HIGH-YIELD

Boost student participation and proficiency with

H I G H -Y I E L D R O U T I N E S F O R G R A D E S K– 8
high-yield, effective mathematical routines.

ROUTINES
The easily implemented routines suggested in High-Yield Routines will provide teachers with
opportunities to enhance the content knowledge and mathematical practices of their students.
Classroom vignettes, from a variety of grade levels, illustrate how the routines may be used
effectively across many grade levels and the student work included provides a picture of what
teachers might expect from students. This book will prove to be a valuable resource for teachers both

r o
new and experienced.
Terry Goodman • Concordia College

High-Yield Routines is a book that should be owned by all elementary and middle school
mathematics teachers. It shows a quick and easy way to optimize precious classroom minutes,
infusing mathematics into otherwise non-mathematical routines. The connections to the Common
Core practice standards will help teachers address this important content throughout the day in ways
that are unexpected but highly productive. Grades
K–8
Rita Barger • University of Missouri-Kansas City

High-Yield Routines describes several mathematical routines that will create opportunities for
ANN MCCOY
differentiated instruction to take place naturally with students. The routines described in the
book allow each student to participate at his or her own level and to build upon existing knowledge

u t i
to develop a deeper understanding of the content. The routines are easy to implement and
classroom teachers at all grade levels will be able to utilize the routines to enhance the mathematics
understanding of students.
Jami Smith • Archie Middle School

Ann McCoy is an associate professor of mathematics education at the University of Central

Missouri where she teaches mathematics content and methods courses for prospective elementary
and middle school teachers. Prior to teaching at the university, she taught elementary and middle JOANN BARNETT
school mathematics for twenty-two years. She has been actively involved in numerous professional
development projects for mathematics teachers.
University of Central Missouri, Warrensburg, MO

n e
Joann Barnett is retired from the Ozark, MO, school district where she taught elementary and
middle school mathematics for nearly thirty years. She is now an adjunct instructor for mathematics
and mathematics education at Missouri State University and Ozarks Technical Community College.
Over the past thirteen years, she has been involved with various state and federal grants to provide
professional development for teachers.
Missouri State University and Ozarks Technical Community College, Springfield, MO

Emily Combs is in her fourteenth year as a middle school mathematics teacher at Clinton
Middle School, Clinton, MO. Over the past ten years she has participated in many professional EMILY COMBS
development projects including her role as co-principal investigator of a Mathematics and Science
Partnership Grant. She is interested in using learning trajectories to build accessible, mathematically
rich lessons to deepen mathematics understanding smoothly across grade levels.
Clinton Middle School, Clinton, MO

8/13 • 1.5K • VP
ISBN 978-0-87353-719-3
14405
NCTM

9 780873 537193 14405

14405 high-yield routines cover 1-4.indd 1 7/11/13 9:15 AM

 HIGH-YIELD
ROUTINES
for GRADES K–8

Ann McCoy
University of Central Missouri, Warrensburg, MO

Joann Barnett
Missouri State University and Ozarks Technical Community College,
Springfield, MO

Emily Combs
Clinton Middle School, Clinton, MO

Copyright © 2013 by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Inc., www.nctm.org. All rights reserved.
This material may not be copied or distributed electronically or in other formats without written permission from NCTM.

00 FM pi-iv.indd 1 7/11/13 8:36 AM

 Copyright © 2013 by
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Inc.
1906 Association Drive, Reston, VA 20191-1502
(703) 620-9840; (800) 235-7566; www.nctm.org
All rights reserved

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

McCoy, Ann C., 1961-

High yield routines / by Ann McCoy, University of Central Missouri, Warrensburg,
Missouri, Joann Barnett, Missouri State University, Springfield, Missouri, Emily Combs,
Clinton Middle School, Clinton, Missouri.
pages cm
ISBN 978-0-87353-719-3
1. Mathematics--Study and teaching (Elementary) 2. Cognitive learning. I. Barnett,
Joann. II. Combs, Emily. III. Title.
QA135.5.M45456 2013
372.7--dc23
2013003553

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics is the public voice of mathematics

education, supporting teachers to ensure equitable mathematics learning of the highest
quality for all students through vision, leadership, professional development, and research.

When forms, problems, or sample documents are included or are made available on
NCTM's website, their use is authorized for educational purposes by educations and
noncommercial or nonprofit entities that have purchased this book. Except for that
use, permission to photocopy or use material electronically from High-Yield Routines
must be obtained from www.copyright.com or by contacting the Copyright Clearance
Center Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400. CCC
is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of
users. Permission does not automatically extend to any items identified as reprinted
by permission of other publishers and copyright holders. Such items must be excluded
unless separate permissions are obtained. It will be the responsibility of the user to
identify such materials and obtain the permissions.

The publications of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics present a variety

of viewpoints. The views expressed or implied in this publication, unless otherwise
noted, should not be interpreted as official positions of the Council.

e-Book ISBN: 978-0-87353-862-6

Printed in the United States of America

00 FM pi-iv.indd 2 7/11/13 8:36 AM

 CHAPTER

2
CHAPTER

1
APPENDIX

Contents

Introduction ............................................................................................ 1
Chapter 1. Today’s Number .................................................................... 5
Chapter 2. Mystery Number ................................................................. 13
Chapter 3. Alike and Different ..............................................................21
Chapter 4. Number Lines.......................................................................31
Chapter 5. Quick Images ...................................................................... 45
Chapter 6. Guess My Rule .................................................................... 55
Chapter 7. How Do You Know? ........................................................... 63
Chapter 8. Infusing Mathematics into Nonmathematical Routines ..... 73
Chapter 9. High Yield from Routines ................................................... 79
Appendix. Standards for Mathematical Practice .................................. 83

iii

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 page iv blank

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 CHAPTER

CHAPTER
2
1

Introduction

1st Claire, a first grader, enters her classroom and hangs her
grade backpack in her assigned cubby. After placing her take-home
folder on her desk, she moves to the front of the classroom.
There she chooses a magnet in the shape of a banana and
places it under the Brought Lunch heading to indicate she
would not be eating school lunch since she brought a lunch
from home.

3rd Third graders Laurel and Cody are each working on a story
grade about a favorite memory. When they hear their teacher say,
“One, two,” they stop working, look at her, and reply, “Eyes
on you.” She tells the class to move to their conferencing
areas, so Laurel and Cody move to the couch—their assigned
area for the week. After the conferencing time ends, Cody
collects papers from the class.

7th As seventh grader Andre enters the classroom, he picks up

grade his math journal. The question of the day is posted on the
board, and Andre begins composing a response to the ques-
tion. After a few minutes, the teacher signals the students to
put their journals away. Andre passes his journal to the right.
When the pile of journals reaches the end of the row, the stu-
dent sitting at the end places the pile back in the class tub.

Our classrooms are full of routines. Our students quickly learn the procedure
for taking attendance and lunch count, the procedure for assigning classroom
jobs, the procedure for lining up, and the procedure for collecting and distribut-
ing papers. The creation and implementation of routines brings a sense of pre-
dictability and comfort to our classrooms. Routines help with organization and
classroom management, and they help make transitions smooth. Although we
often think of routines as being used for organization, routines can also be used
to enhance instruction.

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 High-Yield Routines

Many textbooks make suggestions and give directions for a variety of mathe-
matical routines. These mathematical routines are structured activities that, when
used consistently, can help students gain proficiency with a range of concepts and
practices. Some of these routines are well known and commonly implemented.
One example is Calendar Time, a familiar and often-implemented routine de-
scribed in textbooks as well as supplementary resources. Calendar Time allows
students to learn about the months of the year, days of the week, and school-day
activities through using the calendar (Shumway 2011). Teachers may also design
questions, based on the calendar, that allow students to practice grade-specific
skills. Whereas teachers use Calendar Time often, they use other routines less
frequently, and as a result, many opportunities to enhance our students’ under-
standing of and proficiency with mathematics are lost.
Consistent use of routines can yield many benefits for students. Such routines
offer access to the big ideas of mathematics and allow deep understanding of
concepts. In fact, routines can be designed to focus on the desired mathematical
content. Mathematical routines also give students opportunities to develop exper-
tise with the eight mathematical practices described in the Common Core State
Standards for Mathematics (National Governors Association Center for Best
Practices [NGA Center] and Council of Chief State School Officers [CCSSO]
2010; see fig. I.1 and the appendix). The mathematical practices are based on the
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM; 2000) Process Standards
of Problem Solving, Reasoning and Proof, Communication, Representation, and
Connections as well as the strands of mathematical proficiency described in the
National Research Council’s book Adding It Up (Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Find-
ell 2001). Mathematical routines offer opportunities for students to demonstrate
their thinking and for teachers to gain insight into the thinking of their students.

Standards for Mathematical Practice

1. Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.
2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
3. Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.
4. Model with mathematics.
5. Use appropriate tools strategically.
6. Attend to precision.
7. Look for and make use of structure.
8. Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning.

Fig. I.1.
The Standards for Mathematical Practice described in the Common Core State
Standards for Mathematics (NGA Center and CCSSO 2010, p. 6)

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 Introduction

Implementing mathematical routines can prove beneficial to students across

all grade levels. In Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, NCTM
(2000) calls for curriculum that is coherent and well articulated. A coherent
curriculum is organized around important mathematical ideas so that students
can see how the ideas build on and connect with other ideas. A well-articulated
curriculum provides guidance regarding the important mathematical ideas that
should be emphasized and the depth of study appropriate for each grade level.
As teachers from multiple grade levels plan and consistently implement com-
mon routines, students will experience a more coherent and better-articulated
mathematical experience. In addition, the use of common models such as number
lines and Venn diagrams within the routines will improve students’ ability to ac-
curately and strategically use these models.
Mathematical routines are easily and quickly implemented. Once developed,
most routines will take five to ten minutes per day. The routines are commonly
used at the beginning of a lesson, but they could also be implemented at the end
of the lesson or even within a lesson. Choosing a few routines to implement and
implementing them consistently and often will yield the greatest benefits for
students.
In this book, we present seven easily implemented mathematical routines
that may be used effectively at a variety of grade levels and with a variety of
mathematical content. We also provide some ideas for infusing mathematics into
the nonmathematical routines that take time away from instruction. Here are the
titles of the remaining chapters:

Chapter 1: Today’s Number

Chapter 2: Mystery Number
Chapter 3: Alike and Different
Chapter 4: Number Lines
Chapter 5: Quick Images
Chapter 6: Guess My Rule
Chapter 7: How Do You Know?
Chapter 8: Infusing Mathematics into Nonmathematical Routines
Chapter 9: High Yield from Routines

Each chapter begins with classroom vignettes that provide a glimpse of how
the routine might look as it is implemented in a variety of grade levels. A de-
scription of the routine and implementation strategies follow. We give examples
of student work from various grade levels for each of the routines, examples of
ways to assess student thinking by using the routines, and suggestions for adapt-
ing the routines.

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 High-Yield Routines

We hope the routines we describe and the student work we share will encour-
age you to try the routines with your own students and to think of creative ways
to implement these and other mathematical routines.

References
Kilpatrick, Jeremy, Jane Swafford, and Bradford Findell, eds. Adding It Up: Helping Children
Learn Mathematics. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2001.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). Principles and Standards for School
Mathematics. Reston, Va.: NCTM, 2000.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and Council of Chief
State School Officers (CCSSO). Common Core State Standards for Mathematics.
Common Core State Standards (College- and Career-Readiness Standards and K–12
Standards in English Language Arts and Math). Washington, D.C.: NGA Center and
CCSSO, 2010. http://www.corestandards.org/.
Shumway, Jessica F. Number Sense Routines: Building Numerical Literacy Every Day in Grades
K–3. Portland, Maine: Stenhouse Publishers, 2011.

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 CHAPTER

CHAPTER
3
2
CHAPTER

1
APPENDIX

Today’s Number

1st A first-grade class is told that today’s number is 15. The stu-
grade dents think quietly for a bit and then begin to share what
they know about 15.
Alex comments, “I know that 15 is 5 more than 10.”
“The speed limit in front of the school is 15,” adds Max.
Lucy shares, “If you count by 5s, you’ll get to 15.”

5th Down the hall, a class of fifth graders is thinking about ¾.

grade The teacher asks students to talk with a partner and create a
list of everything they know about ¾.
Partners Quintin and Carley’s list includes the following:
• ¾ is a fraction.
• ¾ and 75% are equal.
• ¾ is more than ½.

7th In a seventh-grade classroom across town, students have

grade been asked to suggest what they know about −8.
Brian states, “−8 is the opposite of 8.”
His teacher asks him to explain his thinking.
“Well, −8 and 8 are on different sides of 0, but they are
the same number of spaces away from zero. It’s kind of
like symmetry,” Brian responds.

01_p5-12.indd 5 7/11/13 8:38 AM

 High-Yield Routines

Implementing The Today’s Number routine involves

the Routine presenting a carefully selected “number
of the day” to students. The students then
generate a variety of representations of the
number, including drawings, equations, and
examples. Generating and sharing these representations allows students to grow
in the ways they think about numbers and operations.
The number of the day may be presented to students in various ways. In the
early elementary grades, the teacher may present the problem orally to the entire
class and create a group list of representations as the students orally share. Figure
1.1 shows some of the ways a kindergarten class thought about the number 7. In
later grades, Today’s Number may be posted, projected, or simply distributed as
the students enter the room. Older students may first create a list individually or
in small groups. Working in small groups creates a level of confidence that will
encourage students to more willingly share their representations. As students
work, the teacher has the opportunity to listen to their discussions, to look at
the representations being created, and to carefully choose and sequence repre-
sentations to be shared that are most apt to benefit students’ understanding. The
discussions that occur as students share their representations are a valuable part
of the growth that results from implementing this routine.

Fig. 1.1.
Kindergarten class representations of 7

01_p5-12.indd 6 7/11/13 8:38 AM

 Today's Number

Maintaining an ongoing record of student responses to Today’s Number is

another important part of the routine. Class charts may be created and posted so
that students have a record of their thinking about a variety of numbers. Such a
practice will allow the teacher to observe growth in student thinking as the year
progresses. In addition, the teacher could compile the work generated by students
to create a class book of Today’s Number. Students may also record their rep-
resentations of various numbers of the day in individual notebooks or journals.
This, too, will provide ongoing evidence of growth in how students think about
numbers and operations.

Mathematical The Today’s Number routine is easily

Content and implemented but can yield powerful results
Practices both in mathematical content and in math-
ematical practices. One benefit of the use of
this routine is the growth in number sense it
promotes. Shumway (2011) describes students with a sense of number as demon-
strating a sense of what numbers mean, an ability to look at the world in terms of
quantity and numbers, an ability to make comparisons among quantities, flex-
ibility and fluidity with numbers, and an ability to perform mental math. The
development of number sense should be considered at all grade levels. Reys and
colleagues (2012) suggest that the development of number sense is a lifelong pro-
cess and not an innate ability that students either have or do not have. Thus, num-
ber sense should not be viewed as a unit to be covered but rather as a daily thread
that runs through all the mathematics work undertaken by students. The whole-
number sense developed at the elementary level extends to number sense related
to fractions, decimals, percent, integers, exponents, and roots in middle school.
Number sense is further extended as high school students gain understanding of
the real number system. Although the actual numbers used as Today’s Number
will change across grade levels, the consistent use of this routine throughout the
grades will continue to enhance number sense.
The implementation of Today’s Number—careful selection of a number, gen-
eration and recording of representations of the number, observation and discus-
sion of representations of others, and response to teacher questioning—provides
a structured way to enhance number sense. Two aspects of number sense en-
couraged by the use of Today’s Number are the composition and decomposition
of numbers and the use of part–whole relationships. In addition, students will
gain valuable experience in generating equivalent expressions and creating new
numerical expressions by modifying expressions suggested previously.

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 High-Yield Routines

The Today’s Number routine also allows students to develop the eight math-
ematical practices described in the Common Core State Standards for Math-
ematics (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council
of Chief State School Officers 2010; see appendix A). One practice involves the
construction of viable arguments and the critique of the reasoning of others.
Explaining their thinking is not an easy task for students working at any level.
In fact, many mathematically proficient and gifted students have a great deal of
difficulty explaining how they arrived at an answer. The open-ended nature of
the Today’s Number task allows for responses at multiple levels of thinking and
gives students the opportunity to explain their thinking. Students also have the
opportunity to informally critique the justifications provided by others as they
hear other students explain their own representations. Another mathematical
practice enhanced by the use of Today’s Number is making use of the structure
of mathematics. Many students will provide representations of the number of
the day that are based on the decomposition of the number. As they decompose
a variety of numbers, patterns will emerge. For example, when thinking about
the number 48, a student may first suggest that 48 could be presented as 6 × 8.
Another student may use this fact to suggest thinking about 6 × 8 as 6 × 5 + 6 ×
3. Such representations suggested over time for a variety of numbers will result
in a foundation for learning about the distributive property.
A variety of models may be used across grade levels with Today’s Number,
and the consistent use of these models will provide curricular articulation and
coherence. Bar, part–whole, number bond, and number line models may each
be used at any grade level. Bar, part–whole, and number bond models may be
used to illustrate decomposition, and the number line model used to represent
the comparison of the number of the day to other numbers. Figure 1.2 shows the
use of these models for a variety of Today’s Numbers. Teachers should look for
and capitalize on student use of these models when selecting sample representa-
tions to be shared with the class. If these models are not suggested by students,
the teacher may choose to introduce them as a way to represent Today’s Number.
In the student work we collected, students often used the number line model, but
few used the other models without teacher prompting.

Assessing Allowing students to share their represen-

Student tations and learn from each other is a vital
Thinking component of Today’s Number and provides
the teacher with a great deal of information
about how students are thinking about
numbers. Some individual think time followed by the opportunity to share in
small groups before sharing with the whole class will promote a classroom

01_p5-12.indd 8 7/11/13 8:38 AM

 Today's Number

Fig. 1.2.
Use of models with Today’s Number

environment that validates the importance of the thinking of all students and the
importance of communication in mathematics. Shumway (2011) suggests that for
teachers the difficult part of this routine is knowing what to look for in student
work and how to highlight important math concepts as the students share their
representations. She provides a list of common big ideas to look for in student
work, including decomposing the number; using various groupings of ones, tens,

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 High-Yield Routines

hundreds, and thousands; using a pattern; looking at numbers in interesting

ways; and using a variety of ways of thinking about numbers.
In examining student work collected across grade levels, we noticed four
consistent types of representations being used by students:
1. Composing/decomposing
2. Representing relationships to other numbers
3. Representing mathematics in the world
4. Using models
Figures 1.3–1.6 show examples of each of these common representations at
various grade levels. Although no type is more important than another, teachers
should recognize and have students share examples of each type.

Fig. 1.3a and 1.3b.

Second graders use decomposition to represent 15.

Fig. 1.3c.
A fifth grader represents ¾ by using decomposition.

10

01_p5-12.indd 10 7/11/13 8:38 AM

 Today's Number

Fig. 1.4a and 1.4b.

A first grader (top) and second grader (bottom) represent 15 by illustrating
relationships to other numbers.

Fig. 1.4c and 1.4d.

A fourth grader (top) and fifth grader (bottom) show how ¾ is related to
other numbers.

11

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 High-Yield Routines

The open-ended nature of this routine

Adapting the allows responses from students working at
Routine a variety of levels. However, when students
are familiar with the routine, the cognitive
demand of the task may be altered by add-
ing constraints to responses generated by
the students. These constraints may be based on the mathematical content being
studied at that particular time. For example, students may be instructed to use
only certain operations as they consider representations for Today’s Number.
They may be asked to share representations that include multiples of 5 and 10
or representations that illustrate the commutative property. Students could be
instructed to provide representations of the number of the day that do not include
numbers or to make representations that include exactly three numbers. For
example, if the number of the day was 30 and students were instructed to not use
numbers in their representations, a student might suggest “The number of days in
April.” If students were required to use exactly three numbers, (8 + 2) × 3 would
be an appropriate representation of 30. In addition, students may be required to
use specific models or to avoid the use of a particular model.

Conclusion Today’s Number is a flexible, eas-

ily implemented mathematical routine that
results in improved number sense and use
of mathematical practices. The nature of the
routine allows it to be used throughout the
school year and across many grade levels, thus promoting coherence and articu-
lation. Sharing representations encourages students’ confidence, communica-
tion, and reflection on their own thinking as well as the thinking of others. As
students share and discuss their representations of Today’s Number, the teacher
will gain valuable insight into how the students are thinking about numbers and
guidance in planning future instruction.

References
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and Council of Chief
State School Officers (CCSSO). Common Core State Standards for Mathematics.
Common Core State Standards (College- and Career-Readiness Standards and K–12
Standards in English Language Arts and Math). Washington, D.C.: NGA Center and
CCSSO, 2010. http://www.corestandards.org/.
Reys, Robert, Mary M. Lindquist, Diana V. Lambdin, and Nancy L. Smith. Helping Children
Learn Mathematics. 10th ed. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
Shumway, Jessica F. Number Sense Routines: Building Numerical Literacy Every Day in Grades
K–3. Portland, Maine: Stenhouse Publishers, 2011.

12

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 CHAPTER

CHAPTER
4
CHAPTER
3
2
CHAPTER

1Mystery Number
APPENDIX

2nd Alexis, a second grader, has chosen 51 as her mystery number.

grade She reads four clues she has written to the other students in
her group:
“My number has two digits. The tens digit is four more
than the ones digit. My number is between 50 and 60.
What is my number?”
Andy uses a hundred chart to find Alexis’s mystery num-
ber. Lydia sketches a number line and locates 50 and 60.
Lucas lists the numbers between 50 and 60 as a starting
point.

4th A fourth-grade class has been learning about factors and

grade multiples. The teacher assigns each of them a mystery num-
ber and reminds them to write four clues to help their class-
mates guess the number. He asks students to use either the
word factor or the word multiple in one of their clues.
Jake reads his clues: “My number is a multiple of 6. My
number has 6 factors. My number is less than 5 × 5. What
is my number?”
After thinking for a bit, Riley says, “I think you need an-
other clue.”

13

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 High-Yield Routines

6th Sixth graders Connor and Mikayla are working together to

grade write clues for the number ¾. Here are their clues:
• The product of the numerator and denominator is 12.
• It is not an improper fraction.
• The denominator is a multiple of 4.
• The fraction is greater than ½.
They are pleased with their clues and are anxious to share
them with the rest of the class.

Implementing During the implementation of the Mystery

the Routine Number routine, students are given a variety
of mystery numbers. The students work
individually, in pairs, or in small groups to
write a series of clues for the mystery
number assigned. The number of clues to be written may be determined by the
teacher or left up to the students writing the clues. These clues are presented to
others in the class, who use them to determine the mystery number. The clues
may be revealed together or one at a time; however, revealing the clues one at a
time allows for discussion of what is learned from each clue. The creation,
sharing, and use of these clues provides a wealth of experiences with a variety of
mathematical ideas and promotes growth in the way students think about num-
bers. In addition, as students are challenged to think carefully about the clues
written and the sequencing of the clues, their critical thinking and problem-solv-
ing skills are enhanced.
The Mystery Number routine may be implemented in a variety of ways.
Teachers of early elementary students may choose to introduce the routine by
using a set of previously written clues. The students would then work as a class
to find the mystery number. As the year progresses, the teacher might choose to
have the class work together to write clues for a given number. This approach
will allow the teacher to talk with the students about the characteristics of a good
sequence of clues. In upper elementary and middle school grades, the students
may be provided different mystery numbers and challenged to create a set of
clues that would provide enough information for another student to find the mys-
tery number. These numbers may be assigned randomly or they may be carefully
chosen and assigned to allow for differentiation by ability. The students may

14

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 Mystery Number

also be allowed to select their own Mystery Numbers. Older students may also
be asked to analyze two different sets of clues for a particular mystery number
to determine the advantages and disadvantages of each set. Working in small
groups provides support to students as they use or develop clues. As students
share their clues with others in the class, the teacher has the opportunity to look
for increasing levels of sophistication in how the students are thinking about
numbers. Figure 2.1 provides examples of student work that show various levels
and styles of thinking.
Teacher questioning is an important part of implementing this routine. Ques-
tions that will enhance the reasoning and problem-solving abilities of students
include asking students to determine whether a set of clues leads to only one
number or whether multiple answers are possible, determining whether the clue
set contains extra clues, and considering the sequencing of clues.

Fig. 2.1a1 and 2.1a2.

Although the clues for 32 written by these two students are similar, the student
whose work is shown on the right understands that the clues should not be so
specific that the answer is obvious.

Fig. 2.1b1 and 2.1b2.

The fourth-grade student on the left wrote pairs of factors for 24; the other student
planned clues more strategically. The third clue is essential to solving the problem.
The clues on the right lead sequentially to the answer.

15

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 High-Yield Routines

Fig. 2.1c1 and 2.1c2.

Two seventh-grade students approach the clue creation for 3 /4 in different ways.
The student on the left uses drawings. The student on the right creates the clues
in such a way that all three are necessary to determine the answer.

Another important part of the Mystery Number routine is maintaining a re-

cord of student work on the routine. Students may create individual or class Math
Riddle books that contain the clues written for a variety of Mystery Numbers.
Additional riddles may be added to the book as the year progresses. The creation
of these books will allow the teacher (and the students themselves) an opportu-
nity to observe growth in student thinking throughout the year. This record of
student work will also allow students to look at clues written earlier in the year
and revise them. Sharing or exchanging books of these Mystery Numbers with
other classes or creating Mystery Number books for younger children are addi-
tional ways to display work on this routine.

Mathematical Mystery Number, an easily imple-

Content and mented routine, can result in positive growth
Practices in both mathematical content and mathemati-
cal practices. One benefit of the routine is
the growth in number sense it promotes.
Number sense is described by Howden (1989) as a “good intuition about numbers
and their relationships. It develops gradually as a result of exploring numbers,
visualizing them in a variety of contexts, and relating them in ways that are not
limited by traditional algorithms” (p. 11). As students create clues for a mystery
number and use clues to find a mystery number, they are exploring numbers and
thinking of them in a variety of ways. The engaging nature of Mystery Number
will encourage students of all ages, abilities, and interests to participate in the
routine. Because Mystery Number may be used with whole numbers, fractions,
percents, and integers, students at all grade levels may benefit from the use of the
routine. Furthermore, consistent use of the routine will encourage number sense

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 Mystery Number

to continue to grow and supports the idea that the development of number sense
is a lifelong process (Reys et al. 2012).
Many of the Standards for Mathematical Practice described in the Common
Core State Standards for Mathematics (National Governors Association Center
for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers 2010; see appendix
A) may be developed through the use of Mystery Number. These eight practices
describe the processes and proficiencies that math teachers at all levels strive to
develop in students. One of the eight practices describes mathematically profi-
cient students as working to communicate precisely with others. The Mystery
Number routine encourages this practice, as students carefully consider the clues
they must give for another student to guess the number. Writing clues that lead
to a single mystery number and sequencing the clues also promote precision
in communication. In addition, as students participate in the Mystery Number
routine, they attend to the meaning of quantities and create coherent representa-
tions of a problem—aspects of reasoning quantitatively. Finally, students must
consider a logical progression of statements to be used as clues, and as the clues
are shared with others, students may be called on to provide support for the clues
they created. As they do so, they get experience constructing viable arguments.

Assessing As students share the clues they create

Student with others, the teacher has an opportunity
Thinking to gain valuable information about how
students are thinking about numbers, includ-
ing looking for patterns in the clues students
write and identifying misconceptions they may hold. Mystery Number is engag-
ing and accessible to all students and, as a result, helps promote a classroom
environment that supports the importance and value of all students’ thinking.
In examining student work collected from several grade levels, we noticed
some common types of clues being created by students:
• Use of relative magnitude or less than/greater than
• Use of mathematics vocabulary
• Use of unnecessary or redundant clues
• Use of computation to provide clues
Figures 2.2–2.5 show examples of these types of clues in student work from
different grade levels.

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 High-Yield Routines

Fig. 2.2a and 2.2b.

These students use the magnitude of numbers to provide clues for the mystery num-
bers 32 and ¾, respectively.

Fig. 2.3a and 2.3b.

Clues created by these students include mathematical vocabulary (factors, ratio) to
provide clues for the mystery numbers 32 and ¾, respectively.

Fig. 2.4a and 2.4b.

Many students included redundant clues. For example, the first two clues written by
the student on the left give the same information. The student on the right wrote
that the mystery number is composite, an unnecessary clue since the factors of the
number had been listed earlier.

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 Mystery Number

Fig. 2.5a and 2.5b.

These students asked readers to compute as one of the clues. The student on the
left wrote 16 + 16, whereas the student on the right wrote 6 × 4.

Although Mystery Number is similar in some ways to the Today’s Number

routine described in chapter 1, the type of thinking required to generate clues
that lead to a particular number is different from simply writing what is known
about a number. The increased demand of writing clues for a mystery number is
reflected in the student work we collected. This routine is often more challenging
for students than Today’s Number.

Adapting the Because this routine may be used with

Routine any number, it is accessible to students
working at a variety of levels. The cogni-
tive demand of the routine may be altered
by adding some guidelines for the types of
clues that must be included. These guidelines may be specific to the mathemati-
cal content currently being studied. For example, students may be instructed to
use a particular term such as factor within their clue sets. Conversely, they may
be instructed that they may not use a certain term or operation in the clues they
create. They may be asked to create a set of clues that produces multiple possible
answers or a set of clues that has some unnecessary clues included. Students may
be instructed to include a model such as a number line as part of one of the clues
they create. Finally, in the student work we collected, many students used relative
magnitude for most or all of their clues (e.g., my number is larger than 24; my
number is less than 5 × 6). Not allowing them to use clues such as these increases
the cognitive demand and forces them to think of numbers in new ways. Mystery
Number can be adapted to incorporate other mathematical content. For example,
Mystery Number could become Mystery Shape as students write clues that lead
their classmates to identify a secret shape or combination of shapes.

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 High-Yield Routines

Conclusion Mystery Number is easily implemented,

and the use of this routine yields enhanced
number sense and increased expertise with
mathematical practices. The routine is almost
endlessly adaptable to meet the needs of
students working at various levels and at different grade levels. As students share
their clues with others and respond to the clues of classmates, they are gaining
valuable experience in communicating precisely and reasoning quantitatively.
Teachers will gain insight into how their students are thinking about numbers as
they listen to students share and work with clues leading to the mystery number.

References
Howden, Hilde. “Teaching Number Sense.” Arithmetic Teacher 36 (February 1989): 6–11.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and Council of Chief
State School Officers (CCSSO). Common Core State Standards for Mathematics.
Common Core State Standards (College- and Career-Readiness Standards and K–12
Standards in English Language Arts and Math). Washington, D.C.: NGA Center and
CCSSO, 2010. http://www.corestandards.org/.
Reys, Robert, Mary M. Lindquist, Diana V. Lambdin, and Nancy L. Smith. Helping Children
Learn Mathematics. 10th ed. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2012.

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 CHAPTER

CHAPTER
5
CHAPTER
4
CHAPTER
3
Alike
2 and Different
CHAPTER

1
APPENDIX

1st In a first-grade classroom, the teacher writes the numbers

grade 11 and 17 on the board. She asks the children to think
about how the numbers are different and how they are
alike. After a few minutes, she asks students to share what
they thought. As they share, she creates a list of their re-
sponses on the board:
• Both are made with straight lines.
• Both are more than 10.
• Both have two digits.
• 17 is more than 11.
• The digits are the same for 11 but not for 17.

4th In the same school, the fourth-grade classes have been

grade learning about fractions. At the beginning of class one
day, the teacher asks Terry to suggest a fraction. Terry
chooses 3/4. When Nancy is asked to suggest a fraction, she
responds by selecting 5/8. The teacher asks the students to
use their whiteboards to create a list of the ways 3/4 and
5/8 are alike and the ways they are different. Terry’s list

includes the following:

• Both are fractions.
• Both are less than 1.
• Both have odd numbers in the numerators.
• 3/4 is larger.

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6th After working with fraction, decimal, and percent equiva-

grade lencies, a sixth-grade teacher asks her students to work
in pairs to create a list of the ways 0.62, 5/8, and 61% are
alike and the ways they differ. After a few minutes, she
asks each pair to share their work with another pair. Trish,
Cindy, Bob, and David list the following:
• All are greater than 1/2.
• They are not equal.
• They are all close to 60%.
• They are different representations.
• You could write all of them as fractions.

Implementing The Alike and Different routine involves

the Routine presenting students with two or more numbers,
shapes, properties, and so forth. The students
are then asked to think about and suggest ways
in which the two are alike and the ways they
are different. Silver (2010) suggests that such comparative thinking develops
early and is important. He adds, “Without the ability to make comparisons—to
set one object or idea against another and take note of similarities and differ-
ences—much of what we call learning would quite literally be impossible” (p. 6).
In addition, Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock (2001) list identifying similarities
and differences as one of the nine categories of instructional strategies proven to
increase student achievement.
The Alike and Different routine may be implemented in a variety of manners
depending on the needs of the students. The teacher may choose to preselect the
items to be compared. For example, he or she may want to focus the students’
thinking on the similarities and differences between prisms and pyramids. Care-
ful selection of the numbers, shapes, properties, and so forth, to be compared
allows the teacher to focus student thinking on the desired mathematical concept.
Student choice could be incorporated by establishing some parameters, asking
each student to choose and record two numbers, and then having each student
exchange numbers with another student. In addition, the items to be compared
could be drawn randomly from a box containing a variety of possibilities, or

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 Alike and Different

students could be asked to suggest items for all in the class to consider.
The benefit to be gained from this routine will be increased by allowing
students some quiet, individual thinking and recording time before sharing with
others. After this, the teacher may choose to have students share in pairs, in
small groups, or as a class. Allowing students to hear how others thought about
the numbers or shapes being considered and how they are alike and different will
enhance the learning of all. Encouraging students to explain and justify their
choices of how the items are alike and different will provide valuable experience
in using reasoning to construct mathematical arguments. In addition, asking a
student to explain the reasoning of another student emphasizes the importance of
listening in the communication process.
Recording student responses by using a Venn diagram or other graphic orga-
nizer is helpful with this routine. Venn diagrams clearly indicate the similarities
and differences of the two numbers, shapes, and so forth. Figure 3.1 shows Venn
diagrams created by students completing the Alike and Different routine. The
first diagram was used by a fifth grader thinking about 3/4 and 5/8, whereas the
second was used by a seventh grader comparing 5/8 and 61%. (Interestingly, al-
though most of the students had been exposed to Venn diagrams, in the work we
collected, few students used a Venn diagram without teacher prompting.) Posting
class diagrams or having students work in journals or individual notebooks will
provide an ongoing record that allows the teacher to see growth in the sophisti-
cation of the students’ thinking. This strategy will also enable children to look
back at the ways they thought about particular numbers or shapes that they had
considered previously.

Fig. 3.1.
Students use Venn diagrams to show how two numbers are alike
and different.

3.1a. A fifth-grade student organized his thinking about

how 5 /8 and 3 /4 are alike and different by using a Venn
diagram.

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 High-Yield Routines

3.1b. A seventh-grade student used a Venn diagram

to show how 5 /8 and 61% are alike and different,
although the use of Alike and Different as the labels
is unexpected.

Mathematical The flexibility of the Alike and Different

Content and routine allows it to be used with a wide variety
Practices of mathematical content. Encouraging chil-
dren to compare a variety of pairs of numbers
will assist in the development of their number
sense. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000), in its Principles
and Standards for School Mathematics, suggests that instructional programs
should equip children to understand numbers, ways of representing numbers,
relationships among numbers, and number systems. As students consider pairs of
numbers and how they are both alike and different, they will be gaining experi-
ence in identifying the relationships between numbers, and as a result, their un-
derstanding of numbers will increase. In addition, this routine may also be used
for other mathematical ideas. For example, students may be asked to compare
triangles and quadrilaterals, area and perimeter, mean and median, experimental

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 Alike and Different

and theoretical probability, rotations and reflections, or the commutative and as-
sociative properties. Because of the variety of mathematical content that may be
used with this routine, it is very adaptable to many grade levels and abilities.
As students compare numbers, they will have the opportunity to develop the
eight Standards for Mathematical Practice described in the Common Core State
Standards for Mathematics (National Governors Association Center for Best
Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers 2010; see appendix A). One
of the standards, reason abstractly and quantitatively, includes the ability to cre-
ate coherent representations of a problem, to attend to the meaning of the quanti-
ties involved, and to flexibly use different properties of operations and objects.
As students identify similarities and differences between numbers and objects,
they will gain valuable experience in each of these practices. A second Standard
for Mathematical Practice describes mathematically proficient students as having
the ability to construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.
The description of this standard states, “Students at all grades can listen or read
the arguments of others, decide whether they make sense, and ask useful ques-
tions to clarify or improve the arguments” (p. 7). As students explain the charac-
teristics they identified as being alike or different and listen to the reasoning of
others, they will be moving toward meeting this standard.

The time spent allowing students to share

Assessing their work and as a result learn from each other
Student is an important part of this routine. Asking
Thinking students to share in pairs or small groups prior
to a class discussion will provide time for the
teacher to look for and sequence ideas to be
presented during the class discussion. Sequencing so that simplier similarities
and differences are shared first and the more sophisticated ideas are shared later
in the discussion will ensure that all students have the opportunity to participate
and learn. Figures 3.2 and 3.3 illustrate how students at two different grade levels
thought about two numbers and the similarities and differences they noted. The
work shown provides an example of how a teacher might choose to sequence the
sharing of similarities and differences.

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 High-Yield Routines

Fig. 3.2.
Second-grade student work for the task of describing how 29 and 50
are alike and different

3.2a. The obvious similarity and difference noted by this student would be a
good starting point for class sharing.

3.2b. This student shares an incorrect likeness between the numbers. However,
the differences noted are more specific than those in the above example.

3.2c. This student classifies the numbers as odd or even. An interesting

follow-up question would be to ask the student how she knows whether
a number is odd or even.

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 Alike and Different

Fig. 3.3.
Fifth-grade student work for the task of describing how 3 /4 and 5 /8
are alike and different.

3.3a. The response given by this student contains an obvious similarity

and difference and would best be shared early in the class discussion.

3.3b. A more detailed response is given by this student, who drew a pic-
ture to support the statement that the two fractions are not equivalent.

3.3c. This student identified only similarities but did notice several ways
that the fractions were alike.

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 High-Yield Routines

Adapting the Alike and Different is an open-ended

Routine task that allows responses from students work-
ing at any level. Students are free to suggest
basic similarities or differences or much more
sophisticated and less obvious ones. The level
of cognitive demand of the task may be altered in a variety of ways. For example,
the teacher may ask each student to suggest a specified number of similarities or
differences. Choosing items to be compared when one item is a subset of the oth-
er also alters the demand of the task. For example, describing how triangles and
quadrilaterals are alike and different is a much more straightforward task than
describing the similarities and differences between squares and rectangles. Since
squares are special rectangles and thus have the same properties, thinking about
how to describe the difference between the two is interesting and challenging.
Identifying specific terms to be included in the list of similarities and differences
also changes the cognitive demand and allows the teacher to focus on particular
mathematics content. For example, students might be asked to list how 24 and 36
are alike and different with the requirement that the terms factor and multiple be
used. Depending on the terms specified, this may provide a level of support for
students struggling with identifying similarities and differences. Alternatively,
the required terms may be chosen to present a challenge as students compare the
two items under consideration.

Conclusion The Alike and Different routine is

easily implemented and flexible, in that a wide
variety of mathematical content may be incor-
porated. The routine may be used at any point
during a lesson and is appropriate for use at
any grade level. As students explain and justify
their choices, they grow in mathematical content knowledge and the ability to
reason and communicate about mathematical ideas.

References
Marzano, Robert J., Debra J. Pickering, and Jane E. Pollock. Classroom Instruction That Works:
Research-Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement. Alexandria, Va.: As-
sociation for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2001.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). Principles and Standards for School
Mathematics. Reston, Va.: NCTM, 2000.

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 Alike and Different

National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and Council of Chief
State School Officers (CCSSO). Common Core State Standards for Mathematics.
Common Core State Standards (College- and Career-Readiness Standards and K–12
Standards in English Language Arts and Math). Washington, D.C.: NGA Center and
CCSSO, 2010. http://www.corestandards.org/.
Silver, Harvey F. Compare and Contrast: Teaching Comparative Thinking to Strengthen Student
Learning. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development,
2010.

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 page 30 blank

03_p21-30.indd 30 7/11/13 8:49 AM

 CHAPTER

CHAPTER
6
CHAPTER
5
CHAPTER
4
Number
3 Lines
CHAPTER

2
CHAPTER

1
1st
grade
First graders Kristen and Jagan are working together to
APPENDIX locate 13 on a number line with only 10 and 20 marked.

10 20

Jagan quickly states that 13 is closer to 10 than to 20, so 13

should be marked 400“pretty close” to the 800
10 on the number
line. Kristen agrees but pushes for a more precise loca-
tion of 13. She says, “15 would be the middle, right? So 15
would be here.” She draws a tick mark for 15. “Let’s count
backwards from here to see where 13 would be.” Kristen
draws two more tick marks for 14 and 13.

4th A fourth-grade class has been asked to determine the

grade number being indicated by an arrow pointing to a number
10 20
line.

400 800

Becca, Mahmoud, and Paul are discussing their thinking.

Becca comments, “I think the arrow is at 500 because
halfway between 400 and 800 is 600. The arrow is about
halfway between 400 and where 600 is. So it’s 500.” Paul
disagrees, “No, it’s 410 because it is close to the 400 mark
but not right on it.” Mahmoud adds, “I think Becca is right.
The arrow is about one-quarter of the way to 800.”

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 High-Yield Routines

6th During a preassessment, a sixth-grade teacher asks his stu-

grade dents to determine where 3/5 would be located on a number
line with 0 and 1 marked. After giving them time to work
individually, he collects their work. He notices many different
responses and reasons given to support the responses. Some
students divide the space between 0 and 1 and use this to
help them locate 3/5. Others convert 3/5 to a decimal and use
this to help determine the location of 3/5. Several students
use benchmark fractions such as 1/2 and 3/4 to help with lo-
cating 3/5.

Implementing The Number Line routine involves pre-

the Routine senting students with a number line that may
have only one or two values marked on it. The
students are then asked to locate a particular
value or determine the value of an indicated
location and explain their thinking. The number line is a powerful, coherent, and
unifying model that may be used across multiple grade levels to develop number
sense and computational proficiency. In addition, the Common Core State Stan-
dards for Mathematics (National Governors Association Center for Best Practic-
es and Council of Chief State School Officers 2010) refers often to the use of the
number line. However, Frykholm (2010) comments, “One of the most overlooked
tools of the elementary and middle school classroom is the number line. Typi-
cally displayed above the chalkboard right above the alphabet, the number line is
often visible to children, though rarely used as effectively as it might be” (p. 5).
The Number Line routine is flexible and allows for a variety of implementa-
tion strategies. The teacher may choose to display a class number line and have
all the students work on locating the same value. For example, a number line
with 0 and 1 marked on it is displayed and all students are asked to locate ¾
and to be prepared to share their thinking. Allowing students to work in pairs
or small groups to locate values may be beneficial in enhancing number sense,
because children will then hear how others think about the magnitude of num-
bers. The teacher may also choose to give individuals or small groups different
numbers, allowing the conversation to focus on relative magnitudes. This allows
the teacher to differentiate based on the needs and abilities of the students in the
class. Also, Bay (2001) suggests using a rope held at each end by students in the
class to create a life-sized number line. Using a long rope or simply creating a

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 Number Lines

large number line on a wall will allow students to more precisely locate values
since smaller partitions may be used. Students may also be asked to establish two
points on a number line, mark a location between those two points, and exchange
number lines with another group. The group will then work together to deter-
mine the value of the marked location.
The Number Line routine may also be used with computation. For example,
a student may be asked to use an empty number line to solve 42 − 29. An empty
number line (a number line with no numbers or markers) is a tool that may enhance
students’ mental math skills and proficiency with operations. When using an empty
number line, students mark only the numbers that are needed for their calculations
(Bobis 2007). In so doing, their thinking strategies are revealed. Figure 4.1 shows
three different methods of solving 42 − 29 by using empty number lines.

Fig. 4.1.
Three different student methods of solving 42 − 29 by using an
empty number line

Bobis (2007) describes the link between an empty number line and the intui-
tive mental strategies children use as an advantage. She suggests that students
will first focus on counting strategies and then, as they become more proficient,
move to using combinations of counting strategies and partitioning strategies.
The empty number line can also encourage the use of more sophisticated strate-
gies as students record their computational strategies on the number line and
share their thinking with others. This process also allows the teacher to see mis-
conceptions and adjust instruction accordingly (Bobis 2007).

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 High-Yield Routines

As with many mathematical routines, students will benefit from being al-
lowed some individual time to think and record their thinking before sharing with
others. Having students share the thinking process they used to determine the
location of a value or the value of an indicated location will help develop the num-
ber sense of all students in the class. Also, in sharing their thinking with others,
students will get practice in communicating mathematically.

Mathematical The Number Line routine may be used at

Content and multiple grade levels to enhance number sense
Practices and computational proficiency. Students in the
lower elementary grades use number lines to
develop an understanding of the magnitude
and order of whole numbers. Van de Walle, Karp, and Bay-Williams (2010) do
caution that a number line can initially present conceptual difficulties for young
students owing to the difficulty in seeing the unit when it appears on a continu-
ous line. In addition, they suggest difficulty may arise because a number line
marks a shift from counting a number of objects in a collection to units of length.
They advise teachers to emphasize the unit (length) to avoid misconceptions aris-
ing from student focus on the hash marks instead of the spaces between them.
Figure 4.2 shows examples of work from second graders.

Fig. 4.2.
Examples of second-grade work locating 13 on a number line

4.2a. This student marked and then erased tick marks to help with
locating 13. The student then counted to locate 13 fairly accurately.

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 Number Lines

4.2b. This second grader considered how 13 compared to 10 but did not
appear to have considered 20 in locating 13 accurately.

4.2c. This second grader did not partition the length but did use the
relative magnitudes of 10, 13, and 20 in locating 13 on the number line.

As students move into upper elementary grades, the number line continues
to be a valuable tool for number sense development. Varied levels of understand-
ing and explanation are commonly seen in the work of students. Figure 4.3 shows
the work of some fourth-grade students asked to determine the value marked by
an arrow placed on a number line with 400 and 800 marked.

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 High-Yield Routines

Fig. 4.3.
Four examples of fourth-grade work determining the value of a
location marked on the number line

4.3a. This student marked and then erased tick marks to help with locating
13. The student then counted to locate 13 fairly accurately.

4.3b. Interestingly, this student did not consider the 800 in determining
the value of the arrow. Another interesting aspect of the work is that
although the student made two tick marks after 400, he labeled the
second 500.

4.3c. The fourth-grade student’s process results in a correct answer, but her
explanation does not fully explain how she thought about the number line.

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 Number Lines

4.3d. This fourth grader correctly gave a value for the arrow as well as a
complete explanation of the thinking that supports the answer.

Bay (2001) suggests many uses for the number line in the upper grades. For
example, the relative size of very large numbers can be explored using number
lines. Students may be asked to locate 4,096 on a number line with 0 and 10,000
marked. Then the upper point is changed to 100,000 or 1,000,000, causing stu-
dents to relocate 4,096.
Rounding numbers is difficult for many students, and the use of a number
line may provide the visual representation needed to overcome this difficulty.
The Number Line routine can be adapted to include problems asking students to
use the number line to round. For example, suppose students are asked to round
578 to the nearest hundred. Marking 500 and 600 on the number line since 578
is between them, marking the halfway point of 550, and then marking 578 on the
number line will help students realize that 578 is nearer 600 and thus rounds to
600 (see fig. 4.4).

Fig. 4.4.
Use of a number line to assist in rounding

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 High-Yield Routines

The Common Core State Standards for Mathematics (National Governors

Association Center for Best Practices [NGA Center] and Council of Chief State
School Officers [CCSSO] 2010) calls for students in third grade to understand a
fraction as a number on the number line and to represent fractions on a number
line diagram. Reys and colleagues (2012) emphasize the need for students to have
many prior experiences with number lines before being asked to understand the
number line as a model for fractions. The difficulties students have in locating
rational numbers on a number line are illustrated in figure 4.5, which shows the
responses of some fifth graders asked to locate 3/5 on a number line and explain
their thinking.

Fig. 4.5.
Fifth-grade students locate 3 /5 on a number line and explain
their thinking.

4.5a. This student mistakenly believes that fractions

are less than 0.

4.5b. The student does not understand the whole as a unit

of length and instead partitions the entire line into fifths.

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 Number Lines

4.5c. This student understands that fractions and decimals are related but
fails to see that an error in computation produces an unreasonable answer.

The use of the Number Line routine with rational numbers helps overcome
the difficulty students face in using the number line model. Teachers will want to
consider marking the number line with negatives and with numbers greater than
1 to allow for the development and discussion of misconceptions regarding the
location of rational numbers on the number line.
An interesting use of the number line to develop algebraic reasoning is sug-
gested by Bay (2001). She suggests the use of the number line to explore algebra-
ic expressions. The number 0 is placed on the number line and then the variable x
is placed arbitrarily on the line, allowing the students to know whether x repre-
sents a positive or negative value. Students are asked to determine the location of
expressions such as 3x, x2 , x + 2, and x – 5. After placing the expressions on the
number line, the students are asked to consider whether the placement is possible
and whether the location marked is the only place the value could be located.
As students locate values on the number line and find the value of specified
locations, they can use and develop many of the eight Standards for Mathemati-
cal Practice described in the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics
(see appendix A). By using the Number Line routine, students come to see the
number line as a useful tool and can use it strategically and appropriately to solve
problems. Using the number line assists them in reasoning quantitatively and
requires them to use precision with the number line as well as in communicating

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 High-Yield Routines

their thinking about the number line. Finally, as students explain their thinking
to others, they are gaining experience in constructing viable arguments while
learning to listen and critique the reasoning of others.

Allowing students time to share their

Assessing work with the Number Line routine is an im-
Student portant part of the routine. As teachers observe
Thinking students working together and sharing their
thinking, teachers will gain beneficial insight
into the misconceptions students may have re-
garding the magnitude of numbers or about number lines. Some of these miscon-
ceptions are illustrated in the student work shown in figure 4.6.

Fig. 4.6.
Student work illustrating some misconceptions students hold

4.6a. A fourth-grade student has the misconception that a point on a number

line can be labeled with any value as long as the value is between the indi-
cated endpoints.

4.6b. This fourth grader fails to consider the magnitude of the marked 800 in
describing “halfway.”

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 Number Lines

4.6c. The explanation offered by this fifth grader indicates

that she does not understand the use of the denominator in
locating a fraction on a number line.

4.6d. A lack of understanding of the magnitude of

fractions is shown in the work of this fifth-grade
student.

Knowledge of these misconceptions will allow the teacher to modify instruc-

tion to address the misconceptions. Probing to better understand misconceptions
is necessary. For example, the work in figure 4.7 might indicate that a student
does not understand where 13 is located in comparison to 10 and 20. However,
in reading the student’s explanation that 13 is closer to 10 than to 20, the teacher
will realize that the student does in fact understand the relative magnitudes of the
number but is not connecting that knowledge to the visual representation of the
number line.
When using an empty number line with computation, a careful selection of
the student work to be shared with the class will encourage students to grow in
computational proficiency. As students work, the teacher has the opportunity to
select examples of more sophisticated thinking. For example, teachers may look

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 High-Yield Routines

for students who are successfully counting by tens from any starting value. They
may also look for students who are successfully bridging tens in their work. To
solve 9 + 4, the student partitions 4 into 1 + 3. The student adds in part:
(9 + 1) + 3 = 13 (Bobis 2007).

Fig. 4.7.
The student understands the relative magnitude of the numbers
but cannot accurately represent this on the number line.

Adapting the The Number Line routine may be adapted

Routine so that students working at any level respond
successfully. The numbers to be located or
the points provided may be varied to alter the
demand of the task. For example, if students
are asked to locate /5 on a number line, marking 0, 1, and 2 increases the diffi-
3
culty of the task. If students are being asked to determine the value of a location
marked between 200 and 300, moving the location closer to the halfway mark
may make the task more accessible to some students. If the empty number line is
being used as a tool for computation, providing a variety of problems will allow
for differentiation. For example, 45 + 23 is less demanding than 45 + 26 because
of the need to bridge tens in the second example.

Conclusion The Number Line routine is easily imple-

mented and quite flexible in the mathemati-
cal content and level of demand that may be
incorporated. Because of the flexibility of

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 Number Lines

the routine, it may be used with students at any grade level. The number line is
an important mathematical tool, and the use of this routine provides valuable
experience in the use of the tool. Also, the frequent use of the number line in the
elementary grades will help ease the transition to thinking about fractions on the
number line. The routine encourages students to present viable mathematical ar-
guments, attend to precision in mathematical communication, and become more
proficient with quantitative reasoning.

References
Bay, Jennifer. “Developing Number Sense on the Number Line.” Mathematics Teaching in the
Middle School 6 (April 2001): 448–51.
Bobis, Janette. “The Empty Number Line: A Useful Tool or Just Another Procedure?” Teaching
Children Mathematics 13 (April 2007): 410–13.
Frykholm, Jeffrey. Learning to Think Mathematically with the Number Line, K–5. Boulder, Colo.:
Cloudbreak Publishing, 2010.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and Council of Chief
State School Officers (CCSSO). Common Core State Standards for Mathematics.
Common Core State Standards (College- and Career-Readiness Standards and K–12
Standards in English Language Arts and Math). Washington, D.C.: NGA Center and
CCSSO, 2010. http://www.corestandards.org/.
Reys, Robert E., Mary M. Lindquist, Diana V. Lambdin, and Nancy L. Smith. Helping Children
Learn Mathematics. 10th ed. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley and Sons, 2012.
Van de Walle, John A., Karen S. Karp, and Jennifer M. Bay-Williams. Elementary and Middle
School Mathematics: Teaching Developmentally. Boston: Pearson, 2010.

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04_p31-44.indd 44 7/11/13 8:50 AM

 CHAPTER

CHAPTER
7
CHAPTER
6
CHAPTER
5
Quick4
Images
CHAPTER

CHAPTER
3
1st
grade
CHAPTER
2
1
APPENDIX A first-grade teacher shows this dot arrangement to her
students for a few seconds. The students are then asked to
tell how many dots they saw and how they knew.

Ashley says, “There are four dots on the top row and three
dots on the bottom row. Four and three more is seven.” “I
saw two dots going up and down. There’s three of those
and then one extra,” adds Derrick. Bradley comments, “I
kind of thought that, too, but I see six and then one stick-
ing out.”

3rd
grade

A similar exercise is taking place down the hall in a third-

grade classroom. When asked to determine how many
dots are in the arrangement above, students offer several
different explanations.

Kayla notices there are four sets of four dots and con-
cludes there are 16 dots in all since 4 × 4 = 16.

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 High-Yield Routines

Julius also concludes there are 16 dots but explains that he

saw four dots in each group and 4 + 4 = 8 for the top part of
the arrangement. Since the bottom part is the same as the
top, there are 16 dots since 8 + 8 = 16.

6th
grade

A sixth-grade teacher shows her class the figure above for a

brief time. She then asks them to draw what they saw and to
explain how they saw it.

Kieran writes, “I saw a rhombus with four triangles connect-

ed to it.” Cooper’s explanation differs. He describes what he
saw as a hexagon divided into pieces with one of the pieces
being bigger than the others. “I saw a three-dimensional
cube,” writes Samantha. Zach comments that he saw a hexa-
gon with triangles inside it.

Implementing
the Routine When implementing the Quick Im-
ages routine, the teacher projects or holds up
an image. The image may be an arrangement
of dots, ten-frames, geometric figures, and so
forth. After seeing the image for a very brief period, students are asked to tell
the quantity shown or to draw or build a copy of what they saw. In addition, they
are asked to explain how they saw the image. The teacher may choose to show
the image for a second time to allow students an opportunity to revise and refine
their mental image.
The ability to instantly see how many are in a small group is an example
of the use of subitizing (Reys et al. 2012). Reys and colleagues provide several

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 Quick Images

reasons why the ability to subitize is important. First, recognizing the quantity
in a small group saves time because it is faster than counting each member in the
group. Second, subitizing is a forerunner of powerful ideas related to number.
For example, children who subitize demonstrate the knowledge of order rela-
tionships (4 is more than 2, and 4 is one less than 5). A third important aspect
of subitizing is that it helps children develop more sophisticated counting tech-
niques such as counting on. Finally, the ability to subitize assists with developing
proficiency with addition and subtraction since students will not have to count
but can instead focus on the action of the operation (Reys et al. 2012). Clements
and Sarama (2009) state that subitizing starts developing very early and, when
developed well, provides a foundation for mathematics through elementary,
middle school, high school, and beyond.
Clements (1999) describes two types of subitizing. First, perceptual subi-
tizing is the ability to perceive a quantity intuitively. This type of subitizing is
demonstrated with small numbers. The second type of subitizing, conceptual
subitizing, is the ability to see parts and put them together to create the whole.
The explanations shown in the student work in figure 5.1 are examples of con-
ceptual subitizing.

Fig. 5.1a1 and 5.1a2.

First-grade students explain how they saw this
arrangement.

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 High-Yield Routines

Fig. 5.1b1, 5.1b2, 5.1b3, 5.1b4.

Fourth-grade students describe how they saw this arrangement.

The Quick Images routine may be differentiated in many ways. Shumway

(2011) suggests the use of several models, including dot cards, domino patterns,
pictures, and dice patterns for subitizing. She comments that this variety of
experiences will encourage children to think flexibly and will give the teacher
knowledge of the depth of student understanding. Clements and Sarama (2009)
provide a list of variations on the Quick Images routine:

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 Quick Images

• Ask students to use manipulatives to re-create what they saw.

• Show several cards that all but one show the same number. Children
are to determine which card does not match.
• Have children play a memory game with a rule in place that allows
only a very short glimpse of what is turned over.
• Have children spread out a set of cards with 0 to 10 dots shown. Call a
number and the child is to quickly pick up the card that matches.
• Ask students to name the number that is one or two more or less than
the number shown on the Quick Image. (p. 11)
Asking students to explain how they “saw” the arrangement and knew the
quantity or how they saw an arrangement of geometric shapes is an important
part of the Quick Images routine. As students listen to explanations of others’
thinking regarding Quick Images, they will “build a stronger visual under-
standing of amounts and relationships among numbers” (Shumway 2011, p. 42).
Recording the thinking of students is also important. Teachers may choose to
display arrangements on class charts and record all the ways students saw the
arrangement. Such a practice will encourage growth in the ways students think
about quantities.

Mathematical The use of the Quick Images routine with

Content and number arrangements promotes a founda-
Practices tion for the development of number sense. As
described above, the ability to subitize assists
students in developing sophisticated counting
techniques and with the development of addition and subtraction. In later grades,
Quick Images may be used to help students visualize multiplicative ideas (Shum-
way 2011). For example, as seen in the third-grade vignette at the beginning of
this chapter, students could be shown four groups of four dots to encourage them
to see this as 4 × 4, or 16, dots. As students perform the Quick Images rou-
tine, they will have the opportunity to advance their mental math skills as they
become more efficient and automatic with quantities (Shumway 2011). Showing
students arrangements that are too large to subitize will provide practice with
estimation. Quick Images could also be collections of base-ten blocks with the
blocks being ungrouped by place value (see fig. 5.2). As the image is shown, stu-
dents would need to mentally collect the place-value pieces to find the value.

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 High-Yield Routines

Fig. 5.2.
Arrangement of base-ten blocks not grouped by place
values

Quick Images can also be used to enhance the spatial skills of students.
Students can be shown arrangements of geometric shapes for a short time and
then be asked to draw what they saw. Having students write explanations about
how they saw the arrangement provides a great deal of information about how
students are thinking about geometric figures. As a variation, students could be
asked to provide a set of directions verbally to another student so that the second
student can re-create the drawing.
The Common Core State Standards for Mathematics (National Governors
Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Of-
ficers 2010) describes eight mathematical practices that educators should strive
to develop in all students (see the complete text of all the practices in appendix
A). The Quick Images routine allows students the opportunity to use structure,
one of the practices, as they think about and describe how they saw a Quick Im-
age. An example of the use of structure is found in the explanation provided by
a student who sees the image shown in figure 5.3 and states that there are seven
dots because there are three groups of two and one more. A pair of students may
realize that although one of them sees four dots and three more while the other
one sees three dots and four more, they will both see seven dots all together. This
visual example of the commutative property is another example of the use of
structure.

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 Quick Images

Fig. 5.3.
Dot arrangement shown to students

If students are asked to write an addition sentence to represent the Quick

Image they saw, the mathematical practice of modeling with mathematics is be-
ing used. Finally, if students are asked to communicate what they saw, they must
attend to precision. For example, suppose the arrangement in figure 5.4 is shown
to one student and he or she is asked to describe the arrangement so that a second
student could reproduce it. If precise communication is not used, the task will be
quite difficult for the second student.

Fig. 5.4.
Geometric arrangement shown to students

Assessing The use of the Quick Images routine

Student and the student explanations that are part of
Thinking the routine provide a great deal of information
about how students are thinking about quanti-
ties. Listening to how students “saw” a quan-
tity will provide insight into the number sense and mental mathematics of the
students. The teacher will also see examples of the development of flexibility in

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 High-Yield Routines

working with quantities. When arrangements of geometric drawings are used for
Quick Images, the vocabulary used provides information regarding the students’
understanding of geometric concepts. The examples shown in figure 5.6 show the
variety of ways students saw the geometric arrangement shown in figure 5.5.

Fig. 5.5.
Geometric arrangement shown to
students

Fig. 5.6a, 5.6b, 5.6c, and 5.6d.

Seventh-grade students describe how they saw the geometric arrangement in
figure 5.5.

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 Quick Images

Shumway (2011) provides an extensive list of questions that teachers may use
to assess students’ thinking. These questions include the following:
• How many did you see?
• How did you know it so quickly?
• Did you need to count?
• Did you count each dot, or did you just see the amount?
• How did you combine the dots to know how many? (p. 22)

Adapting the The Quick Images routine may be

Routine adapted by varying the images used. Starting
with arrangements of very small quantities
will provide practice with perceptual subitiz-
ing, whereas arrangements of larger values
will encourage the use of conceptual subitizing. The use of Quick Images may be
extended into upper grade levels as well. For example, students could be shown
an image like the one in figure 5.7 and asked to provide the ratio of shaded to
unshaded circles.

Fig. 5.7.
Example of image to be used with
upper grade levels

Conclusion The Quick Images routine is easy to

implement while providing opportunities for
students to develop and improve foundational
mathematical concepts and skills. Because of
the routine’s flexibility, it may be used with
students at a variety of grade levels and for a variety of purposes. Number sense

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 High-Yield Routines

and flexibility with addition and subtraction are two important areas of math-
ematics enhanced with the use of Quick Images. In addition, the routine provides
valuable experience in attending to precision, modeling with mathematics, and
using the structure of mathematics.

References
Clements, Douglas. H. “Subitizing: What Is It? Why Teach It?” Teaching Children Mathematics 5
(March 1999): 400–05.
Clements, Douglas H., and Julie Sarama. Learning and Teaching Early Math: The Learning Tra-
jectories Approach. New York: Routledge, 2009.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and Council of Chief
State School Officers (CCSSO). Common Core State Standards for Mathematics.
Common Core State Standards (College- and Career-Readiness Standards and K–12
Standards in English Language Arts and Math). Washington, D.C.: NGA Center and
CCSSO, 2010. http://www.corestandards.org/.
Reys, Robert E., Mary M. Lindquist, Diana V. Lambdin, and Nancy L. Smith. Helping Children
Learn Mathematics. 10th ed. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley and Sons, 2012.
Shumway, Jessica F. Number Sense Routines: Building Numerical Literacy Every Day in Grades
K–3. Portland, Maine: Stenhouse Publishers, 2011.

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 CHAPTER

CHAPTER
8
CHAPTER
7
CHAPTER
6
Guess My
5 Rule
CHAPTER

CHAPTER
4
2nd
grade
CHAPTER
3
A second-grade teacher shows her students a function
machine with the rule “Subtract 6” written on it. She asks

2
the students to create a list of “in” numbers and “out”
numbers.
CHAPTER

1
IN IN
IN OUT
Rule: 2 6
APPENDIX Subtract 6 OUT OUT
4 12
7 21

Ethan and Julius use a small whiteboard to begin record-

ing their number pairs. Ethan suggests 10 as an in number
with 4 as the out number. Julius says, “Let’s put a 5 in.
What would the out number be?” Ethan questions, “Will it
work?”

3rd Third graders Joe and Andi are working together to find
grade the rule being used to create the “in” and “out” numbers
shown in the table below.

IN IN
IN OUT
Rule: 2 6
Subtract 6 OUT OUT
4 12
7 21

Joe says, “The rule is to add 4 because 2 + 4 = 6.” Andi

responds, “That won’t work, Joe, because 4 + 4 doesn’t
equal 12.” “Is there more than one rule?” wonders Joe.

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 High-Yield Routines

6th Jamie, a sixth grader, carefully unfolds the piece of paper

grade her teacher had just given her. She reads, “Multiply by five,
and add 2.” Jamie and her partner Sam are playing a game
of Guess My Rule. Sam’s task is to guess the rule Jamie is
holding. Sam suggests 2 as an input number. Jamie thinks
for a minute and then tells Sam that the output number
is 12. Sam says, “I know! The rule is multiply by 6!” After
Jamie tells him this is not the correct rule, he suggests 5
as an input number. Jamie responds, “The output number
would be 27.” Sam says, “I’m not sure what the rule would
be, but it has to have multiplication because the outputs
are so much bigger than the inputs.”

Implementing Guess My Rule is a routine that involves

the Routine having students analyze a set of number pairs
to determine the rule that describes the rela-
tionship between them. The routine may also
be implemented in a way that asks students to
work from a given rule to generate a set of “in” and “out” numbers that would be
created from the rule. This flexible, easily implemented routine provides the op-
portunity for students to develop algebraic thinking as they look for relationships
among quantities. Soares, Blanton, and Kaput (2006) describe algebraic thinking
as “a process in which students build general mathematical relationships and ex-
press these relationships in increasingly sophisticated ways” (p. 228). The Guess
My Rule routine will encourage this thinking and representation of relationships.
Guess My Rule can be implemented in a variety of ways. Function machines
can be used with the Guess My Rule routine. Function machines have a place
for numbers to be input and a place for the result to be output. Within the “ma-
chine,” a rule tells the machine what mathematical operations to perform on the
input number to obtain the output number. Using a physical model of a function
machine and a bit of drama on the part of the teacher increases the enjoyment
students get from the routine. Reeves (2006) describes a first-grade teacher who
created a function machine with a box large enough for students to physically
get inside. She introduced the machine to her students by having a helper add
pencils to the number of pencils input. In addition, students could be asked to
create their own physical models for a function machine. Drawings of a function

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 Guess My Rule

machine could also be created and laminated so that a variety of Guess My Rule
games could be played.
Students may be provided the rule and then asked to determine the output
generated for a given input. In addition, they may also be given a set of inputs
and outputs and asked to determine the rule that describes the relationship
between these. Older students can be asked to create their own rules for Guess
My Rule. Each of these methods of implementation provides students valuable
experience with algebraic thinking.
Recording the work of students provides ongoing assessment for teachers.
Students may record Guess My Rule problems in individual journals so that they
may look back at previously worked problems for guidance on new ones. Whole-
group work on Guess My Rule could be recorded on large charts and displayed
for quick reference by students. Asking students to explain their solution strate-
gies and thinking in written form is also a valuable practice.
Regardless of how the routine is implemented, an important part of the rou-
tine is allowing time for students to verbally describe how they thought about the
relationship among the quantities to solve the task presented. Students could be
asked to work on the problem individually, work with a partner, or participate in
a whole-class discussion about Guess My Rule. The time spent having students
explain their thinking and approaches to a problem will result in the enhanced
algebraic thinking of students and an improved ability to make mathematical
arguments.

Mathematical The Guess My Rule routine can be

Content and used at many different grade levels to engage
Practices students and enhance algebraic thinking. It is
a good way to introduce young students to the
idea of functions. In the simplest terms, a func-
tion is a relationship. More specifically, a function is a rule that uniquely defines
how change in one variable affects change in the second variable (Van de Walle
and Lovin 2006). Functions are one of the most important and powerful tools in
mathematics because they allow the symbolic, visual, and verbal representation
of relationships between variables (Van de Walle and Lovin 2006). Working with
Guess My Rule will lay the foundation for a more formal study of functions in
eighth grade and high school as described in the Common Core State Standards
for Mathematics (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and
Council of Chief State School Officers 2010).
Varying the operations in rules gives students computational practice. Rules
that include fractions or decimals allows students to practice computation with
rational numbers in a fun way. Also, as they complete the routine, students gain

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 High-Yield Routines

experience in using a variety of problem-solving strategies, including looking for

a pattern and working backwards.
When students are allowed to choose the values to be used as input values,
an interesting benefit occurs. When we as teachers choose the numbers to be
used as input values, we often tend to select nice numbers. For example, if the
rule is “divide by 2,” we may hesitate to have the students use odd numbers. The
unpredictability that results when students select the input values causes them to
confront and deal with messy computation.
Several of the eight mathematical practices described in the Common Core
State Standards for Mathematics (National Governors Association Center for
Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers 2010; see appendix
A) are developed through the Guess My Rule routine. For example, one calls for
students to reason quantitatively and to consider relationships among quantities.
As students work to determine the rule being used, they will be using this math-
ematical practice. Another mathematical practice, making viable mathematical
arguments and critiquing the reasoning of others, can be enhanced if students
are asked to explain and justify their thinking about Guess My Rule to others.
Finally, using function machines, tables, verbal descriptions, and symbolic rules
gives students the opportunity to model with mathematics, a third mathematical
practice.

Assessing Watching students complete the Guess

Student My Rule routine and looking at the work they
Thinking produce during the routine provides a great
deal of insight into how students’ algebraic
thinking is developing. In looking at the stu-
dent work we collected, we noticed some patterns in the responses of the stu-
dents:
• Considering only one input–output pair in determining the rule
• Thinking that a pattern must exist in the numbers being input
• Expressing rules both symbolically and verbally
Some work indicated that the student considered only the first input–output
pair when determining the rule being used. This occurred not only when the
rule was provided and students were asked to generate pairs that fit the rule but
also when students were to determine the rule. Figure 6.1 shows the work of a
second-grade student asked to find pairs of numbers that would work in a func-
tion machine with a rule of “Add 2.” This student correctly found that an input
of 2 results in an output of 4. However, the student then looked at this first pair,
noticed the 2 was doubled to get 4, and applied this doubling rule to the other

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 Guess My Rule

pairs created. A fourth-grade student (see fig. 6.2) looked only at an input of 2
resulting in an output of 6 to suggest that the rule was “count by 4.” The student
did not pay attention to the other pairs in the table.

Fig. 6.1.
A second-grade student incorrectly applies the rule “Add 2.”

Fig. 6.2.
A fourth grader uses only the first pair of values to
write a rule.

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 High-Yield Routines

An interesting trend we noticed was that many students looked for a pattern
in the numbers that were chosen as input values. For example, the two students
whose work is shown in figures 6.3 and 6.4 each increased the number in the
input column by one more than the increase in the previous pair. The student
whose work is shown in figure 6.3 even indicates this pattern in what he recorded
on the function machine. The work in figure 6.4 shows that this student also tried
to find an additive pattern in the output numbers. An error in computation led
the student to generate incorrect output values even though the correct rule was
noted.

Fig. 6.3.
A fourth grader writes a rule for the function
machine.

Fig. 6.4.
Another fourth grader works on the function
machine problem.

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 Guess My Rule

Finally, many of the students simply recorded the rule on the function ma-
chine. However, some students chose to express the rule in writing (fig. 6.5). A
few students were able to record the rule in a symbolic manner (fig. 6.6).

Fig. 6.5.
A fourth-grade student expresses the rule in
writing.

Fig. 6.6.
A fourth-grade student expresses
the rule symbolically.

Adapting the The Guess My Rule routine may be

Routine adapted to allow students working at any level
to participate. For example, a variety of rules
could be provided within a single classroom.
Students who need a challenge could work
with rules that involve more than one operation, whereas those needing more
support could work with single-operation rules. Decimals and fractions could be
included in the rules for students needing to work on computation with rational
numbers. The routine could be made more complex by providing inputs in one

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 High-Yield Routines

form and requiring outputs in another. For example, inputs could be in fraction
form, and as part of the rule, outputs must be expressed as decimals. Varying
the information provided to the students will also alter the demand of the task.
Students can be given the input and rule and asked to find the output, they may
be provided the rule and output and asked to find the input, or they may be pro-
vided the input and output and asked to find the rule. With very young children,
sorting rules can be used with the Guess My Rule routine. Attribute blocks or
other materials can be placed in Venn diagrams according to a secret rule. When
the child believes he knows the rule, he can check his rule by placing a block in
the diagram. After the teacher indicates whether the placement is correct, other
students may take turns placing blocks to check the rules they notice.

Conclusion The flexibility and easy implementation

of the Guess My Rule routine makes it adapt-
able to students at any grade level. The math-
ematical content can be varied, as can the way
the routine is implemented. Guess My Rule
provides an introduction to the concept of functions, an important mathematical
idea. The routine encourages students to reasons quantitatively, present viable
mathematical arguments and critique the reasoning of others, and model with
mathematics.

References
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and Council of Chief
State School Officers (CCSSO). Common Core State Standards for Mathematics.
Common Core State Standards (College- and Career-Readiness Standards and K–12
Standards in English Language Arts and Math). Washington, D.C.: NGA Center and
CCSSO, 2010. http://www.corestandards.org/.
Reeves, Charles A. “Putting Fun into Functions.” Teaching Children Mathematics 12 (January
2006): 250–59.
Soares, June, Maria L. Blanton, and James J. Kaput. “Thinking Algebraically across the Elemen-
tary School Curriculum.” Teaching Children Mathematics 12 (January 2006): 228–35.
Van de Walle, John A., and LouAnn H. Lovin. Teaching Student-Centered Mathematics, Grades
5–8. Boston: Pearson Education, 2006.

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 CHAPTER

CHAPTER
9
CHAPTER
8
CHAPTER
7
How Do You
6 Know?
CHAPTER

CHAPTER
5
2nd
grade 4
A second-grade teacher poses the following question to
CHAPTER her students:

3
“How do you know that 12 is an even number?”
The students think quietly for a minute. Then each
CHAPTER
turns knee to knee with another student and begins

2
CHAPTER
talking.
Michelle tells her partner, Clinton, “It ends with a 2,

1
APPENDIX
so it’s an even number because 2 is an even number.”
Clinton replies, “I know it’s even because if you count
by 2s you say 12 and you say all even numbers when
you count by 2.”

5th A fifth-grade teacher poses the following question to his

grade students:
“How do you know that 8/10 is equivalent to 12/15?”
The students think for a minute and then begin writing
on their whiteboards.
Becky writes, “8/10 is the same as 4/5 and 12/15 is the
same as 4/5. I can see that with my fraction strips.”
Steven writes, “If you draw two rectangles and divide
them up and then shade one for 8/10 and one for 12/15,
the same is shaded.”

7th A seventh-grade teacher poses the following question to

grade his students:
“How do you know that 0.4 × 0.33 = 0.04 × 3.3?”

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 High-Yield Routines

Several students multiply the two to verify that the prod-

ucts are the same. They then begin discussing the question
in small groups.
“The numbers are the same, and the decimal points don’t
really matter,” says Eddie.
“I think the place values of the numbers are important, but
I’m not really sure why,” adds Annie.

Implementing The How Do You Know? routine is easily

the Routine implemented in multiple grade levels. In this
routine, students are presented a question that
may or may not have an obvious answer. They
are given time to think about the question indi-
vidually and begin to formulate an explanation. After this initial think time, the
teacher may choose to give them time to talk with a partner or small group. The
teacher should monitor this discussion to determine which explanations should
be shared with the entire class and in what order. A wide variety of mathemati-
cal content can be used with this routine, and as a result, as students listen to the
explanations of others, they have the opportunity to hear varied perspectives on
many mathematical topics.
Van de Walle and Lovin (2006) provide reasons for asking students to pro-
vide explanations. One reason is that as students prepare to explain and defend
their answers, they will spend more time thinking about their arguments and
revising them. The chance to compare their solutions with those of others will
promote greater interest in class discussions. Importantly, the explanations cre-
ated in How Do You Know? place the emphasis on process and remind students
that the thinking behind the answer is as important—or more so—than the
answer itself.
How Do You Know? may be implemented in a variety of ways. Early in the
year, teachers may choose to have the whole class work on writing an explana-
tion of how they know the answer to a particular question. This will allow the
teacher to talk with the class about the characteristics of a good mathematical
explanation. (See fig. 7.1 for Deborah Ball’s [2012] description of mathematical
explanation.) As the children become more proficient at creating explanations,
the teacher may choose to have them write explanations in pairs and then as in-
dividuals. Early elementary grade teachers may choose to have the explanations

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 How Do You Know?

given only orally since writing explanations will probably be difficult for many
students. Older students may be asked to give either oral or written explanations,
and they may be asked to provide an explanation for a specific audience. For ex-
ample, students could be asked to explain in written form to a first-grade student
how they know that a figure is a rectangle. In addition, different tasks could be
offered to students in the class to make it possible for all students to participate
in the How Do You Know? routine.

Mathematical Explanation
Has a clear purpose.
• Makes clear at the outset what is being explained and why you start there;
and carefully connects the explanation to the question or idea being
explained.
• States what is known and what needs to be determined.

Has a logical structure.

• Summarizes at the end what has been explained and links that back to the
original question, claim, or problem.

Uses representations and language clearly and carefully.

• Strives to be as simple and clear as possible.
• Uses mathematical language accurately and consistently.
• Uses representation(s) accurately.

Focuses on meaning and is geared to the learner.

• Shows what something means or why it is true and is convincing to the
person to whom you are explaining.
• Takes into account the background knowledge of the listener/reader.
• Uses words that will be understood by the listener/reader.
• Breaks things down—does not assume the listener/reader knows what you
are thinking.

Fig. 7.1.
Mathematical explanation (Ball 2012)

An important part of the routine is the time spent sharing explanations. This
time will allow the teacher to help the students understand the components of an
explanation and will enable him or her to provide support as the students prac-
tice incorporating these components. Sharing may be done first in pairs or small

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 High-Yield Routines

groups to help build confidence in children. As explanations are shared, students

can be asked to look for the components of good explanations in their own expla-
nations and those of other students. As a student is providing an explanation, fel-
low classmates should be encouraged to ask questions to clarify the explanation.
Another important part of the How Do You Know? routine is maintaining
an ongoing record of student work on the routine. Students could write their
answers to How Do You Know? questions in an individual journal so that their
growth can be monitored by both themselves and the teacher. Students may also
enjoy creating videos of their explanations. These could be kept as an ongoing
record that students can look back at throughout the year.

Because How Do You Know? questions

Mathematical can be written for any mathematical content,
Content and the routine works throughout the year and in
Practices all grades. For example, young students may
be asked how they know 12 is an even number,
how they know 4 tens and 6 ones is the same as
46 ones, or how they know a shape is a square. Older students may be asked how
they know there are not 12 square inches in a square foot, how they know a tri-
angle can’t have two right angles, how they know 500 is not evenly divisible by
3, or how they know that a sum of 7 is more likely than a sum of 11 if two dice
are rolled and the numbers rolled are added.
The Common Core State Standards for Mathematics (CCSSM; National
Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State
School Officers 2010) include eight Standards for Mathematical Practice that
describe the expertise teachers at all grade levels should seek to develop in their
students (see appendix A). Many practices described in CCSSM may be devel-
oped through this routine. One practice states that students should construct
viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others: the routine offers valuable
experience with this practice for students. Students proficient with this practice
can explain what to do to solve a problem and why the solution works. They
will also be able to make sense of and evaluate the thinking and explanations of
other students. At the elementary level, students are encouraged to use concrete
objects, drawings, diagrams, and even actions to aid in their explanations. The
routine will also support the development of another mathematical practice, rea-
soning both abstractly and quantitatively, since students will be using reasoning
as they craft their explanations. The mathematical practice of attending to preci-

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 How Do You Know?

sion is also supported by the How Do You Know? routine. Although precision
in computation is part of this practice, precision also refers to precision in verbal
and written communication of mathematics. As students create and present their
explanations for How Do You Know?, they will have the opportunity to develop
precision in mathematical communication.

Assessing Explanations provide a much clearer

Student picture of student understanding and compre-
Thinking hension than do simple computational tasks.
Consequently, the How Do You Know? routine
provides a wonderful opportunity for teachers
to assess the level of understanding of students. For example, we asked students
at a variety of grade levels to explain how they knew the shape in figure 7.2 was
a rectangle. We were interested in learning how they were thinking about geo-
metric shapes and were particularly interested in determining the van Hiele level
at which they were working. The van Hiele levels of geometric thought describe
the thinking processes used with geometry in a five-level hierarchy. The hierar-
chy depicts how those at each level think and what ideas they think about rather
than the amount of knowledge they have (Van de Walle and Lovin 2006). Figure
7.3 provides information about the first three levels of the model—the levels at
which most elementary and middle school students work. The explanations stu-
dents give with How Do You Know? provide insight into the level at which they
are working. (See fig. 7.4 for examples of student work.)

Fig. 7.2.
Figure shown to students

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 High-Yield Routines

First Three Levels of van Hiele Model of

Geometric Thought
Level 1: Reasoning by Resemblance
At this level, descriptions of and reasoning about shapes is guided by the
appearance of the shape. Students will identify shapes by using the phrase
“looks like.” Students may be aware of the properties of geometric objects,
but they do not use these properties to identify the objects.

Level 2: Reasoning by Attributes

At this level, students go beyond appearance and identify and describe
shapes by their attributes. For example, a four-sided figure is classified by
students as a quadrilateral because of the four sides. Students at this level
often list all the attributes of a figure. However, students do not look at
relationships among figures. An example of this is seen in the student who
argues that a square is not a rectangle.

Level 3: Reasoning by Properties

At this level, students see the many attributes of shapes and the relation-
ships among these shapes. Students at this level see that squares and rhombi
have many properties in common. This enables students to understand that
a square is a rhombus with one additional property.

Fig. 7.3.
First three levels of van Hiele model (adapted from Bassarear 2012,
p. 485)

Fig. 7.4a.
This student appears to be working at the first van Hiele level since no
attributes are mentioned.

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 How Do You Know?

Fig. 7.4b.
This student appears to be working at the second van Hiele level since
many attributes are listed. However, some of the attributes are not
needed for identification of rectangles.

Fig. 7.4c.
This student may be beginning to work at the third van Hiele level since
not all attributes are listed, and no mention is made of the different
side lengths.

Using other mathematical content to create How Do You Know? questions

also provides the opportunity for students to provide mathematical explanations.
Figures 7.5 and 7.6 show examples of student responses to the following ques-
tions.
• How do you know that 0.4 × 0.33 = 0.04 × 3.3?
• How do you know that 8/10 = 12/15?

Fig. 7.5a.
Seventh-grade students provide explanations for how they know that
0.4 × 0.33 = 0.04 × 3.3. Each explanation offers valuable insight into
student understandings and misunderstandings.

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 High-Yield Routines

Fig. 7.5b and 7.5c.

Seventh-grade students provide explanations for how they know that
0.4 × 0.33 = 0.04 × 3.3. Each explanation offers valuable insight into
student understandings and misunderstandings.

Adapting the How Do You Know? is a flexible routine

Routine that is accessible to students working at a
variety of levels. The cognitive demands of
the routine may be altered by changing the
question posed. Teachers can draft questions
at various levels that are based on the same mathematical content to make the
task accessible to all. For example, if the How Do You Know? task deals with
explaining equivalent fractions, some students could be asked to think about 1/2
and 3/6, whereas others are asked to think about 8/10 and 12/15. These alternatives
could be assigned by the teacher or they could be presented for student choice.
Students may be required to use a diagram with their explanation, or they could
be required to use only words. Finally, the cognitive demand could be increased
by asking students to write their explanations with a specific audience in mind.
For example, sixth-grade students could be asked to provide an explanation for a
group of second graders. Such a requirement will cause students to think deeply
about how to best present an explanation.

Conclusion How Do You Know? is an easily

implemented mathematical routine that leads
to increased proficiency with mathemati-
cal explanation for a variety of mathematical
topics. Because the routine can be used with
any mathematical content and explanations can be oral or written, How Do You
Know? can be used throughout the school year and with multiple grade levels.

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 How Do You Know?

The sharing of explanations created through How Do You Know? promotes

precision in mathematical communication and reasoning. In addition, as students
create and share their explanations, teachers have the opportunity to assess the
thinking of their students.

References
Ball, Deborah L. “Practicing the Common Core: What is the Work of Teaching?” Presentation
at National Council of Supervisors of Mathematics Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, Pa.,
April 2012.
Bassarear, Tom. Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers. 5th ed. Belmont, Calif.: Brooks/
Cole, Cengage, 2012.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and Council of Chief
State School Officers (CCSSO). Common Core State Standards for Mathematics.
Common Core State Standards (College- and Career-Readiness Standards and K–12
Standards in English Language Arts and Math). Washington, D.C.: NGA Center and
CCSSO, 2010. http://www.corestandards.org/.
Van de Walle, John A., and LouAnn H. Lovin. Teaching Student-Centered Mathematics, Grades
5–8. Boston: Pearson Education, 2006.

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 CHAPTER

CHAPTER
9
CHAPTER
8
7
Infusing Mathematics into
Nonmathematical Routines
CHAPTER

CHAPTER
6
2nd
CHAPTER
5
It’s time for recess for a second-grade class. Brian checks

4
grade the Classroom Jobs chart and notices that it’s his day to
take a basketball outside. Zach, the line leader, takes his
CHAPTER place by the classroom door. Their teacher looks around

CHAPTER
3
the room and notices that the students in one row have
put away all their belongings. She asks them to line up
and then looks for another row that’s ready. When all the

2
CHAPTER
students are in line, she gives Zach a signal, and he leads
the class from the room. He stops when he gets to the
door leading to the playground and waits for his teacher.

1
APPENDIX
When the teacher reaches the front of the line, she waits
until all students are quiet and then dismisses the class to
go outside for recess.

A routine is defined as a course of action followed regu-

larly or a standard procedure. Our classrooms are filled
with routines. Some of the routines are mathematical, such
as those described in the previous chapters of this book.
However, many of the routines are not mathematical and
are, instead, organizational in nature—for example, proce-
dures for taking attendance and lunch count, procedures
for lining up, and procedures for transitioning between
activities. Organizational routines are certainly necessary,
because they build a sense of community and establish a
safe learning environment. They provide feelings of pre-
dictability that lead to support in taking risks and trying
new things (Shumway 2011). However, these routines do
take valuable time that could be used to enhance learning.
With a bit of creativity on the part of the teacher, these
routines can be infused with mathematics.

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Routines for During a school day, students make

Lining Up many transitions from one activity to another
or from one classroom to another. The routine
of lining up to go to lunch, recess, or a spe-
cial class can be used to provide practice with
mathematical concepts and skills:
• Students could be asked to begin writing the multiples of five start-
ing with zero. After a brief period, the teacher will ask the students
to stop. Then, he or she might ask those who stopped writing at 20 to
line up first, then those who stopped writing at 35, and so on. Alter-
nating the sequence in which students are called to the line will allow
all students in the class the chance to be the first in line.
• Students could be asked to draw their favorite polygon on a sheet of a
paper. They could then be asked to line up by the number of sides of
the polygon drawn. For example, those who drew pentagons might be
asked to line up first, followed by those who drew octagons.
• The teacher could select a mystery number and have each student
write down his or her guess for what mystery number was selected.
After announcing the mystery number, the teacher could ask students
to line up based on how close each was to the mystery number. For
instance, those who guessed 2 higher or 2 lower than the mystery
number could be asked to line up first.
• Older students could be asked to determine how many prime numbers
are in their telephone numbers. Those with three primes might be al-
lowed to line up first, followed by those with one prime, and so on.
• Each student desk could be assigned an ordered pair. If the desks are
in rows, the back left corner desk could become the origin, (0, 0). The
desks along the back row would then represent points on the x-axis—
(1, 0), (2, 0), and so forth. The desks in the left row would represent
points on the y-axis—(0, 1), (0, 2), and so forth. Ordered pairs could
randomly be selected to determine the order in which students line up.
For middle-grades students, the teacher might choose to present an
equation, and all students whose desk ordered pair represented a solu-
tion to that equation could line up first.

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 Infusing Mathematics into Nonmathematical Routines

Routines for Whether it’s standing in line for

Standing in lunch, standing in line to leave the classroom,
Line or standing in line for the restroom, students
spend several minutes each day waiting in line.
This time in line can be put to good use with a
bit of teacher creativity.
• While standing in line, the students could be asked to skip-count by
a particular number from any given starting point. For example, the
class could be asked to skip-count by 3s starting with 15. As a varia-
tion, the class could be asked to name prime numbers. This could be
a whole-class count or each student could be asked to provide one
number as the count moved down the line.
• Students could be asked to create a mathematical alphabet. The first
person in line must suggest a mathematics word that starts with A, the
second person could be asked to suggest a word that starts with B, and
so on. This could also be done as a whole class or with partners.
• Rock–scissors–paper computation could be played as students wait
in line. Students are asked to play the game with a person standing
next to them. A procedure similar to rock–scissors–paper is used as
students tap a closed fist onto their opposite palm and count 1, 2, 3.
On the count of 3, students will flash a number of fingers. The win-
ner may be determined in a variety of ways. Perhaps the student who
flashed the larger or the smaller number could be declared the winner.
Perhaps the winner could be the first person to multiply the two num-
bers and provide the correct answer.
• Students could be asked to silently begin counting by 5s. As they
leave the room or pass by the teacher, they are asked to whisper how
far they were able to count. This practice provides some informal as-
sessment information for the teacher, as well.
• The teacher could write a mental math computation problem or a
mathematics vocabulary word on a small whiteboard. Each student
is asked to come up with an answer. As he or she leaves the room
or passes by the teacher, the student will whisper the answer in the
teacher’s ear. When incorrect answers are given, the teacher may
choose to have the student get back in line and try again or may
choose to simply and quickly explain the correct answer.

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 High-Yield Routines

Routines for During mathematics lessons and

Calling the work time, students are often asked to work
Class Together and discuss together. Getting the attention of
the entire class can be a challenge, and many
teachers have specific routines, including a
quiet signal or a countdown timer. Some variations on these routines can be used
to infuse mathematics.
• The teacher could choose to clap a pattern. As students hear the pat-
tern being clapped, they are to stop working and talking and repeat
the clapped pattern. The teacher may need to clap two or three pat-
terns to allow all students to hear and join in.
• A prime number countdown could be used. The teacher could start
slowly naming prime numbers in reverse order. For example, “13, 11,
7, 5, 3, 2.” The students are to join in as they hear the count, and all
are expected to have joined in before the count reaches 2.
• The teacher may choose to establish a routine in which he or she be-
gins listing the multiples of a number. For example, the teacher could
say, “4, 8, 12, 16, . . . .” The students are expected to join in, and the
teacher will stop the count when all are participating.

Routines Assigning seats for students is another

for Creating ideal opportunity to provide practice with
Seating mathematical concepts and skills.
Arrangements

• Young students often are called to a carpeted classroom area for

whole-group discussions or work. The teacher could place numbers at
different locations on the carpet. Each student could be given a card
with a math problem on it; he or she is to sit on the carpet on top of
the number that matches the answer. As students take their seats, they
will hand the teacher their cards. These cards can then be used again
to seat students. This procedure will help with the problem of students
wanting to sit only with friends.
• Each desk in the room could be labeled with a number. As students
enter the room, they are given a card with a math problem on it. They
are to sit in the desk labeled with the number that matches the answer
to the problem.

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 Infusing Mathematics into Nonmathematical Routines

• Labeling each desk with an ordered pair also provides a variety of

ways to seat students. If the desks are in rows, the back left corner
desk could become the origin, (0, 0). This desk should be labeled
with the coordinates (0, 0). The desks along the back row would then
represent points on the x-axis—(1, 0), (2, 0), and so forth. The desks
in the left row would represent points on the y-axis—(0, 1), (0, 2), and
so forth. Other desks would have coordinates determined according to
their relationship to the origin and the two axes. As students enter the
room, they could be provided a card with an ordered pair on it. They
are to find the desk that represents the ordered pair on the card and
that desk is where they are to sit. For older students, the teacher could
provide a card with an equation and an x-coordinate provided. The
students will use the given x-coordinate to determine the y-coordinate
and then use those coordinates to find their seats.

Your Turn! What creative ideas do you have for

making the nonmathematical routines of your
classroom more mathematical?

Reference
Shumway, Jessica F. Number Sense Routines: Building Numerical Literacy Every Day in Grades
K–3. Portland, Maine: Stenhouse Publishers, 2011.

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 CHAPTER

CHAPTER
9
8 Routines
High Yield from
CHAPTER

CHAPTER
7
3rd
CHAPTER
6
1st– A group of first-, second-, and third-grade teachers are
meeting after school. All the teachers have collected work
grade

5
their students have done for the Mystery Number routine.
The teachers exchange work across grade levels and con-
CHAPTER tinue exchanging until each has had the chance to see the

4
work from all other teachers.

CHAPTER The teachers notice some similarities across all grade levels.

CHAPTER
3
Some students at each grade level struggle with writing a
sequence of clues that allows their classmates to find the
Mystery Number without providing unnecessary clues.

2
CHAPTER
Other students at each grade level limit their clues to those
dealing with magnitude. There are also many noticeable
differences. The work of the third-grade students in gen-

1
APPENDIX
eral displays more sophistication in the clue sequence and
more consistent use of correct vocabulary.

The teachers decide to continue to focus on the Mystery

Number routine because of the enhanced number sense
they are noticing in students. They also decide to spend
the next month focusing on the mathematical practice of
attending to precision in mathematical communication.
The teachers work together to plan the numbers used
with Mystery Number at each grade level as well as the
implementation strategies. They decide to meet again in a
month to discuss how their plans worked.

Implementing mathematical routines yields positive results

for both students and teachers. Routines provide access to
big ideas and promote the effective use of mathematical

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 High-Yield Routines

practices and problem-solving strategies. Because mathemati-

cal routines are flexible, a wide variety of mathematical con-
tent can be used within the routine. In addition, the consistent
use of common strategies across grade levels promotes coher-
ence in and articulation of the mathematics program. The rou-
tines provide opportunities for students to demonstrate their
thinking processes and for teachers to gain insight into those
processes.

To maximize the mathematical yield of routines, consistent

use is essential. Choosing a few routines to implement on an
ongoing basis and using the routines across grade levels will in-
crease the yield of the routines. The routines in the preceding
chapters can be used with and will support any curriculum or
textbook. Careful planning of the content to be incorporated
into the routine will also increase student learning through the
routines.

Routines as Part Mathematical routines can also yield

of Professional benefits in terms of professional development
Development for teachers. School teams can meet to analyze
student work for a single grade level or across
grade levels. This work can provide informa-
tion to teachers regarding the progression of student thinking across grade levels.
Time spent analyzing the work together builds cohesion among teachers working
at the same grade level and within the school.
Sztajn and colleagues, in Supporting Implementation of the Common Core
State Standards for Mathematics: Recommendations for Professional Develop-
ment (2011), offer recommendations for planning professional development de-
signed to help teachers meet the challenge presented by the content and practice
standards of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics (CCSSI 2010).
One of these recommendations is for professional development to be based on
features that support teacher learning. This recommendation calls for profes-
sional development that focuses on student learning, addresses teaching specific
content, and builds strong working relationships among teachers. Group meet-
ings to discuss implementing routines and evaluating the work that results from
the routines meet each of these criteria.

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 High Yield from Routines

A second recommendation is that professional development should empha-

size the substance of the Common Core. Specifically, professional development
should focus on how students develop mathematical ideas over time and how the
mathematical practices support learning content. As students complete the rou-
tines, they will have multiple opportunities to gain experience and expertise with
the mathematical practices. As teachers plan for the implementation of math-
ematical routines across grades, they will learn how to incorporate and promote
the eight mathematical practices described in the Standards for Mathematical
Practice in the Common Core State Standards (National Governors Association
Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers 2010; see
appendix A). In fact, they themselves will be using the mathematical practices as
they work with other teachers on the implementation of routines.

The routines in previous chapters of this

Just a Starting book are meant to be a starting point. We hope
Point that reading about the routines we describe
sparks your imagination and creativity.

Resources
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and Council of Chief
State School Officers (CCSSO). Common Core State Standards for Mathematics.
Common Core State Standards (College- and Career-Readiness Standards and K–12
Standards in English Language Arts and Math). Washington, D.C.: NGA Center and
CCSSO, 2010. http://www.corestandards.org/.
Sztajn, Paola, Karen Marrongelle, Peg Smith, and Bonnie Melton. Supporting Implementation of
the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics: Recommendations for Professional
Development (summary report). The William and Ida Friday Institute for Educational
Innovation at the North Carolina State University College of Education, March 2011.
http://www.nctm.org/uploadedFiles/Math_Standards/Summary_PD_CCSSMath.pdf.

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 CHAPTER

CHAPTER
2
1
APPENDIX

Standards for Mathematical

Practice

CCSS.Math. Make sense of problems and

Practice.MP1 persevere in solving them.

Mathematically proficient students start by explaining to themselves the meaning

of a problem and looking for entry points to its solution. They analyze givens,
constraints, relationships, and goals. They make conjectures about the form and
meaning of the solution and plan a solution pathway rather than simply jump-
ing into a solution attempt. They consider analogous problems, and try special
cases and simpler forms of the original problem in order to gain insight into its
solution. They monitor and evaluate their progress and change course if neces-
sary. Older students might, depending on the context of the problem, transform
algebraic expressions or change the viewing window on their graphing calculator
to get the information they need. Mathematically proficient students can explain
correspondences between equations, verbal descriptions, tables, and graphs or
draw diagrams of important features and relationships, graph data, and search
for regularity or trends. Younger students might rely on using concrete objects
or pictures to help conceptualize and solve a problem. Mathematically proficient
students check their answers to problems using a different method, and they
continually ask themselves, “Does this make sense?” They can understand the
approaches of others to solving complex problems and identify correspondences
between different approaches.

CCSS.Math. Reason abstractly and

Practice.MP2 quantitatively.

Mathematically proficient students make sense of quantities and their relation-

ships in problem situations. They bring two complementary abilities to bear on
problems involving quantitative relationships: the ability to decontextualize—to
abstract a given situation and represent it symbolically and manipulate the repre-
senting symbols as if they have a life of their own, without necessarily attending

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 High-Yield Routines

to their referents—and the ability to contextualize, to pause as needed during

the manipulation process in order to probe into the referents for the symbols
involved. Quantitative reasoning entails habits of creating a coherent represen-
tation of the problem at hand; considering the units involved; attending to the
meaning of quantities, not just how to compute them; and knowing and flexibly
using different properties of operations and objects.

CCSS.Math. Construct viable arguments and

Practice.MP3 critique the reasoning of others.

Mathematically proficient students understand and use stated assumptions, defi-

nitions, and previously established results in constructing arguments. They make
conjectures and build a logical progression of statements to explore the truth
of their conjectures. They are able to analyze situations by breaking them into
cases, and can recognize and use counterexamples. They justify their conclu-
sions, communicate them to others, and respond to the arguments of others. They
reason inductively about data, making plausible arguments that take into account
the context from which the data arose. Mathematically proficient students are
also able to compare the effectiveness of two plausible arguments, distinguish
correct logic or reasoning from that which is flawed, and—if there is a flaw in
an argument—explain what it is. Elementary students can construct arguments
using concrete referents such as objects, drawings, diagrams, and actions. Such
arguments can make sense and be correct, even though they are not generalized
or made formal until later grades. Later, students learn to determine domains to
which an argument applies. Students at all grades can listen or read the argu-
ments of others, decide whether they make sense, and ask useful questions to
clarify or improve the arguments.

CCSS.Math. Model with mathematics.

Practice.MP4

Mathematically proficient students can apply the mathematics they know to solve
problems arising in everyday life, society, and the workplace. In early grades,
this might be as simple as writing an addition equation to describe a situation.
In middle grades, a student might apply proportional reasoning to plan a school
event or analyze a problem in the community. By high school, a student might
use geometry to solve a design problem or use a function to describe how one
quantity of interest depends on another. Mathematically proficient students who

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 Standards for Mathematical Practice

can apply what they know are comfortable making assumptions and approxima-
tions to simplify a complicated situation, realizing that these may need revision
later. They are able to identify important quantities in a practical situation and
map their relationships using such tools as diagrams, two-way tables, graphs,
flowcharts and formulas. They can analyze those relationships mathematically
to draw conclusions. They routinely interpret their mathematical results in the
context of the situation and reflect on whether the results make sense, possibly
improving the model if it has not served its purpose.

CCSS.Math. Use appropriate tools

Practice.MP5 strategically.

Mathematically proficient students consider the available tools when solving

a mathematical problem. These tools might include pencil and paper, concrete
models, a ruler, a protractor, a calculator, a spreadsheet, a computer algebra
system, a statistical package, or dynamic geometry software. Proficient students
are sufficiently familiar with tools appropriate for their grade or course to make
sound decisions about when each of these tools might be helpful, recognizing
both the insight to be gained and their limitations. For example, mathematically
proficient high school students analyze graphs of functions and solutions gener-
ated using a graphing calculator. They detect possible errors by strategically
using estimation and other mathematical knowledge. When making mathemati-
cal models, they know that technology can enable them to visualize the results of
varying assumptions, explore consequences, and compare predictions with data.
Mathematically proficient students at various grade levels are able to identify
relevant external mathematical resources, such as digital content located on a
website, and use them to pose or solve problems. They are able to use technologi-
cal tools to explore and deepen their understanding of concepts.

CCSS.Math. Attend to precision.

Practice.MP6

Mathematically proficient students try to communicate precisely to others. They

try to use clear definitions in discussion with others and in their own reasoning.
They state the meaning of the symbols they choose, including using the equal
sign consistently and appropriately. They are careful about specifying units of
measure, and labeling axes to clarify the correspondence with quantities in a
problem. They calculate accurately and efficiently, express numerical answers

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 High-Yield Routines

with a degree of precision appropriate for the problem context. In the elemen-
tary grades, students give carefully formulated explanations to each other. By
the time they reach high school they have learned to examine claims and make
explicit use of definitions.

CCSS.Math. Look for and make use of

Practice.MP7 structure.

Mathematically proficient students look closely to discern a pattern or structure.

Young students, for example, might notice that three and seven more is the same
amount as seven and three more, or they may sort a collection of shapes accord-
ing to how many sides the shapes have. Later, students will see 7 × 8 equals the
well remembered 7 × 5 + 7 × 3, in preparation for learning about the distribu-
2
tive property. In the expression x + 9x + 14, older students can see the 14 as 2
× 7 and the 9 as 2 + 7. They recognize the significance of an existing line in a
geometric figure and can use the strategy of drawing an auxiliary line for solving
problems. They also can step back for an overview and shift perspective. They
can see complicated things, such as some algebraic expressions, as single objects
2
or as being composed of several objects. For example, they can see 5 – 3(x – y)
as 5 minus a positive number times a square and use that to realize that its value
cannot be more than 5 for any real numbers x and y.

CCSS.Math. Look for and express regularity

Practice.MP8 in repeated reasoning.

Mathematically proficient students notice if calculations are repeated, and look

both for general methods and for shortcuts. Upper elementary students might
notice when dividing 25 by 11 that they are repeating the same calculations over
and over again, and conclude they have a repeating decimal. By paying attention
to the calculation of slope as they repeatedly check whether points are on the line
through (1, 2) with slope 3, middle school students might abstract the equation
(y – 2)/(x – 1) = 3. Noticing the regularity in the way terms cancel when expand-
2 3 2
ing (x – 1)(x + 1), (x – 1)(x + x + 1), and (x – 1)(x + x + x + 1) might lead them
to the general formula for the sum of a geometric series. As they work to solve
a problem, mathematically proficient students maintain oversight of the process,
while attending to the details. They continually evaluate the reasonableness of
their intermediate results.

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Boost student participation and proficiency with
high-yield, effective mathematical routines.
The easily implemented routines suggested in High-Yield Routines will provide teachers with
opportunities to enhance the content knowledge and mathematical practices of their students.
Classroom vignettes, from a variety of grade levels, illustrate how the routines may be used
effectively across many grade levels and the student work included provides a picture of what
teachers might expect from students. This book will prove to be a valuable resource for teachers both
new and experienced.
Terry Goodman • Concordia College

High-Yield Routines is a book that should be owned by all elementary and middle school
mathematics teachers. It shows a quick and easy way to optimize precious classroom minutes,
infusing mathematics into otherwise non-mathematical routines. The connections to the Common
Core practice standards will help teachers address this important content throughout the day in ways
that are unexpected but highly productive.
Rita Barger • University of Missouri-Kansas City

High-Yield Routines describes several mathematical routines that will create opportunities for
differentiated instruction to take place naturally with students. The routines described in the
book allow each student to participate at his or her own level and to build upon existing knowledge
to develop a deeper understanding of the content. The routines are easy to implement and
classroom teachers at all grade levels will be able to utilize the routines to enhance the mathematics
understanding of students.
Jami Smith • Archie Middle School

Ann McCoy is an associate professor of mathematics education at the University of Central

Missouri where she teaches mathematics content and methods courses for prospective elementary
and middle school teachers. Prior to teaching at the university, she taught elementary and middle
school mathematics for twenty-two years. She has been actively involved in numerous professional
development projects for mathematics teachers.
University of Central Missouri, Warrensburg, MO

Joann Barnett is retired from the Ozark, MO, school district where she taught elementary and
middle school mathematics for nearly thirty years. She is now an adjunct instructor for mathematics
and mathematics education at Missouri State University and Ozarks Technical Community College.
Over the past thirteen years, she has been involved with various state and federal grants to provide
professional development for teachers.
Missouri State University and Ozarks Technical Community College, Springfield, MO

Emily Combs is in her fourteenth year as a middle school mathematics teacher at Clinton
Middle School, Clinton, MO. Over the past ten years she has participated in many professional
development projects including her role as co-principal investigator of a Mathematics and Science
Partnership Grant. She is interested in using learning trajectories to build accessible, mathematically
rich lessons to deepen mathematics understanding smoothly across grade levels.
Clinton Middle School, Clinton, MO