9/21/2022

CIN 2103: Networking Fundamentals

Week 2: CLO1 – Protocols and Models

Wednesday, September 21, 2022

Week 2

CLO1 – Protocols and Models

1
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 3

The Rules
• The following video will explain how devices use
networking protocols to see themselves and how they
use those protocols in communicating with other
devices.

Devices in a Bubble (Video)

Protocols and Models 4

Communication Fundamentals
• Networks can vary in size and complexity. It is not enough to
have a connection; devices must agree on “how” to
communicate.

• There are three elements to any communication:

• Message source (sender) - Message sources are people, or electronic
devices, that need to send a message to other individuals or devices.
• Message Destination (receiver) - The destination receives the
message and interprets it.
• Channel - This consists of the media that provides the pathway over
which the message travels from source to destination

2
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 5

Network Protocol Requirements

Common computer protocols must be in agreement and
include the following requirements:
• Message encoding
• Message formatting and encapsulation
• Message size
• Message timing
• Message delivery options
Watch this video on Network Protocols

Check Your Understanding

1. Login to NetAcad: https://Netacad.com

2. Quiz link: https://contenthub.netacad.com/itn-
dl/3.1.12

3
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 7

Network Protocol Functions

Network protocols define
a common set of rules.
• Can be implemented
on devices in:
• Software
• Hardware
• Both
• Protocols have their
own:
• Function
• Format
• Rules

Protocols and Models 8

Network Protocol Functions

• Devices use agreed-upon protocols to
communicate .
• Protocols may have one or functions.

4
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 9

Network Protocol Functions

• Networks require the use of several
protocols.
• Each protocol has its own function
and format

Protocols and Models 10

Understanding the purpose of network models

• Organizations need to communicate with systems owned by
other organizations.
• There is no guarantee that all organizations use the same
equipment hardware and software.
• If systems utilized proprietary software and protocols, then this
would only allow communication with other devices from the
same manufacturer or those manufacturers that had access to
those protocols.
• The solution is to create a standard model which is made
publicly available for all to use

10

5
 9/21/2022

Check Your Understanding

1. Login to NetAcad: https://Netacad.com

2. Quiz link: https://contenthub.netacad.com/itn-
dl/3.2.4

11

Protocols and Models 12

TCP/IP Protocol Example

• TCP/IP protocols
operate at the
application,
transport, and
internet layers.
• The most common
network access layer
LAN protocols are
Ethernet and WLAN
(wireless LAN).

12

6
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 13

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

• TCP/IP is the
protocol suite
used by the
internet and
includes many
protocols.

13

Protocols and Models 14

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

• A web server encapsulating and • A client de-encapsulating the

sending a web page to a client. web page for the web browser

14

7
 9/21/2022

Check Your Understanding

1. Login to NetAcad: https://Netacad.com

2. Quiz link: https://contenthub.netacad.com/itn-
dl/3.3.6

15

Protocols and Models 16

Open Standards Open standards encourage:

• interoperability
• competition
• innovation
Standards organizations
are:
• vendor-neutral
• non-profit organizations
• established to develop
and promote the concept
of open standards.

16

8
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 17

Open Standards
Standards organizations
involved with the
development and support
of TCP/IP include:
• IANA
• ICANN

17

Check Your Understanding

1. Login to NetAcad: https://Netacad.com

2. Quiz Link: https://contenthub.netacad.com/itn-
dl/3.4.5

18

9
 9/21/2022

Understanding the purpose of

network models

19

Protocols and Models 20

Protocols and Services

• In legacy networks, most systems utilized proprietary software
and protocols that would only allow communication with other
devices from the same manufacturer or those manufacturers
that had access to those protocols.
• Organizations purchased their equipment from the same
manufacturer throughout, and there were no real means of
communicating outside of your organization.
• With time, networks have evolved and there is a need for to
communicate with systems owned by other organizations.
Therefore, standards had to be created.

20

10
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 21

Models providing standard Protocols and Services

• There are two standard network reference (layered)

models that help us to understand communication
between network devices and how to identify these
devices through the use of IPv4 and IPv6 addresses.
• Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model created by the
International Organization of Standards (ISO)
• TCP/IP Model

21

Protocols and Models 22

OSI Model
• The OSI model is a network model comprising seven individual
layers, as shown in the following diagram.
• Each of these layers communicates to the layers adjacent to it and
its equivalent layer on the receiving device.
• The top three layers (Application, Presentation, and Session) are
referred to as the upper layers.
• The bottom four layers (Transport, Network, Data-Link, Physical)
are referred to as the lower layers

22

11
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 23

OSI Model

23

Protocols and Models 24

OSI Model
• As the data goes through the OSI model on the sending device, it
goes through a process called encapsulation.
• Encapsulation is simply taking the data from the previous layer,
adding a header (and sometimes a trailer) to it, and passing it on to
the next layer where the process is repeated.
• The header (and trailer) and data that is being passed down to the
next layer is referred to as a protocol data unit (PDU)
• On the receiving device, the headers (and trailer) are stripped away
before passing the data up to the next layer. This process is
referred to as de-encapsulation.

24

12
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 25

Encapsulation

25

Protocols and Models 26

TCP/IP Model
• As with the OSI model, it is important for network engineers to
understand the constituent components of this model.
• Nowadays, TCP/IP is ubiquitous in nature. It is on pretty much all
network devices.
• Understanding the TCP/IP model, will enable you to troubleshoot
networking issues on a range of devices.
• The TCP/IP model also maps to the OSI model. This mapping will
enrich our understanding of networks, protocols and services.

26

13
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 27

Overview of the TCP/IP Model layers

• TCP/IP model has many similarities with the OSI model.
• They both take on a layered approach, with each layer talking to the
adjacent layers and their respective layer on the destination device.
• Both models are open or non-proprietary standard, which means any
manufacturer can use it.
• Most experts argue that the TCP/IP model is a truer reflection of
how networking works.

27

Protocols and Models 28

Overview of the TCP/IP Model layers

• The TCP/IP model has only four layers compared to the seven
layers of the OSI model.
• Application Layer
• Transport Layer
• Internet Layer
• Network Layer

28

14
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 29

OSI and TCP/IP Model Comparison

The TCP/IP model
loosely maps
against the OSI
model in terms of
functionality, but
there is no defined
mapping across
the two, and the
following diagram
should only be
used as a guide.

29

Protocols and Models 30

Segmenting Messages
• Segmenting is the process of breaking up messages into smaller
units.
• Multiplexing is the processes of taking multiple streams of
segmented data and interleaving them together.
• Segmenting messages has two primary benefits:
• Increases speed - Large amounts of data can be sent over the network
without tying up a communications link.
• Increases efficiency - Only segments which fail to reach the destination
need to be retransmitted, not the entire data stream.

30

15
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 31

Sequencing
• Sequencing messages is
the process of
numbering the segments
so that the message
may be reassembled at
the destination.
• TCP is responsible for
sequencing the
individual segments.

31

Protocols and Models 32

Protocol Data Units

Encapsulation is the process where
protocols add their information to the
data.
• At each stage of the process, a PDU has a
different name to reflect its new functions.
• There is no universal naming convention for
PDUs, in this course, the PDUs are named
according to the protocols of the TCP/IP suite.
• PDUs passing down the stack are as follows:
1. Data (Data Stream)
2. Segment
3. Packet
4. Frame
5. Bits (Bit Stream)

32

16
 9/21/2022

Check Your Understanding

1. Login to NetAcad: https://Netacad.com

2. Quiz Link: https://contenthub.netacad.com/itn-
dl/3.6.6

33

Protocols and Models 34

Local Addressing
• Identifying devices on a local network can be done using:
• Hostnames
• MAC addresses, and
• IP addresses.
• All of these must be unique within the LAN.

34

17
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 35

Hostnames
• A computer's hostname is an easy-to-read (for humans) method of
identifying a device on the network.
• Each device's hostname is configured by the system administrator.
• The hostname may be reflective of the role that the device is performing;
for example, MXServer for a mail exchange server, DC1 for a domain
controller, and so on.
• When referring to a destination device by its hostname, the sending
device will need to resolve it to an IP address.
• Find your hostname from Command Prompt:
• While on your desktop, press the Windows key + R to open the run command.
• Type cmd and press the Enter key.
• In the Command Prompt, type hostname and press the Enter key.

35

Protocols and Models 36

IP Addresses
• Hostnames are human-friendly, but they are not that friendly for devices since
it will not tell us whether the device is on a local or remote network.
• On its own, a hostname would generally be thought of as being local, but this
may not always be the case.
• Therefore, we need to resolve hostnames to an IP address. An IP address is
the network layer (layers 3) or logical address.
• An IP address is used to deliver packets from source device to destination
device.
• An IPv4 address is broken down into two sections:
• A network part (IPv4) or Prefix (IPv6) indicates the network group which the IP address is
a member. Each LAN or WAN will have the same network part.
• A host part (IPv4) or Interface ID (IPv6) identifies a specific device within the group and is
unique for each device on the network.

36

18
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 37

MAC Addresses
• A MAC address is a means of identifying a device on the local network.
• It is an address that has many names. It is also referred to as a physical
address, a hardware address, or a burnt-in address (BIA).
• A MAC address is represented as a 48-bit hexadecimal number.
• Find your MAC address from Command Prompt:
• While on your desktop, press the Windows key + R to open the run command.
• Type cmd and press the Enter key.
• In the Command Prompt, type ipconfig /all and press the Enter key.
• The MAC address for your network card, listed as a physical address, will be
shown.

37

Protocols and Models 38

Devices on a Remote Network

When devices are on the same
Ethernet network the data link
frame will use the actual MAC
address of the destination NIC
MAC addresses are physically
embedded into the Ethernet NIC
and are local addressing.
• The Source MAC address will be
that of the originator on the link.
• The Destination MAC address will
always be on the same link as the
source, even if the ultimate
destination is remote.

38

19
 9/21/2022

Protocols and Models 39

Devices on a Remote Network

When the final destination is
remote, Layer 3 will provide
Layer 2 with the local default
gateway IP address, also known
as the router address
• The default gateway (DGW) is the router
interface IP address that is part of this LAN
and will be the “door” or “gateway” to all
other remote locations.
• All devices on the LAN must be told about
this address or their traffic will be confined to
the LAN only.
• Once Layer 2 on PC1 forwards to the default
gateway (Router), the router then can start
the routing process of getting the information
to actual destination.

39

Check Your Understanding

1. Login to NetAcad: https://Netacad.com

2. Quiz Link: https://contenthub.netacad.com/itn-
dl/3.7.11

40

20
 9/21/2022

Test my understanding

1. Login to NetAcad: https://Netacad.com

2. Quiz Link: Module 3 Quiz

41

Modules 1 - 3: Basic Network Connectivity and Communications Exam

1. Login to NetAcad: https://Netacad.com

2. Exam Link: Module 1-3 Exam

42

21
 9/21/2022

CIN 2103: Networking Fundamentals

Week 3: CLO1 – Physical Layer

Wednesday, September 21, 2022

43

Week 3

CLO1 – Physical Layer

44

22
 9/21/2022

Physical Layer 45

Layer 1 – the Physical Layer

• The physical transmission of the data in the form of bits
takes place on this layer.
• Depending on the type of media and the network cards in
use, the method of sending the data will vary.
• The important thing is that both ends are using the same
method.
• These signals may be in the form of variations in voltage
or patterns in the light being transmitted.

45

Physical Layer 46

Layer 1 – the Physical Layer

• At this layer, there are no protocols per second, but there
are sets of standards and criteria that the cabling and
network cards will need to adhere to. These standards
include the following:
• Voltages
• Speeds
• Wiring

46

23
 9/21/2022

Physical Layer 47

The Physical Connection

• Before any network communications can occur, a physical connection
to a local network must be established.
• This connection could be wired or wireless, depending on the setup of
the network.
• This generally applies whether you are considering a corporate office
or a home.
• A Network Interface Card (NIC) connects a device to the network.
• Some devices may have just one NIC, while others may have multiple
NICs (Wired and/or Wireless, for example).
• Not all physical connections offer the same level of performance.

47

Physical Layer 48

The Physical Layer

• Transports bits across the
network media
• Accepts a complete frame from
the Data Link Layer and
encodes it as a series of signals
that are transmitted to the local
media
• This is the last step in the
encapsulation process.
• The next device in the path to
the destination receives the bits
and re-encapsulates the frame,
then decides what to do with it.

48

24
 9/21/2022

Check Your Understanding

1. Login to NetAcad: https://Netacad.com

2. Quiz link: https://contenthub.netacad.com/itn-
dl/4.1.3

49

Physical Layer 50

Physical Components
Physical Layer Standards address three functional areas:
• Physical Components
• Encoding
• Signaling

The Physical Components are the hardware devices, media, and other
connectors that transmit the signals that represent the bits.
• Hardware components like NICs, interfaces and connectors, cable
materials, and cable designs are all specified in standards associated
with the physical layer.

50

25
 9/21/2022

Physical Layer 51

Encoding

• Encoding converts the

stream of bits into a format
recognizable by the next
device in the network path.
• This ‘coding’ provides
predictable patterns that can
be recognized by the next
device.
• Examples of encoding
methods include Manchester
(shown in the figure), 4B/5B,
and 8B/10B.

51

Physical Layer 52
Signaling
• The signaling method is how
the bit values, “1” and “0” are
represented on the physical Light Pulses Over Fiber-Optic Cable

medium.
• The method of signaling will
vary based on the type of
medium being used

Electrical Signals Over Copper Cable

Microwave Signals Over Wireless

52

26
 9/21/2022

Physical Layer 53

Bandwidth
• Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data.
• Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to
another in a given amount of time; how many bits can be transmitted in a second.
• Physical media properties, current technologies, and the laws of physics play a role
in determining available bandwidth.

Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviation Equivalence

Bits per second bps 1 bps = fundamental unit of bandwidth
Kilobits per second Kbps 1 Kbps = 1,000 bps = 103 bps

Megabits per second Mbps 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps = 106 bps

Gigabits per second Gbps 1 Gbps – 1,000,000,000 bps = 109 bps

Terabits per second Tbps 1 Tbps = 1,000,000,000,000 bps = 1012 bps

53

Physical Layer 54

Bandwidth Terminology
Latency
• Amount of time, including delays, for data to travel from one given
point to another
Throughput
• The measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given
period of time
Goodput
• The measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time
• Goodput = Throughput - traffic overhead

54

27
 9/21/2022

Check Your Understanding

1. Login to NetAcad: https://Netacad.com

2. Quiz link: https://contenthub.netacad.com/itn-
dl/4.2.7

55

Physical Layer 56

Characteristics of Copper Cabling

Copper cabling is the most common type of cabling used in networks today. It is
inexpensive, easy to install, and has low resistance to electrical current flow.
Limitations:
• Attenuation – the longer the electrical signals have to travel, the weaker they get.
• The electrical signal is susceptible to interference from two sources, which can
distort and corrupt the data signals (Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Radio
Frequency Interference (RFI) and Crosstalk).
Mitigation:
• Strict adherence to cable length limits will mitigate attenuation.
• Some kinds of copper cable mitigate EMI and RFI by using metallic shielding and
grounding.
• Some kinds of copper cable mitigate crosstalk by twisting opposing circuit pair wires
together.

56

28
 9/21/2022

Physical Layer 57

Types of Copper Cabling

57

Physical Layer 58

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

• UTP is the most common networking
media.
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
• Interconnects hosts with intermediary
network devices.

Key Characteristics of UTP

• The outer jacket protects the copper
wires from physical damage.
• Twisted pairs protect the signal from
interference.
• Color-coded plastic insulation
electrically isolates the wires from each
other and identifies each pair.

58

29
 9/21/2022

Physical Layer 59

• Better noise protection than UTP

• More expensive than UTP
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) • Harder to install than UTP
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
• Interconnects hosts with intermediary
network devices

Key Characteristics of STP

• The outer jacket protects the copper wires
from physical damage
• Braided or foil shield provides EMI/RFI
protection
• Foil shield for each pair of wires provides
EMI/RFI protection
• Color-coded plastic insulation electrically
isolates the wires from each other and
identifies each pair

59

Physical Layer 60
Coaxial Cable
Consists of the following:
• Outer cable jacket to prevent minor physical damage
• A woven copper braid, or metallic foil, acts as the
second wire in the circuit and as a shield for the inner
conductor.
• A layer of flexible plastic insulation
• A copper conductor is used to transmit the electronic
signals.

There are different types of connectors used with

coax cable.

Commonly used in the following situations:

• Wireless installations - attach antennas to wireless
devices
• Cable internet installations - customer premises wiring

60

30
 9/21/2022

Check Your Understanding

1. Login to NetAcad: https://Netacad.com

2. Quiz link: https://contenthub.netacad.com/itn-
dl/4.3.6

61

Physical Layer 62
Straight-through and Crossover UTP Cables

Cable Type Standard Application

Ethernet Straight-through Both ends T568A or T568B Host to Network Device

Ethernet Crossover * One end T568A, other end Host-to-Host, Switch-to-Switch,

T568B Router-to-Router
* Considered Legacy due to most NICs using Auto-MDIX to sense cable type and complete connection
Rollover Cisco Proprietary Host serial port to Router or Switch
Console Port, using an adapter

62

31
 9/21/2022

Check Your Understanding

1. Login to NetAcad: https://Netacad.com

2. Cable Pinouts Activity:
https://contenthub.netacad.com/itn-dl/4.4.4

63

Physical Layer 64
Properties of Fiber-Optic Cabling
• Not as common as UTP because of the expense involved
• Ideal for some networking scenarios
• Transmits data over longer distances at higher bandwidth than
any other networking media
• Less susceptible to attenuation, and completely immune to
EMI/RFI
• Made of flexible, extremely thin strands of very pure glass
• Uses a laser or LED to encode bits as pulses of light
• The fiber-optic cable acts as a wave guide to transmit light
between the two ends with minimal signal loss

64

32
 9/21/2022

Physical Layer 65

Types of Fiber Media

Single-Mode Fiber Multimode Fiber

• Larger core
• Very small core
• Uses less expensive LEDs
• Uses expensive lasers
• LEDs transmit at different angles
• Long-distance applications
• Up to 10 Gbps over 550 meters
Dispersion refers to the spreading out of a light pulse over time. Increased dispersion means
increased loss of signal strength. MMF has greater dispersion than SMF, with a maximum cable
distance for MMF of 550 meters.

65

Physical Layer 66

Fiber versus Copper

Optical fiber is primarily used as backbone cabling for high-traffic, point-to-point
connections between data distribution facilities and for the interconnection of
buildings in multi-building campuses.
Implementation Issues UTP Cabling Fiber-Optic Cabling
Bandwidth supported 10 Mb/s - 10 Gb/s 10 Mb/s - 100 Gb/s
Relatively short (1 - 100 Relatively long ( 1 - 100,000
Distance
meters) meters)

Immunity to EMI and RFI Low High (Completely immune)

Immunity to electrical
Low High (Completely immune)
hazards

Media and connector costs Lowest Highest

Installation skills required Lowest Highest

Safety precautions Lowest Highest

66

33
 9/21/2022

Check Your Understanding

1. Login to NetAcad: https://Netacad.com

2. Quiz link: https://contenthub.netacad.com/itn-
dl/4.5.7

67

Physical Layer 68

Properties of Wireless Media

It carries electromagnetic signals representing binary digits using radio or
microwave frequencies. This provides the greatest mobility option. Wireless
connection numbers continue to increase.

Some of the limitations of wireless:

• Coverage area - Effective coverage can be significantly impacted by the physical
characteristics of the deployment location.
• Interference - Wireless is susceptible to interference and can be disrupted by many
common devices.
• Security - Wireless communication coverage requires no access to a physical strand of
media, so anyone can gain access to the transmission.
• Shared medium - WLANs operate in half-duplex, which means only one device can
send or receive at a time. Many users accessing the WLAN simultaneously results in
reduced bandwidth for each user.

68

34
 9/21/2022

Physical Layer 69

Types of Wireless Media

The IEEE and telecommunications industry standards for wireless data
communications cover both the data link and physical layers. In each of
these standards, physical layer specifications dictate:
• Data to radio signal encoding methods
• Frequency and power of transmission
• Signal reception and decoding requirements
• Antenna design and construction

Wireless Standards:
• WiFi (IEEE 802.11) - Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology.
• Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) - Wireless Personal Area network (WPAN) standard
• WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) - Uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide broadband
wireless access
• Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4) - Low data-rate, low power-consumption communications,
primarily for Internet of Things (IoT) applications

69

Physical Layer 70

Wireless LAN
In general, a Wireless LAN (WLAN) requires the following devices:
• Wireless Access Point (AP) - Concentrate wireless signals from users and connect to
the existing copper-based network infrastructure
• Wireless NIC Adapters - Provide wireless communications capability to network hosts

There are a number of WLAN standards. When purchasing WLAN

equipment, ensure compatibility, and interoperability.

Network Administrators must develop and apply stringent security policies

and processes to protect WLANs from unauthorized access and damage.

70

35
 9/21/2022

Check Your Understanding

1. Login to NetAcad: https://Netacad.com

2. Quiz link: https://contenthub.netacad.com/itn-
dl/4.6.4

71

Test my understanding

Module 4 Quiz

72

36