLOOR DRAIN
EMERGENCY BUTTON
Close to door; height to
suit local code, but
normally should be
reachable by a prone
person
LINEAR DRAIN
Useful to catch condensation KNEIPP HOSE
from the door Frequently there are
more than one. Locate so
all benches can be
reached for rinsing
Regardless of the type of thermal room or cabin— correct levels of humidity are produced for the maximum
sauna, steam bath, hamam, relaxation room, etc.— benefit (especially important in a steam room). When
proper ventilation and climate control are crucial to the a cabin is not run at the correct temperature or does
bathers’ comfort and health and significantly impact not provide the right humidity level, the experience
the effectiveness of the thermal room. A heating, will not meet bathers’ expectations.
ventilation, air conditioning (HVAC) contractor must The materials used to build cabins have a significant
be engaged for this purpose and will work closely with effect on the efficiency of the room and how easy
the mechanical and electrical (M&E) consultant. or difficult it is to maintain the correct climate. If
Key to proper ventilation is the supply of oxygen to the traditional building materials like concrete, blocks or
room—this is vital in artificially heated environments. drywall are used, there will be a greater likelihood that
Low oxygen levels will result in bathers feeling or even the steam generation will not function correctly. The
becoming truly unwell, including fainting or worse. In use of efficient building materials, such as a coated
addition, proper ventilation will promote drying of the foam board that provides maximum waterproofing
rooms. Mold, fungus and bacteria spores easily grow and thermal insulation, increases the effectiveness of
in warm, moist environments so correctly engineered the steam generator. Even then, there will be a level of
ventilation will aid in the drying out of the cabins and radiant heat reflected back into the room from the wall
will minimize the health risks associated with these and floor finishes, which will usually be some form of
microorganisms. tile or stone that will require ventilation.
Importantly, proper ventilation is what keeps the If not ventilated properly, radiant heat can upset the
rooms at optimum bathing temperatures and ensures temperature/steam balance. Because steam rooms

and other humid/wet cabins require varying levels of Common Mistakes
humidity to be artificially created via steam generators,
they will be relying on temperature probes or sensors
(hygrometers) to activate the steam. If the sensors • Not making provision for increased air
can’t detect the correct temperature because there’s distribution around hotter temperature pools
too much heat in the room or they are incorrectly (e.g., vitality pools) and treatment plant
placed (e.g., too high)—an issue frequently caused rooms. HVAC consultant must pay close
by overheating the walls and benches or using inferior attention to the temperatures of the pools.
construction materials that absorb and emit too much • Not having correct water pressure and
heat—then the temperature/steam balance becomes flow rate to operate experience showers, jet
unsettled, and the room is not able to function as showers, Vichy showers, etc.
it should. • Not choosing a steam generator based on the
The placement of temperature sensors needs particular quality of the local water—hard water or soft
water require different systems
attention. They are usually located approximately
1.5 m from the floor (which is the approximate height • Not considering that materials used for
of a person’s head—and the most sensitive part of the ventilation ducts have to be non-corrosive
body—when sitting on a bench), and, because the • Lacking proper air exchange in steam rooms.
sensors penetrate the walls, they are susceptible to high Extraction fans should have the capacity
levels of heat being radiated from the structure of the to exchange the room volume at a rate of
walls. 4-6 times per hour.
Professional steam generators can operate inlet and • Failing to place temperature sensors and
exhaust fans automatically to maintain and regulate other cabling within an electrical conduit for
the optimum cabin climate. For example, an exhaust easy maintenance.
fan will not be switched on until the cabin reaches
When planning a
thermal room, it’s
imperative to include
cut-outs and slots for
electrical conduits and
cabin control units.
Without conduits,
it’s nearly impossible
to perform any
required maintenance
without damaging the
walls. Image shows
prefabricated walls
with conduits in place.

the desired temperature. It will then extract the that needs to be maintained in this area.
condensation heat accumulation until the steam bath Because of the higher operating temperatures in the
temperature drops below the set point, which switches pool area, evaporation is a key consideration when
the generator on again. planning climate control and ventilation. Some general
An overrun program (drying program) keeps inlet evaporation principles to be aware of:
and outlet fans running for a period after the unit is • Larger water surfaces result in a greater evaporation
switched into standby mode. This ensures complete and condensation. Use a pool cover where possible.
evacuation of the steam and assists in cooling and • Higher water temperature = higher rate
drying out the cabin. of evaporation
Proper ventilation in the pool area helps minimize • Lower indoor air temperature = higher rate
evaporation and controls condensation. In addition, it of evaporation
removes chlorine smells and other contaminants from • Lower indoor relative humidity = higher rate
the air and creates a comfortable environment for of evaporation
bathers, staff and spectators. Pool areas are generally • Greater air movement = higher rate of evaporation
kept between 24° C to 28° C, but this also depends on Note that there is a theory that condensation can be
the time of year, the temperatures of the pools in the significantly minimized if the air temperature is kept
area, etc. Getting this right is critical to bather comfort, 1° C to 2° C higher than that of the temperature of the
and it is imperative that the HVAC specialist and wet pool. However, this does NOT work for vitality pools
area specialist work together to calculate the fresh air which are usually kept at 36° C. The air temperature
and air changes required, as well as the temperature will become far too hot if it’s raised even just 1° higher.
Thermal Cabin Ventilation TYPICAL DUCT

Plastic | Rigid Aluminum | Stainless Steel
Typical Duct and Air

Valve Materials AIR FLOW
OF
RO
N
BI
CA AIR VALVE
Plastic | Stainless Steel
IDEAL EXTRACT
TO ATMOSPHERE
Extracting Air at High

Level Using Variable
Speed Fans
(Preferred Method)
AIR FLOW
CONDENSATE
OF TRAP
RO
N
BI
CA AIR VALVE
RIGID OR FLEXIBLE
DRAIN PIPE OR HOSE
TAKEN TO DRAIN

Air and Heat Extraction Tips Land Vs. Maritime Construction
Wet area specialists are well-versed in accepted Recognizing the huge trend towards putting
standards of air and heat extraction and can advise spa facilities on boats and cruise ships, here are
the HVAC consultant. It’s important to follow these some considerations to make when building
general guidelines: wet areas that will be at sea:
• Exhaust ductwork must be made of a non-corrosive • Building standards/codes for ships are set by
material—plastic, aluminum or stainless steel, IMO-International Maritime Organization,
depending on local building department regulations not other standards mentioned in this
and codes. Moist air, often mixed with the essence handbook
of essential oils, can be very corrosive. • Fire safety and smoke minimization is critical
- far more so than for land-based projects
• Exhaust ducting must be smooth, not flexible, to
avoid condensation. • Thermal cabins must be constructed in
aluminum sheet - using the traditional “dry
• Exhaust ducting must always fall in the direction
wall” system of metal framing, but replacing
of a condensate drain point, which should be at the
gypsum board with a single aluminum sheet
lowest point in the ductwork. If necessary, more
on the outside, fiberglass insulation in the
than one drain point should be provided. It is vital
core and a twin-wall aluminum sheet on the
that all risks of pooling or lying water be removed
inside
to prevent the incubation of Legionella (the bacteria
that causes legionnaire’s disease, a severe form of • Walls must then be sealed and waterproofed
pneumonia). with resin compound and bondage
• Correct balancing of the ventilation system requires

each cabin to have its own inlet and exhaust fans.
• Condensate traps and drains for thermal rooms
• If individual fans are not used, an electrical or are not standard pieces of equipment available “off
manually operated volume-control damper should the shelf ” from HVAC equipment suppliers—the
be installed within the duct. HVAC contractor should have a specialist ductwork
fabricator manufacture suitable components.
• Fans should provide four to six air changes per
hour and have variable speed controllers to balance Note: Local and/or national building codes also must be
airflow and ensure a slight negative air pressure in considered.
the room. It is important to balance the ventilation system to
ensure a slight negative pressure to minimize the loss
• Inlet and exhaust ducts in rooms terminate in plastic
of steam/climate. This will not, however, be able to
or stainless steel grilles or air valves—these are NOT
completely stop steam being sucked out of the cabin,
intended to replace fans or volume-control dampers.
so it is vitally important that the HVAC contractor
• Avoid painted or coated aluminum grilles, as the installs an exhaust point directly above the door, to the
coating invariably peels off. exterior of the cabin. This positioning is ideal because
an exhaust point further away will draw the escaping
• Fans should be installed in a vertical section of the
hot, humid air along the ceiling and, the further it is
duct wherever possible.
drawn, the more it will condense and cause drips. This
• If fan is of a larger diameter than the duct, it is often causes considerable damage to ceilings, which
mandatory that it is fitted in a vertical section of the will not have been constructed in materials or with
duct to avoid water condensing in the fan housing. finishes to withstand constant exposure to moisture.

Electrical Services
In today’s hydrothermal spas, the electrical load the use of waterproofing, correct heat shielding and
required for all the specialist equipment is extensive. the selection of fittings, as required by the needs of the
For example, the steam generator and sauna heater are installation.
typically electrically driven, as are the mood lighting When placing electrical socket outlets in wet treatment
systems featured in thermal cabins and pools, just rooms, they should be in housings or mounting
to name a few. Electrical planning, therefore, forms systems that are in compliance with national electrical
an important part of the overall planning of a wet
codes. When sourcing the treatment equipment that
spa, especially when you also consider the in-room
will be using these sockets, ensure they can be locally
extras like electronically adjusted massage tables and
transformed to 12/24V to minimize risk.
specialist treatment devices. The amount of ampere or
kilowatts required and the distribution of that power All wet-area electrical outlets should be protected
require consultation between an M&E consultant and by residual current devices that are designed to trip
a wet area specialist. quickly if any water ingress causes leakage of current to
earth/ground. It is important to earth/ground-metal-
Of course, if the building has limited access to
framed equipment; furniture and plumbing must also
electricity for any reason (such as electriciy is cost-
be earth/ground-bonded in wet areas. This also applies
prohibitive or the location is far from the power
to metal door frames.
source), understanding and planning for the electrics
at the earliest stages is even more crucial. If electricity Often omitted in design are power sockets required
is in short supply, there are alternatives that can for cleaning equipment. These, ideally, should be
be considered, such as heating pools using a heat placed outside the room or within built-in cabinetry
exchanger or using traditional wood burning stoves in in the room. In a multi-function room where multiple
a sauna. treatments require varying electrical equipment, the
Because thermal rooms feature the use of heat and equipment should be housed in cabinetry and the
water, safety requirements are paramount when it sockets enclosed within the cabinets.
comes to the electrical components and fittings. They Some countries have restrictions on electrical sockets
need to be protected from both these elements through being at a set distance, often 2.0 m, from a water
Calculating Electrical Costs of Spa Area

1. Calculating the electrical costs of a spa area is easily done if the cost per kilowatt hour (kWh) is known.
2. Add up the total wattage (in kW) of the equipment in spa, e.g. sauna (12kW), steam room (18kW),
hamam (12kW), pool (15kW) and hot tub (18kW)
3. In this example, the total load is 75kW
4. Multiply total load by operating hours per day and then the operating days per month: 75 x 16 hours/
day x 30 days per month = 36,000 kilowatt hours (kWh) per month.
5. Multiply 36,000 kWh by the energy provider’s rate (USD $.018 in this example). Therefore, electrical
operating costs will be $6,480 per month or $216 per day or $13.50 per hour.

Electrical Equipment Found in
Wet Treatment and Thermal Rooms,
Includes:
• Aromatization/fragrance blower
• Fragrance pump (pump for single/multiple
fragrances)
• Brine solution pump (pump for sterile brine
solution spray)
• Bubbling system (for foot baths)
• Foam generator (for hamam massage)
• Infrared heat lamps
• Lighting—ceiling LEDs, ceiling lights
over treatment tables, wall sconces, under-
Fragrance pumps can power multiple aromas. bench strip lights and control units for light
programs, including transformers
source. This can be particularly restrictive if plug-in • MP3 player
equipment is required for treatment preparations, so • Speakers
care should be taken in planning the preparation area • Steam generator
to ensure a cabinet-mounted socket is within reach. • Steam shower
Electrical equipment within thermal rooms, e.g., sauna • Sauna heater
stoves, lamps and lighting, is normally manufactured, • Control panels

tested and certificated as safe for use in the environment • Panic/emergency button connected to an
in which it is to be used. This is why sourcing equipment external alarm
• Heating systems for floors, benches in tiled
from specialist manufacturers is essential. In many
countries, safety codes differ between commercial and rooms
residential properties so care should be taken that, in
all instances, only professional-duty products are used.
can corrode quickly if sufficiently robust materials are
As the electrical services are a major installation, the
not used.
relevant circuit boxes, breakers and other system
components need to be installed and maintained. Multiple drains may be required depending on the
All electrical work should be carried out by qualified floor area and the equipment used—for example,
persons and in accordance with local regulations and steam generators will require separate drainage from
permit requirements. the waste outlet. While foot spa basins that run
automatic fill and emptying programs will need an
Drainage overflow outlet in case of a drain valve failure.
This is one of the key components of a successful Drain systems should offer a high drainage capacity—
wet-room installation, as it has implications for not less than 42 liters/min in a normal hydrothermal
maintenance, cleaning, health and safety. The drainage room installation, and higher (minimum 60 liters/
system is in place to remove water from all sources (taps, min) for other specific applications, such as experience
shower heads, hoses, condensation, etc.) and will also showers. There should be an adequate fall to each drain
facilitate the cleaning and washing down of an area. (usually 1:100), and care should be taken to minimize
The quantity and positioning of waste drains is key to the potential for user accidents (slip and trip). Typically,
efficient drainage, as are the quality of fittings—which slip-resistant floor surfaces are required.

Drainage grids/grates may be lockable to both prevent will either be provided by the mains or created on
vandalism and ensure large objects are not evacuated site. Conversely, hydrotherapy pools, onsen pools,
into the system. In addition, traps are required on tropical rain-shower experiences and many others are
drains to prevent smells from lingering inside the warm experiences and require heated water or air. The
piping, and drainage systems can also be connected to alternate hot-and-cool experience found in a Kneipp
recycling systems to minimize waste/water pollution walk or Kneipp basin is an example of an experience
and improve utility efficiencies.
that must supply both hot and chilled water at a
Heating and Cooling Services specified temperature, in order to deliver the correct
Kneipp experience.
Given the importance of hot and cold experiences in
a hydrothermal spa, special attention must be paid to In the Middle East and parts of Asia and Asia-Pacific,
creating water and air that is the correct temperature. cold water is available via the mains, but it isn’t usually
This can be especially challenging in regions where “cold” by the time it reaches its destination. Chilled
cold water is not available—such as in the heat of the water may be provided instead, but this water is
Middle East. usually contaminated with chemicals and, therefore,
Many of the features in a hydrothermal spa require unusable. Experts are required to solve this dilemma,
cooling down versus heating. For example, snow and they may introduce heat exchangers to cool down
rooms, ice fountains, cold plunge pools and spray- the “cold” water from the taps for use in fog showers,
mist experience showers need to be chilled and cool. cold plunge pools, etc.
Depending on the location, chilled and/or cold water
This diagram illustrates the symbiotic relationship between heat and cold in a modern spa. The water
required for snowmaking comes from the pool and the heat generated by the snowmaking is funneled
back into the swimming pool.

An example of a “loft” style ceiling. A flat ceiling in a steam room can work perfectly
well as long as it is correctly designed, insulated
and finished.
Ceiling Design and Construction

There is frequent debate and discussion on the topic seats are close to the eaves of a pitched roof cabin on a
of ceiling design in thermal cabins due to their unique gallery that is built around the heater on a lower level.
environment. The exception to this ceiling height rule is a traditional
Some of the common questions raised, include: hamam. Turkish hamams, in particular, have very large
domed roofs pierced by ‘elephant eye’ glazed openings
What is the ideal height for thermal cabin ceilings?
through which natural light streams. Hamams were
The simple answer is “as low as possible.” Ceilings traditionally heated by a hypocaust or underfloor
should be no more than 30 cm above the head of heating system, so the warmth from the floors and
an average height bather sitting on the highest level horizontal seating surfaces radiated heat upwards. Early
of benches. If a sauna or steam room bench is at architecture didn’t consider the energy efficiency of the
90 cm and the top of an average height person’s head is buildings. Today, this design style can be replicated
90 cm above the bench, then the ideal cabin height is but will also incorporate heat recovery technology to
210 cm (or 84 inches). Current trends lead architects ‘recycle’ the heat from these voluminous domes while
and designers to want to create spaces with very high exhausting stale air.
ceilings, but these trends are detrimental to the bathing Steam room ceilings often gather condensation:
experience of the guest. how can this be minimized?
The higher the room, the less efficient it is not only The secret of this is to create a warm roof, so when
in warming the guest but also to operate as it will hot steam comes into contact with the surface of the
require far more energy to heat a large volume of cabin roof or ceiling, it is not instantly cooled by a
unused space. It is true that traditional saunas were cold, smooth surface. So there are two critical factors
much higher structures, but in such structures the seats here: the level of insulation on the ceiling is vital and
were frequently also at a high level, leading them to the choice of material used to decorate or finish the
be described as “loft” or “gallery saunas,” where the ceiling is also important.

Guidelines for Ceiling Construction
Finish and Insulation Ceiling Pitch/Style Performance
Ceiling Type: Insulated building board at least 8 cm thick
Heavy textured render or Flat Well insulated; texturing

sprayed on popcorn type prevents condensation
texturing with waterproof paint adhering to the surface
finish
Smooth render and waterproof Pitched or curved as in a Well insulated, but smooth
paint barrel vault, to avoid dripping, surface will produce drips
allowing droplets to run to the unless it is sloped or curved
sides
Tiled with mosaics Will drip regardless of the Poor, not recommended
style/angle as the joints in the
mosaics will form droplets that
cannot run away, even on a
sloped surface
Tiled with large format tiles or Less likely to drip than Can work with good design
stone mosaics, but joints in the and craftsmanship
material mean drips will form,
even on a pitched or barrel
vault roof
Ceiling Type: Stud framework and various types of board cladding
Difficult to reach levels Must be sloped or barrel vault Poor, not recommended. The
of insulation necessary to roof materials typically used to
construct a ‘warm’ roof. Typical clad ‘drywall’ type structures
U value for a thermal cabin are rarely moisture resistant
ceiling is 0.39 which has an and not capable of forming
equivalent R value of 14.6 a completely waterproof
membrane between the board
and the structure; runs the risk
of mold formation, unpleasant
odors, structural deterioration
and possible collapse
Ceiling Type: Fiberglass (also known as GRP (glass reinforced plastic/polymer); FRP (fiber reinforced
plastic/polymer) or FCP (fiberglass composite plastic/polymer)
Normally smooth, with a Requires a pitch because Useful if specific themed

pigmented gel coat or possibly the typically low levels of effects are required, but the
even a fine acrylic membrane insulation cause high levels of need to make moulds to form
bonded to the surface to give condensation the roof panels can be costly
decorative finish to resemble if customized; more common
stone or granite. Must be on ‘standard’ sized and
insulated, with spray insulating symmetrically shaped rooms.
foam of only 2.5 cm U (or R value) is low, so can
lack necessary warmth

Lighting and Audio/Visual
Integrating lighting into thermal cabin ceilings can be Lighting and audio/visual add significantly to the
done with a great many designs and materials, but the ambience of hydrothermal cabins. Lighting for
presence of high levels of heat and moisture creates aesthetic purposes can be quite sophisticated and
certain limitations, so it is vital that any proposed multi-dimensional, including changing colors and
‘standard’ fittings being considered are tested for
specialist effects. It’s important to remember to provide
such applications. The advancement of fibre optics
lighting for cleaning and maintenance.
and submersible LED lighting has opened up a great
many more creative opportunities for these cabins. Similarly, music and sound effects are used to create
The main points to consider are the future accessibility the required ambience. This means the provision of
of light sources for maintenance and replacement, it a programmable MP3 player/controller is required,
should be remembered that LEDs don’t last forever, together with waterproof speakers, resistant against
so continuous LED strip lights will eventually have to both humidity and corrosion.
be replaced. With the design community favouring
Newer developments in audio/visual include TV
indirect and concealed lighting, any recesses,
installations with specialist waterproof monitors and
particularly in ‘wet’ rooms, must be designed in such
a way that condensing steam and humidity cannot other broadcasting components.
build up in these recesses as such an event would cause
electrical safety and health and hygiene issues.
Lighting plays an
important role in the
spa—the environment
can be changed
completely simply by
changing the colors the
lights are emitting.

Spa Management System Building Management Systems
Functionality
Building Management Systems (BMS) allow control
• Acoustic sound off/on (music and alarm)
and monitoring of all the building services—including
• Acoustic volume control (music
HVAC automation, energy control/consumption,
and alarm)
access control, video surveillance, ventilation, security
• Activation signal (e.g., panic button)
and fire protection—from a single point. In addition,
• Maintenance issue alerts (e.g., light
they enable easier operation and maintenance of all
outages; water leakage; low levels in
dosing system; etc.) functions of a building. In the case of hotel installations,
• Equipment off/on a BMS may already be in place and it’s often possible
• Fan speeds/air extraction rates to adapt the BMS to the spa enironment.
• Fault signal/message However, the best practice is to install a separate
• Lighting-level adjustment spa technology management system as a standalone
• Set/monitor timers system that works independently of a BMS and allows
• Room-temperature monitoring users to control and monitor temperature, lighting,
and adjusting music, etc., from a central screen at the reception
• Water/steam-temperature monitoring desk; control panels should be in place throughout
and adjusting the spa to manage and maintain various equipment
• Service reminders and functions. These control panels gather relevant
• Password protection and restricted access signals and alerts, routing them back to the central
• Remote control access via Internet unit. Warnings/alerts can be issued when a light bulb
connection has gone out, temperatures are above or below normal,
Today’s technology
means all aspects
of a hydrothermal
spa—including
individual cabins—
can be controlled and
monitored remotely.

Smartphone apps
puts the control
of hydrothermal
areas into the palm
of your hand.
a therapist or guest has pushed a panic button, water Connected Wellness

ingress/leakage is occurring, etc.
Another opportunity in today’s spa builds, is putting
It’s important to note that there is a downside technology in the palm of everyone’s hand and
to remotely controlling thermal rooms and pool allowing for “connected wellness.” Wet treatment
installations. If you take the need for physical checks zones can be made more efficient while providing a
out of these areas, there’s a risk that problems in the better, more customize, level of experience for the user
system will go unrecognized/unseen. For example, and increased safety and support in running a spa.
there could be water leakage or even risk of fire that go Both commercial and residential spas benefit from
unnoticed because no physical checks are being made. “connected wellness” in their wet treatment and
There are standard rules and regulations (in fact, laws showering areas—giving guests the ability to manage
in many countries) that insist thermal cabins and pools lighting, sounds and scents at the touch of a finger. For
be checked physically every six hours—in this case, the this to be effective, all product solutions must have a
cabins are set to switch off every eight hours of operation, standardized interface (e.g. KNX, IP, DALI, etc.) to
so that a physical check is guaranteed to be conducted enable communicating with each other and, in the
and the experience turned back on. However, a BMS case of a commercial build, will require a server to run
system can be programmed to override the physical them.
check by simply turning the experience on remotely. With “connected wellness,” rooms can be prepped
To avoid this happening, a key switch or touch panel and customized with the touch of a finger, welcoming
with a pin code should be positioned at the thermal guests with their favorite scents, light atmosphere and
room or pool itself, and it must be programmed not to relaxing sounds and a warmed up shower.
re-start until a staff member has physically checked it. Connected solutions can be controlled remotely and

send status information to a main desk, so that spa Commercial Connected Wellness
staff is instantly informed when certain treatments/ While it’s certainly possible to also employ a wireless
experiences are in use and can alert staff to any issues. system in a commercial spa, the preference is to
incorporate hardwired networking into a public spa
The “Smart” Spa
area. The reasons are two-fold: first, there are well-
Today, there is a plethora of smart devices and apps
documented concerns that long-term exposure to wifi
available for controlling every aspect of a residential
signals and the associated electromagnetic frequencies
or commercial spa—including temperature, lighting,
from the devices they support—routers, phones and
aromatherapy, audio options and more. In order
to explain the various systems, we’ve separated out other smart device—could be harmful to our health
residential and commercial options but smaller hotels, (something that might also prompt homeowners to
spas, health clubs and wellness centers will also want opt for hardwire solutions). Health questions alone are
to consider exploring systems designed primarily for likely a big enough deterrent to placing wifi equipment
use in the home. in a building designed for improving wellbeing, but,
practically speaking, hardwiring makes much more
Connected Wellness at Home sense in a space where there are a multitude of small
Just as more and more people are adopting smart rooms and corridors that are not conducive to good
devices in their homes to control appliances, lighting, WiFi communication.
temperature, music, security cameras and the like, it’s
become more common to use a smartphone and an When choosing a spa technology management
app to control home wellness equipment. system that works independently of a traditional
BMS, operators will gain increased functionality and
Given how far this technology has come, there is
flexibility because standard BMS systems don’t often
almost nothing that can’t be remotely controlled by the
support the wide range of spa equipment and interfaces
homeowner—so as long as the home is equipped with
currently available.
a robust networking systems, either Wifi or hardwired,
the sky’s the limit. However, it’s important to be aware Of course, the network cabling that runs each piece
of the potential safety and even ecological concerns of equipment will need to be taken into account in
that come into play when remotely controlling the planning stages of the spa. After installation, the
temperatures and operating times in these specialist spa management system will allow different user levels
rooms. to be set, so, for example, a screen at the reception
For example, a home sauna with a smart controller desk could keep staff informed of all operating
should also be fitted with a door contact switch temperatures, start/stop times, dosing system levels
so that the app can verify that the door is closed and guest alarm activation, but access to the equipment
before activating the heater. The app will enable the control, set up and diagnostics could be reserved for
homeowner to pre-select an operating temperature higher-level users.
and to turn the sauna on at a given time and for a fixed
duration. If the sauna has multiple functions, such as
a SANARIUM® or Bio Sauna, then these can also be
selected from the app.
Lights and music selections can also be controlled if
the operating system has been fitted with this function
and some of the today’s equipment supports voice
commands via Alexa or other similar technology.

Plant/Mechanical Rooms
One of the most common mistakes made in Plant rooms have two important functions:
hydrothermal spa designs is the omission or poor 1. They house the major water, electrical and HVAC
planning of the size and location of the plant/ systems that support the thermal room or pool.
mechanical room. And, of course, without the
2. They offer access to equipment, e.g., dosing systems
mechanics/equipment that runs the thermal and pool
that require replenishment and maintenance, along
areas, they simply won’t operate. This means much
with the major water, electrical, HVAC installations
consideration should be given to the location and size
that support the entire installation.
of the plant rooms during the building design stage.
Expert input is necessary to understand plant/
mechanical requirements of the various hydrothermal
areas. In simple terms, a heated swimming pool will
have a larger plant room than a salt cave, while a sauna
or steam room’s mechanics can either be located on
the outside of the cabin, or in a plant room located a
short distance from the cabin. All should be discreetly
accessible by qualified personnel at all times.
Example of a small
plant room for
maintaining a hot tub
or spa pool.

Chapter Nine
Health, Safety
and Hygiene
Consideration for the health and wellbeing of users begins
when a spa is in its earliest design stages. Whether building a
residential or commercial spa facility, it’s important to take into
account the factors that affect the wellbeing, either directly or
indirectly, of the people using the thermal cabins and pools.
The “health” of any building—regardless of usage—is

something designers/architects have been becoming
more and more aware of in recent years. In the case
of hydrothermal builds, the most important health
and safety factors are governed by the successful
implementation of these core elements: heating,
ventilation, air conditioning, building materials and
cleaning agents.
By their very nature, hydrothermal areas, with
their extensive use of heat and moisture, are ideal
environments for the growth of fungus and mold—
something that can be controlled during the design
High, ambient and building process and maintained through proper
temperatures maintenance and cleaning. In addition, the high levels
combined with large of moisture make the surfaces (floors and benches)
amounts of water incredibly conducive to slipping—another factor that
means it’s important is easily mitigated by using the correct materials.
to keep hydrothermal The high, ambient temperatures used throughout the
areas well cleaned and building to keep wet and minimally clothed bathers
maintained. comfortable means that waterborne fungus and mold
Health, Safety and Hygiene | 159

When designing all
aspects of the spa,
consider minimal
joints and grouting.
This not only
makes cleaning and
disinfecting easier, but
are also longer lasting.
isn’t only an issue in the thermal cabins and pool joints, thus avoiding the need for excess grouting. This
areas—they can also surface in other communal and makes cleaning and disinfecting easier, and, ultimately,
relaxation spaces. longer lasting and requiring less maintenance.
Additionally, specialist building materials, such as
In Design mortar-coated, expanded, polystyrene hard foam,
Increasingly, more and more spa designers, owners and make it possible to clad walls, floors, steps, benches
operators are actively engaged in the promotion and and shelves in ways that are completely waterproof
development of healthy buildings. They understand and mold-resistant. For example, in contrast to
that it’s important to be able to deliver the benefits plasterboard, hard-foam polystyrene has been proven
of health and wellness treatments/experiences in a to prevent the formation of mold due to its alkaline
building that is specifically designed to be “healthy properties. So usage of this humidity-resistant building
and well.” board will minimize the risk of infection or allergies
In the broadest sense, a “healthy building” is designed because it doesn’t provide a suitable breeding ground
with the goal of reducing any negative impact it for microscopic organisms or germs.
might have on occupants and the environment. That Proper drainage planning is also imperative, as it
means using building materials and best practices that plays a major role in the health of a hydrothermal
minimize risk to a person’s health—whether that be building. All excess water used during treatments
through illness or accident. and in cabins and pools must have somewhere to go.
During the design phase, it’s imperative to consider Correct drainage keeps bacteria from breeding and also
and analyze the materials that will be used and to minimizes the slip risks caused by wet and dirty floors.
understand how they will withstand the effects of (Not surprisingly, slipping and falling is the most
steam, sweat, oils and cleaning water/agents. common accident that can occur in a spa area).
In thermal rooms and communal spaces, it’s important Ventilation also plays a key factor in the health of the
to choose surfaces (benches, floors, walls) with minimal building and the health of those in it. In addition to
160 | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa Development Standards

Loungers finished
with large-area heat
storage ceramics are
easy for cleaning and
maintenance. Courtesy: Sommerhuber
the ventilation requirements outlined in Chapter 8, Emergency call systems, like those found in the
it is essential to ensure smooth, not flexible, exhaust healthcare industry, should be included in the design
ducts are installed and that they fall in the direction phase. These systems will alert staff to incidents or
of a drain point(s). This is imperative to avoid any accidents, and, because all areas of a hydrothermal
pooling or lying of water in the ducting, preventing spa have associated risks, these systems should not
the incubation of legionella bacteria, the exposure only be adopted in the most “at risk” spaces (such as
to which can cause potentially fatal pneumonia. the thermal cabins and pool areas) but throughout
In cabins that are highly affected by heat, water the facility.
and humidity, there should be a ventilated cavity
Key Design Considerations for Health/
between the room walls (or cladding) and the
Safety/Hygiene:
building walls.
• Proper drainage to avoid excess water that can cause
Of course, cleaning and maintenance play a key role
slips and/or breed bacteria
in minimizing health risks in any building. Wet and
humid areas are difficult to clean and maintain at the • Ventilation that enables the proper flow of oxygen
best of times—in any building, the bathroom is the and condensation
most susceptible to fungus and mold. This makes it • Emergency call systems
vitally important to design the building/space while
• Measures for easy cleaning and disinfecting of all
having the perspective of the person(s) who will clean
areas
it in mind. For example, consider creating rounded
versus square corners for easier cleaning and always • Building materials that minimize the growth of
use sloped surfaces to avoid unhygienic pools of water mold and bacteria
on seats and other flat surfaces. Make sure there is an
easy path for water and cleaning solutions to reach the
drainage in the floor.

Disabled Access in Hydrothermal Cabins
In addition to being aware of a hydrothermal area’s Note: Non-permanent furniture elements can be
potential health and safety risks to all visitors, it’s also located in the wheelchair parking spaces, so, for
important to consider specific access issues for disabled example, a sauna can be designed with a removable or
individuals. In many countries, planning access for the retractable bench section that will provide the correct
physically disabled is the law, however, regardless of size parking space when removed/retracted.
legalities, it’s also a positive sign of inclusiveness and
Other general disabled access features to keep in mind
enables a facility to serve a broader number of people.
when building a hydrothermal area:
And, of course, individuals with motor or physical
disabilities will greatly benefit from hydrothermal • Entry ramps
treatments. • Correct door widths
Though each country will have its own specific codes • Correct clearances on the pull and push side of doors
and rules prohibiting discrimination against people • Low-level emergency button inside the room for
with disabilities, it’s the Americans with Disabilities assisted exit
Act (ADA) that has made the greatest impact on
• Low-level bell at entrance to request assisted entry
hydrothermal builds. In particular, the state of Florida
published its own interpretation of the ADA in 2012 • Disabled bathroom
that has a direct impact on the construction of thermal • Accessible changing and locker rooms, shower area
cabin builds and, it’s worth noting that the addendum
• Treatment rooms on the ground floor and/or lifts to
to the ADA is gaining widespread adoption not only in
upper floors
the US, but wherever US operators build in the world.
The code specifically covers wheelchair access to saunas • Wheelchair access to treatment rooms (corridors,
and steam rooms and all derivatives of these cabins doors, and turning radius)
(including hamams, tepidariums, etc.). • Hydraulic treatment tables for easy access
Key Aspects of the Code
• Each cabin requires a dedicated wheelchair parking
space that measures at least 760mm wide x 1220mm
deep (or 30 inches x 48 inches)
• Wheelchair parking must be located at the end of a
bench and parallel to the short axis
• A bench of at least 1065mm (42 inches) wide and
between 510mm to 610mm deep must be kept clear
immediately adjacent to the wheelchair parking
space
• The bench needs to be between 430mm to 455mm
(17 to 19 inches) above the floor
• If the bench is not against a wall, it must have a
backrest at least 455mm (18 inches) high
Illustration of a thermal room providing
• Benches must have slip resistant finishes
correct wheelchair access and parking.

Common Mistakes
In Construction
Of course, the goal is that most risks are eliminated
during the design stage. However, no matter how • Emergency call buttons in wet areas are
focused designers and architects are on these points, designed to withstand heat and water. A wet
area specialist will install them in thermal
the construction phase is often where even the most
cabins and pool areas but they are not
conscientious professionals can see radical changes
responsible for the entire call system which
to their original specification. This is the phase when must be integrated by an M & E consultant.
most changes are implemented, in particular, “value
• Leading with design and not considering
engineering”—where specified materials, equipment
safety/health
and services are modified or omitted in order to
• Not allowing for disabled access and installing
save money.
as an afterthought
Often, during the design phase, clients are unwilling • Forgetting slip-resistant flooring for wet area
to agree to specified, branded products in tender floors and multi-tier seating
documents and/or drawings. This means design intent
• Cleaning tiled areas with pressure washers
can give way to financial pressure during the actual that end up blowing grout from the joints,
build. Product substitution is a frequent practice in creating bacteria and mold traps
the construction industry, and, though designers • Not using heat resistant materials for handles
will reference a particular product or manufacturer, in saunas
contracts will often carry the clause to allow for “or
• Not ensuring that all doors to thermal cabins
equal and approved” products. This invites contractors open out and have non-mechanical latching
to offer financial incentives by providing products they systems or heavy self-closing devices
feel are more competitively priced but often don’t offer • Incorrect ventilation causing poor air quality
the same quality. And, of course, budget constraints and/or condensation in ducting
means these “alternative” products are frequently
• Failure to consider installing automatic water
accepted because they provide significant short-term sanitizing and automatic disinfection of
cost reductions. popular wellness experiences, like foot spas
Of course, this short-term financial gain can lead to the and Kneipp walks, after used by a guest
construction of substandard hydrothermal areas that • Failing to use sterile salt/brine solution in
quickly fall foul of health, safety and hygiene standards nebulising inhalation systems
after construction. • Use of low quality aroma products in emulsion
carriers instead of essential oils (chemical
In Operation based aromas are often sold without Material
Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) and could expose
“Don’t expect what you don’t inspect!” is the best advice
an operator to potential claims
for spa operators. A clean and healthy environment in
which guests can enjoy the facilities is the responsibility • Not installing backflow prevention valves
in experience showers and other features in
of the spa manager—whose job is to supervise the staff
which aromas are injected to water flowing
and ensure vital duties are performed at all levels.
from the main circulation system will risk
polluting the whole water supply serving the
property

Pool Water Safety
Pool staff should be trained to conduct regular testing of the pool water. Below are
testing guidelines:
Daily Tests
Water Quality Values
(Every 2-3 Hours)
Free Chlorine Range 0.5 to 3.0 mg/l (Aim for 1.0 to 2.0 mg/l)
Combined Chlorine Not more than one third of total chlorine
pH Range 7.2 to max. 7.6 (Aim for 7.2 to 7.4)
Weekly Tests Water Quality Values
100 ppm to 180 ppm Sodium Hypochlorite

Alkalinity
100 ppm to 120 ppm Calcium Hypochlorite
Calcium Hardness 200 ppm to 1000 ppm (not less than 200 ppm)
Total Dissolved Solids Max.

TDS
1000 ppm above source water
Pool Balance Refer to Langelier Saturation Index
Pool Chemical Room Safety

Careful consideration has to be given for safe delivery Segregation: Separate enclosures should be
of chemicals, including offloading and transfer within maintained for all potentially hazardous chemicals
the building, avoiding stairs where possible. (acids and alkalis) in separately ventilated rooms, with
Storage: Adequate, separate storage and a minimum of four air changes per hour.
containment space must be provided for the chemical Drench Showers/Eyewashes: Emergency drench
containers and bags required for the normal daily and showers/eyewashes are recommended in commercial
weekly refilling of the operational chemical day tanks. chemical rooms.
Containment Bunds: A chemical bund area should Eyewash: A sealed sterile type of eyewash bottle
be constructed in concrete with a cement render should be located near the intake point and in the
internally and finished with a chemical-resistant (or chemical stores
fiberglass-lined) material, providing a fully contained Sink: A large sink with hot and cold running water is
bund capable of holding 110% of the maximum required for cleaning the chemical injectors.
chemical volume.

Risk Assessment Pool Areas
In any business, there is the potential that a staff • Display clear instructions about safe usage
member or client can be injured or become ill as • Follow a daily, weekly, monthly and yearly cleaning
a result of an incident occurring in the workplace. and maintenance routine
This is why, whether it’s a legal requirement or not,
• Regularly test waters for disinfectant, pH levels
operators should carry out risk assessments on all
and clarity
aspects of their spas. Everything considered a potential
risk should be fully documented. Further safeguards • Check filters and backwash as advised
to assist operators in refuting or diminishing any • Drain and clean system as advised
claims that may occur: keeping thorough cleaning • Ensure plant room and chemical storage area is
and maintenance records, as well as customer-usage well-ventilated
numbers and chemical applications.
• Clearly label and store chemicals away from
A risk assessment looks at the steps to be taken to each other
eliminate and control risk and examines every possible
“what if ” scenario. • Follow applicable legal legislation for handling
of chemicals
Risk Assessment Should Include
the Following
• Identification of all hazards (such as slippage,
Wet Area Hygiene
waterborne illnesses, chemical imbalances, etc.)
Hygiene is important at every level of a spa—
• Evaluation of the associated risks
from pool water treatment and the correct
• Consideration of the severity of the consequences
design of ventilation ducts to the effective daily
and chances of it occurring
cleaning of floors and the deep cleaning of body
• Identification of all persons (including staff, fat residues from steam baths. This has a direct
contractors, guests) at risk impact on the health and safety of the spa.
• Establish control measures to prevent risks Major Health, Safety and Hygiene Risks
• Ensure staff and guests are aware of any potential
• Accidental slipping due to poorly specified,
risks and symptoms
cleaned or badly drained surfaces
• Identify specific legal duty or requirement relating
• Bacterial cross-contamination from user
to the risk
to user
Control Measures to Consider
Thermal Areas • Fatal waterborne illnesses, such as legionella
• Display clear instructions in prominent positions • Numerous illnesses, such as ear infections
explaining how equipment should be used and viral conditions, transferred via poor pool
water treatment and sanitizing
• Minimize/eliminate potential for scalding or
burning There are specially designed acidic cleaning
• Ensure proper ventilation and drainage solutions for tiles, fittings and accessories that
will dissolve lime deposits and grease scum
• Conduct and document regular cleanings and
gently, while specialized pipeline disinfectants
checks—hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly
attack waterborne germs and fungus their
• Test alarm systems regularly
its source.
• Always provide a supply of drinking water for guests
and staff

Chapter Ten
Sustainability and
Regenerative Design
Where “green design” and sustainability have dominated the
last two decades of the building industry, today’s experts
are adopting concepts of regenerative design and wellness
architecture—practices that move away from doing “less harm”
and focus on symbiotic relationships to the local ecology while
enhancing all dimensions of wellness in order that both humans
and the planet thrive.
This chapter was written in collaboration with Veronica

Schreibeis Smith, Chair of the Global Wellness Institute’s
Wellness Architecture Initiative.
Spas by their very nature are inherently focused on
not just sustaining guests’ health and wellbeing, but
enhancing their overall wellness in order to help people
live longer, more vibrant and more fulfilling lives.
The architecture that houses spas should do the same
by not just delivering sustainable, but regenerative
environmental solutions, and integrating wellness
strategies that deliver experiences with meaningful
impact.
Many spas embrace environmentally friendly design by
Sustainability means closely scrutinizing the products they offer; reducing
thinking about single-use supplies with durable beverage cups, cloth
alternative sources of hand towels or microfiber body wraps; and simply
power, such as solar asking clients to reduce the time spent in showers and
and wind power. to reduce the number of towels they use.
Sustainability and Regenerative Design | 167

Of course, there’s much more spas can do to positively bring wellness into the build—including conscious
affect the world in which we live. Sustainability is a consideration of the building materials and products
beneficial subset of regenerative design and wellness being used to construct the cabins and pools.
architecture, which is best considered early in the To minimize the impact on the environment, many
planning and building stages of a hydrothermal providers and manufacturers to the hydrothermal
spa area. These practices are not only good for the industry have adopted “green” practices, including
environment, they enhances the outcome of offerings,
reducing the amount of emissions that are released
are good for the reputation of the industry, and,
into the atmosphere, using less raw materials, recycling
last but not least, will have a positive impact on the
waste material and extending the durability of their
profitability of your spa.
products. This last point is important, because,
What was once thought of as “going green” has evolved although the expense of sustainable and eco-friendly
from a passing trend into a long-term commitment solutions is often greater at the offset, costs in the long
to regenerative design and wellness architecture—the run are typically much less.
practices of making choices that have a positive impact But environmental considerations are only half of
on both people and the planet. the selection process. How a material or product
impacts human and planetary health over the course
Sustainable & Healthy Material of its existence is the other half. Wellness strategies,
Selection for example, consider the elimination of toxins and
Designing a wet area from the ground up provides the pollutants, favor natural materials over synthetic ones,
opportunity to think about integrating sustainable utilize nudge psychology to influence guest behavior,
and regenerative strategies into every aspect of a and intentionally enhance the local ecology, economy,
hydrothermal spa. There are numerous ways to and culture.
Comparing Insulation Value of Common Building Materials
The lower the U-Value, Thickness U-Value (Low R-Value* (High

Wall Material
the more optimal the (MM) Value=Good) Value=Good)
insulation properties
Insulated Dry Wall 150 0.35 16.23
of the material;
conversely, the higher Concrete Blocks 200 0.39 14.6
the R-Value, the more
Brick Wall 200 0.41 13.9
optimal the Insulation
properties. Poured Concrete 250 0.55 10.33
Hard Foam Building Board 50 0.59 9.6
Natural Wood/Rock/Sheep/
50 0.59 9.6
Mineral Wool
*R-Value is measurement used in USA

The first step is to research the provenance of the Common Mistakes
materials and products that are being used to see if
they follow the environmental and wellness ethos of
your hydrothermal spa. For example, look at the woods • Not willing to commit to a bigger initial
chosen to build the sauna and/or banya—are they being investment for the savings to payoff in
sourced sustainably from managed forests? Are the tiles the long-term.
made of sustainable materials, and/or do the tile suppliers • Uncontrolled usage/consumption of water.
adopt eco-friendly practices throughout the
• Concrete is only a green material in its raw,
manufacturing process? If you are sourcing an entire base-component format, as all constituent
cabin, has it been designed and manufactured with parts are from the earth, but it is the
wellness at its core? production and transportation of concrete
Effective Insulation that causes all its green credentials to
fall away.
Since heat is such a huge part of a hydrothermal spa—
• Building everything from scratch on site
and with heat comes the attendant drain on electrical
is not as green as the use of prefabricated
and/or gas resources—it’s imperative to pay close
structures, built in a factory with all
attention to insulation. Thermal insulation saves costs
waste materials harvested and disposed of
and energy by reducing the working hours of steam
ethically or recycled professionally. E.g.,
generators and heating; it also reduces the maintenance
wood sawdust can be reused, wood offcuts
costs of this equipment. One of the most common (and, can heat a sauna factory throughout the
ultimately, most costly) mistakes a builder makes when winter, expanded polystyrene offcuts are
constructing a thermal cabin is the use of materials that harvested in the factory and recycled into
do not effectively hold heat or withstand moisture. yogurt pots, etc.
Building a sauna or a steam room with materials that
• Just having “green” products is not enough
are used throughout the rest of a building will likely
for sustainability; owners and developers
result in rooms that are very costly to heat up—both in
need to look at every element of spas from
terms of cost to the environment and actual monetary the ground up for human and planetary
expense to the operator. The insulation value—called wellness.
“R-value” or “U-value,” depending on the country
• Water recycling is not just the job of
of origin—of the materials being used is incredibly
infrastructure and utility providers—spas
relevant. For example, common building materials,
can do it to.
such as concrete blocks and plaster, have poor R-values
and will suck up the heat before the cabin itself will • Not harnessing air and heat energy used in
the spa somewhere else—e.g., producing
heat up. A sauna using concrete blocks might take two
snow and ice creates a lot of heat; employ
hours to get to the correct temperature, while a sauna of
a heat exchanger to use that heat to add a
the same size constructed using specialized insulation
few “free” degrees to the water being used
techniques and hard foam boards, or even a natural
for the vitality pool.
fiber insulation board, will take just 20 minutes to get
to temperature. • When selecting materials, a sole focus
on performance criteria without
In a steam room, insulation is also important in consideration for health concerns often
water conservation—a properly insulated room will leads to specifying toxic materials that off-
require less steam to be delivered to create the correct gas and harm the environment.
humidity levels.

Saving Energy Water Conservation and
Energy consumption in thermal rooms varies Recycling
greatly according to the method of construction As water is such a huge part of wet area spa builds,
and the selected finishes. The denser the material, a particular focus must be put on all areas being
the more energy it will take to heat the structure, waterproof and watertight. One simple way to manage
rather than the bathing atmosphere. water waste is by installing sensors on faucets and
For example, a concrete room with 20 mm-thick showers so that water is never left running by guests or
granite finishes will take an enormous amount of staff. Showers can also be programmed to shut off after
thermal energy to heat the structure before the a certain amount of time to minimize waste, and, of
room can be at bathing temperature; in colder course, low-flow toilets should always be used.
climates this can take hours and cost a great deal When installing an experience shower in a spa where
of money to operate. Therefore, considering the water conservation is top of mind, consider these
thermal effectiveness of the building materials options:
used is imperative. • Set program times so that the spa operator
The same consideration should be made for controls length and the guest can’t forget to shut the
swimming pools, especially in colder climates water off.
where concrete shells can absorb enormous • Mist nozzles are an alternative cooling source to
amounts of energy, while pools made from far the water-consuming waterfalls, bucket showers or
thinner materials such as fiberglass or stainless deluge jets. The gentle “misting” cooling effect is a
steel can be insulated. very pleasant and water consumption is only 6 liters
Some examples from a simple steam room (steam per minute while deluge showers frequently use
output is measured in kilograms per hour (kg/hr) 20 liters per minute.
or pounds per hour (lbs/hr) are shown below: • Recycling cooling shower water is most definitely the
• Concrete with granite finish requires 1.2 kg/hr way forward and this technology is being developed.
of steam, equal to 0.9 kW in electrical load If pools are included in a spa build, be sure to use
• Insulated, coated foam boards (or natural materials that are proven to be the most effective at
insulation when possible) with the same retaining water—such as stainless steel or composite
finish require 1.0 kg/hr of steam, equal to GRP (fiberglass) versus cement. Water leakage is the
0.75 kW in electrical load biggest problem in pool builds but can be easily avoided
• In simple terms, the energy used by a concrete/
by using the correct materials. In addition, minimizing
granite room will be 20% greater and, therefore, water waste while the pool is in operation is important.
cost 20% more to run. A centrifugal pre-filter is a low cost piece of equipment
that can be added to almost any pool system. The
• Given that the average life of a steam room is at
centrifugal pre-filter removes solids from the water by
least 10 years and often a lot more, the low cost spinning it before sending it to a traditional sand filter,
of “traditional” building materials at the outset removing solids before they get trapped in the filter
may reduce the capital costs of the project, but media. This can significantly reduce the backwash
the ongoing higher revenue costs of inefficient frequency of the pool system, thus saving water and
construction will last the life of the steam room minimizing the discharge of chemicalized water into
and far outweigh the initial saving. the drain system.

The Omega Center
for Sustainable Living
is a great example of
a property focused
on sustainability and
regeneration and it
was the first building
in the United States to
achieve both LEED®
Platinum and Living
Building Challenge™
certification.
Ecological Solutions
In combination with a central control system for the less electrical energy and are an extremely sustainable
wellness area, the rooms that consume the most energy and effective method for heating and cooling water.
(sauna and steam rooms) can be controlled according Tankless or on-demand water heaters, which heat
to frequency of use. With the help of door switches, water as needed versus a water heater that features a
the performance/power consumption of sauna heaters continuous heating source, are another option, but,
and steam generators will be reduced when the door because the water flow rate is not likely to meet the
has not been opened for a certain period of time, needs of guests in a large spa, these might be better to
something that can be customized to an individual supplement other heating solutions. Remember, short
operator’s needs. pipe runs, where possible, and proper insulation will
Alternatively, heaters and generators can be switched- go a long way in reducing heat loads and energy. And,
off or reduced in power consumption when a door is if there’s an option to use an electricity or gas supplier
left open, so they stay warm, but not hot, returning to that provides green-sourced energy, you can be “green”
bathing temperature quickly when the door is opened. with minimal effort and outlay of cash.
When designing mechanical and electrical systems, Of course, making and supplying your own energy is,
first consider reducing loads, second integrate more often than not, cost-prohibitive. In this case, it’s
climate appropriate passive strategies, and then important to focus on other ways to save on energy
turn to renewable energy sources—such as solar waste by using appliances that are rated energy efficient
or wind power—for generating electricity to run a (e.g., the Energy Star rating). And, although people
hydrothermal spa where possible. There are many are becoming more conscious of energy conservation,
affordable ways to utilize alternative energy sources, relying on staff and guests to shut off lights when
such as solar power, by integrating solar-roof panels to not in use is not enough; instead, consider installing
heat water for the pools and showers. Ground source sensors that will dim or shut lights off completely in
heat pumps, which harness natural ground heat by unused areas of the spa.
pumping water through underground pipes, require A simple way to manage water waste is by installing

Vertical forests and
living walls are part of
the biophilic design
trend which seeks to
incorporate nature into
design—a practice that
not only minimize the
stress of inhabitants,
but also improves the
air they breathe.
similar sensors on faucets and showers so that water is Economic Advantages

never left running. Showers can also be programmed
The economic advantages to building a sustainable and
to shut off after a certain amount of time to minimize
eco-friendly hydrothermal spa are numerous. Up-front
waste. Low-flow toilets should always be used;
investments in sustainable designs and technology
additionally, look to recover water wherever possible
promise to deliver financial paybacks over the life of the
for reuse. For example, use all-natural, biodegradable
building in the form of lower utility bills and reduced
soaps in the shower areas so the water is re-treatable
operating and maintenance costs. Regenerative design
and re-useable.
further increases these paybacks.
If the hydrothermal spa is in an area that benefits
Additionally, wellness strategies don’t just stop at the
from large amounts of rainwater, explore a rainwater-
health impact for the guests, they take into account
harvesting system that will collect and filter rainwater
all aspects of a project’s potential capital—financial
for use around the spa.
and physical capital being the most commonly
Getting the ventilation and climate control correct in considered, while natural, social, and human capital
the pool area will pay off in the long run by combating are often forgotten. Evaluating how your project can
evaporation—another huge water waster. maximize all five of these key areas will ensure long-
Sourcing products for the hydrothermal area that term economic success.
are eco-friendly throughout their lifecycle minimizes Another less obvious, but equally important benefit
waste in the long run. A good example of this can be is the goodwill created by these initiatives with both
found in today’s choice of steam generators. Steam the local community and guests. Everyone wants to
generators that are designed with eco-principles tend be part of an ethos that enhances both the health of
to cost more initially but can last up to 20 years versus the planet and human wellbeing. In short, integrating
a more affordable model that may last only three years. sustainable and regenerative environmental solutions
The implications on the environment are numerous. with wellness strategies will create unique marketing
The cheaper unit will be sealed so repairs are opportunities for a hydrothermal spa.
impossible—which means it ultimately ends up in the
Explore sustainable, regenerative, and wellness
landfill and a new unit must be purchased, while the
strategies with your team to save money in the long
more expensive steam generator allows for both repair
run!
and recycling.

Additional Resources for Sustainable and Regenerative Design
BREEAM
www.breeam.com
The world’s leading sustainability assessment method for master-planning projects, infrastructure and buildings.
Building Biology & Ecology

www.hbelc.org
International organization providing principles and education focused on optimizing the built environment for
human health.
Green Globe 21
www.greenglobe.com
Certification for the sustainable operations and management of travel and tourism companies and their related
supplier businesses.
Green Spa Network

www.greenspanetwork.org
Sustainability assessments and easily adoptable practices for spas.
International Living Future Institute

www.living-future.org
ILFI partners with local communities to create grounded and relevant solutions, including green building and
infrastructure solutions on scales ranging from single room renovations to neighborhoods or whole cities.
LEED (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design)

www.usgbc.org/leed
LEED certification is recognized across the globe as the premier mark of achievement in green building.
WELL Building Standards®

www.wellcertified.com
The WELL Building Standard® is an evidence-based system for measuring, certifying and monitoring the
performance of building features that impact health and well-being.
Whole Building Design Guide (WBDG)

www.wbdg.org
Provides government and industry practitioners with one-stop access to up-to-date information on a wide range
of building-related guidance, criteria and technology from a ‘whole buildings’ perspective.

Glossary
Aromatherapy Contrast Therapy
The use of aromatic plant extracts and essential oils in Refers to the therapeutic effects of hot and cold
massage, baths, showers and thermal cabins temperatures
Aquapressure Deluge Shower

Targeted water massage. Similar to acupressure. Delivers a huge dump of cold water on bathers so
they can cool between heat treatments.
Aquathermal bathing (synonym “hydrothermal
bathing”) Experience Showers
Pertaining to the temperature effects of water used in Multi-sensory shower experiences incorporating smell,
thermal cabins and pools (Origin Greek) sound and visual effects
Arctic ice Room Finnish Sauna

Operating at 1° C to 4° C,, these rooms provide A wood structure with a heat source (wood-burning,
contrast therapy to the hot rooms in a spa and mimic electric or gas); the hottest and driest room in any spa,
the traditional experience of a “roll in the snow” running at 80° C to 105° C
Balnea/Balneum Floatation Bath

Smaller version of a Roman thermae (bathhouse) A warm bath containing oils or salts, where the client
found in ancient Rome (Origin Latin) floats on the water, usually in the dark or in subdued
lighting. A floatation tank is bed-sized and is a closed
Balneotherapy
environment, often in total darkness.
General term for water-based treatments using
natural thermal, spring, mineral or seawater to Foot Spa
induce relaxation, improve the circulation, stimulate Specifically designed for bathing feet in cool or warm
the immune system and bring about detoxification water in between hot treatments; feet play an important
(Origin Latin) role in the heating and cooling process of the body due
to the small amount of flesh and fat on them
Banya/Banja
Term originally meant “bathhouse” in Russia but has Frigidarium/Frigidaria
been adopted to refer to the specific sauna-like room in The cold plunge pool in ancient Roman baths
a Russian bathhouse. (Origin Russia) (Origin Latin)
Biosauna (or Soft Sauna) Furo

A gentler, less extreme version of a Finnish sauna A private bathing ritual in Japan that takes place in a
operating at 50° C to 60° C bath made of wood; the furo is often found in private
homes (Origin Japan)
Caldarium/Caldaria
The hottest room in ancient Roman baths and a
precursor to today’s steam bath (Origin Latin)
Glossary | 175
Hamam Infrared Therapy
The word “hamam” literally translates to “bathroom” Using long-wave infrared radiation to distribute
in Turkish and refers to the entire Turkish bathhouse. warmth through the peripheral nervous system
A Turkish hamam is a large domed structure with
Inhalation Room
a central room (sikaklek) in which the belly stone
Specific treatment room for inhaling agents to treat
(göbek tasi) takes center stage. The belly stone is
respiratory conditions such as asthma, bronchitis and
traditionally where attendants scrub and clean bathers.
emphysema
(Origin Turkish)
Jacuzzi
Hammam
Named after inventor and manufacturer, this is a bath
A Moroccan hammam is similar to a Turkish
or pool large enough for several persons sitting down
bath but has retained more of the traditional
to be massaged by underwater jets.
Roman bathing ritual—sending the bather on a
journey through smaller chambers with varying Kneipp Therapy
temperatures (like the Roman journey through the A 19th century adaptation of hydrotherapy formulated
laconium, caldarium, frigidarium and tepidarium). by Pastor Sebastian Kneipp (1821-1897) and consisting
(Origin Moroccan/N. African) of hot and cold water treatments, walking barefoot in
the morning dew, and the use of herbal bath oils, all
Hot Tub
combined with physical exercise and a diet of natural
Large tub or small pool of heated water used for
food. Popular in Austria, Germany and Switzerland.
hydrotherapy or pleasure. Some have jets for massage
purposes. Hot tubs are sometimes known as spas or by Laconium
the trade name Jacuzzi. Name originates from Roman baths; this is a warm
room (38-42 °C) where bathers can relax for long
Hydrotherapy
periods of time on benches or in individual, heated
The use of water for pain relief and treatment. The
loungers or chairs. (Origin Latin)
therapeutic effect of water depends on the temperature,
depth and duration of immersion and its mineral Lap Pool
content to soothe painful muscles and joints, as well as An exercise pool used for swimming lengths/laps and is
stimulate the circulation and immune system. commonly 25 m long x 12.5 m wide x 1.5 m deep. You
can also find pools that offer both resistance and lap
Hydrothermal Bathing
swimming in smaller spaces with the aid of motorized
Pertaining to the temperature effects of water used in
water-flow mechanisms.
thermal cabins and pools
Mineral Water
Ice Cave/igloo
Water of natural purity used for bathing and/or
Operating at 7° C to 15° C, these rooms provide
drinking, the source of which has to be in a subterranean
contrast therapy to the hot rooms in a spa and mimic
and protected water deposit. Mineral waters can have
the traditional experience of a “roll in the snow.”
an acidic, basic or neutral pH, depending on the types
Ice Fountain of dissolved solids in the water. Depending on use,
An access of ice in a spa for bathers to cool their bodies the content of some substances must not exceed the
between hot treatments indicated limits.

Mud Bathing Respiratory Therapy
Mud bathing originated thousands of years ago as a The goal of respiratory therapy (also called inhalation
medicinal and beautifying ritual. The body is coated therapy) is to improve respiration by steam inhalation
with organic thermal mud, and, depending on the combined with essential oils. There are specific
minerals inherent in the mud, they can cleanse, treatments targeted at chronic conditions such as
exfoliate, absorb toxins, increase circulation and soften asthma, bronchitis and emphysema.
the skin.
Salt Room/Cave
Onsen Salt therapy originated in Europe with natural salt
This pool type originates from Japan and has a significant caves and caverns. Claimed to relieve asthma, improve
role in the country’s ritual bathing practices. “Onsen” circulation and lower blood pressure, salt rooms
translates as “hot springs” in Japanese and has come and caves are specific treatment rooms requiring dry
to refer to the natural spring baths found throughout conditions, good ventilation and copious amounts of
Japan. Their benefits are closely dependent on the salt on the floor, walls and ceiling.
mineral properties and content of the water itself and
Sauna
typically include the easing of neuralgia, alleviation of There are several different styles of saunas in use today.
muscle pain, the reduction of the symptoms of chronic The traditional and most common are Finnish saunas
skin disease and the relief of chronic fatigue and stress. and Russian banyas; others include bio and infrared
(Origin Japan) saunas. While various sauna types all run at slightly
Pestemal different temperatures and humidity, they are closely
A pestemal (pesh-te-mahl) is the authentic Turkish related in style, usage and health benefits.
bath towel. It is flat-woven with hand-tied fringe, Scotch Hose
typically made of Turkish cotton, linen or even silk. An invigorating water jet massage that uses variable
It is also known as a hamam towel, as it is an essential temperatures and pressure levels to stimulate circulation
element of the legendary Turkish bath experience. and relax muscles. Also known as the Scotch Hose
Pestemals come in countless designs, textures, weights Shower and Jet Blitz.
and colors. The hand-towel version of the pestemal is
called a peskir (pesh-kir). Sento
The Japanese developed a form of steam bath called
Plunge Pool the sento, a type of vapor bath that uses aromatherapy
A cold plunge pool, also traditionally known as a elements and includes body scrubbing. (Origin Japan)
frigidarium, is a cold-water pool that is typically
entered after and between hot thermal treatments to Shower/Waterfall
cool bathers down. Several shower options are available: cold waterfalls,
mists, body jets and dramatic “experience showers”
Psammo therapy (sand bath) offering multi-sensory experiences that incorporate
Initially used in Ancient Egypt, sand baths are smells, sound and visual effects.
becoming popular in spas for their ability to help
Snow Room
bathers relax both mentally and physically.
Cold rooms that use modern techniques to create
Refugium real snow with which to cool the body. Operating at
The refugium is a relaxation area in a spa, typically 1° C to 4° C, these rooms are becoming increasingly
smaller and more intimate than the tepidarium, and common in modern spas.
used for rest and sleeping.
Glossary | 177
Spa Suite building, which were centers not only for bathing, but
A bedroom suite that offers additional spa equipment, socializing. (Origin Latin)
such as a hot tub, treatment table, experience
Thermal Bathing
shower, etc.
Thermal bathing is commonly associated with naturally
Steam Bath/Room hot water, rich in mineral salts, iodine and gases. The
The modern steam bath is unique in that it reaches place is often referred to as a spa, which is traditionally
100% relative humidity—which gives it the element used to mean a place where the water is believed to
of steam/fog. The caldarium is the Roman precursor have special health-giving properties.
to the steam bath (also commonly called steam room).
Thermal Suite
Steam Shower The collection of thermal treatments in a spa is
A steam shower is a type of bathing where a humidifying commonly called the thermal suite.
steam generator produces water vapor that is dispersed
Vichy Shower
around a person’s body. A steam shower is essentially
A Vichy shower is a horizontal series of showerheads
a small steam room that offers the typical features of a
forming a “rain bar” over a waterproof, cushioned
bathroom shower, often with a seat for comfort.
treatment table.
Sudatorium
Vitality Pool
A type of steam room in a Roman bath where the high
A vitality pool is the generic name for what people
temperature promotes sweating.
commonly refer to as a “Jacuzzi” (the brand name that
Swiss Shower has become synonymous with pools with water jets).
A shower in which jets of water are sprayed onto the Vitality pools offer a mini-hydrotherapy experience.
body from above, and also from numerous nozzles on
Water Cure
the side.
The use of water as a form of physical therapy, e.g., the
Temazcal Kneipp walk, which uses a mix of hot and cold water
The temazcal, or “sweat lodge,” is another example of to stimulate the circulation of blood. Pebbles on the
thermal bathing. (Origin Mexico) bottom of the stream/walkway massage the feet and the
alternation of hot and cold baths stimulate circulation
Tepidarium/Tepidaria
to all parts of the body.
Relaxation spaces with loungers and beds; the Romans
called these areas the tepidarium Watsu®
These are pools designed specifically for Watsu
Thalasso/Thalassotherapy
massage, a gentle form of body therapy performed in
From the Greek word thalassa, meaning “sea,” it is
warm water.
the medical use of seawater as a form of therapy for
preventive or curative purposes. The term includes Whirlpool Tub
seaweed, algae wraps and hydrotherapy. This is a bath large enough for several persons sitting
down to be massaged by underwater jets.
Thermae/Therma
In Roman times, the thermae, from the Greek word
thermos, meaning “hot,” were facilities for bathing;
the term usually refers to the large public bathing
complexes. Most Roman cities had at least one such

Index
A C F
Americans with Disabilities Act Caldarium 7, 55, 175 Finnish sauna 2, 7, 18-20, 24, 34,
(ADA) 45, 48, 162 49-54
Contrast therapy 16, 23, 50, 75,
Aquathermal 1, 175 81, 104, 175 Floatation pool 11, 105
Aquapressure 92 Flooring 48
Aromatherapy 11, 15, 24, 26, 29, D Foot spa 10, 74

65, 73, 87, 175
Dead Sea 3, 88, 134 Frigidarium 13, 23, 75-81
Arthritis 1, 5, 15, 16, 20, 23, 29,
56, 81, 99 Deluge shower 11, 71
G
Asthma 9, 19, 88, 107 Disabled access 45, 48, 162
Geothermal 103, 121-133
Dosing pump 73, 116
German Sauna Standards 45
B Drainage 118, 149-150, 160-161
Baden-Baden, Germany 5 Dry floatation bed 12, 38, 93-94

H
Banya 2, 7, 18, 31, 49, 53, 175
Hamam 3-4, 61-65
Bath, England 4 E
Health, safety & hygiene 159-165
Biosauna 49, 175 Electrical services 148-149
Chemical room safety 115, 164
Blood Emphysema 87, 176
Construction 163
Circulation 12, 23, 54, 68, 81, Entries/exits 48 Design 160-161
90, 92
Epsom salts 11, 27, 106 Wet area hygiene 131
Pressure 2, 9, 16, 19-21, 22, 24,
27, 75, 76, 81, 131, 177 Essential oils 7, 25-26, 67, 87, Risk assessment 165
147, 163, 175 Water safety 164
Body scrub 3, 61, 128
Experience shower 10, 71-73 Hot springs 1, 102, 106, 121-133
Bronchitis 87, 177
Hydronic heating 63, 69
Building Management System
(BMS) 117, 154 Hydrotherapy pool 100
Hydrotherapy medical evidence

14-23
Hydrotherapy tub 11, 91
Index | 179
Hygiene 4, 39, 45, 159, 161, 165 M Surface finishes 111
Hypertension 4 Mexico 3, 178 Water treatment 91-92, 96-97
Middle East 3, 95 Project planning 31

Assembling a project team 32
I Mineral pool 105-106
Commercial spa design, 32-34
Ice fountain 13, 77 Mineral waters 106, 121, 128, Common mistakes 39
Immune system 2, 20, 50, 54, Morocco 3, 95 Key considerations 39
104, 133 Specialist hydrothermal team 36
Mud bath 3, 9, 89, 176
Infrared sauna 6, 22, 50, 54 Public bathing 1, 2, 5, 63, 76, 178
Muscle pain 63, 106, 177
Infrared therapy 176
Inhalation room 87-88 R

O
International Building Codes 45 Regenerative design 167
Onsen 3, 4, 98, 102-103, 130
Oxygen 83 Relaxation room 66

J Residential spa design 42-44
Jacuzzi 9, 100, 172 Respiratory therapy 87, 177
P
Japan 3, 95, 102-103, 130-131, Return on investment 40-41
People flow 36-37
175
Photo credits 182 Risk assessment 165
Plant room 34, 36, 118 Roman/Roman Empire 2, 5, 7, 8,

K 13, 15, 55, 61-63, 66-67, 69, 75
Plunge pool 5, 75-76, 98, 104,
Kelo log house sauna 6
150, 175
Kneipp S
Pools 97
Hose 58, 60, 67, 83
Chemicals 115, 117 Salt 4, 9, 16, 27
Walk 10, 71, 74, 107
Cleaning 111
Salt room 88, 177
Sebastian 10, 92
Common mistakes 108
Therapy 92 Sauna 6, 45, 49-54
Construction 110
Health benefits 18-20
Design 108, 110
Disability access 109 Sento 3, 177
L
Filtration 116 Snow 2, 21, 23, 75
Laconium 8, 41, 66-68, 176
Lighting 119 Making 77
Lap/exercise pool 99
Overflow vs freeboard 112-113
Room 13, 75, 77, 177
Saltwater 98, 110
Shower 13, 80

Spa suite 38, 83, 85, 177
Steam generators 56-57, 145, 171
Steam inlet 58
Steam rooms 7, 55, 177
Stress 19-20, 27-28, 55
Sudatorium 7, 55, 178
Sustainability 167
Temazcal 3, 178
Tepidarium 8, 69, 178
Thalassotherapy 4, 178
Thermae/therma 178
Treatment rooms 84-86
Turkish bath 3, 7, 61-62, 175
Ventilation/climate control 52,

59, 65, 79, 85, 87, 119, 144-147
Vichy shower 12, 83, 90, 178
Vitality pool 9, 100, 178
Watsu pool 12, 106, 129, 178
Whirlpool tub 178
Index | 181
Photo Credits
Thanks to all the companies and individuals who generously supplied us with the photography
accompanying these pages. Where possible, photo credits are within the text, if not, readers can find them
listed here.
Barr + Wray Ltd.: Viii; 3; 6 (top); 7 (bottom); 8 (bottom); 9 (bottom); 13 (top and bottom); 32 (top); 35 (top);
36 (bottom); 46; 65; 67; 71; 76; 98; 99; 100; 101; 104; 112; 113; 114; 158
Dornbracht International: 10 (bottom); 11 (top); 74 (bottom); 92 (top and bottom)
Faena Hotel, Miami Beach (Nik Koenig): 119 (right)
Gharieni: 90
HygroMatik GmbH CSA: 7 (middle); 55
Iso Benessere: 82
Kemitron GmbH: 10 (middle)
Klafs GmbH & Co. KG: 6 (bottom); 7; 88; 154; 155
Lux Elements GmbH: 139-143
Snow Industries: 13 (bottom middle)
Sommerhuber: 8 (top); 9 (middle); 160
TechnoAlpin: 11 (top middle)
Tschuggen Hotel Group, Switzerland: 10
Unbescheiden GmbH: 11 (middle); 12 (all)
WDT Werner Dosiertechnik GmbH & Co. KG: 10 (middle)

A special thanks to all the knowledgeable hydrothermal experts
at the following companies:
Barr + Wray Ltd.: www.barrandwray.com
Spa interior design, engineering consultancy; and pool and thermal installation and maintenance
Design For Leisure Ltd.: www.designforleisure.com

Hydrothermal spa design consultants and implementation specialists
Dornbracht: www.dornbracht.com
Leading high-end manufacturer of bathroom fixtures
Gharieni Group: www.gharieni.com

German manufacturer of high-end spa tables and equipment
Hilton Worldwide: www.hiltonworldwide.com

One of the largest hospitality companies in the world
HygroMatik GmbH: www.hygromatik.de

A leading manufacturer of professional humidifiers and steam bath generators
Klafs GmbH & Co.: www.klafs.com

A market leader for sauna, spa and wellness with over 80 years experience
Kemitron GmbH: www.kemitron.com

Producer of fragrance, cosmetics, dosing pumps and process control systems for the spa and wellness industry
Lux Elements GmbH: www.luxelements.com

Specialist in producing hard foam, ready-to-tile, shaped elements for spa facilities
Six Senses Hotels Resorts Spas: www.sixsenses.com

Offering a layered approach that unites a pioneering spirit with treatments that go beyond ordinary
Snow Industries: www.snow-industries.com

Snowmaking technology for event, spa & industry
Sommerhuber: www.sommerhuber.com
Manufacturer of large-area heat storage ceramics focused on design and hygiene
TechnoAlpin: www.technoalpin.com
Snow room and indoor snow installations
Unbescheiden GmbH: www.unbescheiden.com

Manufacturer of spa and hydrotherapy equipment since 1869
WDT Werner Dosiertechnik GmbH & Co. KG: www.werner-dosiertechnik.de

Control and dosing systems for swimming pools and wellness facilities
Global Wellness Institute
333 S.E. 2nd Avenue, Suite 3750
Miami, FL 33131 United States
www.globalwellnessinstitute.org

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GUIDE TO

What You Need to Know

333 S.E. 2nd Avenue, Suite 3750, Miami, FL 33131

Editor: Cassandra Cavanah

Third Edition 10/2018

Chapter One: Overview of Hydrothermal Bathing 1

Chapter Two: Hydrothermal Wellness Benefits 15

Chapter Three: Project Planning:Architecture & Design 31

Chapter Four: Thermal Bathing Areas – Function and Design 47

Hot and Humid: Steam Room/Caldarium/Sudatorium 55

Warm and Humid: Turkish Hamam/Moroccan Hammam 61

Warm and Dry: Laconium; Tepidarium/Warm Relaxation Room 66

Warm/Cold and Wet: Experience Showers; Foot Bath/Kneipp Walk 71

Cold: Plunge Pool/Frigidarium; Snow Room; Snow Shower/Snowfall 75

Specialist Water Treatments 90

Chapter Six: Pool Areas – Function and Design 97

Hydrotherapy/Vitality Pool 100

Onsen Pool 102

Cold Plunge Pool 10 4

Chapter Seven: Hot Springs & Geothermal Mineral Waters 121

Chapter Eight: Construction Materials and Building Services 137

Chapter Nine: Health, Safety and Hygiene 159

Chapter Ten: Sustainability and Regenerative Design 167

Photo Credits 182

IV | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

With extraordinary growth in the global spa/wellness industry—fueled by a rise

This guide is not written as a step-by-step manual for building hydrothermal

Updated September 2018 for 3rd edition

VI | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

Sue Harmsworth MBE, Founder of ESPA International

Kim Matheson Shedrick, Senior Vice President, WTS International

Cary Collier and Doug Chambers, Principals of Blu Spas, Inc.

VIII | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

For thousands of years, different cultures have sought

Overview of Hydrothermal Bathing | 1

2 | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

Overview of Hydrothermal Bathing | 3

Japan is known for

4 | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

Overview of Hydrothermal Bathing | 5

6 | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

Steam Bath or Steam Room

Overview of Hydrothermal Bathing | 7

Tepidarium or Relaxation Spaces

8 | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

Overview of Hydrothermal Bathing | 9

10 | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

Overview of Hydrothermal Bathing | 11

Dry Floatation Bed

Dry Hydro Massage Bed

12 | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

Overview of Hydrothermal Bathing | 13

For centuries, hydrothermal treatments have been

Hydrothermal Wellness Benefits | 15

(Readers are encouraged to download the full paper at Archimedes Forces

16 | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

Therefore, someone who generally suffers pain in their Sensory Input

Hydrothermal Wellness Benefits | 17

Health Benefits of Sauna

18 | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

Hydrothermal Wellness Benefits | 19

20 | Guide to Hydrothermal Spa & Wellness Development Standards

Hydrothermal Wellness Benefits | 21

Benefits of Infrared Heat