Fluid Mechanics

MODULE-3

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Fluid Mechanics

FLUID DYNAMICS

Forces acting on the fluids

Following are the forces acting on the fluids

1. Self-Weight/ Gravity Force, Fg

2. Pressure Forces, F p

3. Viscous Force, Fv

4. Turbulent Force, Ft

5. Surface Tension Force, Fs

6. Compressibility Force, Fc

Dynamics of fluid is governed by Newton’s Second law of motion, which states that the resultant force
on any fluid element must be equal to the product of the mass and the acceleration of the element.

∑ F = Ma
or
∑ F = Fg + Fp + Fv + Fs + Fc (1)

Surface tension forces and Compressibility forces are not significant and may be neglected. Hence
(1) becomes
∑ F = Fg + Fp + Fv + Ft
- Reynold’s Equation of motion and used in the analysis of Turbulent flows. For laminar flows,
turbulent force becomes less significant and hence (1) becomes

∑ F = Fg + Fp + Fv
– Navier - Stokes Equation. If viscous forces are neglected then the (1) reduces to

∑ F = Fg + Fp = M × a
– Euler’s Equation of motion.

Euler equation of motion

Consider a stream lime in a flowing fluid in S direction as shown in the figure. On this stream line
consider a cylindrical element having a cross sectional area dA and length ds.
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eq.png

Fluid element in stream line

Forces acting on the fluid element are: Pressure forces at both ends:

• Pressure force, pdA in the direction of flow

• Pressure force (p+(∂ p/∂ s)ds)dA in the direction opposite to the flow direction

• Weight of element ρdads acting vertically downwards

Let φ be the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the weight of the element.
The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of s must be equal to mass of fluid element×
acceleration in direction s (according to Newton’s second law of motion)

pda − (pda + (∂ p/∂ s)ds)dA) − ρgd cos φ = ρdadsas (a)

where as is the accelaration in direction of s now

dv
as =
dt

where v is function of s and t

∂ v ds ∂ v
= +
∂ s dt ∂t
∂ v ds ∂ v
=v +
∂ s dt ∂t
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since
ds
=v
dt

If the flow is steady,

∂v
=0
∂t

hence,
∂v
as = v
∂s
Substituting the valve of as in equation (a) and simplifying,
∂p ∂v
− dsdA − ρgdsdA cos φ = ρdads × v
∂s ∂s
Dividing the whole equation by ρdsdA,

∂p ∂v
− − g cos φ = v
ρ∂ s ∂s
∂p ∂v
⇒ + g cos φ + v = 0
ρ∂ s ∂s

But from the figure we have

dz
cos φ =
ds

Hence,
1 ∂p dz ∂v
+g +v = 0
ρ ∂s ds ∂s

or
∂p
+ gdz + vdv = 0 (b)
ρ
Equation (b)is known as Euler’s equation of motion.

Bernoulli’s Equation of motion from Euler’s equation

Statement: In a steady, incompressible fluid, the total energy remains same along a streamline
throughout the reach.
Bernoulli’s equation may be obtained by integrating Euler’s equation of motion i.e, equation (b) as
dp
Z Z Z
+ gdz + vdv = constant
ρ
If the flow is in-compressible, ρ is constant and hence,
p v2
+ gz + = constant
ρ 2
p v2
⇒ + + z = constant (c)
ρg 2g
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Equation (c) is called as Bernoulli’s equation, Where
p
ρ = pressure energy per unit weight of the fluid or also called as pressure head
v2
2g = kinetic energy per unit weight of the fluid or kinetic head
z= potential energy per unit weight or potential head

Assumption made in deriving the Bernoulli’s Equation

Following assumptions were made to derive the bernoulli’s equation

• The flow is steady

• The flow is ideal ( Viscosity of the fluid is zero)

• The flow is in-compressible

• The flow is irrotational

Limitations on the use of the Bernoulli Equation

• Steady flow: The first limitation on the Bernoulli equation is that it is applicable to steady flow.

• Friction-less flow: Every flow involves some friction, no matter how small, and frictional
effects may or may not be negligible.

• In-compressible flow: One of the assumptions used in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation
is that ρ = constant and thus the flow is in-compressible. Strictly speaking, the Bernoulli equa-
tion is applicable along a streamline, and the value of the constant C, in general, is different for
different streamlines. But when a region of the flow is irrational, and thus there is no vorticity
in the flow field, the value of the constant C remains the same for all streamlines, and, therefore,
the Bernoulli equation becomes applicable across streamlines as well.

Kinetic Energy correction factor

In deriving the Bernoulli’s Equation, the velocity head or the kinetic energy per unit weight of the
fluid has been computed based on the assumption that the velocity is uniform over the entire cross
section of the stream tube. But in real fluids, the velocity distribution is not uniform. Therefore, to
obtain the kinetic energy possessed by the fluid at differently sections is obtained by integrating the
kinetic energies possessed by different fluid particles.
It is more convenient to express the kinetic energy in terms of the mean velocity of flow. But the
actual kinetic energy is greater than the computed using the mean velocity. Hence a correction factor
called ‘ Kinetic Energy correction factor,α is introduced.

p1 v2 p2 v2
+ α1 ( 1 ) + z1 = + α2 ( 2 ) + z2 + hL = Constant
ρ 2g ρ 2g

In most of the problems of turbulent flow, the value of α=1.

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Rotary or Vortex Motion

A mass of fluid in rotation about a fixed axis is called vortex. The rotary motion of fluid is also
called vortex motion. In this case the rotating fluid particles have velocity in tangential direction.
Thus the vortex motion is defined as motion in which the whole fluid mass rotates about an axis.
The vortex motion is of two types:

1. Free vortex

2. Forced vortex

Free vortex flow

Free vortex flow is that type of flow in which the fluid mass rotates without any external applied
contact force. The whole mass rotates either due to fluid pressure itself or the gravity or due to
rotation previously imparted. Energy is not expended to any outside source. The free vortex motion
is also called Potential vortex or Ir-rotational vortex.

Relationship between velocity and radius in free vortex

It is obtained by putting the value of external torque equal to Zero or on other words the time rate of
change of angular momentum, i.e., moment of the momentum must be Zero. Consider a fluid particle
of mass ’M’ at a radial distance ’r’ from the axis of rotation, having a tangential velocity ’u’. Then,

Angular momentum = Mass × velocity

Moment o f the Momentum = Momentum × radius = mur
∂ (mur)
Time rate o f change o f angular momentum =
∂t

But for free vortex,

∂ (mur)
=0
∂t
Integrating, we get
∂ (mur)
Z
= 0 ⇒ Mur = Constant = ur = constant
∂t

Forced vortex flow

Forced vortex motion is one in which the fluid mass is made to rotate by means of some external
agencies. The external agency is generally the mechanical power which imparts the constant torque
on the fluid mass. The forced vortex motion is also called flywheel vortex or rotational vortex. The
fluid mass in this forced vortex flow rotates at constant angular velocity ω. The tangential velocity of
any fluid particle is given by,
u = ω ×r
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where ’r’ is the radius of the fluid particle from the axis of rotation. Hence angular velocity ω is given
by,
u
ω= = constant
r
Variation of pressure of a rotating fluid in any plane is given by,

ω 2 r2
d p = ρ( )dr − ρgdz
r
Integrating the above equation for points 1 and 2, we get

ω 2 r2
Z 2 Z 2 2 Z
dp = ρ( )dr − ρgdz
1 1 r 1
r2
⇒ (p2 − p1 ) = [ρω 2 ]21 − ρg[z]21
2
ρ 2
⇒ = [u2 − u21 ] − ρg[z2 − z1 ]
2
if the point 1 and 2 lies on free surface of the liquid, then p1 = p2 and hence above equation reduces
to
1 2
[z2 − z1 ] = [v − v21 ]
2g 2
If the point 1 lies on the axis of rotaion, then v1 = ω × r1 = ω × 0 = 0,hence above equation reduces
to,
u22 ω 2 r22
Z = z2 − z1 = =
2g 2g

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APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Venturi Meter

Venturimeter is a device for measuring discharge in a pipe.

Schematic diagram of Venturi meter

A Venturi meter consists of:

1. Inlet/ Convergent cone

2. Throat

3. Outlet/ Divergent cone

The inlet section Venturi meter is same diameter as that type of the pipe to which it is connected,
followed by the short convergent section with a converging cone angle of 21±1o and its length parallel
to the axis is approximately equal to 2.7(D–d), where ’D’ is the pipe diameter and ’d’ is the throat
diameter.
The cylindrical throat is a section of constant cross-section with its length equal to diameter. The flow
1
is minimum at the throat. Usually, diameter of throat is 2 the pipe diameter.
A long diverging section with a cone angle of about 5-7o where in the fluid is retarded and a large
portion of the kinetic energy is converted back into the pressure energy.

Principle of Venturi Meter:

The basic principle on which a Venturi meter works is that by reducing the cross-sectional area of
the flow passage, a pressure difference is created between the two sections, this pressure difference
enables the estimation of the flow rate through the pipe.
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Expression for Discharge through Venturi meter

Let, d1 =diameter at section 1-1

p1 = pressure at section at 1-1
v1 = velocity at section at 1-1
a1 = area of cross-section at 1-1
d2 , p2 , v2 , a2 be corresponding values at section 2-2.

Applying Bernoulli equation between 1-1 and 2-2 we have,

p1 v21 p2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Since pipe is horizontal, z1 =z2 ,
Hence,
p1 v21 p2 v22
+ = +
ρg 2g ρg 2g
p1 − p2 v22 − v21
⇒ =
ρg 2g
v − v21
2
⇒h= 2
2g
p1 −p2
where h = ρg , is the pressure difference between section 1-1 and 2-2.
from continuity equation, we have

a1 v1 = a2 v2
a2 v2
⇒ v1 =
a1
Hence
v22 h a22 − a21 i
h=
2g a21
a1 p
⇒ v2 = q 2gh (1)
2
a1 − a2 2

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substituting the value of v2 in equation Q =a2 v2 we have,
a1 a2 p
Qth = q 2gh
a21 − a22

Above equations is for ideal fluids and is called as the theoretical discharge equation of a venturi
meter. For real fluids the equation changes to,
a1 a2 p
Qact = Cd q 2gh
a21 − a22

Expression for ’h’ given by the differential manometer

• Case 1:when liquid in the manometer is heavier than the liquid flowing through the pipe.
hS i
H
h=x −1
SO

where:SH is the specific gravity of heavier liquid

SO is the specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe.
x difference in liquid columns in U-tube.

• Case 2:when liquid in the manometer is lighter than the liquid flowing through the pipe.
h SL i
h = x 1−
SO

where:SL is the specific gravity of heavier liquid

SO is the specific gravity of liquid flowing through pipe.
x difference in liquid columns in U-tube.

Orifice Meter

Orifice
An orifice is a small aperture through which the fluid passes. The thickness of an orifice in the
direction of flow is very small in comparison to its other dimensions.
If a tank containing a liquid has a hole made on the side or base through which liquid flows, then
such a hole may be termed as an orifice. The rate of flow of the liquid through such an orifice at a
given time will depend partly on the shape, size and form of the orifice.
An orifice usually has a sharp edge so that there is minimum contact with the fluid and conse-
quently minimum frictional resistance at the sides of the orifice. If a sharp edge is not provided, the
flow depends on the thickness of the orifice and the roughness of its boundary surface too.
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Orifice Meter

• It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow through a pipe.

• It is a cheaper device as compared to venturi meter. The basic principle on which the Orifice
meter works is same as that of Venturi meter.

• It consists of a circular plate with a circular opening at the center. This circular opening is called
an Orifice.

• The diameter of the orifice is generally varies from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.

Expression for Discharge through Orifice meter

Let, d1 =diameter at section 1-1

p1 = pressure at section at 1-1
v1 = velocity at section at 1-1
a1 = area of cross-section at 1-1
d2 , p2 , v2 , a2 be corresponding values at section 2-2.
Applying Bernoulli equation between 1-1 and 2-2 we have,

p1 v21 p2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
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Since pipe is horizontal, z1 =z2 ,
Hence,

p1 v21 p2 v22
+ = +
ρg 2g ρg 2g
p1 − p2 v22 − v21
⇒ =
ρg 2g
or
v22 − v21
h=
2g
or
2gh = v22 − v21
q
v2 = 2gh + v21 (i)

Now section (2) is at the vena-contracta and a2 represents the area at the vena-contracta.
If the area ao is the area of the orifice, then we have

a2
Cc =
ao

where Cc is the co-efficient of contraction.

∴
a2 = ao ×Cc

From continuity equation, we have

a1 v1 = a2 v2 or (ii)
a2 v2 aoCc
v1 = v2 = v2 (ii)
a1 a1

Substituting the value of v1 in equation (i), we get

s
a2oCc2 v22
v2 = 2gh +
a21
√
2gh
⇒ v2 = q
2
1 − aao1 Cc2

substituting the value of v2 in equation Q =a2 v2 we have,

√
aoCc 2gh
Q= r (iv)
a2

1 − ao2 Cc2
1

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Above equation can be simplified by using
q
2
1 − aao1
Cc = Cd q
2
1 − aao1 Cc2
or
q
2
1 − aao1 Cc2
Cd = Cc q
2
1 − aao1

Substituting the this value of Cc in(iv),

q
2
1 − aao1 Cc2 √
2gh
Qact = ao ×Cd q ×r
2
1 − aao1 a2



1 − o2 Cc2
a1

or
√
Cd ao a1 2gh
Qact = q
a21 − a2o

where Cd is the co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter.

Pitot tube

Pitot tube is a device used to measure the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a channel.
Principle: If the velocity at any point decreases, the pressure at that point increases due to the con-
version of the Kinetic energy into pressure energy. In Simplest form, the pitot tube consists of a glass
tube, bent at right angles.

Let, p1 = pressure at section at 1-1

v1 = velocity at section at 1-1
p2 = pressure at section at 1-1
v2 = velocity at section at 1-1
H= depth of tube in the liquid
h= rise of liquid in the tube above free surface
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Applying Bernoulli equation between 1-1 and 2-2 we have,

p1 v21 p2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
But z1 =z2 as points(1)and (2) are on the same line and v2 =0
p1
ρg = pressure head at (1)=H
p2
ρg = pressure head at (2)=(h+H)
Substituting these values we get,

v21 v2 p
H+ = (h + H) ∴ h = or v1 = 2gh
2g 2g
this is the theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is given by
p
(v1 )act = Cv 2gh

there fore velocity at any point is,

p
vact = Cv 2gh

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P1. An oil of sp.gr. 0.8 is flowing through a venturimeter having inlet

diameter 20cm and throat 10cm. The oil mercury differential
manometer shows a reading of 25cm. Calculate the discharge of oil
through the horizontal venturimeter. Take Cd= 0.98.

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P2. A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 30cm and throat

diameter 15cm is used to measure the flow of water. The differential
manometer connected to the inlet and throat is 20cm. Calculate the
discharge. Take Cd= 0.98.

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P3.A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 20cm and throat

diameter 10 cm is used to measure the flow of oil of specific gravity
0.8. The discharge of oil through venturimeter is 60li/s. Find the
reading of the oil-mercury manometer. Take Cd= 0.98

P4. A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 20cm and throat

diameter 10cm is used to measure the flow of water. The pressure at
inlet is 17.658N/cm2 and vacuum pressure at throat is 30cm of
Mercury. Find the discharge of water through venturimeter. Take Cd
= 0.98.
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P5. The inlet and throat diameters of a horizontal venturimeter are

30cm and 10cm respectively. The liquid flowing through the
venturimeter is water. The pressure intensity at inlet is 13.734N/cm2
while the vacuum pressure head at the throat is 37 cm of mercury.
Find the rate of flow. Assume that 4% of the differential head is lost
between the inlet and the throat. Find also the values of Cd for the
Venturimeter.

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P6: A 30cmX15cm Venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying

water flowing in the upward direction. A differential mercury

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manometer connected to the inlet and throat gives a reading of 20cm.

Find the discharge. Take Cd = 0.98

P7: A 20cmX10cm venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying

oil of sp.gr 0.8, the flow of oil is in the upward direction. The
difference of levels between the throat and inlet section is 50cm. The
oil mercury differential manometer gives a reading of 30cm of
Mercury. Find the discharge of oil. Neglect the losses.

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P.8:In a vertical pipe conveying oil of specific gravity 0.8, two

pressure gauges have been installed at A and B where the diameters
are 16cm and 8cm respectively. A is 2 meters above B. The pressure
gauge readings have shown that the pressure at B is greater than at A
by 0.981N/cm2. Neglecting all losses, calculate the flow rate. If the
gauges at A and B are replaced by tubes filled with the same fluid and
connected to a U tube containing Mercury, Calculate the difference of
level of Mercury in the two limbs of the U tube.

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Applying Bernoulli’s equation between A and B, taking the reference

line passing through B, we have,
p1/ γ + v12/ 2g + z 1= p2/ γ + v22/ 2g + z2 +hL
(pA/ γ - pB/ γ ) + z A- zB = (vB2/ 2g - vA2/ 2g)
(pA/ γ - pB/ γ ) + 2.0 - 0.0 = (vB2/ 2g - vA2/ 2g)
-1.25+2.0 = (vB2/ 2g - vA2/ 2g)

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0.75 = (vB2/ 2g - vA2/ 2g) ----------------- (1)

Now applying Continuity equation at A and B, we
get,
AAVA = ABVB
VB = AAVA / AB = 4VA
Substituting the value of VB in equation (1), we get
0.75 = 16 vA2/ 2g - vA2/ 2g = 15 vA2/ 2g ; Va= 0.99m/s
Rate of flow, Q= AAVA
Q= 0.99* 0.01989 Cum/s
Difference of level of mercury in the u – Tube:
Let x = Difference of Mercury level
Then h= x[ (sm/so)- 1]
h = (pA/ γ+ z A) – (pB/ γ+ zB )
= (pA/ γ – pB/ γ) + (z A+ zB ) = -1.25+2.00 = 0.75m
0.75 = x[ (13.6/0.8)-1] = 16x
X= 4.687 cm

P.9: Find the discharge of water flowing through a pipe 30cm

diameter placed in an inclined position where a venturimeter is
inserted, having a throat diameter of 15 cm. The difference of
pressure between the main and the throat is measured by a liquid of
sp.gr. 0.6 in an inverted U tube which gives a reading of 30cm. The
loss of head between the main and the throat is 0.2 times the kinetic
head of the pipe.

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P.10: A 30cmX15cm venturimeter is provided in a vertical pipe line

carrying oil of specific gravity 0.9, the flow being upwards. The
difference in elevation of the throat section and entrance section of
the venturimeter is 30cm. The differential U- tube mercury
manometer shows a gauge deflection of 25cm. Calculate:
1. The discharge of the oil and
2. The pressure difference between the entrance section and the
throat section. Take the coefficient of meter as 0.98 and the
specific gravity of Mercury as 13.6.

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P.11: Crude oil of specific gravity 0.85 flows upwards at a volume rate
of flow of 60 liter/sec through a vertical venturimeter with an inlet
diameter of 200 mm and a throat diameter of 100mm. The coefficient
of discharge of the venturimeter is 0.98. The vertical distance
between the pressure tapings is 300mm.
1. If two pressure gauges are connected at the tapings such that
they are positioned at the levels of their corresponding taping
points, determine the difference of readings in N/cm2 of the two
pressure gauges.
2. If a mercury differential manometer is connected in place of
pressure gauge to the tapings such that the connecting tube
upto mercury are filled with oil, determine the level of the
mercury column.

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