Lectures On Algebraic Number

Theory
Dipendra Prasad
Notes by Anupam
1 Number Fields
We begin by recalling that a complex number is called an algebraic number if
it satises a polynomial with rational coecients or equivalently with integer
coecients. A complex number is called an algebraic integer if it satises
a polynomial with integral coecients having leading coecient as 1. Let
Q be the set of all algebraic numbers inside C. It is well known that Q is a
subeld of C. Any nite extension of Q is called an Algebraic Number Field.
Some of the most studied examples of number elds are:
1. Q, the eld of rational numbers.
2. Quadratic extensions Q(

d); where d Z is a non-square integer.

3. Cyclotomic elds Q(
n
),
n
= e
2i
n
.
4. Kummer extensions K(a
1
n
) where a K

and K is a number eld.

Denition. A Dedekind domain is an integral domain R such that
1. Every ideal is nitely generated;
2. Every nonzero prime ideal is a maximal ideal;
1
3. The ring R is integrally closed (in its eld of fractions).
Let K be a number eld. Let us denote the set of algebraic integers inside
K by O
K
.
Theorem 1.1. 1. If K is a number eld then O
K
, the set of algebraic
integers inside K, forms a subring of K. This subring O
K
is a nitely
generated Z module of the same rank as deg
Q
K.
2. The ring O
K
is a Dedekind domain. In particular, every ideal in O
K
can be written uniquely as a product of prime ideals.
Unlike Z, O
K
need not be a PID and typically it is not. Gauss conjectured
that there are exactly nine imaginary quadratic elds which are PID, and
this was proved in 60s by Baker and Stark. These are Q(

d) for d =
3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 19, 43, 67, 163. Using Minkowski bound on class number (see
later section) it is easy to prove that these are PID. Gauss also conjectured
that there are innitely many real quadratic elds which are PID. This is
NOT YET SOLVED. The following theorem will be proved in one of the
later lectures. Let us denote O

K
for the units in O
K
i.e. elements in O
K
which has inverse in O
K
. Then O

K
is a group.
Theorem 1.2 (Dirichlet Unit Theorem). The group O

K
is nitely generated
abelian group. The rank of O

K
is = r
1
+ r
2
1 , where r
1
is number of real
embeddings of K in R and r
2
is number of complex embeddings of K in C up
to complex conjugation.
As some simple consequences of the theorem we note the following.
1. The group O

K
is nite if and only if K = Q or is a quadratic imaginary
eld.
2. If K is real quadratic, then O

K
is Z/2 Z. If K = Q(

d) then
O
K
= Z(

d) if d 1(mod4) and O
K
= Z(
1+

d
2
) if d 1(mod4).
Thus existence of units inside O
K
is equivalent to solving the Pells
equation a
2
db
2
= 1. (Observe that x O
K
is unit if and only if
xx = 1).
2
Here are few Questions about quadratic elds which are still unsolved !
1. For which real quadratic elds does there exist a unit with norm = 1.
2. Are there estimates on the fundamental unit of Q(

d), d > 1 in terms

of d?
Exercise: If K = Q[m
1
n
] , then O
K
contains Z[m
1
n
] as a subgroup of
nite index. Calculate the index of Z[m
1
n
] in O
K
.
2 Class Group of A Number Field
Denition. A nonzero additive subgroup / K is called a fractional ideal
if there exists K such that / O
K
and /O
K
/.
It is easy to see that nonzero fractional ideals form a group under multi-
plication with O
K
as the identity and
/
1
/
2
=

i
/
i
/
1
,
i
/
2

.
Denition.
Class Group :=
The group of all nonzero fractional ideals
group of all nonzero principal ideals
.
Theorem 2.1. The Class Group of a number eld is nite.
Remark: The niteness of class group is not true for arbitrary Dedekind
domains. It is a special feature of number elds.
There exists an analytic expression for the class number as the residue
of the zeta function associated to the number elds, which is given by the
following theorem. The theorem will be proved later.
Theorem 2.2 (Class Number Formula). Let K be a number eld. Then,

K
(s) =
2
r
1
(2)
r
2
hR
w

d
K
.
1
s 1
+ holomorphic function
3
where r
1
is number of real embeddings of K in C, r
2
is number of complex
embeddings of K in C upto complex conjugate, h is class number of K, R is
the regulator of number eld K, w is number of roots of unity in K and d
K
is the modulus of discriminant.
3 More Algebraic Background
Let K be a number eld. It is sometimes convenient to write it pictorially
as follows
O
K
K

Z Q
Let p Z be a prime. Denote the decomposition of the ideal (p) = pO
K
in O
K
as pO
K
=

n
i=1
p
e
i
i
with p
i
prime ideal in O
K
. This e
i
is called
ramication index of p
i
over p.
One of the basic questions in algebraic number theory is the following.
Given a polynomial f(x) Z[x], look at the reduced polynomial modulo
p as polynomial in Z/p[x], say

f(x), and write it as product of powers of
irreducible polynomials

f(x) =

f
i
(x)
e
i
in Z/p[x]. The question is whether
one can describe a LAW which tells us how many of

f
i
s occur and what are
the possible degrees in terms of p.
Example : Let f(x) = x
2
5, then quadratic reciprocity law gives the
answer. Let p be an odd prime. Then x
2
5 = 0 has solution in Z/p if and
only if there exist x
0
Z/p such that x
2
0
= 5. And x
2
0
= 5 has solution in
Z/p if and only if 5
p1
2
1(mod p) ( which is by defenition denoted as (
5
p
)
= 1). This can be seen by noting that (Z/p)

is a cyclic group. So if p/5

then

f(x) = x
2
. If (
5
p
) = 1 then

f(x) = (x x
0
)(x + x
0
), where x
2
0
= 5 in
Z/p. And if (
5
p
) = 1 then

f(x) is irreducible in Z/p.
We will later prove the following theorem. There exists a law of decom-
posing polynomials mod p as primes in arithmetic progression if and only if
4
the polynomial denes an abelian extension of Q.
Let us look at following eld extension.
O
K
K

Z Q
Let p Z be a prime and let p be a prime ideal lying over p in O
K
. Let
pO
K
=

g
i=1
p
e
i
i
. Then we get eld extensions of nite elds Z/p O
K
/p
of degree, say f
i
. This f
i
is called residual degree of p
i
over p.
Lemma 3.1. Let K be a number eld. Then

g
i=1
e
i
f
i
= [K : Q], where the
notations are dened as above. If K is Galois extension of Q, then Galois
group acts naturally on the set of primes p
i
lying above p. In this case f
i
s are
the same, e
i
s are the same and efg = [K : Q], where e is the ramication
index, f is the residual degree and g is the number of primes lying over p.
4 Artin Reciprocity Theorem
Let K be a number eld which is Galois over a number eld k. We keep
notations of previous section. Let p be a prime ideal in O
K
lying over a prime
ideal p in O
k
. Let D
p
G denote the subgroup of Galois group Gal(K/k)
preserving the prime p; the subgroup D
p
is called the Decomposition group
of the prime p. We have following exact sequence associated to the prime
ideal p.
0 I
p
D
p
Gal

O
K
/p
O
k
/p

0
The kernel I
p
is called the inertia group of p.
We call K/k is unramied if e = 1 I
p
= 1. In case of the nite
eld extension F
q
F
q
e, the map : F
q
e F
q
e, x x
q
is called the
Frobenius element. It generates the Galois group of F
q
e over F
q
. In the case
5
of unramied extension the decomposition group gets a prefered element,
called the Artin symbol
p
=< p, K/k > Gal(K/k).
The following is the most fundamental theorem in algebraic number the-
ory, called the Artin Reciprocity Theorem.
Theorem 4.1 (Artin Reciprocity Theorem ). Let K be an abelian extension
over Q. Then Artin symbol denes a map from I(C) Gal(K/Q), where
C is some ideal in K and contains in its kernel P
C
(group of principal ideals
containing a generator which is congruent to 1 mod C). Thus Gal(K/Q) is
a quotient of I(C)/P
C
, generalised class group.
5 Quadratic form associated to a number eld
Let K be a number eld. Let x K. Considering K as a Q vector space,
we get a Q-linear map l
x
: K K dened by l
x
() = x. Dene tr
K
Q
(x)
as trace of l
x
and Nm
K
Q
(x) as determinant of l
x
. If there is no possibility of
confusion, we will denote tr
K
Q
(x), Nm
K
Q
(x) simply as tr and Nm.
Example : If p Q then tr(p) = p.[K : Q] and N(p) = p
[K:Q]
.
Dene a bilinear form B : K K Q by B(x, y) = tr(xy). One can
restrict this bilinear form to the ring of integers O
K
to get a bilinear form
B : O
K
O
K
Z. Recall that O
K
is a free Z module of rank same as deg
of K/Q.
Denition. Let B be a bilinear form B : Z
d
Z
d
Z. One can associate
an integer, called the discriminant of the quadratic form, and denoted be d
B
to be det(B(e
i
, e
j
)), where e
1
, ...e
d
is an integral basis of Z
d
.
Note that d
B
does not depend on the basis chosen as can be seen as
follows. Let B

be another integral basis of Z

d
. Then there exists an integeral
matrix A such that B = AB

A
t
. Hence,
d
B
= det B = det(AB

A
t
) = (det A)
2
det B

= det B

Here we have used that for A GL(n, Z), det A = 1 or 1. This discrim-
inant of the trace form on the ring of integers of a number eld is called the
6
discriminant of number eld.
The following theorem will be proved later.
Theorem 5.1 (Minkowski). Let K be a number eld, with d
K
as its dis-
criminant. Then [d
K
[ > 1 if K = Q.
Problem of determining the elds of given discriminant is yet to be AN-
SWERED.
Exercise: Quadratic form associated above to a number eld does not
determine number eld uniquely. As specic examples, construct cubic num-
ber elds with same quadratic form. This question will be answered later.
Note, however, a quadratic number eld is determined by the quadratic form
uniquely.
6 Dirichlet Unit Theorem
1
Dirichlet Unit Thoerem is a statement about the structure of the unit group
of the ring of integers of a number eld. What it says is that such a group
is necessarily nitely generated and it gives the rank as well as a description
of the torsion part. The proof however, in its natural set up, belongs to the
realms of Geometric theory of numbers, also reered as Minkowski Theory.
So let us take a birds eye view of Minkowski Theory.
The central notion in Minkowski Theory is that of a Lattice. A Lattice
for us means the following,
Denition. Let V be an n-dimensional R-vector space. A Lattice in V is a
subgroup of the form
= Zv
1
+ +Zv
m
with linearly independent vectors v
1
, , v
m
of V . The set
= x
1
v
1
+ + x
m
v
m
[ x
i
R, 0 x
i
1
is called a fundamental mesh of the lattice.
1
This section is written by Purusottam Rath.
7
The lattice is said to have rank m and is called a complete lattice if its
rank is equal to n. Let us enumerate some properties of a lattice.
Lemma 6.1. A subgroup of V is a lattice if and only if it is discrete.
Note that Z +Z

3 is not a lattice in R.
Lemma 6.2. A lattice in V is complete if and only if there exists a bounded
subset M V such that the collection of all translates M+ , covers
the whole space V.
Now suppose V is a euclidean vector space, hence endowed with an inner
product
( , ) : V V R
Then we have on V a notion of volume (more precisely a Haar measure).
Then if is a fundamental mesh of a lattice with basis vectors v
1
, , v
m
then we dene volume of as
vol := vol ()
Note this is independent of choice of basis vectors of the lattice as any such
two have a change of basis matrix in SL
m
(Z).
We now come to the most important theorem about lattices. A subset
X of V is called centrally symmetric, if for any x X, the point x also
belongs to X . It is called convex if for any two points x, y X the line
segment ty +(1 t)x[ 0 t 1 joining x and y is contained in X. With
these denitions we have,
Theorem 6.1 (Minkowski Theorem). Let be a complete lattice in a eu-
clidean vector space V and let X be a centrally symmetric, convex subset of
V. Suppose that
vol(X) > 2
n
vol()
Then X contains at least one nonzero lattice point .
8
The Minkowski Theorem stated above would be crucial to our proof of
the unit theorem. In fact it plays a pivotal role in number theory and has
some really non-trivial applications. For instance we can prove the famous
four-square theorem using this as is done below.
Theorem 6.2 (Four Square Theorem). Every positive integer is a sum of
four squares.
Proof : Suces to show that any odd prime is a sum of four squares.
Let p be any odd prime. Now there exists positive integers a, b such that
a
2
+b
2
+ 1 0 ( mod p). Conside the lattice in R
4
with basis vectors
v
1
= (p, 0, 0, 0), v
2
= (0, p, 0, 0),
v
3
= (a, b, 1, 0), v
3
= (b, a, 0, 1).
Any vector v in has the form (r
1
p +r
3
a +r
4
b, r
2
p +r
3
b r
4
a, r
3
, r
4
). Thus
we see that the integer [v[
2
is a multiple of p.
Consider the open ball B in R
4
of radius

2p centered at origin. It is a
convex centrally symmetric set with volume 2
2
p
2
which is strictly greater
than 2
4
p
2
. Since has volume p
2
, by Minkowski Theorem, B contains a
non-zero point u = (A, B, C, D), say.
Now, 0 < [u[
2
< 2p and [u[
2
is a multiple of p. Hence [u[
2
= p, that is,
A
2
+B
2
+C
2
+D
2
= p.
The basic idea in the proof of Minkowski Unit Theorem is to interpret
the elements of a number eld K over Q of degree n as points lying in an
n-dimensional space. We consider the canonical mapping
j : K K
C
=

C
a ja = (a)
9
which results from the n embeddings of K in C. Let these embeddings be
given by the ordered set
X =
1
, ,
r
,
1
,
1
, ,
s
,
s

where the s give the r real embeddings and s and s give the 2s pairwise
conjugate complex embeddings. We see that the image of K under this
canonical mapping into C
n
=

X
C actually lies inside the following set
known as the Minkowski Space.
K
R
=

(z

X
C [ z

R, z

= z

We note that this space is isomorphic to

X
R = R
r+2s
given by the map
F : (z

) (x

) where x

= z

, x

= Re(z

), x

= Im(z

). However this
map is not volume preserving and
V ol
canonical
(Y ) = 2
s
V ol
Lebesgue
(F(Y ))
where the canonical volume is the volume on K
R
induced from the stan-
dard inner product on C
n
. A little reection will show that the mapping
j : K K
R
identies the vector space K
R
with the tensor product K
Q
R,
K
Q
R K
R
a x (ja)x
Lemma 6.3. If I = 0 is an ideal in O
K
, the ring of integers of K , then
:= j(I) is a complete lattice in K
R
with volume

[d
K
[.[O
K
: I], where d
K
is the discriminant of K.
Proof : Just note that I has an integral basis i.e. a Z basis
1
, ,
n
,
so that = Zj
1
+ + Zj
n
. Consider the matrix A =(
l
(
i
)) with s
running over the embeddings of K in C. Then we have
'j
i
, j
k
` =

1ln

l
(
i
)
l
(
k
) = A

A
t
10
Then we get
V ol() = [det('j
i
, j
k
`)[
1
2
= [det(A)[ =

[d
K
[.[O
K
: I]
So via the canonical embedding j : K K
C
, we can identify the ideals
of O
K
with lattices in R
n
. But since we are interested in the units of the
ring of integers, O

K
, we pass on to the multiplcative group K

by using the
standard logarithm map
l : C

R, z log[z[
It induces the surjective homomorphism
l : K

C
=

R , (z

) (log[z

[
Note that image of K

R
under the above map lies in the following set

+
:=

(x

R [ x

R, x

= x

Further the multiplicative group K

C
admits the homomorphism N : K

C

C

given by the product of the coordinates and we have the homomorphism

Tr :

+
R
given by the sum of the coordinates. Also note that the R-vectorspace
[

R]
+
is isomorphic to R
r+s
. Now conside the following subgroups
O

K
= O
K
[ N
K|Q
= 1
S = y K

R
[ N(y) = 1
H = x [

R]
+
[ Tr(x) = 0
It is clear that j(O

K
) S and l(S) H. Thus we obtain the homomorphisms
O

K
j
S
l
H
11
and the composite := l o j : O

K
H. The image will be denoted by
= (O

K
) H
and we obtain the
Theorem 6.3. Let K be a number eld. Then the sequence
1 (K) O

0
is exact, where (K) is the group of roots of unity that lie in K.
Proof : The only non obvious part is to show that ker() lies in O

K
.
Now () = l(j) = 0 implies [[ = 1 for each embedding of K. Thus
(j) = () lies in a bounded domain of the R-vector space K
R
. But (j)
is a point in the lattice jO
K
of K
R
. Therefore the kernel of can contain
only nitely many elements, and thus, being a nite group, contains only the
roots of unity in K.
Given this theorem, it remains to determine the group . For this we need
the following lemma which depends on Minkowski Lattice Point Theorem.
Lemma 6.4. Let I = 0 be an integral ideal of K, and let c

> 0, for
Hom(K , C), be real numbers such that c

= c

and

> A[O
K
: I]
where A = (
2

)
s

[d
K
[. Then there exists a I, a = 0, such that
[a[ < c

for all Hom(K, C)

Proof : We just note that the the set
Y = (z

) K
R
[ [z

[ < c

is centrally symmetric, convex and has volume 2

r+s

. Now, = j(I)
is a lattice with volume

[d
K
[.[O
K
: I]. So we have
Vol(Y ) > 2
r+s

s
(
2

)
s

[d
K
[.[O
K
: I] = 2
n
Vol()
So the assertion now follows from Minkowski Lattice Point Theorem.
Finally we determine the structure of .
12
Theorem 6.4. The group is a complete lattice in the (r + s 1)- dimen-
sional R-vector space H .
Proof : Since [

R]
+
has dimension (r+s), H is of dimension (r+s1) ,
being the kernel of the linear functional Tr. The mapping := l o j : O

K
H
arises by restricting the mapping
K

R
Thus it suces to show, that for any c > 0, the bounded domain
(x

R [ [x

[ c contains only nitely many points of . Since

l((z

)) = (log[z

[), the preimage of this domain with respect to l is the

bounded domain

(z

[ e
c
[z

[ e
c

But it contains only nitely many points of the set j(O

K
) as this is a subset
of the lattice j(O
K
). Therefore is a lattice in H. Finally we show that
is a complete lattice in H. We chose real numbers c

> 0, for Hom(K ,

C), satisfying c

= c

and
C =

> A[O
K
: I]
where A = (
2

)
s

[d
K
[, and we consider the set
W = (z

) K
R
[ [z

[ < c

For an arbitrary point y = (y) S, it follows that

Wy = (z

) K
R
[ [z

[ < c

where c

= c

[y

[ and one has c

= c

,

= C because

[y

[ =
[N(y)[ = 1. Then, there exists a point
ja = (a) Wy, a O
K
, a = 0
13
Now, upto multiplication by units, there are only nitely many elements
O
K
of a given norm N
K|Q
= a. Thus we may pick up a system of

1
, ,
M
O
K
,
i
= 0 such that every a O
K
with 0 < [N
K|Q
(a)[ C is
associated to one of these numbers. The set
T = S
M

i=1
W(j
i
)
1
is a bounded set as W is bounded and we have
S =

K
Tj
Because for any y S, we nd, by the above, an a O
K
, a = 0, such that
ja Wy
1
, so ja = xy
1
for some x W. Since
[N
K|Q
(a)[ = [N(xy
1
)[ = [N(x)[ <

= C,
a is associated to some
i
,
i
= a, O

K
. Consequently, we have
y = xja
1
= xj(
1
i
)
Since y, j S, one nds xj
1
i
S Wj
1
i
T, and thus y Tj. Now
M = l(T) is also a bounded set as for any x = (x

) T, the absolute values

[x

[ are bounded above and are also away from zero (because

= 1).
Now we have
H =

(M +)
Hence the translates (M + ), , M bounded , covers the whole space
H. Thus is a complete lattice in H(using lemma 6.2).
From previous theorems we immediately deduce,
Theorem 6.5 (Dirichlets Unit Theorem). The group of units O

K
of O
K
is
isomorphic to the nitely generated abelian group given by
(K) Z
r+s1
where (K) is the nite torsion group consisting of the roots of unity con-
tained in K.
14
7 Discrete Valuations on a eld
Denition. Let K be a eld. Then Discerete valuation on the eld K is a
map v : K

Z such that
v(xy) = v(x) +v(y)
v(x + y) minv(x), v(y)
Given a discrete valuation on a eld K, let A = 0

x K

[v(x) 0.
Then A is a ring, called the valuation ring of v.
Examples :
1. Let us consider discrete valuations on Q. Let p be a prime in Z. For
any a Q write a = p
r
.b such that neither the numerator nor the
denominator of b has p power. Dene v
p
: Q

Z by v
p
(a) = r. This
is the discrete valuation on Q associated to the prime p, called p-adic
valuation. The valuation ring is
A = Z
(p)
= Z

1
q

q=p
It can be seen that these are the only discrete valuations on Q.
2. Let K be a number eld. Let p be a prime ideal in O
K
. Then the
localization (O
K
)
p
is a discrete valuation ring with p (actually image)
as prime ideal. And for any x K we get xO
K
= p
n
where n Z. We
dene v
p
: K

Z by v
p
(x) = n. Then this is a valuation on K. It
can be seen that these are all the valuations on K.
3. (Function elds) Let f(x) be an irreducible polynomial in K[x].
Write a general rational function g(x) = f(x)
r
.b(x) such that neither
the numerator nor the denominator of b(x) is divisible by f(x). We
dene v
f
: K(x)

Z by v
f
(g(x)) = r. This gives a discrete val-
uation on K(x). It can be seen that all the discrete valuations on
K[x] is v
f
for some irreducible polynomial in K[x], or is v

given by
15
v

f
g

= deg(f) deg(g) for f, g K[x]. And a function eld is nite

extension of the eld K(x), or equivalently nitely generated extension
of K of transcendence degree 1. If K is algebraically closed then any
irreducible polynomial is just a liner polynomial, and hence discrete
valuations are in one-one correspondance with points of A
1
together
with valuation v

.
4. (Global Field) A global eld is either an algebraic number eld or a
function eld over nite eld F
q
.
Proposition 7.1. An integral domain A is a discrete valuation ring (dvr)
if and only if A is a principal ideal domain having a unique nonzero prime
ideal.
One notes that for any Dedekind domain localization at any prime ideal
is a discrete valuation ring.
Given v : K

Z, a discrete valuation with valuation ring A, one can

dene m A to be m = x A[v(x) > 0

0. This is an ideal in A.
Any element in Am is invertible and hence A is a local ring with m as its
maximal ideal, in fact, A is PID. Without loss of generality one can assume
that image of v is Z. It can be seen that m is generated by any element
A such that v() = 1. Elements A such that v() = 1 are called
uniformizing elements. A is thus a local integral domain of dim 1, which can
be checked to be integrally closed in K.
Denition. An absolute value on K is a map to positive reals [.[ : K R
such that
1. [xy[ = [x[[y[ and [x[ = 0 if and only if x = 0.
2. [x +y[ [x[ +[y[.
If we have the stronger property,
3. [x +y[ max[x[, [y[
then the absolute value is called a non-archmedian absolute value.
16
Examples :
1. The usual absolute value on Q.
2. For p-adic valuations on Q we can dene absolute values as [x[
p
=
p
v
p
(x)
. This is a non-archmedian absolute value on Q.
The absolute values on elds dene metric and hence we can talk of
completion of the eld with respect to the metric. Two absolute values
[.[ and [.[

on eld K are equivalent if there is a positive constant t such

that [a[

= [a[
t
a K. Equivalent absolute values give rise to equivalent
topology on the eld. A place on the eld K is an equivalence class of non-
trivial absolute values. Completion of Q with respect to absolute value v
p
is
dened to be Q
p
, called p-adic eld. These correspond to places which are
called nite places. Note that with respect to usual absolute value on Q the
completion is R, which corresponds to the innite place.
An element in Q
p
is a sequence a
n
of rational numbers such that for
every i > 0 ; p
i
[a
m
a
n
for all m, n >> 0 or equivalentily v
p
(a
m
a
n
) 0.
Another way to look at Q
p
is to dene Z
p
by inverse limit:
Z
p
= lim

Z/p
n
Then Q
p
= Z
p

Z
Q is a eld containing Z
p
such that Q
p
= Z
p
[
1
p
].
Theorem 7.1 (Ostrowskis Theorem). Let K be a prime global eld i.e.
K = Q or K = F
q
(t). Then
1. Suppose that K = Q. Then every non-trivial place of K is represented
by either the usual absolute value, denoted as [.[

, or a p-adic one [.[

p
,
for some prime p.
2. Suppose that K = F
q
(t) and let R = F
q
[t]. Then every non-trivial
place of K is given by either the innite place [.[

dened by [f/g[

=
q
deg(f)deg(g)
or by the nite place [.[
p
corresponding to an irreducible
polynomial p(t) R.
17
Let K be a number eld with O
K
as its ring of integers. Let p be a
prime ideal is O
K
. Let x K

be a nonzero element. Look at the fractional

ideal xO
K
and write it as product of prime ideals xO
K
=

p
n
p
(x)
. Dene
a discrete valuation on K as v
p
: K

Z as v
p
(x) = n
p
(x). Using this
discrete valuation we can dene absolute value on K as [.[
p
: K R
0
by
[x[
p
= (#O
K
/p)
n
p
(x)
. The completion of K with respect to this absolute
value is written as K
p
.
Any element of a discrete valuation ring A looks like
a
0

r
+a
1

r+1
+....
where a
i
s are representations of A/m , a
0
= 0 in A/m and r Z.
Example : Let us take K = C[[t[][t
1
], which is a eld. Any element of
this eld looks like
f(t) =

nmZ
a
n
t
n
where a
n
C.
We have thus dened completion of a number eld at various prime ide-
als. These prime ideals are also called nite places of the number eld. There
are innite places (or archmedian absolute values) which correspond to em-
beddings of the number eld K in C. Two embeddings of K into C are said
to dene the same innite place if and only if they are complex conjugate of
each other. The set of nite places together with innite places constitute
the set of places of the number eld K.
There is another way of looking at completion of a number eld. If K is
a nite eld extension of Q then K

Q
Q
p
is a separable algebra which is a
product of elds.
K

Q
Q
p
=

v|p
K
v
Similarly,
K

Q
R = R
r
1

C
r
2
18
8 A sample calculation of the ring of integers
of a number eld
We will calculate the ring of integers of the eld K = Q(
p
),
p
= e
2i
p
. The
Galois group in this case is Gal(K/Q) = (Z/p)

. In general Q(
n
) are called
cyclotomic elds. These have Galois group which are abelian and isomorphic
to (Z/n)

.
The following theorem will be proved later as a consequence of the class
eld theory.
Theorem 8.1 (Kronecker). Let K be a number eld which is an abelian
extension of Q, i.e. K is Galois over Q with abelian Galois group. Then K
is contained in Q(
n
), for some n.
Proposition 8.1. Let K = Q(
p
),
p
= e
2i
p
. Then the ring of integers of K
is O
K
= Z[
p
].
Remark: The theorem is true for p any positive integer. But we will
prove here for p a prime. Also ring of integers need not be generated by a
single element but it is always generated by at most two elements.
Proof : Clearly Z[
p
] = Z[1
p
] O
K
. Let x O
K
we write
x = a
0
+ a
1
(1
p
) + ...... + a
p2
(1
p
)
p2
with a
i
Q. We need to
show a
i
Z. By using valuation theory we claim that there exists a val-
uation with property that v(1
p
) = 1 , v(p) = p 1. To see this we
note,
f(x) = 1 +x + x
2
+..... +x
p1
=
p1

i=1
(x
i
p
).
Putting x = 1 in this equation,
19
p =
p1

i=1
(1
i
p
)
= (1
p
)
p1
.

1
i
p
1
p
Note that
1
p
1
i
p
Z[
p
] is unit. For this observe that (i, p) = 1, there existsj
such that ij = 1 mod p.Therefore
1
p
1
i
p
=
1 (
i
p
)
j
1
i
p
= 1 +
i
p
+ ..... Z[
p
]
proving that
1
p
1
i
p
Z[
p
]. Clearly
1
i
p
1
p
Z[
p
]. Thus
1
p
1
i
p
Z[
p
] is a unit
in Z[
p
]. Thus the equation p = (1
p
)
i
implies that v(p) = p 1. As the
degree of eld is p 1 which is equal to ramication index of 1
p
which
shows that < 1
p
> is a prime ideal. There exists a valuation on Q(
p
)
s.t. v(x) 0 x O
K
with v(1
p
) = 1 , v(p) = p 1. Also
v(x) = min

v(a
0
), .......v(a
p2
(1
p
)
p2
)

= min (v(a
0
), .......v(a
p2
)) 0
This proves that a
i
s do not have p in the denominator. The rest of the
argument is simpler.
Let x = b
0
+ b
1

p
+ ...... + b
p2
(
p
)
p2
with b
i
Q and b
i
have no p in
denominator. Note that if x O
K
then tr(x
i
p
) Z i. Using tr
j
p
=
1 j = 0 and tr1 = p 1 we get
(p 1)b
i
(b
0
+....b
i1
+b
i+1
+.... + b
p2
) Z
pb
i

p2

i=0
b
i
Z.
20
This implies that p(b
0
b
i
) Z. Since b
i
s do not have p in denominator we
get b
0
b
i
Z. If we can prove that b
0
Z then we will be done.
x = b
0
+ b
1

p
+ ...... + b
p2

p2
p
= b
0
+ (b
1
b
0
)
p
+ ...... + (b
p2
b
0
)
p2
p
+b
0
(
p
+ ...... +
p2
p
)
= (b
1
b
0
)
p
+...... + (b
p2
b
0
)
p2
p
+b
0
(1 +
p
+...... +
p2
p
)
= b
0

p1
p
+

(b
i
b
0
)
i
p
On taking trace we get b
0
Z. This completes the proof.
Remark : Not always the ring of integers O
K
of a number eld is gener-
ated by one element but it is always generated by atmost two elements.
9 The dierent and the discriminant of a num-
ber eld
Let a be a fractionl ideal in a number eld K. We look at the map tr :
K K Q dened by tr(x, y) = tr
K
Q
(xy).
Denition. The set a

= x K[tr(xy) Z, y a is called complemen-

try set.
It is not dicult to see that a

is also a fractional ideal.

Denition. O

K
= x K[tr(xy) Z, y O
K
. Then K O

K
O
K
and O

K
is a fractional ideal. The inverse of O

K
, denoted as , is called the
dierent, which is an ideal in O
K
.
Denition (Norm of an ideal). Let I O
K
is an ideal then we dene Nm(I)
to be the cardinality of O
K
/I.
Theorem 9.1. Let K be a number eld. Then Nm() = disc(K).
Exercise: disc(Q(
p
)/Q) = p
p2
21
Theorem 9.2. Let p be a prime ideal in O
K
lying over p. Let e be the
ramication index of p over p. Then p
e1
divides . Hence, in a number eld
the primes which are ramied (ramication index 2) are exactly primes
dividing the discriminant of the number eld.
Exercises : Nm(IJ) = Nm(I)Nm(J)
Nm() = [Nm
K/Q
()[.
An example calculation of dierent :
Let p Z be a prime. Take K = Q
p
(

p) then O
K
= Z
p
[

p], for any

prime p. Let us take case p = 2. We claim
K
=<

p >. Recall that

1
K
= x K[tr(xy) Z
p
, y O
K
. Let a + b

p, a, b Z
p
is an element
of Z
p
[

p]. Then
1

p
(a+b

p) =
a

p
+b = tr(
a

p
+b) = 2b Z
p
a, b. That
means
1

p

1
K
.
Let us take case when p = 2 the we claim that 2
K
.
1
2
(a + b

2) =
1
2
a +
b

2
= tr(
1
2
a +
b

2
) = a Z
2
= 2
K
.
Lemma 9.1. If L is a nite extension of a local eld K, with
K
and
L
uni-
formizing parameter such that
e
L
=
K
.u, u a unit in O
L
. Then
e1
L
/
L/K
.
In fact
L/K
=
e1
L
p/e.
Proof: Let us prove that
e1
L
/
L/K
. For this we show tr(
e1
L
O
L
)
O
K
. But then tr(
e1
L
O
L
) = tr

K
O
L

=
1

K
tr(
L
O
L
)
1

K
O
K
O
K
.

10 The Riemann Zeta Function

The Riemann zeta function is dened as follows:

Q
(s) =

n1
1
n
s
=

p2
1
1
1
p
s
where the product is taken over all primes. The expression of
Q
(s) in the
product form is called Euler product of
Q
. The Euler product for
Q
(s) is
equivalent to the fundamental theorem of arithmetic: every positive integer
22
is uniquely a product of primes. Both the expressions are valid for Re(s) > 1.
The function
Q
(s) has an analytic continuation to a meromorphic function
in s-plane with a simple pole at s = 1 with residue 1. That is

Q
(s) =
1
s 1
+ holomorphic function around s = 1
The Riemann zeta function satises a functional equation relating its value
at s to 1 s. It is best expressed by introducing another function (s).
(s) =

s
2
(
s
2
)
Q
(s)
The function (s) satises (s) = (1 s).
Riemann conjectured in 1850s that all the zeros of
Q
(s) are on the line
Re(s) =
1
2
. This is one of the most famous unsolved problems in mathemat-
ics, called the Riemann Hypothesis.
11 Zeta Function of a Number Field (Dedekind
Zeta Function)
Let K be a number eld. We dene Dedekind zeta function as follows.

K
(s) =

I=0,IO
K
1
(NI)
s
=

P
1
1
1
(NP)
s
where I ranges over all nonzero ideals of O
K
, NI is the norm of the ideal I
and { is a prime ideal in O
K
. Both the expressions are valid for re(s) > 1.
The function
K
(s) is called the Dedekind zeta function of the number eld
K. It has an analytic continuation to a meromorphic function in s-plane with
a simple pole at s = 1.
Theorem 11.1 (Class Number Formula). Let K be a number eld. Then,

K
(s) =
2
r
1
(2)
r
2
hR
w

d
K
.
1
s 1
+ holomorphic function around s = 1
23
where r
1
is the number of real embeddings of K in C, r
2
is the number of
complex embeddings of K in C upto complex conjugate, h is class number of
K, R is the regulator of the number eld K, w is number of roots of unity in
K and d
K
is the modulus of discriminant.
This theorem will be proved later. Let us check convergence of

K
(s) =

I=0,IO
K
1
(NI)
s
=

P
1
1
1
(NP)
s
for Re(s) > 1. Since the equality

I=0,IO
K
1
(NI)
s
=

P
1
1
1
(NP)
s
is formal, so it suces to check the convergence of the product.
log(
K
(s)) =

P
log(1
1
(N{)
s
)
=

P,m1
1
m(N{)
ms
We have N{ = p
f
where { is prime lying over p and number of primes lying
over p of resudial degree f is N = [K : Q]. Then,
log(
K
(s))

p, m1, Nf1
N
mp
fms
where p is prime.
Therefore upto a function which is bounded in a neighborhood of 1,
log(
K
(s)) =

a
p
p
s
a
p
denotes number of primes above p of degree 1.
24
Thus log(
K
(s)) for s > 1 is bounded by

N
p
s
, thus it is convergent for
re(s) > 1. Actually we will be proving later that
log(
K
(s)) = log
1
s 1
=

1
p
s
(up to a bounded function).
12 Exercises
1. (Problem of Erdos) If m and n are integers, such that the order of m
is same as order of n in (Z/p)

for almost all primes, then m = n.

2. Dene the zeta function
A
1(s) of the ane line A
1
over the nite eld
F
p
as follows.

A
1(s) =

p(x)
1
(1
1
Np(x)
)
s
where p(x) runs over irreducible polynomials in F
p
[x] with leading term
1 and f(x) is monic polynomial over F
p
. And Nf(x) = p
n
where n =
deg f(x). But then

A
1(s) =

p(x)
1
(1
1
Np(x)
)
s
=

f(x)
1
(Nf(x))
s
=

d
p
d
p
ds
=
1
1
p
p
s
3. Let K = Q(i), then
K
(s) =

1
(m
2
+n
2
)
s
25
13 Class Number Formula
2
13.1 Introduction
Let G be a nite cyclic group of even order. Then the number of squares
in G is equal to the number of non-squares in G. In particular, for a prime
p, taking G = (Z/pZ)

, number of quadratic residue modulo p is equal to

the number of quadratic non-residue mod p. One can ask how the quadratic
residues are distributed in I
p
= 1, 2, , (p 1)/2. Let R
p
= Number of
quadratic residues in I
p
and N
p
= Number of quadratic non-residues in I
p
.
Then the question is
Is R
p
= N
p
?
If p 1 mod 4, then

1
p

= 1. Hence the map

:

1, ,
p 1
2

p + 1
2
, , p 1

dened by k k is an one-one correspondence, preserving squares. So,

we conclude that exactly half of the quadratic residues are in I
p
implying
R
p
= N
p
. If p 3 mod 4 then the following result answers our question.
Theorem 13.1. Let p > 3 be a prime such that p 3 mod 4. Also let h
p
denote the class number of the quadratic eld Q(

p). Then
h
p
=

R
p
N
p
if p 7 mod 8,
1
3
(R
p
N
p
) if p 3 mod 8.
Remark 13.1. As h
p
1, we have R
p
> N
p
for prime p > 3 and p 3
mod 4. Moreover 3 divides R
p
N
p
if p 3 mod 8.
Proof of Theorem 13.1 depends on the Class number formula for quadratic
extensions of Q. Let K = Q(

d) where d is the discreminant of K. Let w

be the number of roots of unity in K. For an ideal class ( of K and a real
2
This section is written by Anirban Mukhopadhyay.
26
number X > 0, we dene N(X, () = number of integral ideals I in ( such
that N(I) < X where N(I) denotes the norm of I. We have
Theorem 13.2.
lim
X
N(X, ()
X
=
where
=

2 log

d
if d > 0, is the unique fundamental unit > 1,
2
w

|d|
if d < 0.
Now we state the class number formula for the quadratic eld K =
Q(

d).
Theorem 13.3. For a quadratic number eld K,
lim
s1+
(s 1)
K
(s) = h
where h =Class number of K and
K
is the Dedekind zeta function.
In the rest of the article we give proofs of these results.
13.2 Proof of Theorem 13.1
Here we write a sequence of lemmas leading to the proof of Theorem 1.
Throughout this section we assume K = Q(

d). Following lemma gives a

simple expression for
K
.
Lemma 13.1. For s > 1, we have

K
(s) = (s)L
d
(s)
where (s) is the Riemann zeta function and
L
d
(s) =

m=1

d
m

m
s
with

d
m

denoting the quadratic residue symbol.

27
The series L
d
(s) converges for s > 0. Hence using the fact that
lim
s1+
(s 1)(s) = 1 we derive from the above Lemma
lim
s1+
(s 1)
K
(s) = lim
s1+
(s 1)(s) = L
d
(1).
Thus we have the following simplier expression for class number formula.
h =

2 log

d
L
d
(1) if d > 0, is the unique fundamental unit > 1,
2
w

|d|
L
d
(1) if d < 0.
Now to prove Theorem 13.1 we consider the particular case d = p where
p > 3 is a prime such that p 3 mod 4. It is easy to see that the number
of roots of unity in K, w = 2. For a Dirichlet character , the Dirichlet
series is dened to be L(s, ) =

n=1
(n)
n
s
. In this case we dene to be the
quadratic character (
.
p
). Using above expression for class number one can
easily derive that h
p
=

L(1, ). Next Lemma expresses L(1, ) as a nite

sum.
Lemma 13.2. We have
L(1, ) =
i
1
()
p
2
p1

k=1
(k)k.
where

k
() =

1a<p
(a)
ak
.
with denoting the p-th primitive root of unity.
proof : For s > 1 we have
L(s, ) =

n=1
(n)
n
s
=

1a<p
(a)

na mod p
1
n
s
.
We write

na mod p
1
n
s
=

n=1
c
n
n
s
28
where c
n
= 1 if n a mod p and c
n
= 0 otherwise. If denote the p-th
primitive root of unity, we can write
c
n
=
1
p
p1

k=0

(an)k
.
Thus
L(s, ) =
1
p

1a<p
(a)

n=1
p1

k=0

(an)k
=
1
p
p1

k=0

1a<p
(a)
ak

n=1

nk
n
s
.
We observe that
0
() = 0 and (k)
k
() =
1
(). Using these observations
along with the fact that L(s, ) is continuous in (0, ), we get
L(1, ) =

1
()
p
p1

k=1
1
(k)
log
1
1
k
.
Let S be the sum in the last formula. Since is an even character we have
2S =
p1

k=1
1
(k)

log
1
1
k
log
1
1
k

.
Using the expressions log(1
k
) = i

2

k
p

+ log [1
k
[ we get
S =
i
p
p1

k=1
(k)k.
This completes the lemma.
We recall that
1
() = i

p. Thus
h
p
p =
p1

k=1
(k)k.
29
We split this sum as
h
p
p =
(p1)/2

k=1

k
p

k +
p1

k=(p+1)/2

k
p

k
=
(p1)/2

k=1

k
p

(k (p k))
= 2
(p1)/2

k=1

k
p

k p(R
p
N
p
).
On the other hand we can write,
h
p
p =
(p1)/2

k=1

2k
p

2k +
(p1)/2

k=1

p 2k
p

(p 2k)
= 4

2
p

(p1)/2

k=1

k
p

k p

2
p

(R
p
N
p
).
from above two we get

2
p

h
p
p = p

2
p

(R
p
N
p
).
Now Theorem 13.1 follows from the fact that (
2
p
) = 1 or 1 according as
p 7 mod 8 or p 3 mod 8.
The next section is dedicated to proofs of Theorems 13.2 and 13.3.
13.3 Proofs of Theorems 13.2 and 13.3
We start with a lemma
Lemma 13.3. Let be a bounded open set in R
2
. For any real number
r > 0, let

r
=

(
1
,
2
) R
2
[

1
r
,

2
r

30
and N

(r) = Number of lattice points in

r
. Then
lim
x
1
r
2
N

(r) = Area of .
First we present a proof of Theorem 13.2. Let ( be any ideal class of
K and J be an integral ideal in (
1
. Then for any integral ideal I (,
IJ = O
K
with J. Conversely if J then J[O
K
, hence I = J
1
O
K
is an integral ideal in (. Further [N
K/Q
()[ = N(I)N(J). Thus N(I) < X if
and only if [N
K/Q
()[ < XN(J) = Y (say). We can conclude that N(X, () =
Number of pairwise non-associative elements J such that [N
K/Q
()[ < Y .
We divide the proof in two cases.
Case 1: d > 0 Here is the fundamental unit > 1. We observe that for
any J, = 0, there exist an integer m such that
0 log

[N()[
1/2

< log (13.3.1)

where =
m
and we use N to denote norm without mentioning the elds
involved. It is easy to see that if two associates
1
and
2
satises (13.3.1)
then
1
=
2
with = 1. Hence
2N(X, C) =

J [ 0 < [N()[ < y, 0 log

[N()[
1/2

< log

.
Let
1
,
2
be an integral basis for J and let
=

(
1
,
2
) R
2
[0 < [
1
[[

1
[ < 1, 0 < log

[
1
[
1/2
[

1
[
1/2

< log

where =
1

1
+
2

2
and

=
1

1
+
2

2
,

1
,

2
denote the conjugates of

1
,
2
. We observe that is bounded.
2N(X, () = Number of lattice points in

y
+Number of lattice points inA
y
where
A
y
=

(
1
,
2
) Z [ [[
2
y, [[ = [

[ = 0

31
and is as above. One can easily see that [A
y
[ = O(

y) = O(X). Now
using Lemma 13.3 we derive
lim
X
2N(X, C)
X
= lim
y
N

y)
y
N(J) = N(J)Area of .
Area of can be computed to be
4 log
N(J)

d
. This completes the proof in this
case.
Case 2: d < 0
In this case we have
wN(X, () = [ J [ 0 < N() < y[ .
Let
=

(
1
,
2
) R
2
[0 < [
1

1
+
2

2
[
2
< 1

.
Then wN(X, () = N

y), hence
lim
X
wN(X, C)
X
= lim
y
N

y)
y
N(J) = N(J)Area of .
Here area of is calculated to be
2
N(J)

d
, completing the proof of Theorem
13.2.
To derive class number formula we need the following lemma
Lemma 13.4. Let a
m
be a sequence of real numbers. For a positive real
number X, we set
A(X) =

m<X
a
m
.
Suppose that
lim
X
A(X)
X
= c.
Then the series
f(s) =

m=1
a
m
m
s
converges for s > 1 and we have
lim
s1+
(s 1)f(s) = c.
32
Let a
m
= Number of integral ideals I such that N(I) = m. Then for a
real number X > 0, A(X) = number of integral ideals I such that N(I) < X.
From Theorem 13.2 we get
lim
X
A(X)
X
= h.
So, by the above Lemma,
K
(s) is convergent for s > 1 and
lim
s1+
(s 1)
k
(s) = h.
Which gives the required result.
14 Density of Primes (Dirichlet density)
Let K be a number eld and M is set of primes, then the density of primes
in M is dened to be,
lim
s1
+

pM
1
(Np)
s
log
1
s1
In one of the earlier lecture we had observed that
log
1
s 1
log
K
(s)

p
1
(Np)
s

degp=1
1
(Np)
s
where f
1
f
2
if (f
1
f
2
)(s 1) 0 as s 1 and Np = p
degp
( in fact degp
= residual degree ).
Theorem 14.1. Let K be a number eld which is a galois extension of Q.
If K has degree d over Q then the set of primes in Q which split completely
in K has density =
1
d
.
33
Proof: We have M = p Z [ pO
K
= p
1
...p
d
, p

s are completely split.

So using remark preceding theorem we get
d

pM
1
(Np)
s
=

degp=1
1
(Np)
s
= log
1
s 1
Hence substituting in density formula we get density of completely split
primes ( primes in M ) is
1
d
.
Theorem 14.2. Two number elds K
1
and K
2
which are Galois over Q are
the same if and only if they have the same set of split primes, up to density
zero primes.
Proof: We claim that primes which split in K
1
K
2
are precisely those
which split in both K
1
and K
2
. This follows by noting that a prime p is split
in a number eld K if and only if all embeddings of K in

Q
p
land inside Q
p
.
Thus if p splits completely in K
1
and K
2
, it does so in K
1
K
2
also.
Let K
1
be degree d
1
extension of Q, K
2
be degree d
2
extension of Q and
K
1
K
2
degree d extension of Q. Then, split primes in K
1
are of density
1
d
1
,
split primes in K
2
are of density
1
d
2
and split primes in K
1
K
2
are of density
1
d
. Since the split primes in K
1
, K
2
and K
1
K
2
are the same,
1
d
1
=
1
d
2
=
1
d
.
This implies d
1
= d
2
= d, hence K
1
= K
2
= K
1
K
2
.
Lemma 14.1. Let K be a number eld. Let L denotes the Galois closure of
K. Then the primes in Q which split completely in K are exactly the primes
which split completely in L.
Proof: We have proved earlier that for eld extensions K
1
, K
2
the primes
in Q which split completely in K
1
K
2
are exactly those which split completely
in K
1
and K
2
. Now noting that L is compositium of conjugates of K, the
lemma follows.
Example: Calculation of density of primes.
Let K = Q(2
1
3
), and L = Q(2
1
3
, ) be Galois clousre of K, where is
cube root of unity. We have Q K L. Let us denote primes in Q by p,
prime ideals in K by p and prime ideals in L by q.
34
1. Let us calculate the density of split primes in K, M = p Z [ pO
K
=
p
1
p
2
p
3
, in K. But from previous lemma density of completely split
primes in K is same as density of completely split primes in its closure
L. Then by the theorem, density of M =
1
6
.
2. Let us calculate the density of primes which can be written as product
of two primes. Then M = p Z[pO
K
= p
1
p
2
in K = p Z[pO
L
=
q
1
q
2
q
3
in L p O
K
[ pO
L
= q
1
q
2
. Hence density of M is
1
2
.
3. Let us calculate the density of primes which remains prime in K. In this
case M = p Z[ pO
K
= p in K. But we can see that deg 1 primes
in Z falls in one of the above three categories. Hence the density in
this case will be 1
1
6

1
2
=
1
3
.
15 Decomposition of primes in the cyclotomic
elds
Let K = Q(
n
), where
n
= e
2i
n
and O
K
= Z[
n
].
Proposition 15.1. Let K = Q(
n
) be a cyclotomic number eld. Then the
primes in Z which ramify in K are exactly the divisors of n.
Proof: It suces to prove the proposition for n which is prime power.
So let us assume n = p
m
i.e. K = Q(
p
m). We need to show that p is the
only prime which ramies in K. In fact, in this case, p is a totally ramied
prime i.e. pO
K
= p
d
where d = (p
m
).
Observe that the minimal polynomial satised by
p
m is
1 +x
p
m1
+ (x
2
)
p
m1
+..... + (x
p1
)
p
m1
=

(x )
where product is over , all p
m
th roots of unity. Putting x = 1 we get
p =

(i,p)=1
(1
i
p
m). i Z/p
m
35
Let us take = (1
p
m) then () = 1 (
p
m) for any embedding of K
in C. Since embeddings of K in C correspond to (i, p) = 1 i Z/p
m
which
sends
p
m to
i
p
m we get
p =

Gal(K/Q)
().
Observe that
1
i
p
m
1
p
m
Z[
p
m] is a unit for (i, p) = 1. Hence we get p =
(1
p
m)
(p
m
)
.u where u is a unit in Z[
p
m]. By taking p =< 1
p
m > we get
pO
K
= p
(p
m
)
. The discriminant of eld is power of p hence no other prime
ramies.
Lemma 15.1. Let K = Q(
n
) be a cyclotomic eld. Then the Galois group
Gal(Q(
n
)/Q) is naturally isomorphic to (Z/n)

given by a (Z/n)

acting
on Q(
n
) by
n

a
n
. Further, for p prime in Z with (p, n) = 1, the
Frobenius element
p
Gal(K/Q) is the element p (Z/n)

.
Proof: For this note that if (m, n) = 1 then Q(
n
)

Q(
m
) = Q. This
reduces the problem to the case when n is prime power.
Corollary 15.1. Let p be a prime in Z. Then p splits completely in Q(
n
)
if and only if p 1( modn). In general, for p prime lying over p the residual
degree is exactly the order of the element p (Z/n)

.
Proof: Let p be a prime such that p does not divide n and let p be a
prime lying over p in Z[
n
]. The frobenius automorphism
p
: Z[
n
] Z[
n
]
is dened by
p
x x
p
mod p for all x Z[
n
]. But
p
(
n
) =
p
n
whereas
order of
p
is the degree of residue eld extension of p which is Z[
n
]/p. Now

f
p
= 1
f
p
(
n
) =
n
(
n
)
p
f
=
n
p
f
1 (mod n)
Since p is unramied we get p splits into (n)/f distinct prime ideals. Also
p splits completely (e=1 and f=1) if and only if p 1(modn).
Another Proof of Quadratic Reciprocity Law:
Let p 1(mod4) be a prime. Then Q(

p) Q(
p
). For this consider
G =
p1

a=1

a
p

e
2ia
p
36
It is easy to see that G
2
= (
1
p
)p = p hence G =

p belongs to Q(
p
).
Let q be a prime. Then
q
gal(Q(
p
)/Q) = (Z/p)

and from previous

lemma we get, q is a quadratic residue in Z/p if and only if the prime q splits
in Q(

p).
Now look at the eld extension Q Q(

p) and corresponding polyno-

mial x
2
p = 0. From this point of view, q splits in Q(

p) if and only if p
is a quadratic residue mod q. Combining with earlier statement we get p is
a quadratic residue mod q if and only if q is quadratic residue mod p.
Remark: One can prove that G =

p if p 1(mod4) and G = i

p if
p 3(mod4).
16 Subelds of Cyclotomic Fields
Let K be a number eld which is contained in Q(
n
). Let n =

i
p
n
i
i
.
Then Gal(Q(
n
)/Q) = (Z/n)

i
(Z/p
n
i
i
)

. Using Galois theory there is

a one-one correspondence between the subelds of Q(
n
) and subgroups of
Gal(Q(
n
)/Q) = (Z/n)

.
Denition. Let G be an abelian group. A group homomorphism : G
C

is called a character of a group G.

Then

G, the set of all characters of G, forms a group. This group is called
the character group of G.
Lemma 16.1. If G is a nite abelian group then there exists a bijective
correspondance between subgroups of G and subgroups of the character group

G. This correspondence is given by associating to a subgroup A of G, the set

of all characters of G which are trivial on A.
Combining this lemma with Galois theory we get that subelds K of Q(
n
)
correspond to the subgroups of group of characters of (Z/n)

i.e.

(Z/n)

.
A character of (Z/n)

which is a homomorphism : (Z/n)

is
called a Dirichlet Character. Let n[m are positive integers. Then we get a
homomorphism (Z/m)

(Z/n)

.
37
Denition. Let : (Z/n)

be a Dirichlet character. Let n

0
be the
smallest divisor of n such that factors through (Z/n
0
)

, i.e. there exist

: (Z/n
0
)

such that following diagram commutes.

(Z/n)

//

##
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
(Z/n
0
)

Then n
0
is called the conductor of the Dirichlet character.
Theorem 16.1 (Conductor-Discriminant Formula). Let K be a number eld
such that K Q(
n
), for some n. Let this abelian extension K be dened by
a group of characters X = : (Z/n)

. Then
[d
K
[ =

X
cond()
Examples :
1. Let p be a prime and consider K = Q(
p
). Then the Galois group
G = (Z/p)

and let X = : (Z/p)

be character group.
Then conductor of = p, X if and only if is not trivial character.
Hence using conductor-discriminant formula we get [d
K
[ = p
p2
.
2. Let p be a prime and consider K = Q(
p
2). Then the Galois group
G = (Z/p
2
)

= Z/(p
2
p) and let X = : (Z/p
2
)

be
character group. Then one can see that trivial character has conductor
1, p2 of them have conductor p and p
2
2p+1 of them have character
p
2
. To see this observe that Z/(p
2
p)

= Z/p Z/(p 1). Hence we

get [d
K
[ = p
2p
2
3p
.
38
17 L-functions associated to a Dirichlet char-
acter
Let : (Z/n)

be a Dirichlet character. We can extend to dene a

function on Z by
(a) =

(a) if(a, n) = 1
0 otherwise
Denition. Let be a Dirichlet character. Then
L(s, ) =

n1
(n)
n
s
is called the Dirichlet L-series associated to the Dirichlet character .
The Dirichlet L-functions have properties very similar to the Riemann
zeta function. For instance, these also have meromorphic continuation to the
complex plane and are holomorphic except if = 1. These series also have
functional equations like Riemann zeta functions.
We recall that if (s) =

s
2
(
s
2
)
Q
(s), then the functional equation for
the Riemann zeta function is expressed as (s) = (1 s). Let K be number
eld and
K
(s) be the Dedekind zeta function of the number eld K. Dene

K
(s) = (

[d
K
[)
s
(
s
2
(
s
2
))
r
1
(
s
(s))
r
2

K
(s)
Then the functional equation for the Dedekind zeta function is expressed by
the equality
K
(s) =
K
(1 s).
There are two basic points here.
1. The L-function L(s, ) has a functional equations in which the conduc-
tor of appears.
2. For an abelian extension K of Q, the zeta function can be written as a
product of L-functions as

K
(s) =

L(s, )
39
where product runs over all characters of the Galois group of K over
Q.
Using these two remarks one can get conductor discriminant formula.
18 Introduction to Tates thesis
In the following sections we will be discussing the Tates thesis which is
essentially about analytic contituation and functional equation of Dedekind
zeta functions, and also of L-functions associated to Grossencharacters. This
is the theory of abelian L-functions on the multiplicative group of number
elds as well as of local elds. We begin by recalling that local elds are
either archmedian (R or C) local elds or non-archmedian (nite extensions
of Q
p
and F
p
((t))) local elds. Further the global elds are either number
elds (nite extensions of Q) or function elds (nite extensions of F
p
(t)).
19 Harmonic analysis on p-adic elds
Let G be a locally compact abelian topological group. Let us denote unitary
dual of G by

G = : G S
1
. Then

G is a locally compact topological
group on which the topology is the compact open topology dened by taking
basic open sets of

G as W(C, U) =

G[(C) U,where C is a compact
set in G and U an open set in S
1
.
Theorem 19.1 (Pontryagin duality). The map G

G is an anti equiva-
lence of categories.
Let us recall Fourier analysis on R. Let us take the continuous group
homomorphism : R C

dened by (x) = exp(2ix). Then any

unitary character (continuous group homomorphisms from R to S
1
) on R
is of the form
y
: x (xy) for some y R. Let us dene unitary
dual of R by

R = : R S
1
[ unitary character of R. Then the map
40
y
y
denes isomorphism of R with its unitary dual

R. One denes for
an integrable function f its Fourier transform by

f(y) =

R
f(x)(xy)dx
where dx is a Haar measure on R which, in this case, is the usual Lebesgue
measure on R. For an appropriate choice of a Haar measure dx we have,

f(y) = f(y).
There are similar theorems for any local eld. Consider the character
: Q
p
C

given as follows. For x Q

p
write x as
x =

<j<
a
j
(x)p
j
where a
j
(x) are integers 0 a
j
(x) p 1 and a
j
(x) = 0 for all but nitely
many j < 0. Dene
(x) = exp

2i

<j<0
a
j
(x)p
j

This means that (x) = 1 for x Z

p
.
Lemma 19.1 (Pontryagin Duality). The map y
y
where
y
(x) = (xy)
from Q
p
to

Q
p
is an isomorphism of topological groups.
Proof: (1) If

Q
p
, then there is an integer k such that = 1 on
p
k
Z
p
.
Since is continuous, there is an integer k such that maps p
k
Z
p
into
z S
1
[[z 1[ < 1. But p
k
Z
p
is a subgroup of Q
p
, so its image under is
a subgroup of S
1
; hence equals 1.
Any

Q
p
is completely determined by its values on the numbers p
j
, j
Z. So if = 1 there is an integer j
0
such that (p
j
) = 1 for j j
0
, but
(p
j
0
1
) = 1.
(2) Suppose

Q
p
, (1) = 1, and (p
1
) = 1. There is a sequence
c
j

0
with c
0
1, ..., p 1 and c
j
0, 1, ..., p 1 for j 1 such that
(p
k
) = exp

2i

k
j=1
c
kj
p
j

for k = 1, 2, 3....
41
Let
k
= (p
k
); then

p
k+1
=

(p
k1
)

p
= (p.p
k1
) = (p
k
) =
k
Now
1
= 1 and
0
= 1 so
1
= exp(2ic
0
p
1
) for some c
0
1, ..., p 1.
Proceeding by induction, suppose
k
= exp

2i

k
j=1
c
kj
p
j

. Since
k=1
is pth root of
k
, there exists c
k
0, 1, ..., p 1 such that

k+1
= exp

2i
k

j=1
c
kj
p
j1

exp(2ic
k
p
1
) = exp

2i
k+1

j=1
c
k+1j
p
j

.
(3) If

Q
p
, (1) = 1, and (p
1
) = 1, there exists y Q
p
with [y[ = 1
such that =
y
.
Let us take c
j

0
as above and set y =

0
c
j
p
j
. Then [y[ = 1 since
c
0
= 0, and for k 1,
(p
k
) = exp

2i
k

j=1
c
kj
p
j

= exp

2i
1

j=k
c
j+k
p
j

=
1
(

k
c
j+k
p
j
)
=
1
(p
k
y) =
y
(p
k
)
From 1,2 and 3 surjectivity of lemma follows easily. Rest of the proof is
easy exrcise.
Now if we have any nite extension K of Q
p
then we dene character
using trace map combining with character as follows
K
tr
Q
p

This is a continuous unitary character on K.

Lemma 19.2 (Pontryagin Duality). Let K be a eld which is nite extension
of Q
p
. Let be a non trivial character of K (for example above dened ).
Then denes a topological isomorphism of K to its dual

K. Which is
K

K dened as y
y
where
y
(x) = (xy).
42
Proof: If we use the previous lemma and the fact that dual of direct sum
is direct product of duals, the lemma follows. But we give dierent proof.
It is easy to see that the map is continuous additive homomorphism from
K to

K. Also
y
= 1 if and only if y = 0. Since is a non trivial character
there exists y
0
such that (y
0
) = 1 and if y = 0 = (y
0
) = (y
0
y
1
y) =

y
(y
0
y
1
) = 1 =
y
= 1. And if y = 0 =
y
= 1. This insures
injectivity of the map. Moreover it gives that character distinguishes points
of K. It remains to prove that the map is surjective.
We claim to show that image of K in

K is dense as well as closed. We
have Image =
y
[y K

K. Let be a character in the closure of
the image of K. Thus assume that there exists a sequence x
n
K such
that
x
n
. We can assume that x
n
s do not have a convergent sub-
sequence (else if x
n
x then
x
n

x
= ) . Thus we assume that
x
n
. And
x
n
means that for any compact set X K,
x
n
(x)
(x)x K uniformly on K. That is [
x
n
1[ < x K for n suciently
large. Any neighbourhood of 0 in K contains a subgroup (as it is locally
compact, look at its valuation ring or power of its unique maximal ideal) but
in C

the neighbourhood of 1 does not contain any subgroup. (This is called

non-existence of non-trivial subgroups in a neighbourhood of 1.) This gives

x
n
(K) = 1, a contradiction to x
n
.
From previous proposition K

=

K so fourier analysis of standard kind
becomes available on K. For any function f L
1
we dene,

f(x) =

K
f(x)(xy)dy
where dy is a Haar measure on K and : K C

is a xed non-trivial
character.
Proposition 19.1. There exists a unique choice of Haar measure dx (de-
pending on ) on K such that

f(x) = f(x), for all f s(K), schwartz

space (space of locally constant compactly supported functions on K).
Now let us x a Haar measure on K, a locally compact eld, so that
43
fourier inversion formula holds. Recall that the dierent ideal
K/Q
p
of K is
dened by
1
K|Q
p
= x K[tr(xO
K
) Z
p
.
Lemma 19.3. If A is a compact abelian group and : A C

is a
character, then

A
(a)da = 0 if = 1 and

A
(a)da = vol(A) if = 1.
Proof: If = 1 then

A
(a)da =

A
1.da = vol(A). If = 1 there
exists x
0
A such that (x
0
) = 1. Put I =

A
(a)da then I =

A
(a)da =

A
(a +x
0
)da = I.(x
0
) = I = 0.
Let us denote the characteristic function of O
K
, the valuation ring of K,
by the
O
K
. The fourier transform will be

O
K
(y) =

O
K
(x)(xy)dx =

O
K
(xy)dx
Then
O
K
(y) = 0 if y /
1
K
and
O
K
(y) = vol(O
K
) if y
1
K
. Where
(x) = exp 2i tr(x) is a character of K. Then,

O
K
(y) =

K

O
K
(x)(xy)dx = vol(O
K
)

1
K
(xy)dx

O
K
(0) = vol(O
K
)

1
K
1.dx = vol(O
K
)N(
K
)vol(O
K
)
But


O
K
(0) = (0) = 1. This implies that vol(O
K
) =
1

N(
K
)
, where
N(
K
) = [
1
K
: O
K
] = [O
K
:
K
].
20 Local Theory
Let K be a local eld and let o(K) denote the Schwartz space of locally
constant compactly supported functions on K. Let be a character on K

.
Then we dene local zeta function by
Z(f, , s) =

f(x)(x)[x[
s
d

x
44
for s C, where d

x is normalised Haar measure on K

. Initially Z(f, , s)
is dened only for Re(s) > 0 but actually it has meromorphic continuation
to whole of the s-plane. In fact, Z(f, , s) C(q
s
) where q = [[, is
uniformizing parameter. Let us prove this in case is a ramied character
of K

(i.e. (O

K
) 1), where O

K
is the group of invertible elements of the
ring O
K
.
Z(f, , s) =

f(x)(x)[x[
s
d

x
=

K
(x)[x[
s
d

x + a term belonging to C[q

s
, q
s
]
Now let us look at the term

K
(x)[x[
s
d

x =

n=0
[
n
O
K

n+1
O
K
]
(x)[x[
s
d

x
=

n=0

n
O

K
(x)[x[
s
d

x
=

n=0

K
(
n
x)q
ns
[x[
s
d

x
=

n=0
(
n
)

K
(x)q
ns
[x[
s
d

x
= 0
Therfore for ramied character Z(f, , s) C[q
s
, q
s
].
If [
O

K
1 i.e. is unramied then by a similar calculation
Z(
O
K
, , s) =

n=0
(
n
)q
ns
vol(O

K
) =
1
1
()
q
s
vol(O

K
)
The local zeta functions satisfy a certain functional equation which is
basic to the whole theory.
45
Theorem 20.1. Let K be a local eld, a non-trivial character and f
o(K) then for all g o(K),
Z(f, , s)Z( g,
1
, 1 s) = Z(g, , s)Z(

f,
1
, 1 s).
Proof: This follows by denitions as we will see.
Z(f, , s)Z( g,
1
, 1 s) =

f(x)(x)[x[
s
g(y)
1
(y)[y[
1s
d

xd

y
We apply change of variable (x, y) (x, xy).
=

f(x)(x)[x[
s
g(xy)
1
(xy)[xy[
1s
d

xd

y
=

f(x) g(xy)[x[d

(y
1
)[y[
1s
d

y
=

KKK
f(x)g(z)(xyz)[y[
s
(y
1
)dxdydz
This expression is symmetric in f and g; proving the theorem.
Corollary 20.1.
Z(f, , s) = (, s)Z(

f,
1
, 1 s)
where (, s) is independent of f.
Denition. We dene L(, s) = 1 if is ramied, and L(, s) =
1
1
()
q
s
if
is unramied.
Note that the value of an unramied character on a uniformizing ele-
ment does not depend on the choice of uniformizing element . Rearranging
the functional equation, we get
Z(

f,
1
, 1 s)
L(
1
, 1 s)
= (, s)
Z(f, , s)
L(, s)
These epsilons are called local constants. These are monomial function
in q
s
.
46
Proposition 20.1. The local constant (, s) is a monomial in q
s
.
Proof : Let assume that is ramied. In this case functional equation
is
Z(

f,
1
, 1 s) = (, s)Z(f, , s)
We calculated in the beginning of the section that when is ramied Z(f, , s)
C[q
s
, q
s
]. This implies that (, s) C[q
s
, q
s
]. Similarly (
1
, 1 s)
C[q
s
, q
s
]. Using previous proposition we see that (, s)(
1
, 1 s) =
(1), a constant. Hence (, s) is a unit in C[q
s
, q
s
] but the only units in
C[q
s
, q
s
] are monomials. Hence the proposition.
Proposition 20.2.
(, s)(
1
, 1 s) = (1)
Proof follows from the functional equation for local zeta functions and
the denition of (, s).
21 Language of Adeles and Ideles
Harmonic analysis on the topological groups is most conveniently done when
the group is locally compact. By Tychonos theorem, an arbitrary product
of compact spaces is compact. However such a theorem is not true for lo-
cally compact spaces. There is a way out, and there is a general notion in
topology of restricted direct product of locally compact topological groups
which constructs a locally compact topological group. Suppose we are given
system of pairs (G
p
, H
p
) for p p (some index set), wher G
p
are locally
compact groups and H
p
are compact open subgroups of G
p
. The restricted
direct product of the system (G
p
, H
p
) will be denoted as

(G
p
, H
p
) or

G
p
.
This product is dened as follows.

(G
p
, H
p
) = (x
p
)[x
p
G
p
, p and x
p
H
p
for all but nitely many p

s
47
A topology on this group is given by declaring the system of neighborhoods
of 1 to be:
u
1
u
2
..... u
r

p={1,2,..r}
H
p
where u
i
s are compact open subgroups of G
p
i
at nitely many places p
i
.
With this topology G =

(G
p
, H
p
) is a locally compact topological group.
The corresponding Schwartz space (space of locally constant and com-
pactly supported functions) will be given by
o(G) =

o(G
p
),
H
p

= lim

{1,..,r}p

i=1
o(G
p
i
)
r+1

i=1
o(G
p
i
)

where the maps are dened as

r

i=1
o(G
p
i
)
r+1

i=1
o(G
p
i
)
f
1

....

f
r
f
1

...

f
r

H
r+1
Proposition 21.1. Let G =

p
(G
p
, H
p
) be the restricted direct product of
G
p
, H
p
dened as above. Let dg
p
denote the corresponding Haar measure on
G
p
normalized so that the volume of H
p
is 1 for almost all p p. Then there
is a unique Haar measure dg on G such that for each nite subset of indices
S p the restriction of dg on G
S
=

pS
G
p

p/ S
H
p
is precisely the
product measure.
Let us take the eld Q of rational numbers and all its completions at
nite places Q
p
and innite place R = Q

. The corresponding restricted

direct product of (Q
p
, Z
p
)

R, is called the adeles of Q, denoted as

A
Q
= R

Q where

Q = Q

Z. This is a locally compact topological ring.

Similar notion is associated to the multiplicative group in which we take
(Q

p
, Z

p
)

, . Corresponding restricted direct product is called the

idele group of Q denoted by J
Q
, or A

Q
, or G
m
.
48
For a general number eld K one can dene adeles and ideles as follows:
A
K
= A
Q

Q
K =

(K
v
, O
v
)
J
K
=

A
Q

Q
K

(K

v
, O

v
)
where K
v
denotes completion of K at place v and O
v
is corresponding valu-
ation ring. On J
K
the topology is dened by the system of neighbourhoods
coming from O

p
= (Z
p

Z
O
K
)

in usual way. Note that J

Q
A
Q
is a
continuous map, but J
Q
is not closed in A
Q
. Thus the topology on J
Q
is not
the one it inherits as a subset of A
Q
.
Lemma 21.1. A number eld K embeds inside its adeles A
K
as a discrete,
cocompact subgroup, i.e. A
K
/K is a compact group.
Proof : The map K A
K
given by x (x, x, x....) (given any x K
it belongs to O
v
for almost all v) will have discrete image if there exists a
neighbourhood of 0 A
K
which does not contain any nonzero element
of K. In fact let U = U

v
O
v
where U

is a small neighborhood of
0 in K

R. We have O
K
R
r
1
C
r
2
is discrete, where r
1
number of
real embedding of K and r
2
is number of complex embeddings of K up
to conjugation. Using which we can pull out small neighbourhood for our
purpose.
The map K K

A
Q
can be compared to the map Q
r
A
r
Q
to show
the cocompactness. As we can see
A
Q
Q
=

Z
p
R
Z
that is A
Q
= Q+

Z
p
R.

Lemma 21.2. The multiplicative group K

embedds inside J
K
as a discrete
subgroup. Inside J
K
there exists a closed subgroup J
1
K
= ker[.[ : J
K

C

; [x[ =

v
[x[
v
which contains K

.
Theorem 21.1. The group J
1
K
/K

is a compact topological group.

49
Proof : The discreteness of K

inside J
K
is analogous. We prove that
K

J
1
K
is cocompact. For this observe that K

`J
K
/

v
O
v

is
nothing but the class group of K. Look at the map
J
K

v
Zv = divisors
x
v

v
ord
v
(x
v
)v
Then J
K
/

v
O
v
.

divisors, going modulo K

we get
K

`J
K
/

v
O
v
.

`divisors, which is the class group of K. Since

J
K
is K

. (

v
O
v

) up to nite index, for the purpose of the proof

of compactness of J
1
K
/K

we can as well look K

v
O
v
(

)
1
.
Thus J
1
K
/K

is compact if and only if (

)
1
/units in K is compact.
Which is nothing but Dirichlet unit theorem.
22 Classical Language
Denition. Cycles: ( = (
f
.
C
where (
f
is an ideal in O
K
and
C
is a set
of embeddings of K R.
Corresponding to a cycle ( one can dene I(() as ideals coprime to ( and
dene P
C
to be the principal ideals which have generators x such that x > 0
in all embeddings of K corresponding to primes in
C
and x1 (
f
i.e.
(
f
=

p
n
i
i
then x 1 (
f
v
p
i
(x 1) n
i
.
Notation: We write above one as x 1 mod

(
f
.
Clearly I(() is a group and P
C
is a subgroup and thus I(()/P
C
is a group.
This is a nite group.
Example : Let us take K = Q and ( = n. then I(()/P
C

= (Z/n)

.
Proof : Let x =
d
1
d
2
be an element of I(() with d
1
, d
2
coprime to n. Then
we dene a map I(() (Z/n)

as x d
1
( mod n).(d
2
( mod n))
1
.
This is a surjective map with kernel P
C
.
50
Lemma 22.1. Let ( = (
f
.
C
be a cycle. Then
I(()/P
C
J
K
/K

(v,C)=1
U
v

v/C
U
v
(()
where (v, () = 1 means v coprime to (.
The main theorem of class eld theory i.e. Artin Reciprocity will imply
that these are precisely the Galois group of abelian extensions of K. Proof
of the lemma is an exercise for readers.
23 Character of A
K
Denition. If a group G operates on a space X then X is called a principal
homogeneous space for G if G operates simply transitively on X.
Lemma 23.1. The characters of A
K
can be considered to be a principal
homogeneous space of A
K
.
Let be any non-trivial character on A
K
then A
K
operates on

A
K
and
give rise to a principal homogeneous structure.
A
K


A
K


A
K
(a, )
a

a
(x) = (ax)
Lemma 23.2. If G =

(G
p
, H
p
) then

G =

G
p
, H

p
) where H

p


G
p
consists of all characters on G
p
which are trivial on H
p
which is isomporphic
to

G
p
/H
p
, a compact group.
Proof : Since G =

(G
p
, H
p
), then : G C

gives rise to a charac-

ter
p
: G
p
C

. We claim that
p
is trivial on H
p
for almost all p. This
follows because C

has no small subgroups i.e. there exists a neighbourhood

51
of 1 which contains no subgroup of C

exept 1 itself. This implies by conti-

nuity of and the denition of almost direct product that
p
= 1 for almost
all p.Then we get H

p
=

G
p
/H
p
G
p
is an open subgroup. To prove this
we look at the continuous map G
p

G
p
C

dened by (a, ) (a).

Dene U =

G
p
[(H
p
) a ball of radius
1
3
around 1 This set of
characers are open set in

G
p
. But since there are no small subgroups we get
U = H

p
.
Next objective is to construct a non-trivial character on A
K
/K. We will
do this for K = Q and then take the trace from A
K
to A
Q
to construct one
for all number elds K.
Construction of character on A
Q
/Q
The local characters we constructed has the required property. We had
Q
p
Q
p
/Z
p

= (Q/Z)
p
exp(2ix)
These mappings can be combined to give a mapping
A
Q
/(R

Z)

p
Q
p
/Z
p

= Q/Z S
1
But A
Q
= (R +

Z).Q =
A
Q
Q

=
R

Z
Z
This gives a character (a) = e
2ia
on
R

Z
Z
and hence on
A
Q
Q
.
Lemma 23.3. For K, an algebraic number eld we have

A
K
/K

= K as a
principal homogeneous space.
Proof Let be a character of A
K
/K. For any element a K, one
can dene another character
a
: A
K
/K S
1
using
a
(x) = (ax). We
claim to show that if is non-trivial character of A
K
/K then all characters
of A
K
/K are of this form. Note that since A
K
/K is compact its character
group is a discrete subgroup of A
K
containing K. Since A
K
/K is compact
it follows that its discrete subgroup must contain K as a subgroup of nite
index. However a discrete subgroup is a vector space over K. hence the
index if not 1 must be innite.
52
Corollary 23.1 (Strong Approximation Theorem). Let K be a number eld.
Let v
0
be some place (nite or innite). Then the image of
K

v=v
0
K
v
is dense.
Proof : If the image is not dense then there exists a non-trivial character
of A
K
trivial on K
v
0
K. However all characters of A
K
, trivial on K are of
the form (ax), a K and these are non-trivial on K
v
0
.
Corollary 23.2 (Weak Approximation Theorem). Let S be any nite set of
places of a global eld K. Then K is dense in

vS
K
v
.
24 Gr ossencharacter
Characters of idele group J
K
C

which are non-trivial on K

play a very
specic role.
Denition (Grossencharacters). A Grossencharacter is a character of J
K
/K

which is a continuous group homomorphism J

K
/K

. A continuous
group homomorphism J
K
/K

S
1
is called unitary Grossencharacter.
Grossencharacters are trivial on U
v
, for almost all v.
Denition (L-function). Let : J
K
/K

be a character. We dene
the L-function associated to as
L(, s) =

(p,c)=1
1

1
(
p
)
(N
p
)
s

where c denotes conductor of consists of those primes in K for which is

non-trivial on U
v
and (p, c) = 1 denotes the prime ideals p of K which are
coprime to the conductor c of and the product is taken over all such p.
53
We can also write L(, s) =

p
L(
p
, s) where L(
p
, s) =
1
1

p
(
p
)
(N
p
)
s
if
p
is
an unramied character of K

p
i.e. it is trivial on O

p
and dene L(
p
, s) = 1
if
p
is ramied. By comparing to
K
(s) one nds that L(, s) is holomorphic
in the domain Re(s) > 1 if is unitary.
The innity-type of a Gr ossencharacter : If : J
K
C

is
a Grossencharacter, the restriction of to K

= (K

R)

is called the
innity type of character.
Denition (Algebricity of Grossencharacter). The character is called al-
gebraic if and only if

is algebraic i.e.

(x) = x
n
if x R
+
and

(z) = z
n
z
m
, m, n Z if z C

.
Example : For K = Q we have J
Q
= Q

R
+

p
. This means that
J
Q
/Q

= R
+

p
. Thus characters are easy to describe in this case. The
characters of J
Q
/Q

of nite order are identied to characters of (Z/m)

for
some integer m. The trivial character on J
K
/K

is a Grossencharacter and
the corresponding L-function is the Dedekind Zeta function of K.
Exercise :
1. Prove that any Grossencharacter can be written as =
0
[[
s
where
0
is a unitary Grossencharacter.
2. Prove that by using formula L(, s) = L(.[[
s
0
, s) = L(
0
, s +s
0
)
25 Fourier Analysis on Adeles and Ideles and
Global Zeta Function
We dene Global zeta function for f o(A
K
), Schwartz space, and :
J
K
/K

a character,
(f, , s) =

J
K
f(x)(x)[x[
s
d

x
where d

x is a Haar measure on J
K
. Note that to dene Haar measure on
an almost direct product one must have measure(H
p
) = 1 for almost all p.
54
In our case H
p
= O

P
, we have volume
Np1
Np
. thus to dene Haar measure on
J
K
one multiplies local Haar measure by
Np
Np1
dx
|x|
.
If is unitary character then (f, , s) is an analytic function of s in
the region Re(s) > 1. It suces to check this for factorizable function f
o(A
K
) =

v
o(K
v
). So it suces to assume f =

f
p
, =

p
, in which
case if we can prove that

p
Z(f
p
,
p
, s) converges and denes an analytic
function in the region Re(s) > 1, then the integral dening (f, , s) will
also converge to

p
Z(f
p
,
p
, s) and will be analytic function in the region
Re(s) > 1. But we have calculated earlier that Z(f
p
,
p
, s) =
1
1

p
(
p
)
(Np)
s
is
convergent for Re(s) > 1, hence the zeta integral make sense and is analytic
in Re(s) > 1.
Theorem 25.1. If is a non-trivial Grossencharacter then (f, , s) has
analytic continuation to the entire complex-plane and has functional equation
(f, , s) = (

f,
1
, 1 s)
Proof : It has two basic ingradients.
1. Poisson Summation formula : We recall that Poisson summation
formula of R states that

nZ
f(n) =

nZ

f(n)
in case of R. where f o(R). We will be using the analogue of this
for A
K
.

K
f() =

f()
Hence for f o(A
K
) and a J
K
we get [a[

K
f(a) =

f(a).
2. Fubini Theorem : If G is a discrete subgroup and dx is a Haar
measure on G then it descends to give a Haar measure on G/ such
that if f L
1
(G) then F(x) =

f(x +) is a L
1
-function on G/
and

G/
F(x)dx =

G
f(x)dx.
55
We continue with the proof of the theorem. Write J
K
= J
1
K
R
+
(we use
(xt) variable).
0 J
1
K
J
K
Nm
R
+
(f, , s) =

J
K
f(x)(x)[x[
s
d

x
=

J
K
f(xt)(xt)[xt[
s
d

x
dt
t
=

R
+

J
1
K
f(xt)(xt)[t[
s
dx
dt
t
=

1
0

J
1
K
f(xt)(xt)[t[
s
dx
dt
t
+

J
1
K
f(xt)(xt)[t[
s
dx
dt
t
The second integral on the right hand side is automatically analytic in
the entire plane. We will use Poisson summation formula to transform the
rst integral on the right hand side to a similar integral but one from 1 to
giving analytic continuation. Dene,

t
(f, , s) =

J
1
K
f(xt)(xt)t
s
dx.
Then

t
(f, , s) =

J
1
K
/K

f(xt)(xt)

t
s
dx
=

J
1
K
/K

f(xt)

(xt)t
s
dx
56
since is non-trivial,

t
(f, , s) =

J
1
K
/K

xt

(xt)t
s1
dx
=

J
1
K

1
xt

(xt)t
s1
dx
=

J
1
K

x
t

(x
1
t)t
s1
dx
= 1
t
(

f,
1
, 1 s)
Thus,

1
0

t
(f, , s) =

1
0
1
t
(

f,
1
, 1 s) =

t
(

f,
1
, 1 s)
Hence,
(f, , s) =

1
0

t
(f, , s)
dt
t
+

t
(f, , s)
dt
t
=

1
1
t
(

f,
1
, 1 s)
dt
t
+

t
(f, , s)
dt
t
This is valid initially for Re(s) > 1 but both integrals are entire giving
analytic continuation to (f, , s) and also functional equation.
Corollary 25.1. From this theorem we get analytic continuation and func-
tional equation for L-functions associated to Grossencharacter.
Proof of Corollary : Let : J
K
/K

be a Grossencharacter
and f : A
K
C

be factorizable f =

f
p
function. We can assume that
(f
p
,
p
, s) = L(
p
, s) for almost all place, say outside a nite set S of places
of K. Then from the theorem we have (f, , s) = (

f,
1
, 1 s).
57

pS

p/ S
(f
p
,
p
, s) =

pS

p/ S
(

f
p
,
1
p
, 1 s)

pS
(f
p
,
p
, s)

p/ S
L(
p
, s) =

pS
(

f
p
,
1
p
, 1 s)

p/ S
L(
1
p
, 1 s)
=

pS
(

f
p
,
1
p
, 1 s)
L(
1
p
, 1 s)

pS
L(
1
p
, 1 s)
=

pS
(

f
p
,
1
p
, 1 s)
L(
1
p
, 1 s)
L(
1
, 1 s)
But using local functional equation
(
p
, s) =
(f
p
,
p
, s)
L(
p
, s)
=
(

f
p
,
1
p
, 1 s)
L(
1
p
, 1 s)
We get
L(, s)(, s) = L(
1
, 1 s)
with (, s) =

p
(
p
, s) where (
p
, s) = 1 at almost all places and is of
the form ab
s
.
26 Riemann-Roch Theorem
Let K be a function eld over a nite eld (i.e. nite extension of F
q
(t), q
is power of some prime). The eld K has valuations, denoted as v, which
are considered as points of the corresponding Riemann surface X or X
K
. By
a divisor D on X we mean an element of the free abelian group on X, i.e.
D =

v
n
v
v where n
v
Z and v belongs to the set of places of K such
that n
v
is nonzero only for nitely many v. We dene the degree of a divisor
D =

v
n
v
v to be deg(D) =

n
v
. We call the nite set of places v with
n
v
= 0 the support of the divisor D.
58
For an element f K we associate a divisor, called the divisor of f and
denoted as (f), to be described as follows. For v X, let us denote n
v
= v(f)
for the valuation of f at the place v. It is easy to see that this is nonzero for
only nitely many v. Then we dene (f) =

v
v(f)v. One can check some
simple properties of it.
1. If D
1
and D
2
are divisors, then deg(D
1
+ D
2
) = deg(D
1
) + deg(D
2
).
2. If f
1
, f
2
K, then (f
1
f
2
) = (f
1
) + (f
2
).
3. Let f K. Then the degree deg((f)) = 0.
For a divisor D one denes certain vector space of functions,
L(D) = f K

[(f) +D 0

0.
Lemma 26.1. For a divisor D, L(D) is a nite dimensional vector space
over F
q
.
There is a divisor on X, called the canonical divisor and denoted by
. Let be a non-trivial character on A
K
/K. This denes character
v
:
K
v
C

. Dene the order of at v tobe the minimal integer n

v
such that
[
O
v
.
n
v
v
1. Then the canonical divisor =

n
v
.v is a divisor on X, and
is divisor class group.
Theorem 26.1 (Riemann-Roch Theorem). Let K be a function eld and
L(D) dened as above. Then there exists g an integer 0 such that dimL(D)
dimL(k D) = deg(D) + (1 g).
Proof : The proof follows from Poisson summation formula applied to
the characteristic function of O
D
A
K
where O
D
is dened to be the product
of
n
v
v
O
v
for all the places v of K.
27 Artin Reciprocity
Now we move towards algebraic number elds and Artin reciprocity law.
59
Let K/k be an abelian extension of number elds. We note few facts from
Galois theory. Let G = Gal(K/k) be the Galois group of K over k, and let
q be a prime in K lying over a prime ideal p of k. We dene decomposition
group of q in G to be D
q
= G[(q) = q. As residue eld O
K
/q is a
nite eld and is a nite extension of O
k
/p of degree f. We have canonical
homomorphism,

q
: D
q
Gal

O
K
/q
O
k
/p

(x mod q (x) mod q)

This map is clearly well dened homomorphism of groups.
Proposition 27.1. The canonical map
q
: D
q
Gal

O
K
/q
O
k
/p

has the
following properties.
1. The map
q
is surjective.
2. The map
q
is injective if and only if the prime p in k is unramied in
K; i.e. if and only if the local extension K
q
/k
p
is unramied.
3. Each D
q
extends to an automorphism of the completion K
q
that is
trivial on the subeld k
p
. The induced map j
q
: D
q
Gal(K
q
/k
p
) is
in fact an isomorphism.
One knows from elementry eld theory that Gal

O
K
/q
O
k
/p

is cyclic, gener-
ated by the Frobenius map x x
q
where #(k/p) = q. In case of p being
unramied the Frobenius element Fr
p
D
q
G is called the Artin symbol
attached to p.
In other language let u be an unramied place of the number eld k and v
be a place of the number eld K lying over u. Let
u
be uniformizing element
of O
u
and
v
be that of O
v
. Then
u
.O
v
=
v
.O
v
and the decomposition group
D
u

= Gal

O
v
/
v
O
u
/
u

= Gal(K/k).
60
This denes the map
r :

v/ S
k

v
O

v
Gal(K/k)

v
Fr
v
where S denotes set of innite places as well as set of nite places of k.
Theorem 27.1 (Artin Reciprocity). The map r :

v/ S
k

v
Gal(K/k)
extends uniquely to a group homomorphism r : J
k
Gal(K/k) which is
trivial on k

.
Proof : The uniqueness follows from weak approximation theorem i.e.
k

vS
k

v
is dense. This implies that k

v/ S
k

v
is dense in J
k
, hence a
character which is trivial on k

v/ S
k

v
is identically 1. In rest of the section
we try to prove Artin Reciprocity.
We have dened a map J
k
Gal(K/k) for abelian extensions of num-
ber elds. These maps as K varies over all abelian extensions of k form a
compatible system of maps i.e. if K
1
K
2
k then the following diagram
commutes.
J
k
r
1
//
r
2
##
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
Gal(K
1
/k)
restriction

Gal(K
2
/k)
Thus we have a map
J
k
lim

Gal(K/k) = Gal(k
ab
/k)
Theorem 27.2. Let k be a number eld. Then,
J
k
/(k

.k
+

= Gal(k
ab
/k)
61
i.e. nite abelian extensions of k are in bijective correspondence with open
subgroups of nite index of J
k
/k

. Where k
+

denotes identity component of

k

.
Hilbert Class Field : These are maximal abelian everywhere unramied
extension of a number eld k. These are nite extensions of k with the
property that Galois group is isomorphic to the class group of k. In terms of
previous theorem these elds correspond to the subgroup
k

vk
f
O

v
J
k
More generally if U J
k
is an open subgroup containing k

, then the corre-

sponding abelian extension k
U
of k is called the class eld associated to U.
Also k
U
is unramied at a place v if and only if O

v
U.
Ray Class Field : Let ( be a cycle in number eld k. We dene
U(() =

vC
U
v
(n
v
) where ( = v
1
, v
2
....v
l
, v

and U
v
(n
v
) = x O

v
[x 1
mod (
n
v
v
). Then we take U = k

.U(() and the corresponding eld exten-

sion is called Ray class eld. Just as k

v
has ltration by congruence sub-
groups the eld k has a distinguished family of abelian extensions generating
Q(
n
)/Q, which corresponds to Ray class eld associated to the ideal (n).
Theorem 27.3 (Cebotaraev Density Theorem). If K/k is a nite Galois
extension of global elds with Galois group G and C is a conjugacy class in
G then the density (Dirichlet density) of primes p in k such that Fr
p
(
is of density
|C|
|G|
. In particular, the set X = p[Fr
p
( is nonempty and
innite.
Corollary 27.1 (Dirichlet Theorem). There are innitely many primes in
any arithmetic progression a + nd, n Z if (a, d) = 1.
Proof : Let us look at eld extension Q(
n
) of Q. Its Galois group is
Z/n

and Fr
p
= p. The Cebotaraev density theorem implies that there are
innitely many primes in arithmetic progression.
For the purpose of the proof of Artins reciprocity law its useful to go
back and forth between ideal theoretic and adelic language.
62
Proposition 27.2. Let K be a Galois extension of a number eld k. Then
J
k
/(k

.N
K
k
J
K
)

=
I
k
(()
P
C
.N
K
k
(I
K
(())
where ( is a cycle in k divisible by ramied primes such that
O
v
((
v
) N
K
w
k
v
(K

w
) (called admissible cycles) and I
k
(() is ideals in k which
are coprime to (.
Proof : We have
J
C
=

v/C
O

v
(()

(v,C)=1
k

v
Let k
C
= J
C

, then J
C
/k
C

J
k
/k

. This is injective (by denition) and

surjective by weak approximation theorem (

v/C
O

v
(().k

v/C
k

v
). This
gives rise to following diagram.
I
C
/k
C

J
k
/k

I
k
(C)
P
C
.N
K
k
(I
K
(C))

J
k
/(k

.N
K
k
J
K
)
Check that the isomorphism in the top horizontol arrow descends to give an
isomorphism of the bottom horizontol arrow.
In the light of this proposition we need to dene map (called Artin map)
from I
K
(() to Gal(K/k). Which we dene by v Fr
v
. Observe that
N
K
k
(I
K
(()) lies in the kernel of the Artin map for K/k (Galois extension of
degree m). Let p be a prime in k and q be a prime in K over p, and suppose
this is an unramied prime.
pO
K
=
d

i=1
q
i
Then Nm(q
i
) = p
m
d
where m = d.[O
K
/q
i
: O
k
/p]. Which gives Fr
m/d
p
= 1,
thus all the norms are in the kernel of the Artin map. Proving P
C
is in kernel
of Artin map is non-trivial part.
Steps in the proof of Artin Reciprocity Theorem
63
1. Prove the reciprocity for cyclic extensions.
(a) Order of the group
I
k
(C)
P
C
.N
K
k
(I
K
(C))
and Gal(K/k) is the same.
(b) The map I
k
(() Gal(K/k) is surjective map.
(c) P
C
belongs to the kernel and this is done via recourse to cyclotomic
theory.
2. Deduce reciprocity for general abelian extensions.
Below we try to prove some of the steps.
Lemma 27.1. The Artin map I
k
(() Gal(K/k) is non-trivial.
Proof : If Artin map were trivial then all of the unramied primes are
completely split; i.e.
K
(s) =
m
k
(s), m = [K : k]. This contradicts simplicity
of the poles at s = 1 of
K
and
k
.
Corollary 27.2. Artin map I
k
(() Gal(K/k) is surjective.
Proof : Let G = Gal(K/k), an abelian group. Let H be the image of
Artin map. Let L = K
H
, the subeld of K xed by H. Then L = K
H = G. But the Artin map for L/k is trivial. Hence by the previous lemma,
L = K = G = H.
We will in fact prove that the Artin map is surjective restricted to the
primes in k.
Theorem 27.4 (Universal Norm Inequality). With notations all above and
Artin map,

I
k
(()
P
C
.N
K
k
(I
K
(())

[K : k]
Proof : Let H = P
C
.N
K
k
(I
K
(()) and G = I(()/H. Given group G and
G

C

, there is the associated L-function L(s, ). We will look at the

behaviour of this L-function around s = 1. We already know that if = 1
then L(s, ) has simple pole at s = 1 and is holomorphic for = 1. We write
L(s, ) = (s 1)
m()
.f

(s)
64
where f

(s) at 1 is holomorphic and nonzero and

m() 0 if = 1
= 1 if = 1
L(s, ) =

1
(p)
(Np)
s

1
This makes sense for Re(s) > 1
log(L(s, )) =

p
log

1
(p)
(Np)
s

p
(p)
(Np)
s
+ higher order terms
The higher order terms are bounded around s = 1. Hence,
log(L(s, )) =

p
(p)
(Np)
s
around s = 1 (up to bounded function which we
will denote by f g).
log(L(s, ))

p
(p)
(Np)
s

gG
(g)

p
1
(Np)
s

where p = g G = I(()/H.

log(L(s, ))

,gG
(g)

p
1
(Np)
s

= [G[

pH
1
(Np)
s
65
On the other hand, L(s, ) = (s 1)
m()
.f

(s)
log(L(s, )) m() log
1
s 1

log(L(s, ))

=1
m()

log
1
s 1
So we get

=1
m()

log
1
s1
[G[

pH
1
(Np)
s
Note that all primes q in K which are of degree 1 over k have the property
p = q

O
K
belongs to the norm from K to k. Hence,

=1
m()

log
1
s1
[G[

1
[K : k]

q of degree 1
1
(Np)
s

1
[K : k]

K
(s)

1
[K : k]
log
1
s 1
which implies
1 1

m()
[G[
[K : k]
[K : k] [G[ = [
I(C)
PN
[ i.e. order of

I
k
(C)
P
C
.N
K
k
(I
K
(C))

[K : k]. Further we get

m() = 0 = 1.
Corollary 27.3. For = 1 the function L(1, ) = 1.
Corollary 27.4 (Density Theorem). There are positive density of primes in
an arithmetic progression. i.e.

pa
0
1
(Np)
s

1
[I(() : P
C
]
log
1
s 1
where a
0
I(()/P
C
.
66
Proof : We have
log(L(s, ))

p
(p)
(Np)
s
=

a
(a)

pa
1
(Np)
s
Then,

(a
1
0
) log(L(s, )) =

a
(aa
1
0
)

pa
1
(Np)
s
= [I(() : P
C
]

pa
0
1
(Np)
s
Hence,
log
K
(s) = [I(() : P
C
]

pa
0
1
(Np)
s
log
1
s 1
= [I(() : P
C
]

pa
0
1
(Np)
s

Proof of the index inequality in the other direction needs some algebraic
preleminaries taken up in the next section.
28 Euler characteristic of a group G
Let G = Z/n. Let A be an abelian group which is Z/n-module. Let us
denote the generator of Z/n as . Then we dene cohomology and Tate
67
cohomology as follows,
H
0
(G, A) = A
G
, the zeroth cohomology

H
0
(G, A) =
A
G
(1 + +
2
+ ... +
n1
)A
, the zeroth Tate cohomology
H
1
(G, A) =
ker(1 + +
2
+... +
n1
) : A A
(1 )A
, the rst cohomology
Denition. The Euler characteristic of A is dened by,
(A) =
#(

H
0
(G, A))
#(H
1
(G, A))
if orders make sense, i.e. the orders of both

H
0
(G, A) and (H
1
(G, A) are
nite.
Lemma 28.1. 1. If
0 A B C 0
is an exact sequence of Z/n modules, then whenever two of
(A), (B), (C) make sense, so does the third one and
(B) = (A)(C).
2. (A) = 1 for A nite.
3. (Z) = n as

H
0
(Z/n, Z) = Z/n and H
1
(Z/n, Z) = 0.
Lemma 28.2. Let K be a degree n cyclic extension of a local eld k. Then,
1. (K

) = [K : k].
2. (U
K
) = 1. where U
K
denotes units in O
K
.
3. [U
K
: NmU
K
] = e where e is the ramication index.
Proof :
68
1. Since (K

) =
#

H
0
#H
1
, by Hilbert Theorem 90, H
1
= 0 (for any cyclic
extensions). Hence (K

) = #

H
0
= [k

: NmK

].
2. Let us look at the following exact sequence of Z/n modules.
1 U
K
K

Z 0
hence, (K

) = (U
K
)(Z) = [K : k](U
K
). Thus it suces to prove
that (U
K
) = 1.
By the exp map there exists an isomorphism of a subgroup of K of
nite index which is isomorphic to a subgroup of O
k
of nite index.
Thus (O
K
) = (O
k
). By normal basis theorem O
K
has a subgroup of
nite index which is free of rank 1 as an O
k
[Z/n] module. Therefore
(O
K
) = (O
k
[Z/n]) = (Ind
Z/n
{e}
O
k
)
We use Shapiros lemma: for a subgroup H of G we have
H
i
(H, B) = H
i
(G, Ind
G
H
B). We get (O
k
) =
{e}
(O
k
) = 1.
3. Let us look at the following diagram.
0 k

x
x
x
K
1
1

0 U
k
U
K
U
1
K
1
where K
1
is set of norm 1 elements in K

. Which implies that

Z/eZ

= K

/k

U
K

= K
1
/U
1
K
.
(U
K
) = 1 =

H
0
(U
K
)
H
1
(U
K
)
=
[U
k
:NmU
K
]
[U
1
K
:{
x
x|xU
K
}]
Observe that U
1
K
= K
1
thus [U
k
: NmU
K
] = e and [k

: NmK

] = [K :
k] for cyclic extensions of local elds.
69
29 Index calculation [J
k
: k

N
K
k
J
K
]
Theorem 29.1. If K is a cyclic extension of degree n of a number eld k
then [J
k
: k

N
K
k
J
K
] has order n.
The proof depends on the universal norm index inequality proved earlier.
Let S be the nite set of places of k containing all the archmedian places of
k. Let S
K
denotes the set of places of K (Galois extension of k) lying over
the places S of k. To each place w in S
K
dene a symbol X
w
. Let E = Q
n
be the free Q module on the symbols X
w
. Observe that E is a module for
Gal(K/k). Let M be any Gal(K/k) -invariant lattice in E

R.
Theorem 29.2. There exists a lattice M

M with basis
w
such that

w
=
w
w S
K
, Gal(K/k).
This amounts to the following lemma in group theory.
Lemma 29.1. Let G be a group. If V
1
and V
2
are two nite dimensional Q
vector spaces which are G modules and if V
1

R

= V
2

R as G modules
then V
1

= V
2
as G modules.
Proof : X = Hom
Q[G]
(V
1
, V
2
) is a vector space over Q such that
X

R = Hom
R[G]
(V
1

R, V
2

R). Therefore if Hom

R[G]
(V
1

R, V
2

R) =
0 then so is Hom
Q[G]
(V
1
, V
2
). Further one observes that if p(x) is a polyno-
mial on a vector space X dened over Q such that p(x) is trivial on X(Q)
then p(x) 0.
Corollary 29.1. In the setting of above theorem we get,
(M) =
#

H
0
(G, M)
#H
1
(G, M)
= (M

) =

vS
N
v
where N
v
is the order of the decomposition subgroup at the places v S.
70
Proof : Since M

Ind
G
G
v
Z

hence,
(M

) =

v
(Ind
G
G
v
Z)
=

v
(G
v
Z)
=

v
N
v

Corollary 29.2. Let K
S
be the set of S units in K, i.e. w(x) = 0w / S
K
then
(K
S
) =

N
v
[K : k]
Proof : We look at the map
K
S
E

R
x

wS
K
log [x[
w
.X
w
Dirichlet unit theorem says that image of K
S
is a lattice in hyperplane in
E

R dened by

X
w
= 0. Therefore
(K
S
)(Z) = (M) = (M

) =

N
v
Thus (K
S
) =

N
v
[K:k]
.
We continue the proof of theorem 29.1 as,
(J
K
) =
#

H
0
(Gal, J
K
)
#H
1
(Gal, J
K
)
= #

H
0
(Gal, J
K
) (Hilbert 90)
= [J
k
: NmJ
K
]
So (J
K
/K

) = [J
k
: k

NmJ
K
]. Hence
J
K
K

v
.

vS
k

v
K
S
. This completes
the proof of [J
k
: k

NmJ
K
] = [K : k].
71
Artin Reciprocity Theorem :
This is true for all cyclotomic extensions of Q i.e. for all extensions K of
Q contained in Q(
n
).
The Artin reciprocity is also true for relative cyclotomic extensions i.e.
for K a extension of k such that K k(
n
).
72