1

Form 1 Lesson notes term 1 2020

Topics covered
 Weather and climate
 Landform and landscape processes
 Ecosystems
 Natural resources
Form 1B2 Lesson notes
17 January 2020
Geography is the study of the earth and human’s relationship with his or her environment
Branches of geography: Geography is divided into two main branches: That is physical
geography and human geography
 Physical geography
 Human and economic geography
Importance of geography
 It helps people to learn the location of places
 It helps people to appreciate earth as the homeland of humankind and provide insight for
the wise management decisions about how the planet’s resources should be used
 geography develops an understanding of the interrelationship between biophysical

Form 1B2
20 January 2020
Weather and Climate
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at any given time
Climate is the average condition of the elements of weather experienced at a place from one
season to another and from year to year calculated from weather data collected over35 years
Climate refers to the average weather conditions experienced in a particular region over a long
period of time
Difference between weather and climate
2

Weather Climate
 is the condition of the atmosphere at  Climate refers to the average weather
any given time and place conditions experienced in a particular
 Weather describes what happens daily region over a long period of time
in our atmosphere  Climate describes the average
 The weather can change from one day conditions of a large area over a long
to the next or even from one hour to period of time
the next, for example, it may be sunny  The climate of a place is always the
and warm today in Kadoma today and same
cloudy and rainy tomorrow

Weather elements and instruments

Weather elements instruments
Temperature Thermometer
Rainfall Rain gauge
Air pressure Barometer
Wind speed Cup anemometer
Wind direction Wind vane
Humidity Hygrometer
Cloud cover Eye observation

Sunshine Sunshine recorder

Form 1B2 Lesson notes

22 January 2020
The six’s maximum and minimum thermometer
 It is used to measure maximum and minimum temperature
 The six’s thermometer is a U shaped tube. The top half of the tube that records the
minimum temperature contains alcohol, while the top half of the tube that records
maximum temperature is vacuum
 The alcohol expands as the temperature rises, which pushes the mercury in the tube up
the side of the tube that records the maximum temperature. Small metal indexes record
the lowest temperature of the day. The metal indexes need to be reset daily.
3

Form 1B2 Lesson notes

24 January 2020
The RAIN GAUGE
 It is used to measure rainfall in millimetres
 The rain gauge is made of copper or brass to avoid rust or corrosion.
 It has a funnel that takes the water into the inner container.
 The instrument should be located on level ground and far from buildings and trees, so
that nothing blocks it from collecting rain.
 The rain gauge should be more than 30 cm above the ground to prevent any water
splashing in.
 The reading is done in the morning by pouring collected water into a specially marked
measuring cylinder
 The cylinder is put on a level surface so that the water settles enough for a reading to be
taken.
 The rain is measured in millimetres and can be recorded in a table on a graph
4

Form 1B2 Lesson notes

27 January 2020
A Hygrometer
It is used to measure humidity
Humidity is the amount of moisture in the air
 The hygrometer is made up of two thermometers. One is called the dry bulb showing dry
air temperatures. The other is known as the wet bulb thermometer with a wet cloth
(muslin) wrapped round its base which is kept constantly wet by water coming up from a
glass or plastic container
How a hygrometer works
 When the air is unsaturated (that is, it is not 100% full of moisture), moisture evaporates
from the muslin cloth.
 The evaporation cools the wet bulb making the mercury contract, thus lowering the
temperature.
 The temperature in the dry bulb is not affected by this and so it remains higher than that
in the wet bulb.
5

 However, when the air is saturated (100% full of moisture) no evaporation takes place
from the muslin cloth. The two thermometers will therefore show the same reading.
 The difference between the two thermometers shows us the humidity of the air
 If the atmosphere is very dry, then the temperature recorded by the wet bulb thermometer
will be much lower than that recorded by the dry bulb thermometer

Other notes about a hygrometer

A Hygrometer
It is used to measure humidity
Humidity is the amount of moisture in the air
 A hygrometer is made up of two similar mercury thermometers. One is called the dry
bulb showing dry air temperatures. The other is known as the wet bulb thermometer
 The only difference between the two thermometers is that, one thermometer has a piece
of cloth, known as muslin, covering its bulb and one end of the cloth is placed in water.
This is the wet bulb thermometer. The other bulb without the cloth is the dry bulb
thermometer.
How a hygrometer works
 When the air is dry or contains little water vapour or moisture, the water on the muslin
will evaporate and the muslin will soak up more water from the container. In so doing, it
will cool the bulb of the thermometer and a drop in temperature will be recorded. The dry
bulb will not record any change in temperature, resulting in a big difference in the
temperature recorded by the two thermometers.
 However, when the air is saturated (100% full of moisture) no evaporation takes place
from the muslin cloth. Therefore, no cooling of the wet bulb will take place. The two
thermometers will therefore show the same reading.
6

The difference between the two thermometers shows how moist or humid the air is.
This can be summarised as follows
 No difference between the temperature recordings indicates that the air is saturated and
the chances of condensation and rainfall are very high
 A small difference will indicate that the air is wet or moist or that the humidity is high
 A large difference indicates that the air is dry and humidity is low. Therefore
condensation and rainfall are unlikely
30 January 2020
Lesson notes
7

The maximum and minimum thermometer

The maximum Thermometer
 The thermometer is made of a glass tube with a bulb at one end containing liquid
mercury, and a metal index.
 Mercury is used in this thermometer because it has a very low melting point of -38, 83
degrees Celsius.
 When the temperature rises, the mercury expands and pushes the metal index along the
glass tube.
 When the temperature fall, the mercury will contract, leaving the metal index at the
highest temperature reached during the day. This is known as the maximum temperature.
 To read the temperature: look at the bottom part of the metal index in the morning each
day. Then reset the thermometer using a magnet to pull back the metal index to the
mercury top.

The minimum thermometer

 The minimum thermometer looks exactly like the maximum thermometer, but it contains
alcohol instead of mercury and the metal index lies inside the liquid.
8

 Alcohol is used because it has a very low freezing point of -115. When the temperature
falls, the alcohol contracts and pull the metal index with its meniscus (the curved top part
of the alcohol) down the tube.
 When the temperature rises, the alcohol expands along the tube leaving the metal index
behind, thus making the minimum (lowest) temperature of the day.
 The instrument is also read in the morning and reset using a magnet to pull the index to
the alcohol meniscus.
 The reading is taken on the side of the metal index facing the top or meniscus of the
alcohol.
9

Mercury barometer
The mercury barometer is made up of a glass tube, a jar and mercury.
Mercury is placed in a jar, and a glass tube with a closed end is inserted into the mercury in the
jar. Pressure of the air on the surface of the mercury in the jar forces the mercury up the class
tube.
Any changes in pressure will show up as movement of the mercury in the glass tube.
If pressure increases, the mercury in the glass tube rises, and when pressure decreases, the
mercury sinks.
The tube is totally scaled off to make reading the pressure easier. Atmospheric pressure is
measured in millimetres of mercury or millibars
10

Form 1B2 Lesson notes

31 January 2020
Wind vane
 It is used to determine the direction from which the wind blows
 The wind vane’s arrow always points in the direction from which the wind blows
 The wind is named after the direction from which it blows
 For example, an east wind blows from the east (90 degrees) while a south wind blows
from the south (90 degrees)
11

Cup anemometer
 It is used to measure wind speed in knots or kilometres per hour
 It is made up of 3 or 4 cups fitted on a vertical shaft
 They scoop in the air which then forces them to rotate and the wind is then recorded on a
speedometer
12

03 February 2020
Form 1 Lesson notes
Weather station
A weather station is a facility with instruments and equipment to make observations of
atmospheric conditions in order to provide information to make weather forecasts and to study
the weather and climate.
The following are the characteristics of a good site for the location of a weather station
 The weather station should be located in an open area free from any form of obstruction
 The station should be away from trees as these intercept rainfall and block wind
 It should be away from areas with a hard surface for example, concrete or tar as they
affect rainfall readings
 The station should be away from buildings. Wind, rainfall and temperature readings may
be affected since such areas are sheltered
 The station should be fenced, gated and locked to protect the equipment and instruments
from theft and vandalism
The Stevenson screen
 It is a specially designed wooden box to hold thermometers, hygrometers and barometers
 Characteristics of the Stevenson screen
 The Steven son screen is painted in white to reflect sunlight and has a slat to allow air to
circulate easily
 It has louvered sides to allow air to freely enter and leave screen
 Its door faces south in the southern hemisphere so that the instruments are not in the
direct sun
 It has a double roof to or insulated roof to prevent intense heat from the sun getting to the
instruments
 It should be 1,2 m above the ground so that it measures air temperature and not the
ground temperature
 The wooden box is placed on four metal legs or specially treated poles for protection
from ants and for stability

17/02/20
1B2 Lesson notes
Weather statistics
Statistics are used to summarise the data about the weather
13

Range of temperature
Means the difference between the maximum and minimum temperature of a day
How to calculate daily range of temperature
Maximum temperature – minimum temperature
Example
Maximum temperature = 25°c
Minimum temperature = 11°c
Daily range of temperature = 25°c - 11°c = 14°c
Work
If the maximum temperature is 26°c and the minimum temperature is 12°c, what is the daily
range of temperature?
Response
26°c - 12°c = 14°c
Mean or average daily temperature
How to calculate mean or average daily temperature
Maximum temperature + Minimum temperature
2

Example
Maximum temperature = 38°c
Minimum temperature = 30°c
Mean or average daily temperature = 38°c + 30°c = 68°c = 34°c
2 2
Work
If the maximum and minimum temperature of station x on a Tuesday 1s 34°c and 30°c
respectively, what is the mean or average daily temperature
Response
34°c + 30°c = 64°c = 32°c
2 2
14

2. Given maximum temperature of 36°c and minimum temperature of 28°c, calculate the
mean or average daily temperature
Response: 36°c + 28°c = 64°c = 32°c
2 2
MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE
How to calculate mean annual temperature sum of the mean monthly temperatures for one
year divided by 12 months
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature 21 21 20 19 17 14 14 16 19 23 22 21
[°c]
Precipitation 130 110 70 30 10 0 0 0 0 20 90 130

EXAMPLE
 Calculate mean annual temperature : 21 +21 + 20 + 19 + 17 + 14 + 14 + 16 + 19 + 23 +
22 + 21
12
= 277
12
= 18, 9°c
= 19°c
WORK
Temperature and rainfall figures for a city in Africa.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature 21 21 20 18 15 14 13 13 14 20 21 20
[°c]
Precipitation 18 15 23 50 90 114 94 86 58 40 30 20

Calculate mean annual temperature

RESPONSE: 21 + 21 + 20 + 18 + 15 + 14 + 13 + 13 + 14 + 20 + 21 + 20
12
= 210 = 17, 5°C
12
15

Form 1B2 Lesson notes

10 February 2020
Precipitation
Precipitation is the deposition of water on the Ground surface in the form of drizzle, dew, rain,
hail, sleet or snow
The different forms of precipitation are explained below:
Drizzle: Precipitation consisting of small droplets of water less than 0,5 mm in diameter
Rain: Precipitation that falls on the earth in drops more than 0, 5 mm in diameter
Dew: The drops of rainwater that form on cool surfaces at night
Snow: Precipitation in the form of ice crystals, formed directly from the freezing water vapour in
the air
Hail: Precipitation in the form of irregular pallets or balls of ice more than 5 mm in diameter
when falling
Sleet: Precipitation in the form of frozen raindrops. These pallets of ice usually bounce after
hitting the ground or other hard surfaces.
Rainfall formation processes
When warm air containing water vapour begins to cool, the water vapour in it begin to change
state in to a liquid. The temperature at which it forms water droplets (liquid water vapour) is
called the dew point temperature. At that temperature, the air is saturated with moisture, that is, it
holds much water vapour as it can contain. Clouds are condensed water vapour in the
atmosphere.
Oceans are the main source of rain, but lakes and rivers also contribute to it. The water is
evaporated by the sun’s heat. It remains in the atmosphere as invisible water vapour until it
condenses, first into clouds and then into raindrops. Condensation happens when the air is cooled
Rainfall happens when moist air is forced to rise. As it rises, it cools and water vapour
condenses. The water droplets increase in size until gravity forces them to fall to the ground as
rainfall

Form 1b2 lesson notes

07 March 2020
16

Introduction to landforms and landscape processes

A landform is a natural geological feature that appears on the earth’s surface.
Examples of landforms
 Rivers, mountains, volcanoes, glaciers, lakes, islands, plains, cliffs, waterfalls, valleys etc
Landscapes refers to the landforms and other elements of the human and natural environment,
such as vegetation, rivers, settlements and communication lines
Examples of landforms in Zimbabwe
 Victoria Falls: one of the largest falls in the world. It is the largest fall in the world in
terms of the volume of falling water, even though it is not the highest or the widest. it is
108 m high and 1 708 m wide
 Lake Kariba: Fourth largest human-made lake in the world and second largest in Africa
 Mount Nyangani: It is the highest mountain in Zimbabwe it is 2 592 m high
Examples of landforms in Africa
 Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania: It is 5 895 m high
 Sahara desert: located in North Africa. It is one of the most famous hot temperature
deserts in the world. The Sahara desert is one of the largest and hottest desert in the world
 Lake Malawi: It is located between Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania. It is the ninth-
largest lake in the world and the third largest and the second deepest lake in Africa.
 Tugela falls in South Africa at 947 m high
 Zambezi river
 Limpopo: the fourth largest river in Africa, the longest east flowing river in Africa and
the largest flowing into the Indian Ocean
Examples of landforms in the world
 Mount Everest: The highest mountain in the world. It is located in Himalayas in Nepal. It
is 8 848 m high
 The Angels Falls in Venezuela, South America is the largest fall in the world
 Nile River: one of the longest river in the world. It is about 6 695 km long

12 March 2020
1B2 Lesson notes
Description of landforms
Rivers
 The processes of erosion and deposition create different river landforms. Rivers change
as you go downstream
17

Beaches
 A beach is a landform along a body of water. It usually consist of loose particles which
are often composed of rock, such as sand, pebbles, gravel and cobblestones.
Deserts
 Deserts usually have a lot of wind because they are flat and have no vegetation to block
out the wind
Valleys
 Valley is a low area between hills, often with a river running through it
Mountains
 A mountain is a large landform that stretches above the surrounding land in a limited
area. They often consist of peaks. A mountain is generally steeper than a hill. Mountains
are formed by tectonic plate movements or volcanic activity. These forces can raise the
surface of the earth locally over thousands of years.
Lakes
 A lake is a body of water that is surrounded by land. A lake normally has fresh water in it

13 March 2020
1B2 Lesson notes
Benefits of landforms
 Floodplains, such as those of the Zambezi River in Zambia are cultivated by the Lozi
people
 Mountains are source of valuable minerals. For example, the eastern highland of
Zimbabwe has gold, diamond and phosphate deposits. These bring wealth to the area
because the deposits are mined and sold as raw materials.
 The forest that grow on mountain slopes are useful because the trees are felled for timber
and wood for making pulp, furniture and other wood products
 In Zimbabwe, the mountain slopes are suitable for growing tea. These tea plantations can
be very lucrative or profitable
 The water in the rivers can be used for irrigation and for domestic use
18

 Rivers deposit their sediments in their lower course, forming fertile flood plains, which
are suitable for cultivating crops. Because plains have a flat surface, they are easy to
cultivate.
 Mountains and rivers serve as natural borders between countries. For example, the
Limpopo River is the border between South Africa and Zimbabwe, and the Himalayas
form the border between India and China. The Orange River forms the boundary between
Namibia and South Africa., the Zambezi River separates Zimbabwe and Zambia, and the
Congo River forms borders Between the Central African Republic, The Democratic
Republic of Congo and Congo Brazzaville
 Many landforms are tourist attractions. For example, the Victoria Falls, Zambezi River
and the Eastern Highlands all attract tourists who visit to marvel at the natural beauty of
these areas.
 Plateaus have large grassland areas that are suitable for livestock farming.
 Many rivers are fishing grounds. Settlements develop along rivers as they are source of
food. Tiger fishing and trout fishing attract tourists to Zimbabwe
 Rivers provide materials needed for construction, such as clay, sand and limestone.
 The vegetation that grows along rivers and in wetlands is useful in the craft industry, for
instance, for making baskets from river reeds
 Rivers and their valleys are important habitats for wildlife. Aquatic mammals such as
hippos, crocodiles and water birds live in rivers. All wildlife need water for survival.
 Rivers link areas such as towns, cities and villages, as they are transport routes for boats.
 Passes between mountains allow for the construction of road and rail links.

Differences between landforms and landscape

Landscape Landforms
 The landscape refers to the visible  A landform is the shape of the land
features on an area. This include surface that has formed as a result of
 Landforms and bodies of water, such internal and external forces operating
as mountains, valleys, lakes and rivers on the earth, such as erosion and
 Land cover such as vegetation deposition by rivers and by
 Human elements such as buildings movements of the earth’s crust.
 Changeable elements, such as weather

16 March 2020
19

1B2 LESSON NOTES

Introduction to ecosystems
Definition of terms
System
A system is a set of interacting or interdependent things working together to form a complex
whole or interconnecting network. It consist of inputs, processes and outputs
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community of all the biotic (living things) and abiotic (non-living) elements of
the environment in a particular area
Components of ecosystems
Abiotic components
These are non-living components in the environment. For example, light, water, air
Light
Sunlight is the main source of energy for all living organisms. It provide light energy, which is
converted into sugar and oxygen during photosynthesis. All living organisms need oxygen to
survive
Water
Water is essential to life. It is an important component for photosynthesis, it makes chemical
reactions in organisms possible and it provides a habitat for a lot of living organisms.

Air
Air consist of different gases that are all important in an ecosystem. These are oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, water vapour and other gases
Soil and humus
The type of soil found in an area also determines which type of organisms can live there.
Examples of types of soil are sand, clay and silt. The size of the soil particles determines the type
of soil. Humus is organic matter that form when the remains of dead plants and animals break
down. Animals depend on soil for shelter, protection and food. Some animals like worms and
moles live in the soil. Plants also depend on the soil for support, water and mineral salts.
Biotic components
20

Biotic components are the living organisms in an ecosystem. These include animals, plants,
algae, fungi, bacteria. The survival of the organisms in an ecosystem depends on their ability to
adapt to changes in their natural environment

20 March 2020
1B2 Lesson notes
Micro-ecosystems
Micro ecosystems: These are small self- contained ecosystems, eg ponds and decaying tree
trunks
An ecosystem may refer to a large area on earth or even a global ecosystem. In these broad
ecosystems, the interaction between living organisms and the abiotic factors are affected by
average climate and vegetation. For example, one may say sub-Saharan Africa is dry and often
experiences drought. However, there may be smaller areas in sub-Saharan that may experience
high level of rainfall. These smaller ecosystems are known as micro-ecosystem
When we study the ecosystems, we need to know and understand the inputs, processes and
outputs.
Inputs
The inputs refers to the things that are put into the ecosystem.
Examples of inputs
Soil, air, sunlight, water (rainfall etc.)
Processes
The processes refer to something that happens in the ecosystem. For example, plants growing,
animals feeding, animals breeding or people farming.
Outputs
The outputs are the results of the process. For example, fully-grown plants and animals, young
animals and crops. There can also be negative outputs such as eroded soil and pollutants in the
soil or water
Interdependence in an ecosystem
Structure of an ecosystem
In an ecosystem, there are producers, consumers and reducers
 Green plants are the major producers in an ecosystem. They use energy from the sun,
carbon dioxide from the air and water to produce food in a process called photosynthesis.
Plants are a major source of food for other organisms in any ecosystem.
21

 There are three types of consumers: namely primary consumers, secondary consumers
and tertiary consumers
 Primary consumers: These are animals or creatures, such as grazers and browsers that
feed on plants. They feed on vegetation and are called herbivores
 Secondary consumers: These feed on primary consumers, the herbivores and are called
carnivores. Carnivores hunt, kill, and eat their prey and are called predators, for example,
a lion
 Tertiary consumers: These feed on both primary consumers and secondary consumers,
for example people. Tertiary consumers are also called omnivores.
 Reducers are made up of decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi. These organisms help
to break down the bodies of dead animals and plants. Reducers are vital to any ecosystem
because they breakdown the chemicals into smaller ones that can be taken up by the
producers from the soil. Without reducers, the earth would be littered with dead animals
and plants
The diagram below shows the structure of an ecosystem


22

Food chains in the ecosystem

Food chain shows how the energy provided by one organism is passed onto another by feeding.
The chain can have many arrows to show the direction in which the energy flows. An example of
a simple food chain is: grass rabbit cat
An energy flow through an ecosystem, it passes through a series of trophic levels (or feeding
levels). The first trophic level is the autotrophs (producers) or plants that produces their own
food using energy from the sun. The consumers are the (heterotrophs) who form the other trophic
levels: the second trophic level are the herbivores (primary consumers) who eat the plants, the
third trophic level are the carnivores and omnivores (secondary consumers). The secondary
consumers ultimately die and are eaten by scavengers or decompose to provide food for plants.

The following is an example of a food chain

Food pyramids
When organisms in a food chain are organised according to trophic levels, they form a pyramid.
The pyramid has a broad base of producers with the successive levels having decreased numbers.
Some energy is lost at each trophic level because:
 Some of the food that organisms eat remains undigested and so is unusable energy (it is
excreted)
 Some is stored in body tissues (growth of the consuming organism)
 Some is used through the metabolic process of living such as breathing (respiration)
23

 Some is lost as heat, the waste product of action

Organisms at higher trophic levels always depend on the lower levels for their energy needs. The
secondary and tertiary consumers obtain energy from plants indirectly through the meat of
primary consumers

The following is an example of a food pyramid

23 March 2020
1B2 Lesson notes
Natural resources
Natural resources are organic or inorganic materials that are found in nature and taken from the
earth
Natural resources can be classified as renewable and non-renewable
Non-renewable resources are natural resources that get exhausted as they are exploited or used.
24

These natural resources take thousands, or even millions of years to form so they are used up
faster than they can be renewed. Minerals such as coal, gold, oil, copper, nickel, platinum,
diamonds and chrome are non-renewable resources
Soil can also be regarded as a non-renewable resource because it can be destroyed very easily
and eroded away, but it take 500 years to form 1 cm of soil.
Re-used or recycled resources are resources that can be re-used although they are non-renewable.
For example, iron is a mineral that is non-renewable but it can be recycled and used again
Renewable resources
Renewable resources are those that can be used over and over again because they can be
replenished or are able to replace themselves by reproduction. Renewable resources include
sunlight, fish, plants, water and animals
Classify the following resources into renewable and non-renewable
Coal, oil, sunlight copper, nickel, fish, water, gold animals platinum, plants, diamonds and
chrome
25