SUBJECTS AND VERBS

Book 4 of the MASTERING ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Series
David Moeller

Copyright © David Moeller, 2021

All rights reserved.

CONTENTS
General Introduction: Mastering English Grammar
Introduction to Book 4: Subjects and Verbs
Lesson 1: Subjects and Predicates
Lesson 2: Sentences Contain Subjects and Verbs
Lesson 3: Complete Subjects Vs. Simple Subjects
Lesson 4: Eliminating Prepositional Phrases
Lesson 5: Eliminating Relative Clauses
Lesson 6: Verbs Vs. Predicates
Lesson 7: Main Verbs and Helping Verbs
Lesson 8: Subjects and Verbs: The Foundations of Sentences
Lesson 9: Active Vs. Passive Verbs
Lesson 10: Compound Subjects and Compound Verbs
Lesson 11: Verbs Before Subjects
Lesson 12: Subjects and Verbs in Commands and Questions
Lesson 13: Mixed Practice
Lesson 14: Subject-Verb Agreement, Part 1
Lesson 15: Subject-Verb Agreement, Part 2
Lesson 16: Sentence Fragments
Lesson 17: Run-On Sentences
Lesson 18: Exception #1—Intentional Fragments
Lesson 19: Exception #2—Sentences in a Series
Subjects and Verbs Glossary of Terms
Test Questions
Test Part 1
Test Part 2
 Test Part 3
Test Part 4
Test Part 5
Test Part 6
Test Part 7
Test Part 8
Titles in the Mastering English Grammar Series
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION:
MASTERING ENGLISH GRAMMAR
The nine titles in the Mastering English Grammar series can be subdivided
into three books on the parts of speech, three on sentence structure, and three
on punctuation:
Parts of Speech
Book 1: Nouns and Adjectives
Book 2: Verbs and Adverbs
Book 3: Pronouns, Prepositions, and Conjunctions
Sentence Structure
Book 4: Subjects and Verbs
Book 5: Compound Sentences
Book 6: Complex Sentences
Punctuation
Book 7: Commas
Book 8: Semicolons and Colons
Book 9: Parentheses, Brackets, Dashes, Ellipses, Italics, and Hyphens
What sets this series apart from other grammar books is that instead of trying
to include all that can be said on the topic of grammar (the data-dump
approach), it focuses on those concepts that promise a higher return on
investment (ROI). In other words, as much as possible, the books in this
series aim to translate the study of grammar into more competent reading and
writing.
The term generative refers to a study of grammar or rhetoric that helps us
achieve in writing what we wouldn’t have been able to achieve otherwise.
Generative grammar is grammar at its most practical—it’s grammar we can
use. Such generative material has been sprinkled throughout the pages of the
books in this series.
The nine books in this series constitute a writer’s grammar. The Mastering
that appears in the series title is not a reference to earning high scores on
grammar quizzes; instead, it refers to increasing our ability to understand the
texts of others and to formulate words, phrases, and clauses while writing.
Ultimately, we will want to use the knowledge we gain to generate more
complex structures as we write.
All nine books in this series contain exercises (called Your Turn), a book-
ending Test Questions section, and answers to all exercise and test questions.
Ultimately, the aim of each title is to equip you with some knowledge and
some practical skills to add to your arsenal of writing strategies.
E-Book Vs. Print
Because the nine titles in the series contain exercises and test questions, a
discussion of the difference between an e-book and a print book is really a
discussion of writing out answers vs. working out answers in our heads. The
e-books in this series are designed to accommodate the limitations of e-
readers. For example, to reduce scrolling, answers follow immediately upon
the heels of questions. When access to reference material—like word lists, for
example—is necessary, that material will reappear in those places where it is
needed.
Print versions, on the other hand, leave room for writing out answers or
marking up text. And in the print versions, the answers are in the back of the
book.
 INTRODUCTION TO BOOK 4:
SUBJECTS AND VERBS
Welcome to Book 4: Subjects and Verbs, a book that teaches how sentences
rest upon subjects and verbs, the foundational building blocks on which
sentences are constructed.
A sentence is a word group that contains a subject and a verb and can stand
alone. Because subjects and verbs are the determining factors in deciding
which word groups are sentences and which are not, the skill of determining
subjects and verbs is emphasized throughout this e-book.
We will learn a variety of subject-verb identification skills, including how to
eliminate the words and phrases that interfere with our ability to recognize
subjects and verbs. Most subjects and verbs are of the first-a-subject-then-a-
verb variety, but we will also study compound subjects, compound verbs, and
sentence structures in which subjects and verbs appear out of their usual
order. We will study those areas where our knowledge of subjects and verbs
helps us to avoid writing errors—errors such as run-on sentences, sentence
fragments, and subject-verb agreement errors. This chapter concludes with
some practice in adding some flair to your sentence style through the use of
intentional fragments and sentences in a series.
Key terms are boldfaced; boldfaced terms reappear in the Glossary of Terms.
Whenever you feel that a definition of a key term would be helpful, you can
always navigate to the Glossary.

Apply Your Learning

There will be much to learn in the pages ahead. But this book will not be
truly beneficial unless it translates into more skillful reading and writing. So
in addition to studying the lessons in this book, try to notice when the
teachings found in this book match the skills you encounter in the reading
you do elsewhere. And most importantly, start applying the sentence
structures described in the book. Each time you sit down to write, push
yourself by adorning your own writing with some of the patterns and devices
you will learn about in the following chapters.
 Lesson 1: Subjects and Predicates
A basic English sentence requires an action and a performer of that action.
We call the action portion of a sentence the predicate; we call the performer
portion of a sentence the subject. Most commonly, subjects appear to the left
of predicates.
We can divide a sentence into its subject and predicate with a slash (/), like
this:
subject / predicate
The subject will likely be a who or what; the predicate will likely tell us what
the who or what does.
Examples:
A girl / flings her hair down. (Who? A girl. Does what? Flings her hair
down.)
The whole world / fits into seventeen syllables. (What? The whole world.
Does what? Fits into seventeen syllables.)
YOUR TURN 1
Note: This being an e-book, the Your Turn exercises are intended to be done
mentally. Answers to the Your Turn exercises follow the exercises.
For each of the following, identify where the subject ends and the predicate
begins. In other words, where would you place a slash?
example: A girl flings her hair down.
answer: girl / flings
1. The kids get candy.
2. The nosy neighbors moved into the empty houses.
3. The Persian astronomer began walking toward the hills.
4. Pure water spills from the cup of the daisy.
5. Grandfather carried his voice in the wrinkled palm of his right hand.
ANSWERS 1
1. The kids / get candy.
2. The nosy neighbors / moved into the empty houses.
3. The Persian astronomer / began walking toward the hills.
4. Pure water / spills from the cup of the daisy.
5. Grandfather / carried his voice in the wrinkled palm of his right hand.
 Lesson 2: Sentences Contain
Subjects and Verbs
When we look at subjects and predicates—as we did in Lesson 1—we are
accounting for every word in a sentence. We can think of subject-predicate as
one lens for looking at sentence structure. Another such lens is the lens of
subject-verb. With subject-verb, we are no longer accounting for every word
in a sentence; instead, we are focusing on the key, foundational words only.
DEFINITION: What is a sentence? A group of words containing a subject
and a verb.
The subject and verb are the most important words in a sentence. They give
any sentence an excuse for existing, and they are the life-support system for
all the other words in a sentence. In a hypothetical 100-word sentence with a
one-word subject and a one-word verb, the other 98 words exist only because
the subject and verb authorize their existence. Remove either the subject or
verb, and the entire 100-word structure comes crashing down.
To name the foundational subject and verb within any sentence, we’ll use the
term base sentence:
base sentence = subject + verb
TYPEFACE CONVENTION: Throughout this e-book, subjects are
underlined and verbs are boldfaced, as seen below with Zeus roared.
Example:
His robes flowing behind him, Zeus, who had just given birth to Athena,
roared, hurling the Titans down into the Underworld.
In the sentence above, Zeus is the subject and roared is the verb. In addition
to the one-word subject and the one-word verb, this sentence contains three
other groups of words:
his robes flowing behind him
who had just given birth to Athena
hurling the Titans down into the Underworld
By themselves, each of these word groups is a fragment and cannot stand
alone. However, when attached to a base sentence like Zeus roared, these
fragments are allowed to exist as part of a larger sentence.
YOUR TURN 2
Each of the following sentences contains some stylish phrases, yet each is
built upon the foundation of a one-word subject and a one-word verb. For
each, single underline the one-word subject and double underline the one-
word verb. All answers will consist of two words only.
example: A young soldier stands on battle-pocked land with his helmet at a
jaunty tilt.
base sentence: soldier stands
1. Huddling together for warmth, we sat, troubled by noises that came from
outside.
2. She stared, watching the traffic, thinking about her boyfriend.
3. Her face angry, her mouth twitching in disgust, Molly gestured.
ANSWERS 2
1. Huddling together for warmth, we sat, troubled by noises that came from
outside. [base sentence: we sat]
2. She stared, watching the traffic, thinking about her boyfriend. [base
sentence: she stared]
3. Her face angry, her mouth twitching in disgust, Molly gestured. [base
sentence: Molly gestured]
FYI: Note on Predicates and Objects
The sentence Hank hit the ball can be seen as a two-part sentence or a three-
part sentence. As a two-part sentence, the sentence contains a subject and a
predicate:
subject: Hank
predicate: hit the ball
As a three-part sentence, Hank hit the ball contains a subject, a verb, and an
object:
subject: Hank
verb: hit
object: the ball
This e-book has a specific focus, and that focus is subjects and verbs. As a
result, little attention will be paid to those words over to the right of the verb.
We are looking carefully at words that appear on the left side of sentences
because many of those words interfere with our ability to identify subjects,
but the words that appear to the right of verbs don’t interfere with our ability
to identify verbs and, for that reason, we will pay little attention to them.
 Lesson 3: Complete Subjects Vs.
Simple Subjects
Here are two sentences we looked at earlier:
A girl flings her hair down.
The whole world fits into seventeen syllables.
By placing slash marks to the right of girl and world, we identify a girl and
the whole world as the subjects of those sentences. Now let’s fine-tune our
understanding of subject.
Each of the two sentences above contains both a complete subject and a
simple subject. The simple subject is hidden within the larger complete
subject. The complete subject consists of all the words to the left of the slash
mark; the simple subject will usually consist of a one-word noun or a
pronoun.
Though a simple subject will usually be one word long, there are a few
exceptions—like a person’s name, for example. The two words John Doe can
serve as a simple subject because we cannot reduce the two words to
anything less.
A girl / flings her hair down. (In this sentence, a girl is the complete
subject, but girl is the simple subject.)
The whole world / fits into seventeen syllables. (In this sentence, the
whole world is the complete subject, but world is the simple subject.)
Many of the words within a complete subject cannot contend for the position
of simple subject. Eliminating these words from contention makes the job of
identifying simple subjects that much easier.
We’ll begin by eliminating articles (a, an, and the) and adjectives. In the
complete subject a girl we can eliminate the article a; in the complete subject
the whole world, we can eliminate the article the and the adjective whole:
a girl
the whole world
Definition: A noun phrase is a group of words that functions as a noun.
In many cases, a complete subject is a noun phrase, and vice versa. Both of
our complete subjects from above also happen to be noun phrases. Note that,
in most cases, the right-hand word in a noun phrase is the simple subject.
(a girl)
(the whole world)
When relevant, we will enclose noun phases within parentheses—a shortcut
that says the word to the right is your simple subject.
YOUR TURN 3
In this lesson, we learned that:
Simple subjects can be found within complete subjects.
When identifying simple subjects, we can eliminate articles and adjectives
from contention.
Within a noun phrase that serves as the complete subject, the right-hand
word is usually the simple subject.
For each of the following, answer the questions that accompany each of the
sentences. Each simple subject is a one-word subject.
example: (The nosy neighbors) / moved into the empty houses.
questions and answers:
What is the complete subject? the nosy neighbors
What article can be eliminated? the (We are searching within the complete
subject only.)
What adjective can be eliminated? nosy
What is the one-word simple subject that is the right-hand word of the
complete subject? neighbors
1. The kids get candy.
What is the complete subject?
What article can be eliminated?
What is the one-word simple subject that is the right-hand word of the
complete subject?
2. The Persian astronomer began walking toward the hills.
What is the complete subject?
What article can be eliminated?
What adjective can be eliminated?
What is the one-word simple subject that is the right-hand word of the
complete subject?
3. Pure water spills from the cup of the daisy.
 What is the complete subject?
What adjective can be eliminated?
What is the one-word simple subject that is the right-hand word of the
complete subject?
4. Grandfather carried his voice in the wrinkled palm of his right hand.
What is the complete subject?
What is the simple subject?
ANSWERS 3
1. (The kids) get candy.
What is the complete subject? the kids
What article can be eliminated? the
What is the one-word simple subject that is the right-hand word of the
complete subject? kids
2. (The Persian astronomer) began walking toward the hills.
What is the complete subject? the Persian astronomer
What article can be eliminated? the
What adjective can be eliminated? Persian
What is the one-word simple subject that is the right-hand word of the
complete subject? astronomer
3. (Pure water) spills from the cup of the daisy.
What is the complete subject? pure water
What adjective can be eliminated? pure
What is the one-word simple subject that is the right-hand word of the
complete subject? water
4. (Grandfather) carried his voice in the wrinkled palm of his right hand.
What is the complete subject? Grandfather
What is the simple subject? Grandfather (This is a gotcha question. With
a one-word subject, the simple subject and the complete subject are the
same.)
Lesson 4: Eliminating Prepositional
Phrases
In the previous Your Turn, we encountered such complete subjects as pure
water and the Persian astronomer. Each of these word groups is, in fact, a
noun phrase. A noun phrase is a word group that functions as if it were a
single-word noun. The Persian astronomer, for example, is a three-word
noun phrase; the three words work together to name one single entity.
We learned that, in most cases, if we want to identify the simple subject from
within a complete subject (or noun phrase), we simply find the noun (or
pronoun) to the right. There are, however, some exceptions to this strategy.
One such exception can be found in this sentence:
Engines of war / move toward certain houses.
In this sentence, engines of war is a noun phrase, but within that noun phrase
is the two-word prepositional phrase of war. Applying the noun-to-the-right
trick would lead us into incorrectly identifying war as the simple subject. To
avoid this error, we will eliminate all prepositional phrases—no subjects will
be found within them.
Engines of war / move toward certain houses.
With the prepositional phrase eliminated, the only word remaining is the
simple subject engines:
Engines of war / move toward certain houses.
Rule: Simple subjects may be found within noun phrases, but they will not be
found within other types of phrases. So in our quest to identify simple
subjects, we can eliminate any phrase that isn’t a noun phrase.
Our next step, then, is to learn to identify prepositional phrases. Prepositional
phrases begin with prepositions and end with nouns or pronouns. (The
phrase-ending noun is known as the object of the preposition.) Prepositional
phrases are easy to identify when we have access to a list of common
prepositions, like this one:
 ABOVE, ACROSS, AGAINST, AROUND, AT, BEFORE, BEHIND, BELOW, BETWEEN, BY, DOWN,
EXCEPT, FOR, FROM, IN, INTO, LIKE, OF, ON, PAST, SINCE, TO, UNDER, UNTIL, WITH.

TYPEFACE CONVENTION: In the pages ahead, we will encounter many

different types of phrases and clauses. Many of those phrases and clauses can
be identified by their first word. When this is the case—as it is with
prepositional phrases—those key starter words will be set in small caps.
YOUR TURN 4
For each of the following sentences, identify the simple subject by following
these three steps:
(A) Determine where the complete subject ends and the predicate begins.
(Where would you place a slash mark?)
(B) Cross out (mentally eliminate) any prepositional phrases appearing
within the complete subject (to the left of your imaginary slash mark).
(C) The remaining word is the simple subject of the sentence.
example: Workers IN a manhole / imagine themselves working at other
professions.
answer:
(A) Workers IN a manhole / imagine themselves working at other professions.
(B) IN a manhole
(C) workers
In the four sentences that follow, one prepositional phrase is two words long;
one is three words long; two are four words long. Remember, prepositional
phrases begin with prepositions. To help reduce the need to scroll up, the
list of prepositions reappears here:
ABOVE, ACROSS, AGAINST, AROUND, AT, BEFORE, BEHIND, BELOW, BETWEEN, BY, DOWN,
EXCEPT, FOR, FROM, IN, INTO, LIKE, OF, ON, PAST, SINCE, TO, UNDER, UNTIL, WITH

1. Explorers in the jungle stalk a rare green deer.

2. Trees on the cypress mountain blend into the autumn evening.
3. Reapers with scythes spend the afternoon sharpening their blades.
4. Writers of well-written sonnets fill their first eight lines with a single
meaning.
ANSWERS 4
1. Explorers IN the jungle / stalk a rare green deer.
2. Trees ON the cypress mountain / blend into the autumn evening.
3. Reapers WITH scythes / spend the afternoon sharpening their blades.
4. Writers OF well-written sonnets / fill their first eight lines with a single
meaning.
 Lesson 5: Eliminating Relative
Clauses
So far, we have learned to cross out—or mentally eliminate—articles,
adjectives, and prepositional phrases. As we strip away the words that cannot
function as the simple subject of a sentence, our goal of determining the
simple subject of a sentence becomes that much easier.
In this lesson we’ll learn to eliminate a fourth non-contender—relative
clauses.
Relative clauses begin with relative pronouns: who, that, which, whom, and
whose.
Example:
Anyone WHO falls in love / knows the movement of time.
In this example, anyone WHO falls in love is the complete subject. By
eliminating the relative clause WHO falls in love, we arrive at our simple
subject: anyone. Note that we are eliminating not just the single relative
pronoun WHO, but the entire relative clause WHO falls in love.
Anyone WHO falls in love / knows the movement of time.
People (Who) Vs. Things (That and Which)
anyone WHO falls in love
The relative pronoun who will follow subjects that name people, as we see in
the example above. (The subject anyone is a word that refers to people.)
For things, however, we use the relative pronouns that and which.
The object THAT sits in the center of the circle resembles a silver tear.
The coffee, WHICH may have been brewed yesterday, was bitter.
In these two examples, the relative pronoun that follows the thing object, and
the relative pronoun which follows the thing coffee.
Once again, we eliminate the relative clauses as possible locations of our
sentence’s subject:
The object resembles a silver tear.
The coffee was bitter.
Because which-clauses are already separated from the subject by a comma,
the following Your Turn will contain examples of who- and that-clauses
only.
YOUR TURN 5
For each of the following sentences, identify the simple subject by following
these three steps:
(A) Determine where the complete subject ends and the predicate begins.
(Where would you place a slash mark?)
(B) Cross out (mentally eliminate) any articles (a, an, and the) and relative
clauses appearing within the complete subject to the left of your imaginary
slash mark.
(C) The remaining word is the simple subject of the sentence.
example: The journey THAT goes against the prevailing current / requires
more preparation.
answer:
(A) The journey THAT goes against the prevailing current / requires more
preparation.
(B) The; THAT goes against the prevailing current
(C) journey
1. A man who sees an empty street stumbles in his attempt to rise.
2. The trout that swim in the center of the river keep themselves safe.
3. The boys who respect the mysterious leader bow their heads to their
chests.
4. An eye that looked upon him blinked in warning.
ANSWERS 5
1. A man WHO sees an empty street / stumbles in his attempt to rise.
2. The trout THAT swim in the center of the river / keep themselves safe.
3. The boys WHO respect the mysterious leader / bow their heads to their
chests.
4. An eye THAT looked upon him / blinked in warning.
 Lesson 6: Verbs Vs. Predicates
We have seen that there are two ways of looking at subjects. We can focus on
larger word groups, in which case we are looking at complete subjects; or we
can focus on smaller, more essential word groups, in which case we are
looking at simple subjects.
This same principle of focusing on larger or smaller word groups also applies
to verbs. We’ve already met the larger word groups; these are the words over
to the right side of our slash marks, and we call these predicates. But lurking
within each predicate is a smaller word group (as short as a single word)
known as the verb of the sentence.
As we read prose, the sentence pattern we encounter more than any other
pattern looks like this:
Complete subject with a simple subject within it / predicate with a verb
within it.
Here are two sentences:
A girl / flings her hair down.
The baby / crawls along the sidewalk.
In the first example, the predicate is flings her hair down, but the verb is
flings. In the second example, the predicate is crawls along the sidewalk, but
the verb is crawls. In each case, note how the single word is nested within the
larger word group.
Verbs take tense; for example, a verb can be in the past or in the present
tense. Because verbs take tense, we will test for verbs using this test sentence:
Today I BLANK; yesterday I BLANKED.
Let’s try this test sentence with the verb crawl:
Today I crawl; yesterday I crawled.
This test sentence does do a good job of testing for verbs, but it does an even
better job of determining which words are not verbs. Let’s test each word in
crawls along the sidewalk for its verb-ness. If the word is not a verb, placing
it in the test sentence will create nonsense.
 Today I crawl; yesterday I crawled. —good
Today I along; yesterday I alonged. —nonsense
Today I the; yesterday I the-ed. — nonsense
Today I sidewalk; yesterday I sidewalked. — nonsense
As a rule, main verbs consist of one single word. However, phrasal verbs
are exceptions to this rule. Phrasal verbs consist of a verb plus a preposition.
Here are a few examples of phrasal verbs:
back up, calm down, cross out, hand over, throw away, try on, wash off.
YOUR TURN 6
For each, identify the verb. Use the test sentence to test for that word’s verb-
ness.
example: I pity the exile’s lot.
answer: Today I pity; yesterday I pitied.
1. A knife glimmered in the kitchen.
2. New lives require a death of some kind.
3. The light fills the world.
4. A poetry of bodies trickled from the deepest fountain.
ANSWERS 6
1. A knife glimmered in the kitchen. [Today I glimmer; yesterday I
glimmered.]
2. New lives require a death of some kind. [Today I require; yesterday I
required.]
3. The light fills the world. [Today I fill; yesterday I filled.]
4. A poetry of bodies trickled from the deepest fountain. [Today I trickle;
yesterday I trickled.]
 Lesson 7: Main Verbs and Helping
Verbs
In Lesson 6, we learned that verbs take tense and, because verbs take tense,
we can test for verbs using this test sentence: Today I BLANK; yesterday I
BLANKED.

In reality, that test sentence tests for main verbs. But in addition to
determining those words that qualify as main verbs, we also want to
determine those words that qualify as helping verbs.
Determining which words are helping verbs is actually quite simple: we
simply need to ask “Is it on the list?” Here is the list of 23 helping verbs:
is, am, are, was, were
be, being, been
has, have, had
do, does, did
may, might, must
can, could
shall, should
will, would
By adding one or more helping verbs to a main verb, we create what is
known as a verb phrase.
A main verb + one or more helping verbs = a verb phrase.
When our main verb is a one-word main verb, the longest verb phrase we can
create is a verb phrase of four words. However, whether our verbs are one-,
two-, three-, or four-words long, we will simply refer to them as verbs.
Example:
Not every song / should drift past every ear and heart.
(Note that our focus is now to the right of the slash mark.)
First we identify our main verb: drift. Does it take tense? Today I drift;
yesterday I drifted. Yes, it takes tense; it’s the main verb in the sentence.
Then we move to the left: should. Is it on the list? Yes, it’s on the list. It’s a
helping verb.
What is the verb in this sentence? Answer: should drift.
Another example:
These golden bees / may have been making sweet honey for the past five
years or longer.
First let’s identify our main verb: making. Does it take tense? Today I make;
yesterday I made. Yes, it takes tense; it’s the main verb in the sentence.
Then we move to the left: been. Is it on the list? Yes, it’s on the list. It’s a
helping verb.
Continue to the left: have. Is it on the list? Yes, it’s on the list. It’s a helping
verb.
Continue to the left: may. Is it on the list? Yes, it’s on the list. It’s a helping
verb.
What is the verb in this sentence? Answer: may have been making.
YOUR TURN 7
Using the tests for main verbs and helping verbs described in the lesson
above, identify the verb in each of the following sentences. Two of the verbs
are two words long and two of the verbs are three words long.
example: The eye-balls were seared with a milky mucus.
answer: were seared [Today I sear; yesterday I seared; “were” is on the
list.]
The list of 23 helping verbs:
is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been, has, have, had, do, does, did, may,
might, must, can, could, shall, should, will, would
1. A tree’s name should reveal its nature.
2. He may be dangling a head by its hair.
3. They’re curling on the pavement. (They’re is a contraction. We must
unpack the contraction into the two words they are.)
4. More than one shaky answer has been given to this question.
ANSWERS 7
1. A tree’s name / should reveal its nature. [Today I reveal; yesterday I
revealed; “should” is on the list.]
2. He / may be dangling a head by its hair. [Today I dangle; yesterday I
dangled; “be” is on the list; “may” is on the list.]
3. They / ’re curling on the pavement. [Today I curl; yesterday I curled;
“are” is on the list.]
4. More than one shaky answer / has been given to this question. [Today I
give; yesterday I gave; “been” is on the list; “has” is on the list.]
In each case, the main verb sits to the right of the helping verbs.
 Lesson 8: Subjects and Verbs: The
Foundations of Sentences
Review: We began by looking at sentences as complete subjects plus
predicates, and we indicated where complete subjects end and predicates
begin by placing a slash mark between them. Then we began reducing
complete subjects and predicates to simple subjects and verbs. It’s the
subjects and verbs—not the complete subjects and predicates—that serve as a
sentence’s essential, foundational words. In fact, to identify a sentence’s
subject and verb is to identify the base sentence upon which that sentence is
built.
We learned that, with subjects, we often need to delete words or word groups
to arrive at the one-word subject. We learned that verbs are one-, two-, three-,
or four-words long, and that we can use the Does it take tense? test to test for
main verbs and the Is it on the list? test to test for helping verbs.
Now let’s put all our learning together.
Example:
The hands of a plasterer are holding a room together.
With this sentence, we begin by placing a slash between the complete subject
and the predicate. To the left of the slash, we eliminate the article the and the
prepositional phrase of a plasterer, leaving only the simple subject: hands. To
the right of the slash, we apply the verb tests and discover that holding is the
main verb and are is a helping verb.
The hands of a plasterer / are holding a room together.
What is the subject-verb (base sentence) of this sentence? Hands are holding.
Ultimately, the words hands are holding are the key, foundational words that
make this sentence a sentence.
Another example:
This new self that we have created does not trample the living.
Once again, we begin by placing a slash between the complete subject and
the predicate. To the left of the slash, we eliminate the relative clause that we
have created. We identify a three-word noun phrase this new self and know
that self—the word to the right—is our simple subject. Using the verb tests to
the right of the slash, we identify does trample as the verb. (Note that the
adverb not fails both verb tests.)
(This new self) that we have created / does not trample the living.
What is the subject-verb (base sentence) of this sentence? Self does trample.
Ultimately, the words self does trample are the key, foundational words that
make this sentence a sentence.
YOUR TURN 8
Identify the base sentences (subjects and verbs) in the following sentences by
answering the questions that follow each numbered sentence.
1. The human beings who are truly alive will journey all about the globe.
Where do we place the slash?
What four-word relative clause do we eliminate?
In the remaining noun phrase, the word to the right is the simple subject.
What word is this?
Which word passes the test for main verb?
Moving to the left, which word passes the test for helping verb?
Ultimately, this sentence is built upon what three-word base sentence?
2. The last lion might be roaring his furious, golden protest.
Where do we place the slash?
In the complete subject, the word to the right is the simple subject. What
word is this?
Which word passes the test for main verb?
Moving to the left, which word passes the test for helping verb?
Moving to the left once again, which word passes the test for helping
verb?
Ultimately, this sentence is built upon what four-word base sentence?
3. The wounded heart in your chest will somehow be sustained by your
knowing the rightness of it all.
Where do we place the slash?
What three-word prepositional phrase do we eliminate?
In the remaining noun phrase, the word to the right is the simple subject.
What word is this?
Which word passes the test for main verb?
Moving to the left, which word passes the test for helping verb?
Moving to the left once again, which word does not pass the test for
helping verb?
Moving to the left once again, which word passes the test for helping
verb?
Ultimately, this sentence is built upon what four-word base sentence?
ANSWERS 8
1. (Those human beings) who are truly alive / will journey all about the
globe. [base sentence: beings will journey]
2. (The last lion) / might be roaring his furious, golden protest. [base
sentence: lion might be roaring]
3. (The wounded heart) in your chest / will somehow be sustained by your
righteousness. [base sentence: heart will be sustained]
 Lesson 9: Active Vs. Passive Verbs
Study these two sentences:
active sentence: Alfred Nobel established the Nobel prizes.
passive sentence: The Nobel Prizes were established by Alfred Nobel.
By studying these two sentences, we note the following:
Though the word order differs, these two sentences say the same thing.
The concepts active and passive have nothing to do with how much action
is occurring.
The passive sentence contains two extra words: (1) the helping verb were
and (2) the preposition by. [The Nobel Prizes were established by Alfred
Nobel.]
In addition, when we examine the subjects and verbs of the active and
passive sentences above, we notice a curious situation. In the active sentence,
the subject is performing the action of the verb. Alfred Nobel is doing the
establishing.
But in the passive sentence the performer of the verb has been kicked out of
the subject position and demoted to the end of the sentence. This is why
active sentences are often preferable to passive sentences.
active: Alfred Nobel established the Nobel prizes. [“Alfred Nobel” sits to
the left of the action he is performing.]
passive: The Nobel Prizes were established by Alfred Nobel. [“Alfred
Nobel” now sits to the right of the action he is performing.]
In the preceding lessons, we’ve already established the general principle that
subjects appear to the left of verbs. To that principle, let’s overlay another
principle: it is often preferable to place actors to the left of actions.
Study these two sentences:
active: The scythe startled the field rat.
passive: The field rat was startled by the scythe.
The action in these two sentences is the action of startling. The actor (the
person or thing performing the action) is the scythe—a long handle with a
sharp blade at the end. In the passive sentence, the field rat is not the actor.
The field rat is not startling anyone. In the active sentence, the scythe is the
actor. The active sentence correctly places the actor to the left of the action.
active: The scythe startled the field rat.
passive: The field rat was startled by the scythe. [Here, the scythe has
been demoted to the end position.]
In summary, active sentences are generally to be preferred because, unlike
passive sentences, active sentences place actors to the left of actions.
Because active and passive sentences are flip-flopped versions of one
another, we can devise a simple method for converting passive sentences to
active:
First divide a passive sentence into three parts: a person or thing / an action /
a person or thing.
a cinder-block wall / is shared / by two houses
Eliminate the preposition by and the helping verb to the left of the main verb:
a cinder-block wall / is shared / by two houses
Ask the person or thing on the left to kindly trade places with the person or
thing on the right:
two houses / shared / a cinder-block wall
If necessary, fix the verb tense:
two houses / share / a cinder-block wall
And—voila!—we’ve converted a passive sentence to an active.
Two houses share a cinder-block wall.
YOUR TURN 9
Using the flip-flopping sequence described above, convert the following
passive sentences to active sentences.
1. The branches have been conquered by the weight of birds. [Keep have but
convert it to has.]
2. An announcement or two could be made by a child-ventriloquist.
3. A blue-bottomed saucer was toppled by the sky.
4. The harpoons are hurled by beings made in the image of Jehovah.
ANSWERS 9
1. The weight of birds has conquered the branches.
2. A child-ventriloquist could make an announcement or two.
3. The sky toppled a blue-bottomed saucer.
4. Beings made in the image of Jehovah hurl the harpoons.
Note that in all cases actors now sit to the left of the actions they perform.
Lesson 10: Compound Subjects and
Compound Verbs
Examples of compound subjects:
Our souls, our reason, our thumbs, and our speech / devoted themselves to
learning the truth.
Souls, reason, thumbs, and speech create the compound subject. Note that
the conjunction and is not part of the subject.
His gold chariots and courtiers / might be gone.
Chariots and courtiers create the compound subject.

Examples of compound verbs:

He / lived, died, and was resurrected many times.
Lived, died, and was resurrected create the compound verb.
She / rose one morning and discovered the truth and went to live in
America.
Rose, discovered, and went create the compound verb.
Note that verbs following the word to are infinitives. Though infinitives are
members of the verb family, they do not serve as the foundational verb in any
sentence. Therefore, we will eliminate all infinitives (to + a verb).
. . . went to live in America.

Examples of compound subjects and compound

verbs:
An army of mercenaries and (their paymasters) / will be approaching the
hut and knocking at the door.
Army and paymasters create the compound subject; will be approaching and
knocking create the compound verb.
Stanford or Crocker / stole our pensions and poured their smoke into our
 lungs.
Stanford and Crocker create the compound subject; stole and poured create
the compound verb.
Note that although and is the conjunction most often used in compounding,
other conjunctions can be used as well. Here, the conjunction or is used:
Stanford or Crocker.
YOUR TURN 10
Determine the subject-verb in each of the following. Use all the subject-verb
hunting tools described in the previous lessons, beginning with a slash
between the complete subject and the predicate. The number in parentheses is
the number of words in the base sentence (the subject-verb combination).
1. The pain of loss, the grief, and the despair ignite the transformation. (4)
2. An auto wreck invites the occult mind, cancels our physics with a sneer,
and spatters our clear conclusion across the expedient and wicked stones.
(4)
3. The egg of the wren and the singing toad favor the angels and adorn the
parlors of heaven. (4)
ANSWERS 10
1. The pain of loss, the grief, and the despair / ignite the transformation.
[base sentence: pain, grief, despair ignite]
2. (An auto wreck) / invites the occult mind, cancels our physics with a
sneer, and spatters our clear conclusion across the expedient and wicked
stones. [base sentence: wreck invites, cancels, spatters]
3. The egg of the wren and (the singing toad) / favor the angels and adorn
the parlors of heaven. [base sentence: egg, toad favor, adorn]
 Lesson 11: Verbs Before Subjects
As a general rule, subjects appear to the left of verbs—as has been the case
with the sentences we’ve looked at so far. However, there are a few sentence
patterns that reverse this customary order by shifting their verbs to the left of
their subjects.
The following sentences are paired sentences. Each pair consists of a
straightforward sentence pattern and the flip-flopped version of that same
sentence pattern. In the flip-flopped version, verbs will appear before
subjects.
Note also the similarity between the sentences below and the active-passive
flip-flopping we did in Lesson 9. In both cases, the verb remains fixed to the
center, while the words and word groups from each side of the verb trade
places.
subject-verb-prepositional phrase: The starling leaned upon his western
wing.
prepositional phrase-verb-subject: Upon his western wing leaned the
starling.
subject-verb-predicate adjective: The trousers appeared baggy in the
waist and legs. (The word baggy is the predicate adjective: baggy
describes the noun trousers.)
predicate adjective-verb-subject: Baggy in the waist and legs appeared
the trousers.
subject-verb-predicate nominative: We were a dozen boys and girls.
(Nominative means noun. A dozen boys and girls is a noun phrase that
renames or is the equivalent of the subject we.)
predicate nominative-verb-subject: A dozen boys and girls were we.
Another sentence pattern that places the verb before the subject is the
expletive construction. Expletives are sentences that begin with it, there, or
here, followed by a to be verb (is, am, are, was, were). The expletive word
(it, there, here) is like a placeholder word. Because expletives are not the
subjects of sentences, we will eliminate them.
it expletive: It is a flash from some other domain.
The subject-verb is flash is.
there expletive: There was (a sudden break) in the subject matter.
The subject-verb is break was.
here expletive: Here are (ten thousand fruit) to touch.
The subject-verb is fruit are.
YOUR TURN 11
For each of the following, cross out (mentally eliminate) prepositional
phrases, articles, and expletive words. Then identify the subject-verb of the
sentence. In each sentence, the subject will be found to the right of the verb.
1. Into the cellar bin rolled the load of apples.
2. Victims of his fits of pride were they.
3. Watchful like a mother hen appeared the musician.
4. There was the sound of my long scythe.
5. It is a reminder to remain in the truth.
ANSWERS 11
1. Into the cellar bin rolled (the load of apples).
base sentence: load rolled
2. Victims of his fits of pride were they. [“Victims” is a predicate
nominative renaming the subject “they.”]
base sentence: they were
3. Watchful like a mother hen appeared (the musician). [“Watchful” is a
predicate adjective describing the subject “musician.”]
base sentence: musician appeared
4. There was (the sound of my long scythe). [The expletive “there” is
eliminated.]
base sentence: sound was
5. It is (a reminder to remain in the truth). [The expletive “it” is eliminated,
as is the infinitive phrase “to remain in the truth.”]
base sentence: reminder is
Note that when we raise our word and phrase elimination to a more
aggressive pitch, we leave little else behind but the subject and verb we are
hunting for.
 Lesson 12: Subjects and Verbs in
Commands and Questions
Simple sentences can be categorized as one of the following:
Declarative sentences are standard, statement-making sentences. Most
sentences are declarative.
Exclamatory sentences show strong emotion.
Imperative sentences issue a command.
Interrogative sentences ask questions.
So far, the sentences we’ve been studying have been declarative. Declarative
sentences are created from standard subjects and verbs with the subject
(usually) to the left of the verb. However, both imperative sentences and
interrogative sentences deviate from the standard subject-verb pattern found
in declarative sentences.

Subjects and Verbs in Imperative Sentences

A sentence is a sentence because it contains a subject and a verb. However,
there is an exception to that rule, and that exception is found in imperative
sentences—sentences that issue commands.
Examples:
Ask the questions that have no answers.
Sing. (Normally, the shortest complete sentence is a two-word sentence;
but in the case of commands, one single word can be considered a
complete sentence.)
In the first example, the person being spoken to is being told (commanded) to
ask a certain type of question. In the second example, the person being
spoken to is being told to sing.
If we were giving a command, we would likely be giving that command to
someone who knows that he or she is being spoken to. If we were to address
that person, we could refer to that person as you. Therefore, the assumed
subject in imperative sentences (commands) is you, which we place inside
parentheses and add to the sentence. Yes, we cheat by adding an assumed
subject that isn’t really there.
(You) Ask the questions that have no answers.

Subjects and Verbs in Interrogative Sentences

A common method of creating interrogative sentences (questions) is to move
the subject from the left side of a helping verb to the right side of the helping
verb.
Examples:
declarative: Thad has been sleeping all day.
interrogative: Has Thad been sleeping all day?
The subject “Thad” moves to the right of the helping verb “had.”
declarative: We are spies in the land of the living.
interrogative: Are we spies in the land of the living?
The subject “we” moves to the right of the helping verb “are.”
YOUR TURN 12
For each the following, first determine whether the sentence is imperative or
interrogative (a command or a question). Then identify subjects and verbs.
For imperative sentences, the (You) subject must be supplied.
1. Are you reliving the past?
2. Mend my life.
3. Love someone who doesn’t deserve it.
4. Did they wear uniforms the color of a shriveled crab?
ANSWERS 12
1. Are you reliving the past? [base sentence: you are reliving]
2. (You) Mend my life. [base sentence: you mend]
3. (You) Love someone who doesn’t deserve it. [base sentence: you love]
4. Did they wear uniforms the color of a shriveled crab? [base sentence:
they did wear]
 Lesson 13: Mixed Practice
Review: Sentences are built on foundations, and those foundations are
subjects and verbs. Within each larger sentence lies a base sentence,
consisting of subjects and verbs only.
We have looked at sentences through two different lenses: the complete
subject/predicate lens and the simple subject/verb lens. We have practiced
identifying subjects and verbs in sentences. We have learned to eliminate
various words and word groups to simplify our task of identifying subjects
and verbs. And we have examined various sentence patterns that do not fit
the conventional subject-then-verb pattern.
This exercise will provide us an opportunity to show what we’ve learned.
YOUR TURN 13
For each of the following, identify the base sentence. The base sentence
consists of nothing but the simple subject and the verb.
example: See who will answer!
answer: base sentence: you see
example: Maru Mori has been bringing me pairs of socks.
answer: base sentence: Maru Mori has been bringing
example: Are you lying down under the weight of humbleness?
answer: base sentence: you are lying
The number of words in the base sentence appears in parentheses.
1. On Lenox swayed the jazzman. (2)
2. Danger and darkness may accompany us on our pilgrimage. (4)
3. A youth who was wearing a red cap leaped to her side and snatched the
bandage. (3)
4. The lashes had been dissolved by the oozy eyelids. (4)
5. A swallow shouldn’t spend all its time singing. (Unpack the contraction.)
(3)
6. A brisk breeze might have been covering all in darkness. (5)
7. Your howls of bewilderment will echo with the mountain winds. (3)
8. The drums, the traps, the banjoes, the horns, and the tin cans can make two
people fight on the top of a stairway and scratch each other’s eyes in a
clinch on the stairs. (8)
9. Stones have stood for a thousand years and have found the honey of peace
in old poems. (5)
10. Give me a chainless soul with courage to endure. (2)
11. The dark cloud on the ends of your wings soars toward us. (2)
12. Did your father beg for mercy in the kitchen? (3)
ANSWERS 13
1. On Lenox swayed (the jazzman). [base sentence: jazzman swayed]
2. Danger and darkness may accompany us on our pilgrimage. [base
sentence: danger, darkness may accompany]
3. (A youth who was wearing a red cap) leaped to her side and snatched the
bandage. [base sentence: youth leaped, snatched]
4. (The lashes) had been dissolved by the oozy eyelids. [base sentence:
lashes had been dissolved]
5. (A swallow) shouldn’t spend all its time singing. [base sentence: swallow
should spend]
6. (A brisk breeze) might have been covering all in darkness. [base
sentence: breeze might have been covering]
7. (Your howls of bewilderment) will echo with the mountain winds. [base
sentence: howls will echo]
8. (The drums), (the traps), (the banjoes), (the horns), and (the tin cans) can
make two people fight on the top of a stairway and scratch each other’s
eyes in a clinch on the stairs. [base sentence drums, traps, banjoes, horns,
cans can make, scratch]
9. Stones have stood for a thousand years and have found the honey of
peace in old poems. [base sentence: stones have stood, have found]
10. (You) Give me a chainless soul with courage to endure. [base
sentence: you give]
11. (The dark cloud on the ends of your wings) soars toward us. [base
sentence: cloud soars]
12. Did (your father) beg for mercy in the kitchen? [base sentence: father
did beg]
 Lesson 14: Subject-Verb
Agreement, Part 1
Subjects must agree with verbs in two ways:
1. In person: The first-person subject I agrees with the verb speak; the third-
person subject she agrees with the verb speaks. [I speak; she speaks]
2. In number: The singular subject she agrees with the verb speaks; the
plural subject they agrees with the verb speak. [she speaks; they speak]
If a writer were to make an agreement error, that error would more likely be
an error of number rather than an error of person. For that reason, our study
of subject-verb agreement will focus on issues of number.
When we refer to a subject’s number, we are simply referring to the fact that
subjects are singular or plural. Door, hut, and rock are singular; doors, huts,
and rocks are plural.
As for verbs, they are not inherently singular or plural; however, they can be
classified as singular or plural based on which subjects they agree with.
Singular verbs agree with singular subjects; plural verbs agree with plural
subjects.
Study these examples:
The rainbow shows our journey’s end.
The rainbows show our journey’s end.
By focusing on the -s endings, we can formulate a rule: with singular
agreement (in most cases), the -s attaches to the verb; with plural agreement,
the -s attaches to the subject.
The rainbow shows our journey’s end. [“Rainbow” is singular; the “-s”
attaches to the verb “shows.”]
The rainbows show our journey’s end. [“Rainbows” is plural; the “-s”
attaches to the noun “rainbows.”]
Let’s now turn our attention to those sentence patterns that may cause errors
in agreement. The first type of agreement error we’ll turn our attention to is
the error that results from identifying the wrong subject.
Example:
A blue spurt from the lighted matches (illuminate, illuminates) the room.
In sentences like the one above, errors can result when our ear—our innate
sense of hearing what sounds right—deceives us. When we hear the noun
matches next to the verb illuminate, our ear hears agreement.
This is where our skill in identifying subjects comes into play.
(A blue spurt) from the lighted matches (illuminate, illuminates) the
room.
The agreement does not lie in matches illuminate, but in spurt illuminates.
But to make the proper subject-verb connection, we must first eliminate the
prepositional phrase from the lighted matches. By doing so, we eliminate the
noun matches as a potential subject.
YOUR TURN 14
Each of the following sentences is designed to lead your ear into fooling you
—as would have been the case above had you heard the agreement of
matches with illuminate. You, of course, will create correct agreement by
forcing your ear to hear the actual subject paired with the correct verb.
Use the subject-verb identification skills we have learned. In particular, be
certain to eliminate prepositional phrases and relative clauses that might
interfere with identifying the proper subject.
example: The chief of all the area’s tribes (refuse, refuses) to turn men into
wolves and swine.
answer: The chief of all the area’s tribes refuses to turn men into wolves and
swine.
1. The voice that fills your ears with soft sounds (keep, keeps) you company
on your journey.
2. The whistling sounds from the boat that sits deep within the harbor (call,
calls) like a lost child in tears.
3. The object in the center of the circle of men (resemble, resembles) a silver
tear, a tiny flame.
4. The hostages who must be rescued by the language of a poet (insist,
insists) on revealing their mysteries.
ANSWERS 14
1. (The voice) that fills your ears with soft sounds keeps you company on
your journey. [base sentence: voice keeps]
2. (The whistling sounds) from the boat that sits deep within the harbor call
like a lost child in tears. [base sentence: sounds call]
3. (The object in the center of the circle of men) resembles a silver tear, a
tiny flame. [base sentence: object resembles]
4. (The hostages who must be rescued by the language of a poet) insist on
revealing their mysteries. [base sentence: hostages insist]
 Lesson 15: Subject-Verb
Agreement, Part 2
In the previous lesson, we saw how eliminating certain phrases and clauses
helps us to properly identify the subject, which in turn helps us to select the
verb that agrees with the subject. Now we’ll look at two other situations that
lead to subject-verb agreement difficulties: compound subjects and there-
expletives.

Compound Subjects
Compound subjects are plural.
Example:
The missing oars and the overturned kayak (hint, hints) at foul play.
Like the sentences in Lesson 14, the sentence above is designed to lead our
language-detection ear into betraying us. Because the singular kayak appears
directly next to the verb hint, our ear might lead us into hearing kayak hints
as correct. But with compound subjects, we must remember that we treat
two subjects as plural:
The missing oars and the overturned kayak (hint, hints) at foul play.
When in doubt, mentally replace the compound subject with a phrase like
two things.
Two things hint.
There-Expletives
To avoid agreement errors in sentences beginning with there-expletives, we
must note the following:
1. There is not the subject of the sentence.
2. The actual subject will be found to the right of the verb.
Example:
There (is, are) many good games that are rule governed.
Again, the trick is to avoid being fooled by what we hear. In an expletive
construction, we might hear the words there and is as sounding correct. But
because there is not the subject of the sentence, we can eliminate it. Looking
further to the right, we discover the actual subject of the sentence—games.
Now our ear can hear games are as sounding correct.
There are (many good games that are rule-governed). [games are]
YOUR TURN 15
Once again, the following sentences (two containing compound subjects, two
containing there-expletives) are designed to fool your ear into hearing
subject-verb agreement errors as correct. For each, determine the subject and
the correct verb. Use all of the subject-verb identification skills we have
learned.
1. There (is, are) several salt shakers on the shelf.
2. The huts and the long journey (remain, remains) in my memory.
3. The twiggy bushes and the small dead tree (call, calls) for the approaching
spring.
4. There (is, are) too many voices in the room.
ANSWERS 15
1. There are (several salt shakers) on the shelf. [shakers are]
2. The huts and the long journey remain in my memory. [two things remain]
3. The twiggy bushes and the small dead tree call for the approaching spring.
[two things call]
4. There are (too many voices) in the room. [voices are]
 Lesson 16: Sentence Fragments
A complete sentence contains a subject and a verb. Anything less—like just a
subject or just a predicate, for example—is a sentence fragment.
One good way to understand the concept of fragment is to imagine a person
walking up to us, speaking, then walking away. If what that person speaks is
a fragment, our reaction would be to call that person back and have that
person finish what he or she was saying.
So imagine a person walking up and saying “the voices,” then walking away.
Or saying “were shouting their bad advice,” then walking away. Or saying
“though the voices around you were shouting their bad advice,” then walking
away.
In each case, we know that the speaker has not delivered a complete thought,
a complete sentence. And notice that we don’t need to run the speaker’s
words through some sort of internal grammar checker. Instead, we innately
understand when a word group is complete and when it is not.
An unintentional fragment is a serious error. It sends the message I’m not
really clear about what a sentence is—a message we want to avoid sending.
Our goal is to become aware of fragments and to avoid using those of the
unintentional variety in our writing.
There are two ways to fix a fragment:
add words
delete a word

Adding Words
fragment: Flings her hair down.
This word group is a predicate without a subject and, therefore, a fragment.
We can fix this fragment by adding words—a girl, for instance.
sentence: A girl flings her hair down.
Here is another example:
fragment: The whole world.
This word group is a subject without a predicate and, therefore, a fragment.
We can fix this fragment by adding words—conforms to seventeen syllables,
for instance.
sentence: The whole world conforms to seventeen syllables.

Deleting a Word
fragment: Although a carriage flashed before them.
This fragment is less simplistic than the two previous examples. It contains a
subject (carriage) and a verb (flashed), yet it cannot stand alone. The
problem is the subordinating conjunction although which, when added to
what would otherwise have been a complete sentence, reduces that sentence
to a fragment.
So let’s remove it.
sentence: A carriage flashed before them.
Here is another example:
fragment: That I went into the forest.
Once again, we have a fragment that contains a subject (I) and a verb (went),
yet it cannot stand alone. The problem is the word that which, when added to
what would otherwise have been a complete sentence, reduces the sentence to
a fragment.
So let’s remove it.
sentence: I went into the forest.
YOUR TURN 16
Decide how you would fix the six sentence fragments that follow. Turn each
into a complete sentence. For numbers 1-3, add one or more words; for
numbers 4-6, delete a word.
1. The duty she had failed to perform.
2. Began shouting at the branches.
3. Beside the distant river.
4. When night fell.
5. That I might cross that bridge.
6. If there comes a dissenting voice.
POSSIBLE ANSWERS 16
1. The duty she had failed to perform would haunt her in the years to come.
[a predicate was added]
2. The apparition began shouting at the branches. [a subject was added]
3. Beside the distant river we saw the tents being taken down. [a subject and
a predicate were added]
4. Night fell. [when]
5. I might cross that bridge. [that]
6. There comes a dissenting voice. [if]
 Lesson 17: Run-On Sentences
In the previous exercise we learned that unintentional sentence fragments
constitute a major writing error. In this exercise, we’ll learn that the same is
true of run-on sentences. Run-ons go by several names—names such as
comma fault, comma splice, and fused sentence. However, we will simplify
our study by placing all run-ons into a single category.
Here are a pair of sentences:
Two roads diverged in a wood. I took the one less traveled by.
The writer of these sentences understands that the word wood is the last word
of the first sentence and therefore places a period after the word wood. The
same is true after the word by in the second sentence. A run-on occurs when a
writer fails to understand that a sentence is concluding and fails to use a
proper end-of-sentence punctuation mark, like a period.
Examples:
Two roads diverged in a wood, I took the one less traveled by.
Two roads diverged in a wood I took the one less traveled by.
In the first case, we have a comma trying to do the work of a period; in the
second case, the period is simply not there. In both cases, a run-on sentence
has been created.
Here is a quick overview:
fragment: not enough; less than a sentence
sentence: just right; correct
run-on: too much; more than a sentence
When we write, the sentence is the building block of the prose we create. A
lack of clarity about the meaning of sentence leads to fragments, run-ons, or
both. Though fragments and run-ons seem quite different, both are
considered sentence-boundary errors.
YOUR TURN 17
For each of the following, first determine whether the word group is a
sentence, a run-on, or a fragment. (There are two of each.) Then, for the run-
ons and fragments, decide whether you would fix the error by adding words,
deleting a word, or adding or changing punctuation.
1. A long and silent street.
2. A young foot soldier stands on battle-pocked land his helmet is at a jaunty
tilt.
3. Before he removed the iron sliver.
4. I feel above me the day-blind stars.
5. It was already late enough, the road was full of fallen branches and stones.
6. We forgot to notice who pulled his golden strings.
ANSWERS 17
1. A long and silent street. fragment
possible solution: We found ourselves upon a long and silent street.
2. A young foot soldier stands on battle-pocked land his helmet is at a jaunty
tilt. run-on
possible solution: Place a period after land and capitalize the word his.
3. Before he removed the iron sliver. fragment
possible solution: He removed the iron sliver.
4. I feel above me the day-blind stars. sentence
5. It was already late enough, the road was full of fallen branches and stones.
run-on
possible solution: Place a period after enough and capitalize the word the.
6. We forgot to notice who pulled his golden strings. sentence
 Lesson 18: Exception #1—
Intentional Fragments
Fragments are errors when they are unintentional. However, there is such a
thing as an intentional fragment. Intentional fragments can help us create
voice or style.
There is nothing accidental about the intentional fragment. Experienced
writers know the difference between those that are intentional and those that
are not.
Here are some examples of intentional fragments. The fragments are
underlined:
Something there is in me that detests a wall. Or a fence, a reservation, or
golf course.
Laertes has groupies, proof he has taste, has cool. Wears skate-board
clothes.
But that’s how life parachutes to my home. Home, where they make you
do what you don’t want to do.
And here are some examples of writers using two or three consecutive
fragments. The fragments are once again underlined:
Seems like a long time since the waiter took my order. Grimy little
luncheonette. The snow falling outside.
We gobbled cotton candy torches, sweet as furtive kisses, shared on
benches beneath summer shadows. Cherry. Elm. Sycamore.
And Mrs. Whitimore was now reading from the Psalms. Coughing into her
handkerchief. Snow above the windows.
Writers who use intentional fragments must have a good ear for language.
When used well, intentional fragments provide writing with some dramatic
punch, as in the examples above.
YOUR TURN 18
Try your hand at creating intentional fragments in the following sentences by
using the parenthetical prompts.
1. She woke me up at dawn, her suitcase like a little brown dog at her heels.
And a bus ticket was in her hand. (Turn the second sentence into an
intentional fragment by removing one word.)
2. I had everything: sunlight safe inside the leaves of cottonwoods, pure
harmonies of church music, echoes of slave songs, scraps of candy
wrappers. I had everything. (Turn the second sentence into an intentional
fragment by removing two words.)
3. I like the generosity of numbers. I like the way, for example, they are
willing to count anything or anyone. (Turn the second sentence into an
intentional fragment by removing two words.)
4. Meet me at the Vietnamese café, with its oily light, its odors whose
colorful shapes are like flowers. There you will hear laughter and talking.
There you will hear the tick of chopsticks. (Turn the second and third
sentences into intentional fragments by removing four words from each.)
ANSWERS 18
1. She woke me up at dawn, her suitcase like a little brown dog at her heels.
A bus ticket was in her hand.
2. I had everything: sunlight safe inside the leaves of cottonwoods, pure
harmonies of church music, echoes of slave songs, scraps of candy
wrappers. I had Everything.
3. I like the generosity of numbers. I like The way, for example, they are
willing to count anything or anyone.
4. Meet me at the Vietnamese café, with its oily light, its odors whose
colorful shapes are like flowers. There you will hear Laughter and talking.
There you will hear The tick of chopsticks.
Lesson 19: Exception #2—Sentences
in a Series
We will now visit a rather peculiar rule of punctuation. Study the following:
Sentence. Sentence. (correct)
Sentence, sentence. (incorrect—run-on)
Sentence, sentence, sentence. (correct—sentences in a series)
If we start with a sentence and then add a comma-plus-a-sentence, we’ve
gone too far: we’ve created a run-on. But if we take that run-on and add
another comma-plus-a-sentence, we’ve come up with a stylish little gem of a
sentence.
Peculiar, indeed.
This device borrows the punctuation usually reserved for listing smaller word
groups (known as items in a series) and repurposes the device to
accommodate a series of complete sentences: sentences in a series.
common items in a series: For breakfast I had waffles, strawberries, and
walnuts.
sentences in a series: I had waffles for breakfast, I had strawberries for
lunch, I had walnuts for dinner.
Writers using sentences in a series should note the following:
Each sentence in the series needs to be short and to the point. Longer
sentences in a series are unlikely to work well.
Writers are not limited to three sentences. Any number of sentences
beyond three is possible.
With common items in a series, we commonly place a conjunction
(usually and) just prior to the final item. But with sentences in a series, it
is better to leave the conjunction out.
Here are two more examples:
All songs end, memories soar over rooftops, an eyelid swells with desire.
A star flares on a medallion, a ball rolls out of reach, the glowing line
onscreen goes flat, an anonymous bullet strays. (Here we have a four-
sentence series.)
YOUR TURN 19
In this Your Turn you’ll try your skill at creating sentences in a series.
1. April gives to May, out come the flowers now, add a third sentence of
your own.
2. For death in war is done by hands, suicide has cause, add a third sentence
of your own.
3. And so the moss flourishes, the seaweed whips around, add a third
sentence, add a fourth sentence.
POSSIBLE ANSWERS 19
1. April gives to May, out come the flowers now, it is time for spring.
2. For death in war is done by hands, suicide has cause, cancer blooms
simply as a flower.
3. And so the moss flourishes, the seaweed whips around, the sea pushes
through and rolls back, the rocks seem motionless.
 Subjects and Verbs Glossary of
Terms
active verb: A verb in an active sentence. In an active sentence, actors
appear to the left of actions. In Hank hit the ball, the active verb is hit.
base sentence: The simple subject and verb of any sentence. The base
sentence is a sentence reduced to its most essential parts.
compound subject: Two or more subjects performing the action of the verb,
usually joined by the conjunction and.
compound verb: Two or more verbs naming two or more actions performed
by the subject, usually joined by the conjunction and.
expletive construction: Expletives commonly begin with words such as it,
there, or here—followed by a to be verb: there are bats in the belfry, for
example. In such sentences, subjects will appear to the right of verbs.
identifying the subject: When determining the simple subject of a sentence,
it is helpful to eliminate words and phrases that will not contain the subject of
a sentence. These include articles, adjectives, prepositional phrases, relative
clauses, and infinitives or infinitive phrases.
infinitive: The word to plus a verb: to fly, to turn, etc. Though infinitives are
built from verb words, they do not function as verbs.
intentional fragment: Intentional fragments can help us create voice or style
—but this must be done knowingly, not accidentally.
noun phrase: A group of words that functions as a noun. Simple subjects are
often found on the right-hand side of noun phrases.
passive verb: The verb in a passive sentence. In a passive sentence, actors
appear to the right of actions—if they appear at all. In the ball was hit by
Hank, the passive verb is was hit. There is nothing wrong with passive
construction; often they are helpful. But when they are arbitrary, choose the
active over the passive.
phrasal verb: Most verbs consist of a single word; phrasal verbs are the
exception. Phrasal verbs include verbs such as back up, calm down, get out,
hand over, throw away, and try on.
predicate: The words that (usually) appear to the right of the complete
subject. Verbs are found within predicates.
prepositional phrase: A phrase that begins with a preposition and ends with
the object of the preposition. Eliminating these phrases helps to reveal simple
subjects.
relative clause: A word group that often intervenes between subjects and
verbs. Eliminating these clauses (most begin with who, that, or which) helps
to reveal simple subjects.
relative pronoun: A word that begins a relative clause. Who, that, and which
are three common relative pronouns.
run-on sentence: Run-ons go by several names—names such as comma
fault, comma splice, and fused sentence. Run-ons are errors (rarely are they
intentional) that occur when writers fail to understand they have reached the
end of a sentence and fail to punctuate accordingly.
sentence fragment: Less than a complete sentence. A fragment may be
missing a subject, a verb, or both.
sentences in a series: A stylish configuration that allows us to string three or
more short sentences together with commas.
subject: The primary noun in a sentence—usually the person or thing that
performs the action described by the verb.
complete subject: In most cases, the words appearing to the left of the
verb.
simple subject: Found within the complete subject. In most cases, this
will be a one-word noun.
subject-verb agreement: Subjects and verbs must agree in number and
person:
number: Singular subjects go with singular verbs; plural subjects go with
plural verbs: One person swings; two people swing.
person: First-person subjects go with first-person verbs; third-person
subjects go with third-person verbs: I swing; she swings.
types of sentences: We can categorize sentences based on complexity:
simple, compound, complex, compound-complex. We can also categorize
sentences based on function: declarative, exclamatory, imperative, and
interrogative. With declarative sentences, subjects precede verbs, but
sentences from the other three categories can scramble the customary subject-
verb relationship. Imperative sentences, for example, have no subject at all
and require us to supply the assumed you as the subject.
verb phrase: A main verb and its helping verbs. Assuming a main verb of
one word, the longest verb phrase will be a phrase of four words.
main verb: Usually a single word. Because main verbs take tense, we can
test for main verbs with the test sentence “Today I BLANK; yesterday I
BLANKED.”
helping verb: One of 23 words that join up with main verbs to create verb
phrases: is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been, has, have, had, do, does,
did, may, might, must, can, could, shall, should, will, would.
verb: The word or words that tell what the subject does.
verbs before subjects: Standard English word order places subjects before
verbs, but in a few configurations, verbs can appear to the left of subjects.
Among these are sentences beginning with expletives and question-asking
(interrogative) sentences.
 Test Questions
Section 1: Subjects and Verbs
In Section 1, you are given eighteen sentences. Your job is to identify the
simple subject (or subjects) and the verb in each sentence. If you were to
perform each step we have learned in the preceding lessons, you would work
methodically toward your goal by identifying the complete subject and the
predicate, eliminating articles, prepositional phrases, relative clauses, and
infinitives or infinitive phrases, and placing parentheses around noun phrases.
But, ultimately, what matters is that you can determine the subjects and verbs
—the base sentences that each of the eighteen sentences is built upon.
The test questions are subdivided into six groups of three sentences each.
Answers follow immediately after each group of three.
 TEST PART 1
1. A raging fire races across the floor of the valley.
2. A trail cut through the valley.
3. Bake loaves for the whole world.
TEST ANSWERS PART 1
1. (A raging fire) / races across the floor of the valley.
base sentence: fire races
2. (A trail) / cut through the valley.
base sentence: trail cut
3. (You) / Bake loaves for the whole world. [imperative sentence: subject is
assumed “you”]
base sentence: you bake
 TEST PART 2
4. By the road to the hospital blows the cold wind.
5. Have the enemies who were captured yesterday agreed to escape in
silence?
6. The aging priest bows his head, lays a hand upon his knee, and reflects on
the love of his parishioners.
TEST ANSWERS PART 2
4. By the road to the hospital blows (the cold wind). [eliminate 2
prepositional phrases; the subject follows the verb]
base sentence: wind blows
5. Have (the enemies) who were captured yesterday agreed to escape in
silence? [eliminate a relative clause; interrogative sentence: the verb is
split]
base sentence: enemies have agreed
6. (The aging priest) bows his head, lays a hand upon his knee, and reflects
on the love of his parishioners. [the verb is compound]
base sentence: priest bows, lays, reflects
 TEST PART 3
7. The auctioneer’s confidence was inflating the bidding amounts.
8. The bobcat mingles with the chickens.
9. The brindled cows and the wings of the finches dot the land and color the
sky.
TEST ANSWERS PART 3
7. (The auctioneer’s confidence) was inflating the bidding amounts.
base sentence: confidence was inflating
8. (The bobcat) mingles with the chickens.
base sentence: bobcat mingles
9. (The brindled cows) and (the wings of the finches) dot the land and color
the sky. [eliminate a prepositional phrase; the subject is compound; the
verb is compound]
base sentence: cows, wings dot, color
 TEST PART 4
10. The chameleons that bask in the sun change their colors to remain
unseen.
11. The child’s hand from the peep hole might be blindly waving to remind
us of the time.
12. The condor could be making the comeback of the century.
TEST ANSWERS PART 4
10. (The chameleons that bask in the sun) change their colors to remain
unseen. [eliminate a relative clause]
base sentence: chameleons change
11. (The child’s hand from the peep hole) might be blindly waving to
remind us of the time. [eliminate a prepositional phrase; an adverb sits
within the verb]
base sentence: hand might be waving
12. (The condor) could be making the comeback of the century.
base sentence: condor could be making
 TEST PART 5
13. The crunching cow, the mouse, and the infidels regard the approaching
miracle.
14. The egg of the wren and the singing toad favor the angels and adorn the
parlors of heaven.
15. The graduates who write messages on their mortarboards sit in the back
row.
TEST ANSWERS PART 5
13. (The crunching cow), (the mouse), and (the infidels) regard the
approaching miracle. [the subject is compound]
base sentence: cow, mouse, infidels regard
14. (The egg of the wren) and (the singing toad) favor the angels and
adorn the parlors of heaven. [eliminate a prepositional phrase; the subject
is compound; the verb is compound]
base sentence: egg, toad favor, adorn
15. (The graduates who write messages on their mortarboards) sit in the
back row. [eliminate a relative clause]
base sentence: graduates sit
 TEST PART 6
16. The professors in the lounge discuss a controversial philosophical
topic.
17. The true journey of your life requires a kind of madness.
18. These bits of gravel that cling to each knee bring me pain.
TEST ANSWERS PART 6
16. (The professors in the lounge) discuss a controversial philosophical
topic. [eliminate a prepositional phrase]
base sentence: professors discuss
17. (The true journey of your life) requires a kind of madness. [eliminate a
prepositional phrase]
base sentence: journey requires
18. (These bits of gravel that cling to each knee) bring me pain. [eliminate
a prepositional phrase and a relative clause]
base sentence: bits bring
Section 2: Fragments and Run-Ons
This section of the test consists of two subsections, each containing six
sentences. Within each group of six, two sentences are complete and correct,
two are fragments, and two are run-ons.
For the sentences that are complete and correct, simply identify them. For the
other four sentences, determine whether they are fragments or run-ons. In
addition, decide how you would fix these sentences.
 TEST PART 7
1. Because it is so difficult for a deeper truth to make itself known. [complete
and correct? fragment? run-on?]
2. The tools were at hand the time was now.
3. He was speckled with barnacles and tiny white sea-lice.
4. I was well upon my way to sleep before it fell, I could tell what form my
dreaming was about to take.
5. The waste of broad, muddy fields.
6. This is the most compassionate act you can do for anyone.
TEST ANSWERS AND POSSIBLE ANSWERS PART 7
1. Because it is so difficult for a deeper truth to make itself known. [fragment
—either delete “because” or add a comma and a sentence after “known”]
2. The tools were at hand the time was now. [run-on—add a semicolon or a
period and a capital letter after “hand”]
3. He was speckled with barnacles and tiny white sea-lice. [complete and
correct]
4. I was well upon my way to sleep before it fell, I could tell what form my
dreaming was about to take. [run-on—remove the comma after “fell” and
add either a semicolon or a period and a capital letter]
5. The waste of broad, muddy fields. [fragment—words must be added; for
example: “we trudged across the waste of broad, muddy fields”]
6. This is the most compassionate act you can do for anyone. [complete and
correct]
 TEST PART 8
7. Even though most of us don’t want to reach the end for a long time.
8. I love to stay in bed all morning with the covers thrown off and my eyes
closed.
9. Life is kind of like a loathsome hag who is forever threatening to turn
beautiful.
10. Night and day arrive, what is old remains old.
11. The air is drugged with blossoms deep in the night a pine cone falls.
12. The leaves shivering in the sun as if each day were the last.
TEST ANSWERS AND POSSIBLE ANSWERS PART 8
7. Even though most of us don’t want to reach the end for a long time.
[fragment—either delete “even though” or add a comma and a sentence
after “time”]
8. I love to stay in bed all morning with the covers thrown off and my eyes
closed. [complete and correct]
9. Life is kind of like a loathsome hag who is forever threatening to turn
beautiful. [complete and correct]
10. Night and day arrive, what is old remains old. [run-on—remove the
comma after “arrive” and add either a semicolon or a period and a
capital letter]
11. The air is drugged with blossoms deep in the night a pine cone falls.
[run-on—add a semicolon or a period and a capital letter after
“blossoms”]
12. The leaves shivering in the sun as if each day were the last. [fragment—
either change “shivering” to “shiver” or add words; for example: “the
leaves shivering in the sun as if each day were the last remind me of my
own mortality”]
 Titles in the Mastering English Grammar
Series
ALL TITLES ARE AVAILABLE ON KINDLE OR IN PRINT
Parts of Speech
Book 1: Nouns and Adjectives
Book 2: Verbs and Adverbs
Book 3: Pronouns, Prepositions, and Conjunctions
Sentence Structure
Book 4: Subjects and Verbs
Book 5: Compound Sentences
Book 6: Complex Sentences
Punctuation
Book 7: Commas
Book 8: Semicolons and Colons
Book 9: Parentheses, Brackets, Dashes, Ellipses, Italics, and
Hyphens