AE 6009 - Industrial Aerodynamics 2 MARKS & 16 MARKS

M.
NATESAN, PhD (Wind Turbine Engineering)
AE 2026 - INDUSTRIAL AERODYNAMICS

ANNA UNIV – R2008 & R2013
Part - A & Part – B
UNIT I :: ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER

1. Name the different types of terrains as per the IS CODE 875 part 3 wind loads
a. Category 1: Exposed open terrain with no obstruction
b. Category 2: open terrain with scattered obstruction of height between 1.5m to 10m
c. Category 3: Terrain with numerous low rise (10m) obstructions. (Outskirts of city)
d. Category 4: Terrain with numerous high rise obstructions. (City centre)
2. Classify terrains according to power law co-efficient and roughness height
Type of Terrain Roughness length, z0 Power law Co-efficient, α

Ice, Mud flats 10-5 to 3x10-5
Calm open sea 10-4
Sand, Flat desert 2x10-4 to 10-3 0.10
Off-sea wind in coastal areas 10-3
Snow surfae 10-3 to 6x10-3
Fairly level grass plains 6x10-3 to 2x10-2
Farmland 2x10-2 to 10-1 0.19
Forest and wood land 10-1 to 1
Suburb 1 to 2 0.32
City 1 to 4
3. How do you measure wind speeds?

Wind speed is now commonly measured with an anemometer but can also be classified
using the older Beaufort scale which is based on people's observation of specifically defined
wind effects. An anemometer looks like a weather vane, but instead of measuring which direction
the wind is blowing with pointers, it has four cups so that it can more accurately measure wind
speed.
4. What are the cause for variation of winds? (or) Name the various forces which influences
the atmospheric circulation
a. Pressure Gradient Force
b. Coriolis Force
c. Surface Friction
NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 1

M. NATESAN, PhD (Wind Turbine Engineering)
5. Draw the velocity profile for the site in the different terrain configurations, for example
hills.
6. What is meant by atmospheric boundary layer?

The Atmospheric Boundary Layer can be defined as: "that part of the atmosphere that is
in direct interaction with the Earth's surface and responds to surface forcings with a time scale of
about an hour or less." It is the lowest part of the atmosphere and its behavior is directly
influenced by its contact with a planetary surface.
7. What is depression?
Depression, is a region where the atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding
locations which produce cloudy, rainy and windy weather.

8. Define squalls and anabatic wind

A squall is a sudden, sharp increase in wind speed which is usually associated with active
weather, such as rain showers, thunderstorms, or heavy snow. Squalls refer to an increase in the
sustained winds over a short time interval, as there may be higher gusts during a squall event.
They usually occur in a region of strong mid-level height falls, or mid-level tropospheric cooling,
which force strong localized upward motions at the leading edge of the region of cooling, which
then enhances local downward motions just in its wake.
Anabatic Winds are upslope winds driven by warmer surface temperatures on a mountain
slope than the surrounding air column. Katabatic winds are downslope winds created when the
mountain surface is colder than the surrounding air and creates a down slope wind.
9. What is a wind? Give the classification of wind.

Horizontal movement of air along the earth surface due to pressure difference is called as
wind. Wind can be classified by Beaufort scale reading
Beaufort Wind speed International Beaufort Wind speed International

number (km/hr) description number (km/hr) description
0 <1 Calm 7 50-61 Fresh Breeze
1 1-5 Light Air 8 62-74 Fresh gale
2 6-11 Light Breeze 9 75-88 Strong gale
3 12-19 Gentle Breeze 10 89-102 Whole gale
4 20-28 Moderate Breeze 11 103-117 Storm
5 29-38 Fresh Breeze 12-17 >117 Hurricane
6 39-49 Strong gale
10. What are the causes for vertical movement of air?

This vertical movement of air, either upward or downward, is generally influenced by the
degree of stability or instability of the atmosphere at any particular time. The vertical air
temperature distribution in the atmosphere is highly variable. For dry air it ranges as follows:
1. Very stable : Temperature increases with increase in altitude. This is a "plus" temperature
lapse rate, or an inversion.
2. Stable : Temperature lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic rate, but temperature decreases
with altitude increase.
3. Neutral : Temperature lapse rate is the same as the dry adiabatic rate of 5.5 degrees
Fahrenheit per 1000 feet increase.
4. Unstable : Temperature lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic rate. It may be 6 degrees
Fahrenheit or more.
5. Very unstable : Temperature lapse rate is much greater than the dry adiabatic rate, and is
called super-adiabatic

11. What is geotropic wind?
An air parcel initially at rest will move from high pressure to low pressure because of the
pressure gradient force (PGF). However, as that air parcel begins to move, it is deflected by the
Coriolis force to the right in the northern hemisphere (to the left on the southern hemisphere). As
the wind gains speed, the deflection increases until the Coriolis force equals the pressure gradient
force. At this point, the wind will be blowing parallel to the isobars. When this happens, the wind
is referred to as geostrophic.
12. What is jet stream?

Jet streams are fast flowing, narrow air currents found in the atmosphere of some planets,
including Earth. The main jet streams are located near the altitude of the tropopause. The major
jet streams on Earth are westerly winds. The strongest jet streams are the polar jets, at around 7–
12 km above sea level, and the higher and somewhat weaker subtropical jets at around 10–16 km.
13. Mention the types of atmospheric wind
Planetary Wind Periodic Wind Local Winds

Trade Wind Land and Sea Breeze Anabatic, Katabatic
Horse Latitude Summer and winter Monsoon Bise, Bora, Chinook,
Westerlies Mountain Valley breezes Foehn
Polar Easterlies
14. Define Coriolis effects

The Coriolis effect is an apparent deflection of the path of an object that moves within a
rotating coordinate system. The object does not actually deviate from its path, but it appears to do
so because of the motion of the coordinate system. On the Earth an object that moves along a
north-south path, or longitudinal line, will undergo apparent deflection to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
15. What is logarthimic wind profile?

The Log wind profile is a semi-empirical relationship commonly used to describe the
vertical distribution of horizontal mean wind speeds within the lowest portion of the planetary
boundary layer. The logarithmic profile of wind speeds is generally limited to the lowest 100 m
of the atmosphere. The rest of the atmosphere is composed of the remaining part of the planetary
boundary layer or free atmosphere.

16. Define Power Law and Log Law

The vertical wind profile for the streamwise mean velocities in the atmospheric boundary
layer is in micrometeorology often described by a power law. Turbulent velocity profiles are
generally well approximated by the power law. The power law has been seen to give a better fit in
a wider range of velocities, and for high wind speeds, compared to the logarithmic law.
Zref is a chosen reference height, where any height can be

used in principle. It is common to standardize by using 10 m
or gradient height as reference height. The exponent α
, is Reynolds number dependent for aerodynamically smooth
surfaces, while it mainly depends on the roughness for aerodynamically rough surfaces.
The logarithmic law describes the vertical mean velocity profile in the main flow
direction in a turbulent boundary layer. The logarithmic law represents the flow over an uniform
surface, and is strictly valid only for neutral stability. It is universal for smooth surfaces, and
shifted downwards for rough surfaces.
k = 0.41 is von Karman‘s constant, z0 is the roughness

length, u* is the friction velocity, U/u* is called the
roughness function.
17. Define shape factor and give its importance

The distribution of hourly average wind speeds (i.e. excluding turbulence) can be
described by a so-called Weibull distribution:

with a shape factor k and a scaling factor A. The scaling factor A is roughly 125% of the average
annual wind speed.
18. Define gust factor and explain on what does it depends on.
A gust factor, defined as the ratio between a peak wind gust and mean wind speed over a
period of time, can be used along with other statistics to examine the structure of the wind. Gust
factors are heavily dependent on upstream terrain conditions (roughness), but are also affected by
transitional flow regimes (specifically, changes in terrain and the distance from the upstream
terrain change to the measuring device), anemometer height, stability of the boundary layer, and,
potentially, the presence of deep convection.
19. Define Gradient wind velocity

At great heights above the surface of the earth, where frictional effects are negligible, air
movements are driven by pressure gradients in the atmosphere, which in turn are the
thermodynamic consequences of variable solar heating of the earth. This upper level wind speed
is known as the gradient wind velocity.
20. How eddies are formed in air?

Eddies are created in air when the flow meets a sharp discontinuity on the earth‘s surface,
such as a tree, a building on a mountain.
21. Define topography and topographical effect.
Topography refers to the physical features of the earth‘s surface. Deep valleys, tall peaks, and
narrow channels are just some examples of the different types of topography that can alter the speed
and direction of the wind. Added effects are caused by friction from trees, snow and ice, and other
land cover, as well as from water.
The surface configuration and relief features of the earth‘s surface may strongly affect winds
and air currents which is known as topographical effects
22. Define ABL. (NOV / DEC, 2006)
Sunrise, sunset, sunrise - The daily cycle of radiative heating causes a daily cycle of sensible
and latent heat fluxes between the Earth and the air, during clear skies over land. These fluxes
influence only the bottom portion of the troposphere — the portion touching the ground. This layer is
called the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). It experiences a diurnal (daily) cycle of temperature,
humidity, wind, and pollution variations. Turbulence is ubiquitous in the ABL, and is one of the
causes of the unique nature of the ABL.
Atmospheric Boundary Layers are :

 Usually around 1 km deep, but in mid-latitudes can vary from 100 m to 3 km.
 Temperatures vary diurnally, unlike the free atmosphere above.
 The surface influences the ABL by friction and by heat fluxes at the ground.

 Characterised by turbulence, which is generated by wind shear (wind is approximately

geostrophic at the top of the ABL but zero at the surface). Temperature gradients can either
generate or suppress turbulence.
 Boundary layer clouds: predominantly fair-weather cumulus, stratocumulus and fog.
23. How wind is formed? (NOV / DEC, 2014)

1. Air near the earth‘s surface is heated or cooled by the land and water below it. Where the
surface is warmer, it heats the overlying air, causing it to rise. Warm air rises because it is less dense –
and therefore lighter – than cold air. The rising air creates a lack of air pressure in the area, called a
―low‖. Where the surface is cooler, it cools the overlying air, causing it to sink. This creates an excess
of air pressure, called a ―high‖. This differential heating of the earth‘s surface and the resulting system
of high and low pressures can form on a global scale as well as a local one.
2. Wind is the term for moving air. It is created when air in a higher pressure area flows into
an area of lower pressure to take the place of the air that is rising away. The more difference there is
in pressure between two areas, the more forcefully the air will flow between them and the stronger the
wind will blow.

1. Various terrains and its effect on atmospheric gradient height.
The physical characteristics of the earth's surface are referred to as terrain features or
topography. Topographical features not only influence the way the earth and its surrounding air
heat up, but they also affect the way air flows. Terrain features, predominantly affect air flow
relatively close to the earth‘s surface. Topographical features affect the atmosphere in two ways:
thermally (through heating) and geometrically (also known as mechanically). The thermal
turbulence is caused by differential heating. Different objects give off heat at different rates. For
example, a grassy area will not absorb and subsequently release as much heat as an asphalt
parking lot. Mechanical turbulence is caused by the wind flowing over different sizes and shapes
of objects. For example, a building affects the wind flowing around it differently than a cornfield
would affect it.
Air flowing over the earth‘s surface is slowed down and made turbulent by the roughness
of the surface. As the distance from the surface increases, these friction effects are felt less and
less until a height is reached where the influence of the surface roughness is negligible. The
height is referred to as the gradient height and the layer of air below this, where the wind is
turbulent and its speed slowly increases with height are referred to as boundary layer. The wind
gradient is modeled as a simple shear exhibiting a vertical velocity profile varying according to a
power law with a constant exponential coefficient based on surface type. The height above
ground where surface friction has a negligible effect on wind speed is called the "gradient height"
and the wind speed above this height is assumed to be a constant called the "gradient wind
speed". After sundown the wind gradient near the surface increases, with the increasing stability.
Atmospheric stability occurring at night with radiative cooling tends to contain turbulent eddies
vertically, increasing the wind gradient.

Flat Terrain
Although very little of the earth's surface is completely flat, some terrain is called flat for
topographical purposes. Included in this category are oceans, even though they have a surface
texture; and gently rolling features on land. Turbulence in the wind over flat terrain is limited to
the amount of roughness of either natural or manmade features that are on the ground. These
features induce a frictional effect on the wind speed and result in the well- known wind profile with
height.
Urban settings with dense construction and tall buildings exert a strong frictional force on
the wind causing it to slow down, change direction, and become more turbulent. Therefore,
gradient winds (i.e. those not affected by friction) are reached at higher altitudes above urban areas
than above level terrain. Thermal turbulence over flat terrain is due to natural or manmade
features. For example, water does not heat very quickly during the day but concrete heats
exceptionally well. The concrete then releases large amounts of heat back into the air at night;
water does not. Air rises over heated objects in varying
Mountain/Valley
The atmospheric dispersion in complex terrain areas can be very different from, and
much more complicated than, that over flat ground.
Mechanical turbulence over mountain/valley terrain is invariably connected to the size,

shape, and orientation of the features. The numerous combinations of mountain/valley
arrangements include a single mountain on flat terrain, a deep valley between mountains, a valley
in flat terrain, or a mountain range. However, the air tends to flow up and over an obstacle in its
path with some air trying to find its way around the sides. If an elevated temperature inversion
(warm air overlying cooler air) caps the higher elevation, then the air must try to find its way
around the sides of the mountain. If the air flow is blocked, then trapping or recirculation of the
air occurs. At night, hills and mountains induce downslope wind flow because the air is cooler at
higher elevations. Usually downslope winds are light. However, under the right conditions, much
faster wind speeds may result.
Thermal turbulence in mountain/valley terrain is also connected to the size, shape, and
orientation of the features. Mountain/valleys heat unevenly because of the sun's motion across the
sky. In the morning, one side of a mountain or valley is lit and heated by the sun. The other side is
still dark and cool. Air rises on the lighted side and descends on the dark side. At midday both

sides are "seen" by the sun and are heated. The late afternoon situation is similar to the morning.
After dark, as the air cools due to radiational cooling, the air drains down into the valley from all
higher slopes. The other heating effect is due to land features. Tree covered areas will heat less
than rocky slopes or bare ground. A detailed knowledge of specific terrain areas is important to
interpret the complex terrain's effect.
Land/Water
Partly because of convenience, a number of large cities are located next to

bodies of water. The land and water not only exhibit different roughness characteristics but
different heating properties. The air flow and thus plume dispersion and transport can be very
difficult to predict.
The thermal properties of land and water are radically different. Land and objects on it
will heat and cool relatively quickly. However, water heats and cools relatively slowly. Water
temperatures do not vary much from day-to-day or from week-to- week. Water temperatures
follow the seasonal changes.
As the sun shines down on the land/water interface, solar radiation will penetrate several
feet through the water. On the other hand solar radiation striking land will only heat the first few
inches. Also, as the sun shines on the water surface, evaporation and some warming take place.
The thin layer of water next to the air cools due to evaporation and mixes downward, overturning
with the small surface layer that has warmed. This mixing of the water layer close to the surface
keeps the water temperature relatively constant.
The roughness features of land and

water are also different. The water appears
to be quite smooth to the flow of air. As the
wind speed increases, the water surface is
disturbed, and waves form. With waves
induced by strong wind the water surface is
no longer as smooth as it was with a light
wind. However, water is still smoother than
most land features. Because of the change
from relatively smooth water to rougher
land, the air flow changes direction with the
increased frictional influence (increased
turbulence). The amount of direction change
depends on the amount of roughness change.
Urban
Urban areas have added roughness features and different thermal characteristics due to
the presence of man-made elements. The thermal influence dominates the influence of the
frictional components. Building materials such as brick and concrete absorb and hold heat more
efficiently than soil and vegetation found in rural areas. After the sun sets, the urban area
continues to radiate heat from buildings, paved surfaces, etc. Air warmed by this urban complex
rises to create a dome over the city. It is called the heat island effect. The city emits heat all night.

Just when the urban area begins to cool, the sun rises and begins to heat the urban complex again.
Generally, city areas never revert to stable conditions because of the continual heating that
occurs.
The mechanical turbulence over urban

areas is much like complex terrain. The
buildings, separately and collectively, alter the
air flow: the larger the buildings are, the more
the air is distributed. Also, the street areas
channel and direct the flow in intricate ways.
Just as the details of flow in mountain/valley
terrain could not be accurately predicted, the
flow in urban areas defies accurate description.
2. Turbulence measurement techniques used in subsonic wind tunnels with simple

illustration
The hot-wire anemometer is the instrument most widely used for fluctuation
measurements. At the present time, the laser Doppler technique, in which instantaneous
velocity is deduced from the Doppler frequency shift of light scattered from particles moving
with the fluid. Its advantage over the hot-wire method is that there is no solid sensing
element in the flow-a double advantage because hot-wire probes and their supports may be
large enough to disturb the flow, while the wire itself is small and temperamental. None of the
other techniques for point measurements show any sign of rivalling the heated-element
anemometer in general use, but I have included brief details of some that may be useful for
special purposes. It seems likely that optical techniques may become more popular in the future:
apart from point-measurement instruments like the laser Doppler anemometer, computer analysis
of flow-visualization pictures is potentially a powerful method of collecting information about
the turbulence in a plane instead of merely at a point.
Hot Wires, Films and Thermistors

With modern advances in electronic circuitry and a general improvement in the
design and construction of probes, the hot-wire anemometer can now be used for all the
more common measurements by relatively inexperienced operators with no specialist electronic
knowledge, although a specialist knowledge of turbulence is still needed to interpret the
results. The sensing elements used are usually quite delicate mechanically and respond to changes
in fluid temperature as well as changes of fluid velocity, so that frequent checks of probe
calibration are essential. If probe manufacture is carefully controlled, the difference between
successive probes may be small enough for "calibration" to be reduced to one or two
measurements to determine one or two constants in a theoretical or empirical relation between the
speed of the flow and the voltage difference across the wire. Irrespective of this, and irrespective
of the type of sensing a rough check on calibrations. The simplest reason for this is that very fine

wires cannot be made to an accurate diameter, nor can the diameter be easily measured to high
accuracy, so that the uncertainty in wire Reynolds number is considerable: films, of course,
have a very wide range of possible geometries, There are various other reasons, related to the
differences between the idealized wires for which the absolute calibrations hold and the
real wires used for anemometry, which make the individual calibration of new probes essential.
If probe manufacture is carefully controlled, the difference between successive probes may be
small enough for "calibration" to be reduced to one or two measurements to determine one or two
constants in a theoretical or empirical relation between the speed of the flow and the voltage
difference across the wire. Irrespective of this, and irrespective of the type of sensing element,
sensitivity to temperature changes and the effects of dirt in the fluid stream make frequent
recalibration desirable. The accuracy of the results obtained with hot-wire anemometers and other
methods of turbulence measurement may also be degraded by improper choices of the
processing equipment used to take statistical average values of the signals.
Constant-current and Constant-temperature Operation

In constant-current operation a current through the wire is maintained constant and the
wire voltage (resistance) is measured. Compensation for the thermal inertia of the wire,
which attenuates its amplitude response to high frequency the "time constant", is effected
by feeding the hot-wire output through an amplifier whose gain rises with frequency up to some
limit set by the amplifier components so that the effective time somewhat on the operating
conditions of the wire, the compensator gain has to be adjusted manually during the course of
the experiment. Films do not have a simple time constant and are rarely operated at constant
current. In the constant temperature system, the element temperature (resistance) is
maintained constant by an amplifier in a feedback loop, usually a Wheatstone's bridge,
which has the effect of compensating for the thermal inertia of the wire or film: again, the time
constant of the whole system is roughly the wire time constant divided by the amplifier gain.
The basic difference between constant-current and constant-temperature operation is, therefore,
whether the compensation for thermal inertia is adjusted automatically or manually.
The ease of use of the constant-temperature system has made it more popular than the
constant-current system. It has sometimes been asserted that the noise level of constant-
temperature apparatus is inherently larger than that of constant-current apparatus because
the feedback amplifier must, for stability reasons, have a wider frequency bandwidth than the
desired effective bandwidth of the anemometer. However, if suitable filters are fitted to the
apparatus, amplifier noise above the effective frequency limit can be cut off, and there is no other
essential difference between the noise level characteristics of the two systems. The only
advantage of constant-current equipment in this respect is that it is more straight forward to
couple the wire to the amplifier by a transformer (which is ideally an amplifier producing no
noise at all), thus increasing the signal to noise ratio. The constant-current transformer-coupled
system is therefore sometimes preferred for measurements of very low r.m.s. turbulence.
For very large turbulence intensities, the constant-temperature system is to be preferred
because the time constant of a hot wire depends on the operating conditions or, for a given wire,
on the speed of flow past the wire: therefore, large fluctuations in flow speed cause appreciable
fluctuations in the time constant itself, with consequent errors in reproduction of high-frequency
signals.

Glow-discharge or Corona discharge Anemometers
Glow discharges (a blue glow at the cathode) can be maintained in air at atmospheric
pressure with potentials of not more than a few hundred volts, if the electrodes are sharp
and the gap between them is of the order of 100 µm: the current is of the order of 10 mA. The
voltage required to maintain a given current depends on the air speed because the discharge
takes place along a path of ionized gas which continually moves downstream and is replaced
by freshly ionized gas. As constant current varies with velocity and the calibration changes with
time as the electrodes change their characteristics. in practice the drift seems to be considerably
worse than that of a hot-wire anemometer, and the electrodes are probably sensitive to dirt in the
air so that the device has little to recommend it for most purposes. The most recent use known
to me was in a gas/solid suspension where a hot wire would not have survived and where a
Doppler anemometer would have scattered indiscriminately from the solid particles and the
tracer particles: the glow-discharge anemometer recorded the gas velocity fairly satisfactorily
although considerable drift problems were reported.
A corona discharge can be generated with a higher voltage (several kV), a larger gap
(several mm) and a smaller current (several µA): drift appears 10 be less serious than with
the lower (and safer) voltages but this may depend more on the experimental conditions than the
techniques. Electrical discharges are sensitive to pressure which may be a further difficulty in
wind-tunnel use. At low gas pressures (less than 10-3 atm) electron beams can be used for mean or
fluctuating density measurement. The fluorescent light output from a small section of the beam
is focused on a photomultiplier whose output voltage is a roughly linear function of the gas
density at the measurement point. Beam diameters of the order of I mm are easily
obtainable so that the spatial resolution is comparable with that of the hot-wire or laser
anemometer. Density can be deduced from beam attenuation at pressures up to about 10-2 atm
but resolution is necessarily poorer. At these pressures, Reynolds numbers high enough for
turbulence to appear are obtained only in hypersonic flow, to which the use of electron beams for
density fluctuation measurements is therefore restricted.
.
3. Atmospheric Pressure belt and Wind types
The horizontal distribution of air pressure across the latitudes is characteriesd by high or
low pressure belts. This is however, a theoretical model because pressure belts .are not always
found as such on the earth. We will see it later how the real condition departs from the idealized
model. and examine why these differences occur.
These pressure belts are: (i) The Equatorial Low Pressure Belt;. (ii) The Sub tropic High
Pressure Belts; (iii) The Sub-polar Low Pressure Betts; (iv) The Polar High Pressure Belts
(i) The Equatorial Low Pressure Belt
The sun shines almost vertically on the equator throughout the year. As a result the air
gets warm and rises over the equatorial region and produce equatorial low pressure. This belt
extends from equator to 100N and 100S latitudes. Due to excessive heating horizontal movement
of air is absent here and only conventional currents are there. Therefore this belt is called
doldrums (the zone of calm) due to virtual absence of surface winds. These are the regions of
convergence because the winds flowing from sub tropical high pressure belts converge here. This
belt is also known as-Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

(ii) The Sub-tropical High Pressure Belts
The sub-tropical high pressure belts extend from the tropics to about 350 latitudes in both
the Hemispheres. In the northern hemisphere it is called as the North sub-tropical high pressure
belt and in the southern hemisphere it is known as the South sub-tropical high pressure belt. The
existence of these pressure belts is due to the fact that the up rising air of the equatorial region is
deflected towards poles due to the earth‘s rotation. After becoming cold and heavy, it descends in
these regions and get piled up. This results in high pressure. Calm conditions with feeble and
variable winds are found here. In olden days vessels with cargo of horses passing through these
belts found difficulty in sailing under these calm conditions. They used to throw the horses in the
sea in order to make the vessels lighter. Henceforth these belts or latitudes are also called ‗horse
latitudes‘. These are the regions of divergence because winds from these areas blow towards
equatorial and sub- polar low pressure belts.
(iii) The Sub-polar low Pressure Belts
The sub-polar low pressure belts extend between 450N and the Arctic Circle in the
northern hemisphere and between 45°S and the Antarctic Circle in the southern hemisphere. They
are known as the North sub-polar low and the South sub-polar low pressure belts respectively.
Winds coming from the sub-tropical and the polar high belts converge here to produce cyclonic
storms or low pressure conditions. This zone of convergence is also known as polar front.
(iv) The Polar High Pressure Belts

In polar regions, sun never shines vertically. Sun rays are always slanting here resulting
in low temperatures. Because of low temperature, air compresses and its density increases.
Hence, high pressure is found here. In northern hemisphere the belt is called the North polar high
pressure belt while it is known as the South polar high pressure belt in the southern hemisphere.
Winds from these belts blow towards sub-polar low pressure belts.
This system of pressure belts that we have just studied is a generalised picture. In reality,
the location of these pressure belts is not permanent. They shift northward in July and southward
in January, following the changing position of the sun‘s direct rays as they migrate between the
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. The thermal equator (commonly known as the belt of highest
temperature) also shifts northwards and southwards of the equator. With the shifting of thermal
equator northwards in summer and southwards in winter, there is also a slight shift in pressure
belts towards north and south of their annual average location.
WIND
Horizontal movement of air in response to difference in pressure is termed as wind while

vertical or nearly vertical moving air is called air current. Both winds and air currents form the
system of circulation in the atmosphere.
(i) Pressure Gradient and Winds
There is a close relationship between the pressure and the wind speed. The greater the
difference in air pressure between the two points, the steeper is the pressure gradient and greater is
the speed of the wind. The gentler the pressure gradient slower is the speed of the wind.
(ii) The Coriolis Effect and Wind

Winds do not cross the isobars at right angles as the pressure gradient directs them. They get
deflected from their original paths. One of the most potent influences on wind direction is the

deflection caused by the earth‘s rotation on its axis. Demonstrated by Gaspaved de Coriolis in 1844
and known as the Coriolis effect or coriolis force. Coriolis force tend to deflect the winds from there
original direction. In northern hemisphere winds are deflected towards their right, and in the
southern hemisphere towards their left (see fig. 11.6) This is known as Farrel‘s law. The Coriolis
force is absent along the equator but increases progressively towards the poles
Type of Winds
For ages man has observed that in some areas of the earth the winds blow predominantly
from one direction throughout the year; in other areas the wind direction changes with the season
and in still others the winds are so variable that no pattern is discernible. Despite these difference,
the winds are generalized under three categories.
(a) planetary winds or permanent winds
(b) periodic winds and
(c) local winds
(a) Planetary Winds
Planetary or permanent winds blow from high pressure belts to low pressure belts in the
same direction throughout the year. They blow over vast area of continents and oceans. They are
easterly and westerlies and polar easterlies.

(i) The Easterlies
The winds that blow from sub-tropical high pressure areas towards equatorial low
pressure areas called trade or easterly winds: The word trade has been derived from the German
word ‗trade‘ which means track. To blow trade means ‗to blow steadily and constantly in the
same direction‘. Because of the Coriolis effect the northern trade winds move away from the sub-
tropical high in north-east direction. In southern hemisphere the trade winds diverge out of the
sub-tropical high towards the equatorial low from the south- east direction As the trade winds
tend to blow mainly from the east, they are also known as the Tropical easterlies. (see fig. 11.7)
(ii) The Westerlies
The winds that move poleward from the sub-tropical high pressure in the northern
hemisphere are detected to the right and thus blow from the south west. These in the southern
hemisphere are deflected to the left and blow from the north-west. Thus, these winds are called
westerlise (see fig. 11.7)
(iii) Polar Easterlies
Polar easterlies blow from polar regions towards sub-polar low pressure regions. Their
direction in the northern hemisphere is from north-east to southwest and from south-east to
north-west in the southern hemisphere.
(b) Periodic Winds
The direction of these winds changes with the change of seasons. Monsoon winds are the
most important periodic winds.
Monsoon Winds
The word ‗Monsoon‘ has been derived from the Arabic word ‗Mausim‘ meaning season.
The winds that reverse their direction with the change of seasons are called monsoon winds.
During summer the monsoon winds blow from sea towards land and during winter from land
towards seas. Traditionally these winds were explained as land and sea breezes on a large scale.
But this explanation does not hold good now. Now a days the monsoon is generally accepted as
seasonal modification of the general planetary wind system. The Asiatic monsoon is the result of
interaction of both planetary wind system and regional factors, both at the surface and in the
upper troposphere
(c) Local Winds
Till now we were discussing the major winds of the earth‘s surface, which are vital for
understanding the climatic regions. But we are all aware that there are winds that affect local
weather. Local winds usually affect small areas and are confined to the lower levels of the
troposphere. Some of the local winds are given below :
(i) Land and Sea Breezes
Land and sea breezes are prevalent on the narrow strips along the coasts or a lake. It is a
diurnal (daily) cycle, in which the differential heating of land and water produces low and high

pressures. During the day when landmass gets heated more quickly than the adjoining sea or large
lake; air expands and rises. This process produces a local low pressure area on land. Sea breeze
then develops, blowing from the water (high pressure) towards the land (low pressure). The sea breeze
begins to develop shortly before noon and generally reaches its greatest intensity during mid-day to
late afternoon. These cool winds have a significant moderating influence in coastal area.
At night, the land and the air above it cools more quickly than the nearby water body. As
a result, land has high pressure while the sea has comparatively a low pressure area. Gentle wind
begins to blow from land (high pressure) towards sea (low pressure). This is known as land breeze
(ii) The Mountain and Valley Breezes
Another combination of local winds that undergoes a daily reversal consists of the
mountain and valley breezes. On a warm sunny day the mountain slopes are heated more than the
valley floor.
Hence, the pressure is low over the slopes while it is comparatively high in the valleys
below. As a result gentle wind begins to blow from valley towards slopes and it assumes the
name of valley breeze.
After sunset, the rapid radiation takes place on the mountain slopes. Here, high pressure
develops more rapidly than on the valley floor. Cold arid heavy air of mountain slopes starts
moving down towards the valley floor. This is known as the mountain breeze.

The valley and mountain breezes are also named as anabatic and katabatic breezes
respectively.
(iii) Hot Winds
Loo, Foehn and Chinook are important hot winds of local category.
(1) Loo
Loo are hot and dry winds, which blow very strongly over the northern plains of India
and Pakistan in the months of May and June. Their direction is from west to east and they are
usually experienced in the afternoons. Their temperature varies between 45°C to 50°C.
(2) Foehn
Foehn is strong, dusty, dry and warm local wind which develops on the leeward side of
the Alps mountain ranges. Regional pressure gradient forces the air to ascend and cross the
barrier. Ascending air sometimes causes precipitation on the windward side of the mountains.
After crossing the mountain crest, the Foehn winds starts descending on the leeward side or
northern slopes of the mountain as warm and dry wind. The temperature of the winds vary from
15°C to 20°C which help in melting snow. Thus making pasture land ready for animal grazing
and help the grapes to ripe early.
(3) Chinook
Chinook is the name of hot and dry local wind which moves down the east- ern slopes of
the Rockies in U.S.A. and Canada. The literal meaning of chinook is ‗snow eater‘ as they help in
melting the snow earlier. They keep the grasslands clear of snow. Hence they are very helpful to
ranchers.
(iv) Cold Winds
The local cold winds originate in the snow-capped mountains during winter and move
down the slopes towards the valleys. They are known by different names in different areas.

(1) Mistral
Mistrals are most common local cold winds. They originate on the Alps and move over
France towards the Mediterranean Sea through the Rhone valley. They are very cold, dry and
high velocity winds. They bring down temperature below freezing point in areas of their
influence. People in these areas protect their orchards and gardens by growing thick hedges and
build their houses facing the Mediterranean sea.
4. Tropical & Temperature Cyclone
(1) Air Mass
An air mass is an extensive portion of the atmosphere having uniform characteristics of

temperature, pressure and moisture which are relatively homogeneous horizontally.
An air mass develops when the air over a vast and relatively uniform land or ocean
surface remains stationary for long time to acquire the temperature or moisture from the surface.
The major source regions of the air masses are the high latitude polar or low latitude tropical
regions having such homogeneous conditions. Air masses, therefore, are of two kinds-polar and
tropical air masses. Polar air mass is cold and tropical air mass is warm. When cold air mass and
warm air mass blow against each other, the boundary line of convergence separating the two air
masses is termed as front. When the warm air mass, moves upward over the cold air mass the
front formed in such a situation is called warm front. On the contrary, when the cold air mass
advances faster and undercuts the warm air mass and forces the warm air upwards, the front so
formed is called cold front. The frontal surface of cold front is steeper than that of a warm front.
A prevailing air mass in any region - polar, tropical, maritime or continental largely controls the
regions general weather.
(2) Cyclones
Typical cyclones are elliptical arrangement of isobars having low pressure at the centre
with a convergence of winds within them. The wind direction in the cyclones is anti clockwise in
the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Cyclones are of two types -
the temperate or mid latitude cyclones and the tropical or low latitude cyclones.
(a) Temperate Cyclones

Temperate cyclones are formed along a front in mid-latitudes between 35° and 65° N and
S. They blow from west to east and are more pronounced in winter season.
Atlantic Ocean and North West Europe are major regions of temperate cyclones. They
are generally extensive having a thickness of 9 to11 kilometers and with 1040-1920 km short and
long diametres respectively. Each such cyclone alternates with a high pressure anticyclone. The
weather associated with the cyclone is drizzling rain and of cloudy nature for number of days.
The anticyclone weather is sunny, calm and of cold waves.
(b) Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are formed along the zone of confluence of north-east and south-east
trade winds. This zone is known as the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Cyclones
generally occur in Mexico, South-Western and North Pacific Ocean, North Indian Ocean and
South Pacific Ocean. These cyclones differ from temperate cyclones in many ways. There are no
clear warm and cold fronts as temperature seldom differs in Inter Tropical Convergence Zone.
They do not have well-defined pattern of winds and are energised by convectional currents within
them. Generally, these are shallow depressions and the velocity of winds is weak. These are not
accompanied by anticyclones. The arrangement of isobars is almost circular. These are not
extensive and have the diametres of 160-640km. However, a few of them become very violent
and cause destruction in the regions of their influence. They are called hurricanes in the
Carribean Sea, typhoons in the China, Japan and phillipines,
Tropical cyclones often cause destruction on the coasts. You would have heard cyclones
striking Indian coasts in summer and autumn months. They cause heavy loss of life and property
in these regions. The steeper pressure gradient causing strong high velocity winds and torrential
rainfall bursting upon a restricted area combine to create distructive storms. However about 8 to
48 km. area around their centre called the eye of these stormy cyclones remains calm and
rainless. If this eye is detected, it is possible for the modern science to stop further development
of these strong cyclones and thus protecting us from them.
5. Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Sunrise, sunset, sunrise. The daily cycle of radiative heating causes a daily cycle of sensible
and latent heat fluxes between the Earth and the air, during clear skies over land. These fluxes
influence only the bottom portion of the troposphere — the portion touching the ground. This
layer is called the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). It experiences a diurnal (daily) cycle of
temperature, humidity, wind, and pollution variations. Turbulence is ubiquitous in the ABL, and
is one of the causes of the unique nature of the ABL.
Atmospheric Boundary Layers are :

 Usually around 1 km deep, but in mid-latitudes can vary from 100 m to 3 km.
 Temperatures vary diurnally, unlike the free atmosphere above.
 The surface influences the ABL by friction and by heat fluxes at the ground.
 Characterised by turbulence, which is generated by wind shear (wind is approximately
geostrophic at the top of the ABL but zero at the surface). Temperature gradients can either
generate or suppress turbulence.
 Boundary layer clouds: predominantly fair-weather cumulus, stratocumulus and fog.

Static stability controls formation of the ABL, and affects ABL wind and temperature
profiles. If a small blob of air (i.e., an air parcel) is warmer than its surroundings at the same
height or pressure, the parcel is positively buoyant and rises. If cooler, it is negatively buoyant
and sinks. A parcel with the same temperature as its surrounding environment experiences zero
buoyant force. Consider an air parcel captured from one part of that environment. At its initial
height, the parcel has the same temperature as the surrounding environment, and experiences no
buoyant forces. When moved from its initial capture altitude, the parcel and environment
temperatures could differ, thereby causing buoyant forces. If the buoyant forces on a displaced air
parcel push it back to its starting altitude, then the environment is said to be statically stable. In
the absence of any other forces, statically stable air is laminar. However, if the displaced parcel is
pulled further away from its starting
point by buoyancy, the portion of the
atmosphere through which the air
parcel continues accelerating is
classified as statically unstable.
Unstable regions are turbulent (gusty).
If the displaced air parcel has a
temperature equal to that of its new
surroundings, then the environment is
statically neutral. When an air parcel
moves vertically, its temperature changes adiabatically.
Unstable air adjacent to the ground is associated with light winds and a surface that is
warmer than the air. This is common on sunny days in fair weather. It can also occur when cold
air blows over a warmer surface, day or night. In unstable conditions, thermals of warm air rise
from the surface to heights of 200 m to 4 km, and turbulence within this layer is vigorous. At the
other extreme are stable layers of air, associated with light winds and a surface that is cooler than
the air. This typically occurs at night in fair weather with clear skies, or when warm air blows
over a colder surface day or night. Turbulence is weak or sometimes non-existent in stable layers
adjacent to the ground. The stable layers of air are usually shallow (20 - 500 m) compared to the
unstable daytime cases. In between these two extremes are neutral conditions, where winds are
moderate to strong and there is little heating or cooling from the surface. These occur during
overcast conditions, often associated with bad weather.
Boundary-Layer Formation
Structure of Boundry Layer
1. The roughness sublayer - this is the layer of air in which air flows around individual roughness
elements (such as grass, plants, trees or buildings).
2. The surface layer (formerly known as the constant flux layer) in this layer, typically 100 m thick
(or 10% of the depth of the ABL), the winds, temperature and humidity vary rapidly with altitude,
and the characteristics of turbulence are affected by the surface. Vertical fluxes of heat and
momentum are approximately constant.

3. The well-mixed layer rising buoyant plumes from the surface layer, and associated turbulence,
cause potential temperature and other quantities to be relatively constant with altitude. The earths
rotation becomes important in this layer, and the wind direction veers with height.
4. The capping inversion on a summer s day the convective boundary layer is often capped by a
temperature inversion, which inhibits mixing and confines air and pollution below it to within the
boundary layer.
At night a new stable nocturnal boundary layer grows as air is cooled from the surface. The
daytime mixed-layer remains as a residual layer while the capping inversion is eroded.
Sometimes the ABL is difficult to define; in the vicinity of fronts there is no obvious capping
inversion and the ABL structure is more a response to synoptic forcing.
Because of buoyant effects, the vertical temperature structure of the troposphere limits the
types of vertical motion that are possible. The standard atmosphere in the troposphere is not
parallel to the dry adiabats, but crosses the adiabats toward warmer potential temperatures as
altitude increases.
The ABL is often turbulent. Because turbulence causes mixing, the bottom part of the
standard atmosphere becomes homogenized. Namely, within the turbulent region, warmer
potential-temperature air from the standard atmosphere in the top of the ABL is mixed with
cooler potential-temperature air from near the bottom. The resulting mixture has a medium
potential temperature that is uniform with height. In situations of vigorous turbulence, the ABL is
also called the mixed layer (ML).
Above the mixed layer, the air is usually un- modified by turbulence, and retains the same
temperature profile as the standard atmosphere in this idealized scenario. This tropospheric air
above the ABL is known as the free atmosphere (FA). As a result of a turbulent mixed layer
being adjacent to the unmixed free atmosphere, there is a sharp temperature increase at the mixed
layer top. This transition zone is very stable, and is often a temperature inversion. The
temperature inversion acts like a lid or cap to motions in the ABL. If turbulence were to try to
push it out of the top of the mixed layer into the free atmosphere, it would be so much colder
than the surrounding environment that a strong buoyant force would push it back down into the
mixed layer. Hence, air parcels, turbulence, and any air pollution in the parcels, are trapped
within the mixed layer.
There is always a strong stable layer or temperature inversion capping the ABL. As we have
seen, turbulent mixing in the bottom of the statically-stable troposphere creates this cap, and in
turn this cap traps turbulence below it.
The capping inversion breaks the troposphere into two parts. Vigorous turbulence within the
ABL causes the ABL to respond quickly to surface influences such as heating and frictional drag.
However, the remainder of the troposphere does not experience this strong turbulent coupling
with the surface, and hence does not experience frictional drag nor a daily heating cycle.
During daytime there is a statically-unstable mixed layer (ML). At night, a statically stable
boundary layer (SBL) forms under a statically neutral residual layer (RL). The residual layer
contains the pollutants and moisture from the previous mixed layer, but is not very turbulent.
The bottom 20 to 200 m of the ABL is called the surface layer (SL). Here frictional drag, heat
conduction, and evaporation from the surface cause substantial variations of wind speed,
temperature, and humidity with height. However, turbulent fluxes are relatively uniform with
height; hence, the surface layer is known as the constant flux layer. Separating the free

atmosphere (FA) from the mixed layer is a strongly stable entrainment zone (EZ) of intermittent
turbulence. Mixed-layer depth zi is the distance between the ground and the middle of the EZ.
At night, turbulence in the EZ ceases, leaving a non-turbulent layer called the capping inversion
(CI) that is still strongly statically stable.
6. Anemometer
An anemometer is a device for measuring wind speed, and is a common weather station
instrument. Anemometers can be divided into two classes: those that measure the wind's speed,
and those that measure the wind's pressure; but as there is a close connection between the
pressure and the speed, an anemometer designed for one will give information about both.
Velocity anemometers
Cup anemometers
A simple type of anemometer, invented (1846) by Dr. John Thomas

Romney Robinson, of Armagh Observatory. It consisted of four
hemispherical cups each mounted on one end of four horizontal arms, which
in turn were mounted at equal angles to each other on a vertical shaft. The air
flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned the cups in a manner
that was proportional to the wind speed. Therefore, counting the turns of the
cups over a set time period produced the average wind speed for a wide
range of speeds. On an anemometer with four cups it is easy to see that since
the cups are arranged symmetrically on the end of the arms, the wind always
has the hollow of one cup presented to it and is blowing on the back of the cup on the opposite
end of the cross. Three cup anemometers are currently used as the industry standard for wind
resource assessment studies.
Windmill anemometers
The other forms of mechanical velocity anemometer

may be described as belonging to the windmill type or
propeller anemometer. In the Robinson anemometer the axis
of rotation is vertical, but with this subdivision the axis of
rotation must be parallel to the direction of the wind and
therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in
direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a wind vane
or some other contrivance to fulfil the same purpose must be
employed. An aerovane combines a propeller and a tail on the
same axis to obtain accurate and precise wind speed and direction measurements from the same
instrument. In cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as in the ventilating
shafts of mines and buildings for instance, wind vanes, known as air meters are employed, and
give most satisfactory results.
Hot Wire Anemometer

Hot wire anemometers use a very fine wire (on
the order of several micrometres) electrically heated up
to some temperature above the ambient. Air flowing
past the wire has a cooling effect on the wire. As the
electrical resistance of most metals is dependent upon
the temperature of the metal (tungsten is a popular
choice for hot-wires), a relationship can be obtained
between the resistance of the wire and the flow speed.
Several ways of implementing this exist,

and hot-wire devices can be further classified as
CCA (Constant-Current Anemometer), CVA
(Constant-Voltage Anemometer) and CTA (Constant-Temperature Anemometer). The
voltage output from these anemometers is thus the Hot-wire sensor result of some sort of
circuit within the device trying to maintain the specific variable (current, voltage or
temperature) constant.
Additionally, PWM (pulse-width modulation) anemometers are also used, wherein the
velocity is inferred by the time length of a repeating pulse of current that brings the wire up to a
specified resistance and then stops until a threshold "floor" is reached, at which time the pulse is
sent again.
Hot-wire anemometers, while extremely delicate, have extremely high frequency-

response and fine spatial resolution compared to other measurement methods, and as such are
almost universally employed for the detailed study of turbulent flows, or any flow in which rapid
velocity fluctuations are of interest.
Laser Doppler anemometers
Laser Doppler
anemometers use a beam of
light from a laser that is divided
into two beams, with one
propagated out of the
anemometer. Particulates (or
deliberately introduced seed
material) flowing along with air
molecules near where the beam
exits reflect, or backscatter, the
light back into a detector, where
it is measured relative to the
original laser beam. When the
particles are in great motion, they produce a Doppler shift for measuring wind speed in the
laser light, which is used to calculate the Drawing of a laser anemometer. The laser is emitted
(1) through the front lens (6) of the anemometer and is backscattered off the air molecules (7). The
backscattered radiation (dots) re-enter the device and are reflected and directed into a detector

(12) speed of the particles, and therefore the air around the anemometer
Sonic Anemometer
Sonic anemometers, first developed in the

1970s, use ultrasonic sound waves to measure wind
velocity. They measure wind speed based on the
time of flight of sonic pulses between pairs of
transducers. Measurements from pairs of transducers
can be combined to yield a measurement of velocity
in 1-, 2-, or 3-dimensional flow. The spatial
resolution is given by the path length between
transducers, which is typically 10 to 20 cm. Sonic
anemometers can take measurements with very fine
temporal resolution, 20 Hz or better, which makes
them well suited for turbulence measurements. The
lack of moving parts makes them appropriate for
long term use in exposed automated weather
stations and weather buoys where the accuracy and
reliability of traditional cup-and-vane anemometers
is adversely affected by salty air or large amounts of
dust. Their main disadvantage is the distortion of the
flow itself by the structure supporting the transducers, which requires a correction based upon
wind tunnel measurements to minimize the effect. Since the speed of sound varies with
temperature, and is virtually stable with pressure change, sonic anomometers are also used as
thermometers. Two-dimensional (wind speed and wind direction) sonic anemometers are used in
applications such as weather stations, ship navigation, wind turbines, aviation and weather buoys.
Ping-pong ball anemometers
A common anemometer for basic use is constructed from a ping-pong ball attached to a
string. When the wind blows horizontally, it presses on and moves the ball; because ping-pong
balls are very lightweight, they move easily in light winds. Measuring the angle between the
string-ball apparatus and the line normal to the ground gives an estimate of the wind speed.
This type of anemometer is mostly used for middle-school level instruction which most
students make themselves, but a similar device was also flown on Phoenix Mars Lander .
Pressure anemometers
The first designs of anemometers which measure the pressure were divided into plate and
tube classes.
Plate anemometers
These are the earliest anemometers and are simply a flat plate suspended from the top so
that the wind deflects the plate. In 1450, the Italian art architect Leon Battista Alberti invented
the first mechanical anemometer; in 1664 it was re-invented by Robert Hooke (who is often

mistakenly considered the inventor of the first anemometer). Later versions of this form consisted
of a flat plate, either square or circular, which is kept normal to the wind by a wind vane. The
pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The compression of the spring
determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off on a
suitable gauge, or on a recorder. Instruments of this kind do not respond to light winds, are
inaccurate for high wind readings, and are slow at responding to variable winds. Plate
anemometers have been used to trigger high wind alarms on bridges.
Tube anemometers
James Lind's anemometer of 1775

consisted simply of a glass U tube containing
liquid, a manometer, with one end bent in a
horizontal direction to face the wind and the other
vertical end remains parallel to the wind flow.
Though the Lind was not the first it was the most
practical and best known anemometer of this type.
If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube it causes
an increase of pressure on one side of the
manometer. The wind over the open end of a
vertical tube causes little change in pressure on the
other side of the manometer. The resulting liquid
change in the U tube is an indication of the wind
speed. Small departures from the true direction
of the wind causes large variations in the
magnitude.
The highly successful metal pressure tube

anemometer of William Henry Dines in 1892
utilized the same pressure difference between the
open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind and a ring of small holes in a vertical tube which is
closed at the upper end. Both are mounted at the same height. The pressure differences on which
the action depends are very small, and special means are required to register them. The recorder
consists of a float in a sealed chamber partially filled with water. The pipe from the straight tube
is connected to the top of the sealed chamber and the pipe from the small tubes is directed into
the bottom inside the float. Since the pressure difference determines the vertical position of the
float this is a measure of the wind speed.
The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the exposed part can be
mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling or attention for years; and the registering part can
be placed in any convenient position. Two connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first
sight as though one connection would serve, but the differences in pressure on which these
instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of the air in the room where the recording
part is placed has to be considered. Thus if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction
effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary room,
in which the doors and windows are carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the
chimney, an effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10 mi/h (16 km/h); and the opening of a
window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may entirely alter the registration.

While the Dines anemometer had an error of only 1% at 10 mph (16 km/h) it did not
respond very well to low winds due to the poor response of the flat plate vane required to turn the
head into the wind. In 1918 an aerodynamic vane with eight times the torque of the flat plate
overcame this problem.
1. Write in detail, from the basics, the facts for creation of local and global winds. (Nov /
Dec, 2015) (Nov / Dec, 2015) (Nov / Dec, 2006)
(Refer Wind energy explained by J.F.Manwell, Page No:24)
2. With neat sketches, describe the structure of incompressible turbulent flows of an

atmospheric boundary layer. (Nov / Dec, 2006)(Nov /Dec, 2005)
3. What are the factors responsible for the creation of wind, generation of wind and the
variation of wind? (May / June, 2013)
4. Explain the different types of terrains with neat sketch. (Nov / Dec, 2011)
5. Enumerate the effect of terrain on gradient height. (May / June, 2013) (Nov / Dec,
2006)
6. A) How are the wind speeds recorded at any point on the earth? (Nov / Dec, 2015)
B) How are the winds classified in general? (Nov / Dec, 2015)


UNIT II :: WIND ENERGY COLLECTORS

1. What do you meant by Energy density of a rotor?
The highest power co-efficient of the rotor are used within the wind speed range
where the wind frequency distribution is maximum. This wind speed range where the rotor
operates to the peak value of the wind distribution is known as the energy density of the rotor.
Wind speed at the peak of the energy density distribution is known as the design wind speed.
2. Define power co-efficient.
The ratio between the mechanical power extracted by the converter and that of the
undisturbed air stream is called the ―power coefficient‖ Cp.
3. Define Betz limit or Betz co-efficient
Albert Betz was a German physicist who calculated that no wind turbine could convert
more than 59.3% of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy turning a rotor. This is
known as the Betz Limit, and is the theoretical maximum coefficient of power for any wind
turbine.
4. Sketch the speed-Torque and speed-power characteristics of a windmill blade. What is the
effect of blade shape in the curve?
The torque characteristics curve for the fast rotors are at a disadvantage. While the slow
multi-bladed rotors have a high torque, the torque is much lower for rotors with low blade
solidity and few blades. This is especially true of the starting torque. Two-bladed rotors have such
a poor starting torque that they can barely start unless the blades are pitched to an optimum pitch
angle.

5. Give any five applications of windmills

 Commercial Complex  Residential Apartments and Villas
 Small Scale Industries  Farm Houses
 Educational Institutions and Hostels  Water Pumping
 Hospitals  Poultry Farms etc.,
 Hotels and Resorts
6. Give Example for Horizontal axis and vertical axis wind turbine
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Gromill
H-Rotor Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
Darrieus Upwind
Savonius Downwind
7. What are the assumptions made in classical momentum theory?

 Homogenous, incompressible, steady state fluid flow
 No frictional drag
 An infinite number of blade
 Uniform thrust over the disk or rotor area
 A non-rotating wake
 The static pressure far upstream and far downstream of the rotor is equal to the
undisturbed ambient static pressure
8. What are the causes for decrease in maximum achievable power coefficient in wind
turbine?
No of blades
Tip Speed ratio
Rotation of wake behind the rotor
Aerodynamic drag on the rotor blades
9. What is wind mill?
Wind is often used as an energy source to operate pumps and supply water to livestock.
Because of the large amount of water needed for crops, wind power is rarely used for irrigation. As
larger and/or more efficient wind turbines are developed, groups of these wind turbines (or single
wind turbines) are expected to be able to generate enough electricity to be used for irrigation projects.
Wind generators are also used to charge batteries and to provide electricity for small communities.
The most common wind device used is the American farm and ranch windmill. These windmills are
common on the North American Great Plains and across the Southwest.
10. Write short notes on Darrieus wind turbine.
The Darrieus turbine is composed of a vertical rotor and several vertically- oriented blades. A
small powered motor is required to start its rotation, since it is not self-starting. When it already has
enough speed, the wind passing through the airfoils generate torque and thus, the rotor is driven
around by the wind. The Darrieus turbine is then powered by the lift forces produced by the airfoils.
The blades allow the turbine to reach speeds that are higher than the actual speed of the wind, thus,
this makes them well-suited to electricity generation when there is a turbulent wind.

24. Write short notes on giromill wind turbine.
The Giromill Turbine is a special type of Darrieus Wind Turbine. It uses the same principle as the
Darrieus Wind Turbine to capture energy, but it uses 2-3 straight blades individually attached to the
vertical axis instead of curved blades. It is also applicable to use helical blades attached around the vertical
axis to minimize the pulsating torque.
25. What is Savonius Turbine?
The Savonius wind turbine is one of the simplest turbines. It is a drag-type device that consists of
two to three scoops. Because the scoop is curved, the drag when it is moving with the wind is more than
when it is moving against the wind. This differential drag is now what causes the Savonius turbine to spin.
Because they are drag-type devices, this kind of turbine extracts much less than the wind power extracted
by the previous types of turbine.

1. Momentum Theory and Betz Co-efficient





2. Wind Power to Pump Water
Wind is often used as an energy source to operate pumps and supply water to livestock. Because of
the large amount of water needed for crops, wind power is rarely used for irrigation. As larger and/or more
efficient wind turbines are developed, groups of these wind turbines (or single wind turbines) are expected
to be able to generate enough electricity to be used for irrigation projects. Wind generators are also used to
charge batteries and to provide electricity for small communities. The most common wind device used is
the American farm and ranch windmill. These windmills are common on the North American Great Plains
and across the Southwest.
A windmill consists of:
• A very large fan with 15 to 40 steel or • A piston pump, which is driven by the
galvanized blades up and down motion produced by the gear
box mechanism
• A gear box mechanism driven by the
blades. This mechanism converts the • A pump rod that descends from the
rotary motion of the blades to an up-and- windmill to the well
down motion
• A pump cylinder, which is placed in the
water near the well bottom and is driven
by the pump rod
The propeller must have many blades to develop a high starting torque, which is needed
to start the piston pump. Generally, windmills begin working when the wind speeds exceed 7
mph.
Factor Wind systems winds. Panels can be

Advantages damaged by hail.
Favorable Steady winds are most Destructive winds can ruin
weather productive. system.
Lifetime Can exceed 50 years, except Time of year Power production stopped
for More than 20 years. power when wind
the piston pump, which requirements speeds are low, which occurs
requires The pump lasts less in July
time. and August when water is
maintenance every 1 to 2 needed most.
years. Initial cost Lower initial cost.
Maintenance Requires more maintenance.
Disadvantages cost
Stormy weather Wears more rapidly in high

3. Parts of a Wind Turbine
Tower of Wind Turbine

Tower is very crucial part of wind turbine that supports all the other parts. It is not only
support the parts but raise the wind turbine so that its blades safely clear the ground and so it can
reach the stronger winds at higher elevations. The height of tower depends upon the power
capacity of wind turbines. Larger turbines usually mounted on tower ranging from 40 meter to
100 meter.
Nacelle of Wind Turbine

Nacelle is big box that sits on the tower and house all the components in a wind turbine. It
houses Power Converter, Shaft, Gearbox, Generator, Turbine controller, Cables, Yaw drive.
Rotor Blades of Wind turbine

Blades are the mechanical part of wind turbine that converts wind kinetic energy into
mechanical energy. When the wind forces the blades to move, it transfers some of its energy to
the shaft. Blades are shaped like airplane wings blades can be as long as 150 feet.
Shaft of Wind Turbine

The shaft is connected to the rotor. When the rotor spins, the shaft spins as well. In this
way, the rotor transfers its mechanical, rotational energy to shaft which enters to an electrical
generator on the other end.
Gearbox
The rotor turns the shaft at low speed ex. 20 rpm but for generator to generate electricity
we need higher speed. Gearbox increases the speed to much higher value required by most
generator to produce electricity. For example, if Gearbox ratio is 1:80 and if rotor speed is 15 rpm
then gearbox will increase the speed to 15 × 80 = 1200 rpm that is given to generator shaft.
Generator
Generator is electrical device that converts mechanical energy received from shaft into
electrical energy. It works on electromagnetic induction to produce electrical voltage or electrical
current. A simple generator consists of magnets and a conductor. The conductor is typically a
coiled wire. Inside the generator shaft connects to an assembly of permanent magnets that
surrounded by magnets and one of those parts is rotating relative to the other, it induce the
voltage in the conductor. When the rotor spins to the shaft, the shaft spins the assembly of
magnets and generate voltage in the coil of wire.
Power Converter
Because wind is not always constant so electrical potential generated from generator is
not constant but we need a very stable voltage to feed the grid. Power converter is an electrical
device that stabilizes the output alternating voltage transferred to the grid.
Turbine Controller
Turbine controller is a computer (PLC) that controls the entire turbine. It starts and stops
the turbine and runs self diagnostic in case of any error in the turbine.

Anemometer
It measures the wind speed and passes the speed information to PLC to control the
turbine power.
Wind Vane
It senses the direction of wind and passes the direction to PLC then PLC faces the blades
in such a way that it cuts the maximum wind.
Pitch Drive
Pitch drive motors control the angle of blades whenever wind changes it rotates the angle
of blades to cut the maximum wind, which is called pitching of blades.
Yaw Drive
Blades and other components in wind turbine is housed in Nacelle , whenever any change
in wind direction is there Nacelle has to move in the direction of wind to extract the maximum
energy from wind. For this purpose yaw drive motor are used to rotate the nacelle .It is controlled
by PLC that uses the wind vane information to sense the wind direction.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A WIND TURBINE

4. Horizontal and Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
Wind turbines are good media for generating electricity from a clean and renewable
resource for our homes and businesses. It comes with a couple of advantages for both humans and
the environment, namely the following:
• A wind turbine can harness a plentiful energy source, wind.
• The use of wind electricity can cut our carbon footprint (the total amount of greenhouse
gases used to support human activity2) because it doesn't release any harmful gases or
pollutants in the process of generating electricity.
• The use of wind energy can cut our electricity bills because wind is free, and thus, after the
payment for the initial installation, electricity costs will be reduced.
• We can store energy even on a calm day. If our houses are not connected to the National
Power Grid, we can store the excess electricity produced from the wind turbine in batteries
and use it when there is no wind.
• We can sell electricity back to the grid, meaning if our wind system is producing more
than what we need, someone else can use it, and thus, we can sell it.
Wind turbines are machines that generate electricity from the kinetic energy of the wind.
In history, they were more frequently used as a mechanical device that turned machinery. Today,
turbines can be used to generate large amounts of electrical energy in wind farms both onshore
and offshore.
There are two kinds of wind turbine, namely the Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)
and the Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT). Though many VAWTs are used nowadays to
produce electricity, the HAWT still remains more practical and popular than the VAWT and is
assumed as the focus of most wind turbine discussions.
HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINES
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Principles behind HAWT

The horizontal wind turbine is a turbine in which the axis of the rotor's rotation is parallel
to the wind stream and the ground. Most HAWTs today are two- or three-bladed, though some
may have fewer or more blades. There are two kinds of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines: the
upwind wind turbine and the downwind wind turbine.
The HAWT works when the wind passes over both surfaces of the airfoil shaped blade
but passes more rapidly at the upper side of the blade, thus, creating a lower-pressure area above
the airfoil. The difference in the pressures of the top and bottom surfaces results in an
aerodynamic lift. The blades of the wind turbine are constrained to move in a plane with a hub at
its center, thus, the lift force causes rotation about the hub. In addition to the lifting force, the
drag force, which is perpendicular to the lift force, impedes rotor rotation.
Upwind Turbine
The upwind turbine is a type of turbine in which the rotor faces the wind. A vast majority
of wind turbines have this design. Its basic advantage is that it avoids the wind shade behind the
tower. On the other hand, its basic drawback is that the rotor needs to be rather inflexible, and
placed at some distance from the tower. In addition, this kind of HAWT also needs a yaw
mechanism to keep the rotor facing the wind.
Upwind Wind Turbine Downwind Wind Turbine
Downwind Turbine
The downwind turbine is a turbine in which the rotor is on the downwind side (lee side)
of the tower. It has the theoretical advantage that they may be built without a yaw mechanism,
considering that their rotors and nacelles have the suitable design that makes the nacelle follow
the wind passively. Another advantage is that the rotor may be made more flexible. Its basic
drawback, on the other hand, is the fluctuation in the wind power due to the rotor passing through
the wind shade of the tower.
Advantages and Disadvantages
The advantages of the HAWT over the VAWT
 blades are to the side of the turbine's center of gravity, helping stability
 the turbine collects the maximum amount of wind energy by allowing the angle of attack to
be remotely adjusted
 the ability to pitch the rotor blades in a storm so that damage is minimized
 the tall tower allows the access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear and placement on
uneven land or in offshore locations

 most HAWTs are self-starting

 can be cheaper because of higher production volume
On the other hand, the disadvantages of the HAWT compared to the VAWT is that:
 it has difficulties operating near the ground

 the tall towers and long blades are hard to transport from one place to another and they need a
special installation procedure
 they can cause a navigation problem when placed offshore
VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINES
The vertical axis wind turbine is an old technology, dating back to almost 4,000 years
ago. Unlike the HAWT, the rotor of the VAWT rotates vertically around its axis instead of
horizontally. Though it is not as efficient as a HAWT, it does offer benefits in low wind
situations wherein HAWTs have a hard time operating. It tends to be easier and safer to build,
and it can be mounted close to the ground and handle turbulence better than the HAWT. Because
its maximum efficiency is only 30%,it is only usually just for private use.
Darrieus Savonius Giromill

Wind Turbine Wind Turbine Wind Turbine
Darrieus Turbine
The Darrieus turbine is composed of a vertical rotor and several vertically- oriented
blades. A small powered motor is required to start its rotation, since it is not self-starting. When it
already has enough speed, the wind passing through the airfoils generate torque and thus, the
rotor is driven around by the wind. The Darrieus turbine is then powered by the lift forces
produced by the airfoils. The blades allow the turbine to reach speeds that are higher than the
actual speed of the wind, thus, this makes them well-suited to electricity generation when there is
a turbulent wind.

Giromill Turbine
The Giromill Turbine is a special type of Darrieus Wind Turbine. It uses the same
principle as the Darrieus Wind Turbine to capture energy, but it uses 2-3 straight blades
individually attached to the vertical axis instead of curved blades. It is also applicable to use
helical blades attached around the vertical axis to minimize the pulsating torque.
Savonius Turbine
The Savonius wind turbine is one of the simplest turbines. It is a drag-type device that
consists of two to three scoops. Because the scoop is curved, the drag when it is moving with the
wind is more than when it is moving against the wind. This differential drag is now what causes
the Savonius turbine to spin. Because they are drag-type devices, this kind of turbine extracts
much less than the wind power extracted by the previous types of turbine.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Just like the HAWT, the VAWT also comes with a handful of advantages over the HAWT,
namely:
 They can produce electricity in any wind direction

 Strong supporting tower in not needed because generator, gearbox and other components are
placed on the ground
 Low production cost as compared to horizontal axis wind turbine
 As there is no need of pointing turbine in wind direction to be efficient so yaw drive and pitch
mechanism is not needed
 Easy installation as compared to other wind turbine
 Easy to transport from one place to other
 Low maintenance cost
 They can be install in urban area
 Low risk for human and birds because blades moves at relatively low speed
 They are particularly suitable for areas with extreme weather conditions, like in the mountains
where they can supply electricity to mountain huts.
The disadvantages of the VAWT, on the other hand are:
 As only one blade of wind turbine work at a time so efficiency is very low
 They need a initial push to start, this action use few of its own produce electricity
 When compared to horizontal axis wind turbine they are very less efficient with respect to
them. this is because they have an additional drag when their blades rotates.
 They have relative high vibration because the air flow near the ground creates turbulent flow
 Because of vibration bearing wear increase which result in the increase of maintenance cost
 They create noise pollution
 Guy wires which hold up the machine, need some are to install

Comparison on HAWT and VAWT
Large area, deep holes for high

3 small concrete pads for tripod
volume concrete requirement due
tubular steel tower legs; typically 10-
Foundations to heavy tower, nacelles, and
15% cost of horizontal turbine
gravity loaded heavy blades (up to
foundation structures.
600 tons or more.)
Erect on site without large cranes;
Requires heavy duty cranes, and
sectional erection, in short period,
Installation special lifts; typically one to two
typically two to three days per turbine
weeks to erect a turbine.
with one crew.
Special conveyance for towers
Tower, blades, and all parts fit 40‘ and blades required. Heavy load
Transportation containers and tractor-trailers for easy condition permits and special
shipping and delivery on site. logistics required, with reinforced
road prep for on site delivery.
Horizontal blades (propeller
design) are gravity loaded on
Vertical rotor assemblies are ―wing‖
down stroke, limiting size of blade
design configurations, allowing for
in direct ratio to tower size- while
aerodynamic lift, and reduced gravity
Blade loading or friction during operation; requiring design considerations
differentials less vibration on tower and working that reduce vibrations and
parts. VAWT is omni-directional, no harmonics destructive to tower
and moving parts. Propellers
need to be oriented toward prevailing
wind. must be oriented toward
prevailing wind to provide
optimum output.
Reduced gravity loading with Constant gravity-load stress and
aerodynamic air foils reduces friction, gear drive and generator
weight, wear, requiring less mechanisms on conventional
maintenance. ―Liner Induction‖ turbines require constant
power generation eliminates use of maintenance attention, and
gear box drives and generators, frequent repair or parts
further reducing operating and replacement. Replacement and
Operation and maintenance costs. Operating parts
repair often require use of special
maintenance
are located on catwalk at midpoint of cranes and other specialty
tower, easily accessible for repair and equipment to remove blades, or
maintenance. Blades are self-lowering nacelles from top of tower for
for repair or replacement without use access, and to re-install when
of cranes or other specialty repairs complete. Frequent
equipment. Less ‗downtime‘ ‗downtime‘ experienced with
experienced with VAWT. most HWAT systems globally.
Manufacturers typically require
Multiple US and off-shore
factory made or authorized parts
manufacturers of parts and
Parts, and components for replacement
components allow for quick and easy
Spares and or repair – many of which come
access for replacement or repairs –
component from manufacturer‘s country of
off-the-shelf in many cases. Costs are
replacements origin, leading to more expensive
competitive because parts are
parts, and longer delays in
generally readily available. acquiring parts or replacements.
The design is simplistic in nature and Most maintenance must be
Maintenance
easy to maintain using local performed by manufacturer‘s
Requirements
technicians and mechanics. Infrequent technicians, or factory authorized

factory maintenance inspections or maintenance technicians not

replacements are needed. typically available locally. More
costly, and time consuming.
Limited site preparation is required
for these turbines. They require no
special transportation, or heavy-duty
Significant site preparation and
equipment to disrupt or disturb the
extensive use of concrete is
site. Simple dirt, or gravel road
required. Large transport
access is acceptable, and little
vehicles, and heavy equipment are
disruption to the surrounding terrain
generally used for all prep and
Site occurs. Foundations require less
installation of conventional
Requirements conspicuous concrete than turbine systems. Disruption is
conventional turbines, and land used
kept to a minimum, though
for agricultural or livestock may
surrounding land may generally
continue following installation.
be restored to previous land use at
In some instances, this systems can the discretion of the customer.
be delivered to remote, hard to access
sites via helicopter, as site erection
requires no heavy equipment.
Some designs allow for simple
Limited opportunity for system
retrofits of new upgrade systems or
upgrades without major
Upgrade components as/when available at
component replacements, or
retrofits minimal cost – easy retrofit; no need
ordering complete new turbine
to replace complete turbine for
models.
system upgrades.
Customer is offered a selection of
colors for VAWT towers and
blades. Tower structure also lends Manufacturer‘s standard color and
Aesthetics itself to porous fabric wrap with finish currently only choice from
customer select design or color if most manufacturers.
special ‗aesthetic appearance‘ is
desired.
Most manufacturers suggest a life
With regular maintenance procedures
expectancy of 20 years, following
Life of System and care, a VAWT system lifetime
all periodic maintenance and parts
exceeds 20 to 30 years.
replacement guidelines.
Typically a return on invested monies
Typical ROI for conventional
in excess of 500% over a 20 year
horizontal systems rarely exceeds
Typical ROI per term, for commercial systems, 150% to 200% over the same 20
system operating at a site with an average
year period, under the same
wind speed of 18 mph or better, can
conditions.
be achieved
5. Blade Element Momentum Theory

The Blade Element Momentum method couples the momentum theory with the local
events taking place at the actual blades. With this model it is possible to calculate the steady loads
and thus also the thrust and power for different settings of wind speed, rotational speed and pitch
angle. The stream tube introduced in the 1-D momentum theory is discretized into N annular
elements of height dr. The lateral boundary of these elements consists of streamlines; in other
words there is no flow across the elements.







1.Classify wind mills of the world and what are the uses of wind mills. (Nov / Dec, 2015)
2.Explain the momentum theory and derive Betz coefficient. (May / June, 2013)
3. Using blade element theory, express the forces on the blades of a wind turbine as a
function of lift and drag coefficient and angle of attack. (Nov / Dec, 2011)
4. (i) List down the different types of wind speed indicators. (4)
(ii) List the properties of wind speed indicators. (4)
(iii) Explain any one wind speed indicator with neat sketch. (8) (Apr / May, 2005)
5. Explain how wind energy can be utilized to pump water. (Nov /Dec, 2005)
6. Differentiate between a vertical axis windmill and a conventional windmill.
What are their relative advantages? (Nov /Dec, 2005)

(Refer Wind energy explained by J.F.Manwell, Page No: 9)

UNIT III :: BLUFF BODY AERODYNAMICS

1. What is meant by Strouhal number? state its significance
A Strouhal no is a dimensionless number used in studying the vibrations of a body past

which a fluid is flowing; it is equal to a characteristic dimension of the body times the frequency
of vibrations divided by the fluid velocity relative to the body.
The Strouhal number has been found to be constant (Sr ≈ 0.2–0.3) over a wide range of
Reynolds numbers. This empirical relation is used in calculating vibrations of elastic bodies, such
as airplane wings and periscopes, in a liquid or gas flow and in determining pressure fluctuations
in regions of flow separation—for example, behind a body past which a fluid is flowing, as at the
tail of a rocket.
2. Define Reynolds nmber and state it’s significance.
The Reynolds Number, is a dimensionless number which is significant in the design

of a model of any system in which the effect of viscosity is important in controlling the velocities
or the flow pattern of a fluid; it can be defined as the ratio of the inertia force (ρ u L), and the
viscous or friction force (μ).
3. What are the factors to be considered in Automobile Aerodynamics?

 Aerodynamic Forces  Tires
 Laminar Separation  Glass and Trim
 Tripping of Boundary Layer  General Improvements
 Pressure Distribution  Unconventional Features
 Wake
4. Define Froude Number
The Froude number can be interpreted as the ratio of the inertial to gravity forces in the
flow. This ratio may also be interpreted physically as the ratio between the mean flow velocity
and the speed of an elementary gravity (surface or disturbance) wave traveling over the water
surface.
5. Name the factors to be considered for the aerodynamics of trains

 Aerodynamic Drag of Train
 Aerodynamic characteristics of train due to cross-wind
 Aerodynamic force due to Passing-by of two trains
 Winds induced by train
 Pressure variations in tunnels
 Micro pressure wave radiating from tunnel exit
 Ventilation and heat transfer in underground station and tunnel
 Aerodynamic Noise
6. Distinguish between automobile aerodynamics and hovercraft aerodynamics. (Condense and write)
Most of the horsepower generated by a racing engine is eaten up by the high-pressure air
pushing the front of the car and the low-pressure air — a partial vacuum — dragging at the car

from behind. However, drag cannot be the only consideration. While lift is desirable for an
airplane, it can be dangerous for an automobile. In order to maintain better control for steering
and braking, cars are designed so the wind exerts a downward force as their speed increases.
However, increasing this downward force increases drag, which in turn increases fuel
consumption and limits speed, so these two forces must be carefully balanced.
A radically different principle is used for sustaining of the hovercraft. In machines of this
type, a more or less static region of air, at slightly more than atmospheric pressure, is formed and
maintained below the craft. The difference between the pressure of the air on the lower side and
the atmospheric pressure on the upper side produces a force tending to lift the craft. The trapped
mass of air under the craft is formed by the effect of an annular jet of air, directed inwards and
downwards from near the periphery of the underside. The downwards ejection of the annular jet
produces an upwards reaction on the craft, tending to lift it. In steady hovering, the weight is
balanced by the jet thrust and the force due to the cushion of air below the craft. The difference
between the flight of hovercraft and normal jet-lift machines lies in the air cushion effect which
amplifies the vertical force available, permitting the direct jet thrust to be only a small fraction of
the weight of the craft. The cushion effect requires that the hovering height/diameter ratio of the
craft be small, e.g. 1/50, and this imposes a severe limitation on the altitude attainable by the
hovercraft.
7. What is the cut-back angle? Give the importance of cut back angle in the aerodynamic
design of vehicles.
The rear window angle with horizontal is called the ―cut back angle‖ or ―back light
angle‖. The importance of cut-back angle in aerodynamic design of vehicles is
 The cut-back angle of inclination affects the trailing vortex location and strength
 The nature of the counter rotating vortex structure is controlled primarily by the cut
back angle.
 Vortices expend energy gives Drag. So the amount of drag force creation is controlled
by the cut back angle.
8. Briefly explain the two methods used to reduce vehicle forebody drag.
The forebody drag is the consequence of an overpressure on the front face, so the
forebody drag can be reduced by decrease of pressure on as large part of the front face as
possible. The pressure can be reduced by accelerating the flow above the front face e.g. by

rounding the leading edges surrounding the front face or by increasing the flow velocity around
rounded leading edges by reducing the underbody flow.
The forebody drag can also be reduced by artificially creating a boundary layer
separation on the periphery of the front face by using a "step" or a "fence". Near the separation
bubble, a low pressure area is created decreasing the net force acting on the front face.
9. What are the causes for decreases in maximum achievable power co-efficient?
1. Coefficient of Drag
2. Headwind Velocity
3. Projected Frontal Area
4. Vehicle Speed
5. Rolling Resistance Co-efficient of tyre
10. Draw a neat diagram of the car along with the movement of air over the car and its
surrounding.
11. What is surprising behaviour of aerodynamics of trains in India?

High Pressure region is formed at the bottom half of the front of the locomotive and at
the bottom of the locomotive. A little less pressure region is formed at the top of the locomotive.
Around the bogies pressure region is almost same i.e. medium pressure region. Medium pressure
regions are also formed behind the bogies. Turbulence is obtained at the top of the locomotive
and the top of the first locomotive. A large turbulence region is obtained at the back of the bogies.
A fairly good velocity region is observed above the locomotive and the bogies. This region exists
till a little distance beyond the last bogie. Very low velocity regions are observed between the
locomotive and bogie as well as between the bogies. Small packets of low velocity regions are
formed behind the last bogie.
12. Give typical values for drag co-efficient with vehicle name.
Ferrari – 0.3x
A large Truck – 0.6x
Streamlined Train – 0.15x

Wind resistance co-efficients of trains automobiles and ships
Vehicle Cd
Non-Streamlined locomotive and tender (length – 110-120 ft) 0.80 - 1.05
Streamlined locomotive and tender (length – 110-120 ft) 0.35 – 0.45
Non-Streamlined railroad car 0.40
Streamlined Railroad Car 0.15
Conventional type automobile (sedan) 0.52
Moderately streamlined automobile (Rounded back) 0.34
Well streamlined passenger automobile 0.23
Streamlined racing-type automobile 0.17
Passenger ship, Non-streamlined 0.90
Drag Drag
Type of Object Coefficient - Type of Object Coefficient -
cd - cd -
Laminar flat plate (Re=106) 0.001 Sports Car, sloping rear 0.2 - 0.3
Dolphin 0.0036 Common Car like Opel Vectra
0.29
Turbulent flat plate (Re=106) 0.005 (class C)
Subsonic Transport Aircraft 0.012 Hollow semi-sphere facing

0.38
stream
Supersonic Fighter,M=2.5 0.016
Bird 0.4
Streamline body 0.04
Solid Hemisphere 0.42
Airplane wing, normal position 0.05
Sphere 0.5
Long stream-lined body 0.1
Saloon Car, stepped rear 0.4 - 0.5
Airplane wing, stalled 0.15
Convertible, open top 0.6 - 0.7
Modern Car like Toyota Prius 0.26
Bus 0.6 - 0.8

Drag Drag
Type of Object Coefficient - Type of Object Coefficient -
cd - cd -
Old Car like a T-ford 0.7 - 0.9 Wires and cables 1.0 - 1.3
Cube 0.8 Person (upright position) 1.0 - 1.3
Bike racing 0.88 Hollow semi-cylinder opposite
1.2
Bicycle 0.9 stream
Tractor Trailed Truck 0.96 Ski jumper 1.2 - 1.3
Truck 0.8 - 1.0 Hollow semi-sphere opposite

1.42
stream
Person standing 1.0 – 1.3
Passenger Train 1.8
Bicycle Upright Commuter 1.1
Motorcyvcle and rider 1.8
Thin Disk 1.1
Long flat plate at 90 deg 1.98
Solid Hemisphere flow normal
1.17 Rectangular box 2.1
to flat side
Squared flat plate at 90 deg 1.17
13. Does the opening of passenger seat window in the car increase or decrease the car? Why?
The opening of passenger seat window in the car will increase the drag. Because, the
streamlined flow will break and the drag will increase when the air flows inside the car, blocked
by the rear end.
14. Differentiate between Streamlined Body and Bluff body

Streamlined bodies are characterized by attached flow. The share of pressure forces in
drag force (component of aerodynamic force parallel to undisturbed flow) is small. Drag is caused
mainly by shear stresses. Since shear forces are small Cd is relatively small.
Bluff bodies are characterized by boundary layer separation and separation bubbles. Drag
is caused mainly by pressure forces, since p-p0>> ô cD is relatively big.
15. State the difference between laminar and turbulent flow in terms of Reynolds number for
an external flow.
Laminar Flow : Re > 2 x 105
Transition Flow : 2 x 105 > Re > 5 x 105
Turbulent Flow : Re > 5 x 105
16. Differentiate Streamlined and Bluff Body
A streamlined body looks like a fish, or an airfoil, and the streamlines go smoothly
around the body. A bluff body looks like a brick, or a cylinder, and the streamlines break away
whenever a sharp change in direction occurs. For streamlined bodies, the frictional drag is the
dominant source of air resistance. For a bluff body, the dominant source of drag is the pressure
drag. It is always true that, for a given frontal area and speed, a streamlined body will have a
lower air resistance than a bluff body.
The biggest difference between streamlined and bluff bodies is that in streamlined flow,
the regions where losses occur are inside boundary layers and wakes that remain reasonably thin,
whereas in bluff bodies, adverse pressure gradients cause the boundary layers to separate, which

creates a large wake filled with energetic eddies which dissipate a great deal of mechanical
energy and thereby increase the drag.
17. What is meant by Horse shoe vortex?
The horseshoe vortex system is a simple vortex model for an aircraft or lifting body
which fits a box-shaped vortex system out from the wing. This is made up of the wing vortex,
trailing vortices and starting vortex. The latter is a vortex formed due to changes in the vorticity
of the wing vortex, i.e due to changes in airspeed.
18. Define cut back angle of automobiles. (MAY / JUNE, 2013)
The rear window angle with horizontal is called the ―cut back angle‖ or ―back light angle‖.
19. Define pressure coefficient over automobiles. (MAY / JUNE, 2013)

1. Ground Vehicle Aerodynamics and Comparison with Aircraft Aerodynamics
Ground Vehicle aerodynamics is the study of the aerodynamics of road vehicles. Its main
goals are reducing drag and wind noise, minimizing noise emission, and preventing undesired lift
forces and other causes of aerodynamic instability at high speeds. For some classes of racing
vehicles, it may also be important to produce downforce to improve traction and thus cornering
abilities.
Ground Vehicle aerodynamics differs from aircraft aerodynamics in several ways. First,
the characteristic shape of a road vehicle is much less streamlined compared to an aircraft. Second,
the vehicle operates very close to the ground, rather than in free air. Third, the operating speeds are
lower (and aerodynamic drag varies as the square of speed). Fourth, a ground vehicle has fewer
degrees of freedom than an aircraft, and its motion is less affected by aerodynamic forces. Fifth,
passenger and commercial ground vehicles have very specific design constraints such as their
intended purpose, high safety standards (requiring, for example, more 'dead' structural space to act
as crumple zones), and certain regulations.
2. Forces acting on a moving car
All the forces that act on a rear-wheel-driven car while moving forward is shown below.
The contact forces between the tyres and the road are shown per axle ie the forces on the two
front wheels and the two rear wheels are shown as one vector.
These are:
1. The car‘s weight, which is a force mg, acting at G, the centre of gravity (from Newton‘s law F
= ma)
2. The upwards reactions R1 and R2 to mg at the front axles and the rear axles respectively. In the
previous blog we calculated these reactions when the car is stationary, and in the next blog we‘ll
show how and why they change.
3. The engine‘s torque, converted to a force P between the rear tyres and the road. This is done by
using the following formula:
P = T.y.z/r
Where T = torque at the flywheel in N.m

y = gearbox ratio in use.
z = final drive ratio
r = running wheel radius
4. Rolling frictional forces act at the wheels, always in the direction opposing motion. These are
labelled F1 and F2 and their values depend on the rolling coefficient of friction μ (also known as
grip) between the tyres and the road such that F1 = μ.R1 and F2 = μ.R2.
5. The total aerodynamic resistance W can be considered to act at C, the centre of pressure. It‘s
exact location can only be determined in a wind tunnel.

3. Forces acting on a High-Speed Train

Aerodynamic drag of train
The aerodynamic characteristics of HST are quite different from those of airplane. There
are many characteristic features in the aerodynamics of the high speed railway train, in the
points that the train length is, in general, very long, compared with the equivalent diameter of it,
the train runs close to adjacent structures, passes through a confined tunnel, and intersecting
with each other, the train runs along a fixed railway track, always interacting with ground, and
the train can be influenced by cross-winds. Thus, the aerodynamics, which has been applied to
airplane, may not be of help for a detailed understanding of the HST aerodynamics. In general, a
desirable train system should be aerodynamically stable and have low aerodynamic forces.
These aerodynamic characteristics are closely associated with the aerodynamic drag of the
running train. The aerodynamic drag on the traveling train is largely divided into mechanical
and aerodynamic ones. Of both, the aerodynamic drag can influence the energy consumption of
train. Thus, detailed understanding on the aerodynamic drag and its precise evaluation are of
practical importance. It has been well known that the aerodynamic drag is Proportional to the
square of speed, while the mechanical drag is proportional to the speed. Compared with the
mechanical drag, the portion of the aerodynamic drag becomes larger as the train speed
increases. Thus, reduction of the aerodynamic drag on high-speed railway train is one of the
essential issues for the development of the desirable train system.
Pressure drag
Of the aerodynamic drag components, the pressure drag comes from the pressures on the
fore- and after-bodies of train, and, in the case with a double deck in train series, it stems from the
pressures due to the abrupt change in the cross-sectional area of the train.
Friction drag
Of the aerodynamic drag components, the estimation of the friction drag is more
complicated, compared with that of the pressure drag. The friction drag comes from the train walls,
the pantograph system, the connecting part between trains, other devices on train roof, etc. The
friction coefficient can be obtained by the pressure rise on the train body entering into tunnel.
Train-induced flows
The winds induced by a traveling HST can affect passengers at platform and the
structures around the railway lines. Thus, estimation of the train-induced flows should be included
in a structural design of the platform and surrounding facilities around the railway lines. For a given
speed of train, the train-induced flows are strongly dependent on the fore-body configuration, and
train length. In particular, the train-induced flows can differ, depending on whether the fore-body
shape is two or three-dimensional.
Aerodynamic forces due to trains passing each other

When a train travels in the open air, it induces a very complicated flow field. The
implications of this flow field on trackside structures and passing trains are much more important
for trains than for other vehicles, since trains operate much closer to adjacent structures or other
trains. In order to investigate the trains passing each other in the open air, using the wind tunnel, we

can simulate the passing trains using a fixed side plate. The side plate has a multiple of pressure
taps. When a train passes another train in the open air, considerably large pressure fluctuations
occur on the sidewall of the train. It is known that a positive– negative pulse pressure is generated
as the fore-body of a train passes another train, while a negative–positive pulse as the after-body
passes.
Cross-wind effects
The cross-wind effects on the traveling train can closely be associated with the traveling
safety. The crosswinds can be more seriously influence when the train runs over a bridge. It is
believed that the drag and lift coefficients on the train become much higher when it travels over the
bridge. The computations of the three-component forces only qualitatively predict the measured
aerodynamic forces on the train.
Aerodynamic analysis of train/tunnel systems

The aerodynamic problems occurring when train travels at high speed in tunnel are more
complicated and serious, compared with the open air traveling. The aerodynamic drag and noises
on the train are strongly dependent on the pressure waves in the tunnel. The aerodynamic drag on a
train traveling in a tunnel can significantly increase, compared with that in the open air. When a
HST enters a tunnel, a compression wave is formed ahead of the train which propagates along the
tunnel at a nearly sonic speed. A part of the compression wave is reflected back from the exit of the
tunnel as an expansion wave. A complex wave interaction occurs inside the tunnel due to
successive reflections of the pressure waves at the exit and entry to the tunnel. These pressure
waves cause large pressure transients resulting in fluctuating loads on the train causing discomfort
to passengers. It is necessary to predict these pressure transients to design trains and tunnels, and to
improve the passenger comfort. Further, a part of the compression wave leaving the tunnel exit
gives rise to an impulse noise. Such an impulse noise was not an important issue in the past when
the speed of trains was not so high. But in recent years, with the increase in the speed of trains the
noise and vibration due to impulse waves have become a new type of environmental noise problem.
According to some measurements conducted near the exit of the tunnel, the noise is known to be of
low frequency of short duration, and its magnitude being approximately proportional to V3.
4. Phenomenon of Flow separation in a Circular Cylinder

The flow past a two-dimensional cylinder is one of the most studied of aerodynamics. It is
relevant to many engineering applications. The flow pattern and the drag on a cylinder are
functions of the Reynolds number ReD = UD/u, based on the cylinder diameter D and the
undisturbed free-stream velocity U. Recall that the Reynolds number represents the ratio of inertial
to viscous forces in the flow. The drag is usually expressed as a coefficient C d = d/(½uU2D), where
d is the drag force per unit span.
Flow pattern at high Reynolds numbers (ReD > 10000). At the leading edge of the
cylinder a stagnation point is formed where the oncoming flow is brought to rest. The pressure here
is equal to the stagnation pressure. The pressure coefficient Cp = (p - p)/(½ U2) is therefore equal to
1. To either side of the stagnation point the flow accelerates around the forward surface of the
cylinder producing a drop in the pressure. Immediately adjacent to the cylinder surface a thin
boundary layer is formed. The boundary layer is a region where the velocity drops rapidly to zero

to satisfy the no slip condition at the cylinder surface. The direct effects of viscosity are felt only
within the boundary layer.
If ReD is less than about 400,000 the boundary layer remains laminar from the stagnation
point at the front of the cylinder to the point where it separates, termed as sub-critical, is associated
with a high drag on the cylinder, Cd being about 1.2. The laminar boundary layer separates just
upstream of the maximum thickness. Separation occurs because the boundary layer anticipates the
deceleration of the flow (and therefore positive pressure gradient) that would otherwise occur on
the rearward face of the cylinder. Downstream of separation the flow quickly becomes turbulent
and a broad wake is formed. The wake as a whole is unstable and rolls up into vortices that are
shed anti-symmetrically at regular intervals from the cylinder. This type of wake is called a von
Kármán vortex. Because of separation the pressure remains low and approximately constant over
the rearward face of the cylinder. This causes a net imbalance of pressure forces on the cylinder,
usually referred to as the pressure drag. Pressure drag accounts for about 90% of the total drag on
the cylinder in this regime. The remaining 10% is due to skin-friction drag - friction between the
flow and the cylinder. Most skin-friction drag is produced on the forward-face of the cylinder
where the boundary layer is thin and velocity gradients at the cylinder surface are large.
At Reynolds numbers greater than about 400,000 the boundary layer on the forward face
of the cylinder undergoes transition and becomes turbulent. The resulting flow pattern, termed
super-critical, is associated with a much lower drag, Cd being about 0.3. The precipitous drop in Cd
that occurs as a result of transition is usually referred to as the drag crisis. The turbulent boundary
layer generated in super-critical flow is much less susceptible to adverse pressure gradients. It
remains attached to the
cylinder surface well past its
maximum thickness. As a
result the wake is much
narrower, the imbalance of
pressure forces on the
cylinder surface is much
smaller and the pressure
drag is greatly reduced. This
reduction swamps a small
increase in skin-friction drag
produced by the greater
length of the boundary layer
and its transition. Note that
the drag crisis need not
always occur at ReD =
400,000. Roughness of the
cylinder surface or
unsteadiness in the free
stream (such as is present in
the open jet wind tunnel) can
cause boundary layer transition at much lower Reynolds number.
5. Co-Efficient of Pressure Distribution in automobile

*As our vehicle attacks the ambient air mass as you drive, the body of your vehicle will
displace the bundle of imaginary streamline filaments which comprise the flow field.
*As the streamlines are displaced, they must accelerate from rest, to some quantity of
velocity, respective to the degree of displacement.
*Static pressure is converted to velocity pressure, or dynamic pressure, as seen within the
drag force equation.
*The highest static pressure (zero velocity) occurs at the forward stagnation point.
*The lowest static pressure (highest velocity) typically occurs just before the roof
peak/windshield header.
This is one of the most important things to know as an aero-modder.
All the air around your vehicle wants to flow to this area of lowest pressure!
Let me repeat that.
All the air around your vehicle wants to flow to the area around your windshield header!
*The reason the air doesn't all flow there is due to momentum-induced kinetic energy
being delivered to the turbulent boundary layer from beyond it, in the laminar inviscid flow.
*You might imagine the flow nearest the boundary layer as billions of miniature attack
aircraft strafing the boundary layer with a continuous spray of kinetic energy bullets.
*If the attack angle of the bullets is not too steep, the bullets will penetrate into the
boundary layer.
*If the contour of the aft-body in particular is too steep, the bullets will ricochet off the
boundary layer losing their ability to force the boundary layer down and rearward.
*Without the continuous influx of bullets, the boundary layer will by necessity, move in
the direction of lowest pressure attempting to reach equilibrium.
*If so, then if the flow is downstream of this windshield area when the contour is too
steep, the air will begin to flow backwards towards the windshield, triggering separation.
*This counter-flow of the separation spawns the eddies which bloom into full-blown
turbulence.
*Unless the contour relaxes to a point where the bullets can again impart energy to the
boundary area, the flow is lost forever, creating the turbulent wake which causes the pressure
drag that streamlining attempts to reduce or eliminate.
*In fluid mechanics terms, the air against the body boundary is always at rest due to
viscous affects at the boundary 'wall
*Raising pressure requires the flow to decelerate.
*But the flow is already at zero velocity. It can't slow any when it's already at rest.
*Without the injection of kinetic energy from the outer flow, separation is triggered.
Following are some diagrams which are altered and colorized. The blue areas are positive
static pressures acting against the body surface, the yellow areas are negative pressures pulling at
the body surface.

The Origins of Drag and Lift Reductions GM's "Aerodynamics for

on Automobiles with Front and Rear Spoilers Body Engineers
6. Flow Phenomenon related to Automobiles
The various flow phenomena related to vehicles can be divided into two groups. These
are (a) the external flow around the vehicle, including all details of its surface, and (b) the
internal flow through different systems such as carburettor, engine, exhaust system and cooling
system as well as the flow through the passenger cabin itself.
External Flow

The external flow around a vehicle is shown. In still air, the undisturbed velocity V~ is the
speed of the car. Provided no flow separation takes place, the viscous effects in the fluid are
restricted to a thin layer of a few millimetres thickness, called the boundary layer. Beyond this
layer the flow is inviscid and its pressure is imposed on the boundary layer. Within the boundary
layer, the velocity decreases from the value of the inviscid external flow at the outer edge of the
boundary layer to zero at the wall. where the fluid fulfils a no-slip condition. When the flow
separates at the rear pan of the vehicle the boundary layer is 'dispersed', and the flow is entirely
governed by viscous effects. Such regions are quite significant compared with the characteristic
length of the vehicle. At some distance from the vehicle, there exists no velocity difference
between the free stream and the ground. Therefore, in vehicle-fixed coordinates, the ground
plane is a stream surface with constant velocity V ec and al this surface no boundary layer is
present. This fact is verv important for the simulation of flows around vehicles in wind tunnels.
The boundary layer concept is only valid for large values of the order
This dimensionless parameter is called the Reynolds number. It is a function of the

speed of the vehicle V~, the kinematic viscosity v of the fluid and a characteristic length of the
vehicle, e.g. its total length I. The character of viscous flow around a body depends only on the
body shape and the Reynolds number. For different Reynolds numbers entirely different flows
may occur for the same body geometry. Thus the Reynolds number is the dimensionless
parameter that characterizes a viscous flow.
Flows around geometrically similar bodies are called 'mechanically similar' if the
Reynolds number has the same value for different body lengths /, airspeeds V~ and fluid
properties v. Mechanical similarity is the basis for model tests. The results of tests on scale
models in terms of dimensionless aerodynamic coefficients are the same as for the original
vehicle if Reynolds numbers are the same. Sometimes it is difficult to fulfil this similarity
requirement. For models smaller than the original vehicle it is necessary to increase the free
stream velocity V~, but the value must remain in the low subsonic regime. This means that it is
not possible to perform tests on very small models in supersonic flow since the similarity law of
compressible flow, which demands equal Mach numbers = constant for both
cases, would then be violated. Sometimes we need to investigate the flow around details such as
a mirror, separate from the car. In such a case, correct results will be obtained if the tests are
performed at the same Reynolds number as a characteristic dimension of this detail, for example
the mirror's diameter, and on the local velocity in the vicinity of this detail at the vehicle, which
is usually different from the free stream velocity;
Internal Flow

Internal flow is that which is surrounded by walls. In the simple case of all streamlines are
parallel to the pipe axis. In general, internal flows cannot be divided into an inviscid flow far
away from the walls and a viscous boundary-layer flow close to the walls. The effects of
viscosity are found everywhere in the flow field. The development of an internal viscous flow is
again characterized by the Reynolds number viscous boundary-layer flow close to the walls. The
effects of viscosity are found everywhere in the flow field. The development of an internal
viscous flow is again characterized by the Reynolds number
based on a velocity typical for the problem, e.g. the mean velocity Vm, and the pipe diameter D
as a typical length. For different values of ReD, different types of now may occur.
7. Vehicle Requirements

The coefficients of rolling resistance and drag are determined from experiment. A typical
value for the coefficient of rolling resistance is 0.015. The drag coefficient for cars varies, a
value of 0.3 is commonly used. The power output requirement can be determined from the drag
force given above and the vehicle velocity.
8. Drag Reduction in Automobiles

The shape of a car, as the aerodynamic theory above suggests, is largely responsible for
how much drag the car has. Ideally, the car body should:
 Have a small grill, to minimize frontal pressure.
 Have minimal ground clearance below the grill, to minimize air flow under the car. In
combination to this, a raked underside with the rear of the car raised can create down
force.
 Have a steeply raked windshield to avoid pressure build up in front.
 Have a "Fastback" style rear window and deck, to permit the air flow to stay attached.
 Have a converging "Tail" to keep the air flow attached.

Air dams (also called front spoiler):

 An air dam is a panel that reduces ground clearance at the front of the car below the
bumper
 The smaller gap forces flow to locally accelerate under the air dam reducing pressure
under the car and creating downforce
 Lower air volume flow to underbody reduces drag due to underbody roughness
Splitter:
The splitter is a horizontal lip that brought the airflow
to stagnation above the surface, causing an area of high
pressure. Below the splitter the air is accelerated, causing the
pressure to drop. This, combines with the high pressure over
the splitter creates downforce.
Reduction of forebody drag:
 The most significant drag reduction can be achieved by rounding up the vertical and
upper horizontal leading edges on the front face.
 Relatively small amendments can result considerable drag reduction.
 The drag reduction of front spoiler is large if its use is combined with rounded leading
edges.
Hood and Windshield Angle of Inclination:
 The hood angle (α) determines the pressure gradient and

plays a role in maintaining attached flow
 The windshield angle, δ (rake) plays a stronger role by
controlling point of attachment of flow to roof
Roofline Shape:
Curved (cambered) roofline helps maintain attached

flow over the rear of the car.
Scoops:
 Engine cooling
 Increases flow rate of air
9. Effect of Cut Back Angle (Back Light Angle Or Rear Wind Shield
Angle):

The rear window angle with horizontal is called the ―cut back angle‖ or ―back light
angle‖.
 The angle of inclination affects the trailing
vortex location and strength
 The nature of the counter rotating vortex
structure is controlled primarily by the cut
back angle.
 Vortices expend energy gives Drag. So the
amount of drag force creation is controlled
by the cut back angle.
The airflow over the rear surfaces of the vehicle is more complex and the solutions
required to minimize drag for practical shapes are less intuitive. The inclination of the screen
may be sufficient to cause the flow to separate from the rear window although in many cases
the separation is followed by flow re-attachment along the boot lid.
The first occurs for ‗squareback‘ shapes and is characterized by a large, low pressure
wake. Here the airflow is unable to follow the body surface around the sharp, rear corners. The
drag that is associated with such flows depends upon the cross-sectional area at the tail, the
pressure acting upon the body surface and, to a lesser extent, upon energy that is absorbed by
the creation of eddies.

A very different flow structure arises if the rear surface slopes more gently as is the case
for hatchback, fastback and most notchback shapes . The centreline pressure distribution that the
surface air pressure over the rear of the car is significantly lower than that of the surroundings.
Along the sides of the car the body curvature is much less and the pressures recorded here differ
little from the ambient conditions.
The low pressure over the upper surface draws the relatively higher pressure air along
the sides of the car upwards and leads to the creation of intense, conical vortices at the ‗C‘
pillars. These vortices increase the likelihood of the upper surface flow remaining attached to
the surface even at backlight angles of over 30 degrees. Air is thus drawn down over the rear of
the car resulting in a reacting force that has components in both the lift and the drag directions.
The backlight angle has been shown to be absolutely critical for vehicles of this type.
Demonstrates the change in the drag coefficient of a typical vehicle with changing backlight
angle. As the angle increases from zero (typical squareback) towards 15 degrees there is initially
a slight drag reduction as the effective base area is reduced. Further increase in backlight angle
reverses this trend as the drag inducing influence of the upper surface pressures and trailing
vortex creation increase. As 300 is approached the drag is observed to increase particularly
rapidly as these effect become stronger until at approximately 300 the drag dramatically drops to
a much lower value.

This sudden drop corresponds to the backlight angle at which the upper surface flow is no
longer able to remain attached around the increasingly sharp top, rear corner and the flow
reverts to a structure more akin to that of the initial squareback. In the light of the reasonably
good aerodynamic performance of the squareback shape it is not surprising that many recent,
small hatchback designs have adopted the square profiles that maximize interior space with
little aerodynamic penalty.
Rear Spoilers:
 Rear spoiler act in a similar way than front, they spoils the airflow tumbling over the rear
edge of the car that causes a recirculation
bubbles, this vortex doesn‘t allow a good
under floor flow increasing lift and
instability.
 Can be free standing device or ―deck
strip‖
 Causes increase in pressure just forward of
the spoiler
Boat-Tailing (Tapering the rear end)
Tapering of rear part results is reduction of the size of rear

separation bubble and increase of pressure

10. Aerodynamic of Race Cars:
Front and rear wings:
The main focus in race cars is on the down force and drag. The relationship between drag
and down force is especially important. Aerodynamic improvements in wings are directed at
generating down force on the race car with a minimum of drag. Down force is necessary for
maintaining speed through the corners.
A track with low speed corners requires a car setup

with a high down force package. A high down force
package is necessary to maintain speeds in the corners. This
setup includes large front and rear wings. The front wings
have additional flaps which are adjustable. The rear wing is
made up of more than one section that maximizes down
force.
 The front wing is important because it is the first part of the car that makes contact with
the air.
 It affects the airflow in the full length of the car
and even tiny changes can have huge effects on the
overall performance.
 Front wing is one of the elements that is used for
down force because it creates high pressure area on
top and hence large amount of down force.
 The rear wing helps glue the rear wheels to the
track, but it also can hugely increases drag (air residence against the body of the car).
Barge Boards:
Barge boards, or turning vanes, smooth out and separate the air that has been disrupted by
the front wheels. They separate the flow into two parts - one is directed into the side pods to cool
the engine; the other is diverted outside to reduce drag.
Wheels:
 Open-wheeled race car have a very complicated

aerodynamics due to the large exposed wheels
 The flow behind wheels is completed separated

Diffusers:
The diffusers help to drive the low-pressure from beneath

the car. The most common one is the upswept duct at the rear
and below the bumper. The other type is located directly behind
the splitter leading into the front wheel wheels.
Aerodynamically, both of these diffusers achieve the same thing
i.e. minimising pressure under the car.
Nose wing:
The nose wing has an inverted negative

lift airfoil shape and is modelled using the
NACA 6 series coordinates. It is placed just
before the suspension arms assembly of the
front wheel on the front nose of the car. Its main
purpose is to maintain the balance of
aerodynamic moments on the front and rear
ends of the car and to streamline the flow of air
above and below the upper control arm of the
double wishbone suspension assembly.
Roof spoiler:
It is a wing that is placed just above the

driver cockpit and its main purpose is to
provide downforce by streamlining and re-
directing the air towards the rear spoiler. The
front and the rear parts of an F1 car has wings
that generate the required amount of
downforce, but the middle part also must have
a sufficient amount of downforce to balance
the overall aerodynamic moments on the car.
The basic idea is to keep the centre of pressure
as close to the centre of gravity (CG) of the car to provide maximum stability during operation.

14.41. Effect of rear panel slope angle on the after

body drag


11. Pressure Co-efficient of Automobile:


12. Effect of Atospheric Boundary Layer on Car:




13. Various component of Drag acting on Automobile Vehicle:
Drag on automobile vehicles:

Then the force component acting along the axis of the car, the drag force, depends upon
the magnitude of the pressure, the area of the element upon which it acts and the inclination of
that surface element Figure (5.2b). Thus it is possible for two different designs, each having a
similar frontal area, to have very different values of form drag.
As air flows across the surface of the car frictional forces are generated giving rise to the
second drag component which is usually referred to as surface drag or skin friction drag. If the
viscosity of air is considered to be almost constant the frictional forces at any point on the body
surface depend upon the shear stresses generated in the boundary layer. The boundary layer is
that layer of fluid close to the surface in which the air velocity changes from zero at the surface
(relative to the vehicle) to its local maximum some distance from the surface. That maximum
itself changes over the vehicle surface and it is directly related to the local pressure. Both the
local velocity and the thickness and character of the boundary layer depend largely upon the size,
shape and velocity of the vehicle.
A consequence of the constraints imposed by realistic passenger space and mechanical

design requirements is the creation of a profile which in most situations is found to generate a
force with a vertical component. That lift, whether positive (upwards) or negative induces changes
in the character of the flow which themselves create an induced drag force.
Practical requirements are also largely responsible for the creation of another drag source
which is commonly referred to as excrescence drag. This is a consequence of all those
components that disturb the otherwise smooth surface of the vehicle and which generate energy
absorbing eddies and turbulence. Obvious contributors include the wheels and wheel arches, wing
mirrors, door handles, rain gutters and windscreen wiper blades but hidden features such as the
exhaust system are also major drag sources.
Although some of these features individually create only small drag forces their
summative effect can be to increase the overall drag by as much as 50%. Interactions between the
main flow and the flows about external devices such as door mirrors can further add to the drag.
This source is usually called interference drag.

The last of the major influences upon vehicle drag is that arising from the cooling of the
engine, the cooling of other mechanical components such as the brakes and from cabin
ventilation flows. Together these internal drag sources may typically contribute in excess of 10%
of the overall drag (e.g. Emmelmann, 1982).
Fig 14.27 a,b –Influence of fore body bonnet

(hood) edge shape on drag coefficient

Fig 14.28 a,b,c – Bonnet slope and

wind screen rake angle verses drag
coefficient
Fig 14.29 a,b –Effect of roof camber on

drag coefficient

Fig 14.30 a,b- Effect of side panel camber

on drag coefficient
Fig 14.31 a,b – Effect of rear side panel

taper on drag coefficient


1.Write in detail on AERODYNAMICS OF CARS. (Nov / Dec, 2015)
(Refer Fundamental of vehicle dynamics by Thomas D Gillespie, Page No:89 )
2. Write in detail on AERODYNAMICS OF ALL TRAINS. (Nov / Dec, 2015)
3.What are the forces acting on a moving car? Derive the expression for power required to
move the car. (May / June, 2013)
(Refer Fundamental of vehicle dynamics by Thomas D Gillespie, Page No: 87 )
4.Discuss with a neat diagram the aerodynamics of hovercraft and high speed trains. (May /
June, 2013) (Refer Notes, Page No:66 )
5. a) Explain the phenomenon of flow separation in circular cylinder with suitable sketches.
(Nov / Dec, 2011)
b) Write a note on vortex shedding in turbulent flows. (8) (Nov / Dec, 2011)
6. Define pressure coefficient and draw typical distribution of pressure coefficient over an
automobile shape. (Nov / Dec, 2011)

UNIT IV :: BUILDING AERODYNAMICS

1. Define internal pressure co-efficient for the buildings
The internal pressure coefficients give the effect of the wind on the internal surfaces of
buildings. The internal pressure coefficient, depends on the size and distribution of the openings
in the building envelope. Internal air pressure in a building depends upon the degree of
permeability of cladding to the flow of air. The internal air pressure may be positive or negative
depending on the direction of flow of air in relation to openings in the buildings. The internal
pressure coefficient is algebraically added to the external pressure coefficient and the analysis
which indicates greater distress of the member shall be adopted.
6. What is the need for wind tunnel studies of low rise buildings?
They are usually immersed within the layer of aerodynamic roughness on the earth‘s
Surface in which the important parameters such as the turbulence intensities and interference and
shelter effects are difficult to quantify. Low-rise buildings often have a single internal space, and
internal pressures can be very significant, especially when a dominant opening occurs in a
windward wall. The magnitude of internal pressure peaks, and their correlation with peaks in
external pressure, are needed to be assessed.
7. What are the special problems in tall buildings?

Shear Walls
Stability of Columns
Effect of Thermal Gradients
Construction Problems
8. How will you optimize the building ventilation?
Most occupied buildings can accommodate for a natural ventilation system. It can work
on its own or with other energy-efficient ventilation techniques that a building may have in place.
Offices, schools, universities, health care centres and council buildings can all make use of this
type of sustainable strategy.
Although it is best to integrate natural ventilation at the earliest possible stage, it can be
introduced as a part of a retrofitting project, meaning that existing buildings can still benefit from
it on some level.
9. Define low-rise and high-rise buildings
Low-rise buildings are defined as roofed low-rise structures less than fifteen metre in
height. They are usually immersed within the layer of aerodynamic roughness on the earth‘s
surface, where the turbulence intensities are high.
High-rise buildings are multistory building tall enough to require the use of a system of
mechanical vertical transportation such as elevators. The skyscraper is a very tall high-rise
building.nsities are high.

10. What is Architectural aerodynamics?
All buildings affect the wind. However the effect of the building on the wind
environment varies from site to site, depending on many factors such as wind speed, wind
direction, height, shape, the neighbouring urban environment and so on. The purpose of
Architectural Aerodynamics is to provide designers with ways to design well in urban areas with
respect to wind.
11. How do the wind affects rectangular block buildings?

The flow around the rectangular section is characterised by a ‗separation‘ of the flow at
the leading-edge corners. The separated flow region is divided from the outer flow by a thin
region of high shear and vorticity, a region known as a free shear layer, which is similar to the
boundary layer on the airfoil, but not attached to a surface. These layers are unstable in a sheet
form and will roll up towards the wake, to form concentrated vortices, which are subsequently
shed downwind.
12. What are the limitations of wind tunnel testing on buildings?

 The wind profile and turbulence must be modelled which is not always possible.
 Results can be affected by Reynolds number mismatch.
 Instrumentation needs to respond rapidly.
 Difficult to measure everything.
 Requires specialised knowledge.
13. What are the difficulties faced by the people with tall buildings constructed in a row?
 Too narrow to allow good interior planning.
 Living space is consequently restricted and furnishing difficult.
 Without adequate fencing there is little privacy in the yard.
 Thin party walls transmit sounds from adjacent units.
 Lack of proper ventilating equipment causes the house to be hot in the summer.
 Dwellings were commonly deep and dark, a fault aggravated by the inadequate
artificial lighting of the era.
14. What do building codes indicate?

Building code, or building control, is a set of rules that specify the minimum acceptable
level of safety for constructed objects such as buildings and non-building structures. The main
purpose of building codes are to protect public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to
the construction and occupancy of buildings and structures. The building code becomes law of a
particular jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate authority.
15. What are the effects of wind forces on buildings?

Wind Effects on Structures Wind effects on structures can be classified as ‗Static‘ and
‗Dynamic‘. Static wind effect primarily causes elastic bending and twisting of structure. For tall,
long span and slender structures a ‗dynamic analysis‘ of the structure is essential. Wind gusts
cause fluctuating forces on the structure which induce large dynamic motions, including
oscillations.

16. What is meant by along wind response of a tall structure?

The component of load parallel to the wind direction, which is assumed to be square-on
to the face of a rectangular prismatic building is known as along wind response.

1. Wind tunnel test on tall buildings.
There are many situations where analytical methods cannot be used to estimate certain
types of wind loads and associated structural response. For example, when the aerodynamic
shape of the building is rather uncommon or the building is very flexible so that its motion
affects the aerodynamic forces acting on it. In such situations, more accurate estimates of wind
effects on buildings can be obtained through aeroelastic model testing in a boundary-layer wind
tunnel.
Wind tunnel testing is now common practice for design of most tall buildings. In many
cases, owners of proposed moderately tall buildings are also encouraged to allow for wind
tunnel testing, as the costs associated with such testing can be offset by the substantial
savings in the building costs, due to the reduced design wind loading.
The Australian wind code allows wind tunnel testing as a suitable alternative to the code
recommendations to determine design wind loads for any structure. In order to regulate the
highly specialised area of wind tunnel testing, a national committee has been established to
develop a code of practice for wind tunnel testing.
Aeroelastic modelling
Aeroelastic model techniques take the guesswork out of the gust factor computation by
directly measuring the dynamic loads in the wind tunnel. The main objective of the aeroelastic
studies is to obtain more accurate prediction of the wind loads. This can only be achieved
when the wind and the structure are both properly modelled, such that the model structure
responds to the loading system in the same way as the full scale structure.
Wind tunnel tests currently being conducted on buildings and structures can be divided
into two major types. The first is concerned with the determination of wind loading effects to
enable design of a structure to be wind resistant. The second is concerned with the flow fields
induced around the structure. For example how a structure affects pedestrian comfort and safety
at ground level or for determining air intake concentration levels of exhaust pollutants.
Although wind tunnel testing attempts to simulate a rather complex situation, the actual
models themselves are quite simple, and based on the premise that the fundamental mode of
displacement for a tall building can be approximated by a straight line. In general terms, it is not
necessary to achieve a correct mass density distribution along the building height as long as
the mass moment of inertial about the pivot point is the same as the prototype density
distribution. The pivot point is typically chosen to obtain a mode shape which provides the best
agreement with the calculated fundamental mode shapes of the prototype.
Interference
Buildings of similar size located in close proximity to the proposed building can cause
large increases in cross-wind responses. The designer should not only consider the existing
conditions but make allowance for future changes in the surrounding area during the design life
of the structure. Obviously this needs responsible subjective engineering judgment making use of
the best available knowledge at the time of design. Fortunately in wind tunnel studies,
surroundings comprising of existing and/or future buildings can easily be incorporated with
relatively minor costs.
As a guideline, interference due to buildings of similar size to the subject building,

located within a distance equal to 10 times the building width, need be considered.

Wind tunnel tests
Wind tunnel testing is a powerful tool

that allows engineers to determine the nature
and intensity of wind forces acting on
complex structures. Wind tunnel testing is
particularly useful when the complexity of the
structure and the surrounding terrain, resulting
in complex wind flows, does not allow the
determination of wind forces using simplified
code provisions.
Wind tunnel testing involves blowing

air on the building model under consideration
and its surroundings at various angles relative
to the building orientation representing the
wind directions. This is typically achieved by
placing the complete model on a rotating
platform within the wind tunnel. Once
testing is completed for a selected direction,
the platform is simply rotated by a chosen
increment to represent a new wind direction.
Wind tunnels are either an open-

circuit or closed circuit type with a working
section and a working length. For average
size tunnels testing tall buildings, the 1:400
scale model of the natural wind is usually
generated using the augmented growth
method. This method generates large-scale
turbulence using devices such as trip boards
and spires upstream of the fetch length. Car-
pet or roughness blocks are used along the
fetch length to generate the required velocity
profile. For larger tunnels, generation of
1:200 or even 1:100 scale models may be
possible.
In order to use wind tunnel results to aid in the prediction of wind forces acting on full-
scale structure, the behavior of the natural wind must be satisfactorily modelled by the wind
tunnel. The following variables are of particular importance:
To model the natural wind successfully, and maintain dynamic similarity between
model and full-scale results, the following non-dimensional parameters are kept as near to
constant as possible between the natural wind and the wind tunnel. They are: the velocity
profile U (z) / U (zo ) , that is the variation of velocity with height normalised with respect to
the values at height zo , the height of the building under investigation; the turbulence
2
intensity σU/U ; and the normalised power spectral density,nSU (n) / σ U , which defines the
energy present in the turbulence at various frequencies. Reynold‘s number is not an important
parameter in this case as a sharp edged model is used.
To relate wind tunnel pressure measurements to full-scale values, length and time scales
must be determined. Let us assume that a length ratio of 1:400 and a velocity scale between the

wind speed in the tunnel and full-scale winds of 1:3 is chosen. These results in a time scale of
approximately1:133. In other words, a one second record obtained in the wind tunnel
corresponds to a 133 second wind record in the real world. As the time scale is the inverse of the
frequency scale, the rigid model is deemed to possess a natural frequency 133 times that of the
full-scale building being modelled. By equating the model and full-scale Strouhal numbers, it can
be seen that the time scale depends only on the length scale and the ratio of mean wind speed at
the top of the model building to mean wind speed at the top of the full-scale building. The design
wind speed is based on meteorological data for the given city or area which is analysed to
produce the required probability distribution of gust wind speeds. By appropriate integration
processes and application of necessary scaling factors, directional wind speeds for the wind tunnel
testing can be determined.
Wind Drift Design
The main reasons for adopting wind drift deflection limits are:
(a) To limit damage to the cladding on the building facade and to partitions and interior
finishes;
(b) To reduce the effects of motion perceptibility; (c) To limit the P-Delta or
secondary loading effects.
Drift limits can be specified in terms of an average for the building (usually specified as
the ratio of top deflection/building height), or considered as storey drift. There are two major
contributions to storey drift. The first is the shear or "racking drift" which is the component of the
relative movement of the adjacent floors measured in a direction parallel to the floors. The
second is the component of displacement or "chord" drift caused by the relative rotations
between floors. The sum of these two components gives the total storey drift or the difference
in horizontal displacement between adjacent floors. With regard to damage in the partitions and
facade cladding, it is usually only the shear drift components that induce significant loads in
these non- structural elements.
Wind Loads on Cladding
Wind loading criteria specifically relating to exterior wall elements have received little
attention in the form of documentation within building codes around the world, until the past
few years. Wind tunnel model studies of building components, both structural and exterior facade
elements, began nearly 30 years ago, but until the last decade, they were generally only
performed for special building structures.
Clearly, wind tunnel investigations have shown that the effects and factors producing
wind loading design criteria for exterior wall components can be significantly different than
those cases defining the design load criteria for the primary structure even though they both are
derived from the same wind environment. This critical difference is directly related to the
behavioural response characteristics of each system.
The usually highly redundant primary structure feels little of the specific effects of
localised peak pressures such as may occur at building corners, setbacks, parapets and other
changes in building configuration.
The exterior wall components which usually exhibit low degrees of structural
redundancy, if any, can be significantly impacted by such local peak load conditions. This is
the primary factor in acknowledging that the extensive wind loading criteria, as presented in
almost every code for the primary structure, were developed based on a philosophy which
recognises the inherent redundancy of the structure. In many cases such structural building

criteria may lead to unconservative loading conditions if applied directly as the wind loading
criteria for the exterior facade elements. The wind conditions and directionality defining the
wind loading criteria for the primary structure versus those for the exterior cladding systems can
also be significantly different.
The normally considered translational and torsional deformations of the structural frame
can be magnified, especially in tall, more slender buildings, by the "vortex shedding" behaviour of
the wind/structure interaction leading to significant "cross-wind" deformation of the structure.
Although in the design, wind loads are treated as static load events, the actual wind and its
application to the building surfaces are always dynamic in nature, and this actual response
behaviour needs to always be considered.
Building structures, which through wind tunnel studies are found to exhibit significant
dynamic acceleration characteristics, should be even more carefully evaluated with respect to the
exterior facade system response, in relation to the primary structure. Increases to the inherent or
induced damping systems of the primary structure have been required in some buildings not only
to modify the structure's dynamic behaviour with respect to human response, but to also achieve
an acceptable performance range for the exterior facade systems.
With the advent of environmentally tighter buildings since the mid-1970s, increased
differential pressures between the interior and exterior environments have also provided
additional secondary conditions which need to be considered in conjunction with the external
wind pressures. It should be noted that although structural wind design loadings for the primary
structural systems generally decrease at the lower elevations, that due to ground turbulence
effects, "downwash" effects, and significant building configuration changes to the facade at the
lower parts of the building, the facade system design pressures may not decrease nearly as
significantly.
Generally, the design concerns for individual cladding system components relate to wind
pressure conditions perpendicular to the surface plane. The interface compatibility issues between
the attached cladding systems and the primary structure generally relate to the deformations in the
exterior plane of the structure.
The most common effect needing consideration is the "shear racking" or horizontal
distortion of the structure's beam-column frames at the exterior of the building due to lateral
deformation of the structure.
The attached exterior cladding systems attempt to respond to the deformed shape of the
supporting structure inducing in-place deformations within cladding systems which, if restrained
without relief mechanisms, generate significant force mechanisms leading to component distress
or failure. Structural deformations due to lateral loads produce horizontal and vertical
translations, and rotational movements which need to be absorbed within the facade system and
within its anchorage elements to the primary structure.
The response to such deformation systems by the facade system components is most
easily achieved by utilising smaller sizes for less ductile components, and allowing larger sizes
when using more ductile elements. The greatest degree of susceptibility to distress is found
among those elements such as large panels of glass which exhibit low levels of in- plane ductility.
Although such horizontal wracking of the exterior facade systems is normally limited in
magnitude for typical floor-to-floor dimensions by the limits of acceptable performance for
structural behaviour or human physiological response, special tall floors or "soft structure" zones
can produce unacceptable response ranges for some of the facade systems components.
It can be observed that the response to the "shear racking" effect, with respect to the
differential deformation compatibility between exterior facade elements and supporting

structural systems, would generally be more severe for the lower deflection ratios of h/400 -
h/500. It should again be noted that the optimization of the primary structure's design utilizing
the stronger, more ductile steel materials versus the less strong, less ductile concrete materials,
produces a greater contrast when considering the interface deformation compatibility conditions
of the attached systems.
It should also be noted that as the geometrical placement of the exterior skin becomes
more directly aligned in the same plane as the exterior structural elements, the deformed
configuration of the skin must more closely duplicate that of the deformed structure.
For more outwardly located facade systems, the interface anchorage system can provide
a performance buffer and relieve some of the deformation differential. Generally, the response
effects of the wind loading "shear wracking" deformation will need to be combined with the
effects of gravity loading along the exterior face.
The differential axial deformations of the structure's exterior columns, due to the
"cantilever behaviour" of the structure under wind loading, results in further series of differential,
deformation design considerations, with the similar combined effects of shrinkage and creep.
2. Pressure Distribution on Low Rise Building
Low-rise buildings are defined as roofed low-rise structures less than fifteen metre in
height.
The factors that make the assessment of wind loads for low-rise buildings are:
• They are usually immersed within the layer of aerodynamic roughness on the earth‘s
surface, where the turbulence intensities are high, and interference and shelter effects are
important, but difficult to quantify.
• Roof loadings, with all the variations due to changes in geometry, are of critical impor-
tance for low-rise buildings. The highest wind loadings on the surface of a low-rise
structure are generally the suctions on the roof, and many structural failures are initiated
there.
• Low-rise buildings often have a single internal space, and internal pressures can be
very significant, especially when a dominant opening occurs in a windward wall. The
magnitude of internal pressure peaks, and their correlation with peaks in external
pressure, must be assessed.
However, resonant dynamic effects can normally be neglected for smaller buildings.
The majority of structural damage in wind storms is incurred by low-rise buildings, especially
family dwellings, which are often non-engineered and lacking in maintenance.
General Characteristics of Wind Loads on Low-Rise Buildings
Full-scale measurements of wind pressures on low-rise buildings, shows the highly fluctuating
nature of wind pressures, area-averaged wind loads and load effects, or responses, on these
structures. The fluctuations with time can be attributed to two sources :
1. Pressure fluctuations induced by upwind turbulent velocity fluctuations In an urban situation,

the turbulence may arise from the wakes of upwind buildings.

2. Unsteady pressures produced by local vortex shedding, and other unsteady flow
phenomena, in the separated flow regions near sharp corners, roof eaves and ridges
These two phenomena may interact with each other to further complicate the situation.
It should be noted that, as well as a variation with time, for a single point on a building,
there is a variation with space, that is the same pressure or response variation with time, may not
occur simultaneously at different points separated from each other, on a building.
Pressure Co-efficient
The surface pressure on the body is usually expressed in the form a non-dimensional
pressure coefficient:
At the stagnation point, where U is zero, The above equation gives a pressure
coefficient of one. This is the value measured by a total pressure or pitot tube pointing into
a flow. The pressure (1/2)ρaU0 is known as the dynamic pressure. Values of pressure
coefficient near 1.0 also occur at the stagnation point on a circular cylinder, but the
largest (mean) pressure coefficients on the windward faces of buildings are usually less
than this theoretical value.
In the regions where the flow velocity is greater than U0, the pressure coefficients
are negative. Strictly, Bernoulli‘s equation is not valid in the separated flow and wake
regions, but reasonably good predictions of surface pressure coefficients can be by taking
the velocity, U, as that just outside the shear layers and wake region.
Dependence of Pressure Co-Efficient
Pressure coefficients are non-dimensional quantities, which are dependent on a

number of variables related to the geometry of the body, and to the upwind flow
characteristics. These variables can be grouped together into non-dimensional groups, using
processes of dimensional analysis, or by inspection.
Assuming that we have a number of bluff bodies of a geometrically similar shape,

which can be characterised by a single length dimension (e.g. buildings with the same
ratio of height, width and length, and with the same roof pitch, characterised by their
height, (h). Then the pressure coefficients for pressures at corresponding points on the
surface of the body may be a function of a number of other non-dimensional groups: π1, π2
, π3 and so on.
For bodies which are sharp edged, and on which points of flow separation are
generally fixed, the flow patterns and pressure coefficients are relatively insensitive to
viscous effects and hence the Reynolds Number. This means that provided an adequate
reproduction of the turbulent flow characteristics in atmospheric boundary-layer flow is

achieved, and the model is geometrically correct, wind-tunnel tests can be used to predict
pressure and force coefficients on full-scale buildings.
The Jensen Number, h/zo, the ratio of building height to the aerodynamic
roughness length in the logarithmic law as the most critical parameter in determining
mean pressure coefficients on low-rise buildings. The Jensen Number clearly directly
influences the mean pressure distributions on a building through the effect of the mean
velocity profile with height. However, in a fully developed boundary layer over a rough
ground surface, the turbulence quantities such as intensities and spectra should also scale
with the ratio z/zo near the ground. There is an indirect influence of the turbulence
properties on the mean pressure coefficients, which would have been responsible for some of
the differences.
Wind axes and body axes
Relationship between resolved forces.
Fluctuating and peak external pressures on low-rise buildings which are most
relevant to the structural design, are highly dependent on the turbulence properties in the
approach flow, especially turbulence intensities. Consequently, peak load effects, such
as bending moments in framing members, are also dependent on the upwind turbulence.

For ‗correctly‘ simulated boundary layers, in which turbulence quantities near the ground
scale as z/zo, The peak load effects can be reduced to a variation with Jensen Number.
Flow patterns and mean pressure distributions
The main features of flow over a building with a low-pitched roof, which has many
of the features of flow around a two-dimensional bluff body i s described. The flow
separates at the top of the windward wall and re -attaches at a region further downwind on
the roof, forming a separation zone or ‗bubble‘. However, this bubble exists only as a time
average. The separation zone is bounded by a free shear layer, a region of high-velocity
gradients and high turbulence. This layer rolls up intermittently to form vortices; as these are
shed downwind, they may produce high negative pressure peaks on the roof surface. The
effect of turbulence in the approaching flow is to cause the vortices to roll up closer to the
leading edge, and a shorter distance to the re-attachment zone results.
Wind flow around a low-rise building.
The longitudinal intensities of

turbulence at typical roof heights of
low-rise buildings, are 20% or greater,
and separation zone lengths are shorter,
compared to those in smooth, or low
turbulence, flow. Small separation
zones with high shear layer curvatures
are associated with low pressures, i.e.
high initial negative pressures, but rapid
pressure recovery downwind.
Roof pitches up to about 10

degrees, for wind normal to a ridge or
gable end, are aero - dynamically flat.
When the mean wind direction is
parallel to a ridge line, the roof is also
seen as aerodynamically flat, for any
roof pitch. For winds normal to the ridge
line, and roof pitches between 10 and 20
degrees, a second flow separation
occurs at the ridge, producing regions
of high negative pressures on both sides
of the ridge. Downwind of the ridge, a

second re-attachment of the flow occurs with an accompanying recovery in pressure. At roof
pitches greater than about 20 degrees, positive mean pressures occur on the upwind roof
face, and fully separated flows without re-attachment occur downwind of the ridge giving
relatively uniform negative mean pressures on the downwind roof slope.
It should be noted that the above

comments are applicable only to low-rise buildings
with height/downwind depth (h/d) ratios less
than about 0.5. As this ratio increases, roof
pressures generally become more negative. This
influence can be seen in above figure which shows
the mean pressure distribution along the centre
line of low-rise buildings for various roof pitches
and h/d ratios; the horizontal dimension across
the wind is about twice the along-wind
dimension. For higher buildings with h/d ratios of
3 or greater, the roof pressure will be negative
on both faces, even for roof slopes greater than
20 degrees.
Similar flow separation and re-attachment, as described for roofs, occurs on the side
walls of low-rise buildings, although the magnitude of the mean pressure coefficients is
generally lower. The mean pressures on windward walls are positive with respect to the free
stream static pressure. Leeward walls are influenced by the re-circulating wake, and
generally experience negative pressures of lower magnitude; however, the values depend on
the building dimensions, including the roof pitch angle.
When the wind

blows obliquely on to the
corner of a roof, a more
complex flow pattern
emerges. Conical vortices
similar to those found on
delta wings of an aircraft
occur. The vortices
visualised by smoke –
their axes are slightly
inclined to the adjacent
walls forming largest to
occur on the low-pitched
roofs, square or
rectangular in planform,
although the areas over
which they act are usually
quite small, and are more
significant for pressures
on small areas of cladding
than for the loads in major
structural members.
The arrangement
of industrial low-rise buildings as a series of connected spans is a common practice for
reasons of structural efficiency, lighting and ventilation. Such configurations also allow
for expansion in stages of a factory or warehouse.

As for single-span buildings, the aerodynamic behaviour of multi-span buildings is
quite dependent on the roof pitch. Multi-span buildings of low pitch (say <10 degrees) are
aerodynamically flat. Consequently, quite low mean and fluctuating pressures are
obtained on the downwind spans. The pressures on the first windward span are generally
similar to those on a single-span building of the same geometry.
For the gable roof buildings, and for the saw-tooth roof with the roofs sloping
downwards away from the wind, the downwind spans experience much lower magnitude
negative mean pressures than the windward spans. For the opposite wind direction on the
saw-tooth configuration, the highest magnitude mean pressure coefficients occur on the
second span downwind, due to the separation bubble formed in the valley.
3. Wind Induced Damage to Buildings
Various Features of Damage to Building Elements
(a) Roofs
Damage to roofs of wooden or steel-framed houses occurs either directly

or is triggered by breakage of openings. Most damage to roofs themselves is caused by
local high suctions and large pressure fluctuations around the roof periphery and
protruding portions. These local failures enable wind to enter under the roof members,
thus increasing the underneath pressure and rapidly increasing lift forces as shown in
Fig.14. Thus, local roof damage can lead to total roof destruction. Total roof lift-off can
also be triggered by damage to openings such as glass windows, allowing wind
into the room and increasing the underneath pressure.
(b) Clay tile roofing
There have been many instances of partial lift-off of clay tiles fixed at eaves of
gable roofs and at ridges and corners of hipped roofs. Almost all roof tile fixing is done
with nails and steel wires only at the roof periphery, including eaves and ridge.
However, lift-off of non- fixed tiles also occurs at middle parts of roofs. Cases of
damage to tile roofs increase with simplification of the substrate, i.e., decreasing the
weight by eliminating the roofing cement and thus forming openings between substrate
and tiles. Once an unfixed tile in the middle part is lifted, wind can inflow to the
underneath, leading to sequential lift-off of tiles. Tiles are peeled off by negative
pressure with large turbulence on the leeward side of a hipped roof.
If there is insufficient rust-proofing of nails and steel wire, they lose their
strength within a few years and thereafter cannot fulfill their original function. Thus,
countermeasures are necessary, such as nailing the sheathing roof boards over the
entire roof area including the central part, filling gaps with lime plaster, and so on. It is
desirable to carry out inspections every 5 - 6 years and replacement every 20 - 30 years.
(c) Steel plate roofs
Most damage to these roofs is induced by local suction at the eaves and
periphery. Many breakdowns are found in the joint metal where there is a tight frame at
the seam end. However, in a significant number of cases, total breakdown occurs due
to insufficient strength of connections between the tight frame and its supporting beam
or between the supporting beam and the lower structure. This can be controlled by
increasing the thickness of the folded plate in the peripheral areas, selecting individual
assembling members that can maintain sufficient wind resistant performance, and
ensuring tight fixing to the lower structure. To ensure the required performance even

under strong wind conditions, it is necessary to prevent large deformations. Particular
attention must be paid to the installation of deformation- preventing bars near the
peripheral areas.
The fatigue phenomena on the connecting elements between the roofing system
and the frames due to daily solar heating effects should be also taken seriously as
already mentioned and shown in Fig.10.
(d) Canopies
A lot of damage is found in canopies and pent roofs. Even if canopies are
horizontal, they take a large upward or downward fluctuating load, depending on the
size and shape of the building, the locations of the canopies, objects placed underneath
them, and so on. The tips vibrate a lot, thus causing repeated deformation and fatigue
conditions there. Furthermore, if they project from the wall, there is a high possibility
of wind-borne debris hitting them.
(e) Protrusions on roofs
If a roof has protruding parts like short chimneys, skylight roof windows, and
dormer windows, the flow over the roof surface is locally disturbed, sometimes
producing local high suction and turbulence. Special attention to wind resistant design
is therefore necessary around these protrusions.
(f) Rain gutters, gables, verges and copings

There is often insufficient consideration of the wind resistance of rain gutters,
spoutings, verges and copings in roof peripheral areas, where local wind pressures
become large. Damage to these lightweight members may trigger large-scale damage to
roof cladding, leading to total roof destruction as shown in Fig.14. It is therefore
necessary to design the plate thickness and the connection spacing.
(g) Lift-off of waterproofing material with heat insulation
There have been cases where heat insulation blocks with aged roof joints have
been lifted off. Parapets are effective in easing conditions where extreme local negative
pressure and largely fluctuating wind pressure act directly on roof heat insulation
materials. Another effective measure is a heat insulation block system having an
airspace underneath it connected to the outer surface.
(h) Windowpanes
Windowpanes are often damaged by wind pressure or wind-borne debris.

Breakage of windows not only damages property inside the building, but also induces
total roof lift-off. Wind resistant performance of glass is improved by increasing the
rigidity of the supporting members such as sashes, and decreasing sealing and gasket
deformation. Sufficient sash rigidity needs to be ensured not only in the out-of-plane
direction but also in torsion. It is desirable to suppress deformation by increasing
gasket rigidity.
For the various types of window glass for buildings, the allowable maximum
area is given by codes or standards. Recently, few instances have been reported of
glass broken by wind pressure. The majority of window breakages have been caused
by heat.

A lot of damage during strong winds has been due to wind-borne debris. An
extraordinary amount and variety of materials are blown off in strong winds,
not only cladding materials such as clay tiles and steel plate roofs, but also other
materials such as gravel and square timbers. Therefore, it is important to adopt
countermeasures to collision of wind-borne debris with windows and walls. Rain
shutter doors or metal shutters are indispensable for house windows.
For tall buildings, there is also a high possibility of wind-borne debris hitting
the lower levels. It is therefore desirable to protect them with metal shutters.
Furthermore, a measure such as the use of glass with an internal plastic film is
effective in preventing escalation of damage if the window is hit by wind-borne debris.
(i) Steel shutters
Warehouses, factories, garages, and so on suffer a lot of damage to their steel

shutters. Damage starts with dislocation of slats and central guide columns. Damaged
shutters can lead to total building destruction due to increased internal pressure. Thus,
shutters can never be neglected just because they are light. It is important to ensure
sufficient plate thickness, rigidity and strength of slats, and depth of rail grooves.
Other important points are management of construction and maintenance, such as
anchorage of central guide columns to concrete foundations.
(j) Buildings under construction
In some cases, steel frames of buildings under construction collapse during

strong winds. Especially in the case of steel-encased reinforced concrete
buildings, the cross sectional area of steel frames themselves is relatively small. Thus,
they are very vulnerable to wind during erection, and it is therefore necessary to
thoroughly plan for construction and safety.
(k) Signboards
A lot of damage occurs to building accessories such as signboards. This

sometimes extends to large-scale damage to roofs and walls, leading to secondary
damage by wind-borne debris. When dealing with wind, design of signboards, as well
as cladding materials, should not be taken lightly just because they are accessories.

Interference Effects of Neighbouring Buildings
Large, closely-spaced buildings cause some dynamic interaction phenomena

providing a larger gust response factor or crosswind oscillations. Wind loads on
buildings in a group in real environments can be quite different from those on isolated
buildings. Surrounding buildings or downstream buildings can significantly increase or
decrease wind loads on buildings. Interference effect studies were carried out in the
early seventies. This sudden interest could perhaps be traced back to the collapse of
three of the eight natural draft cooling towers at Ferrybridge, England in 1965, which
was attributed to interference effects. However, studies to provide general
recommendations have not been successful due to the complex nature of the problem
and the large variation of building geometries, relative locations of adjacent buildings,
wind directions, upstream terrain conditions and so on. The majority of past studies
focused mainly on overall wind loads and responses of tall buildings. Damage to
window panes shown in Fig.8 is attributed to the interference effects of adjacent
buildings causing higher peak pressures than on an isolated building. More studies on
interference effects on peak pressures are desired.
4. Case study of Building structure damage due to wind
Recent Damage due to Typhoons in East Asia
Several recent typhoons have caused severe wind damage to structures in East
Asia. Figure 1 shows damage to the membrane roof
of a soccer stadium in Cheju Island, Korea, in
August, 2002. Figure 2 shows collapses of power
transmission towers near Tokyo in October 2002
caused by Typhoon Higos. The maximum peak gust
of 56.7m/s was recorded at the top of the adjacent

tower. Precise investigations were made on the reason for these collapses. The wind
speed was judged to be less than but close to the design value. The reason was
determined to be the poor capability of the friction force of the piles, for which the
grout supply method was not appropriate.
Typhoon Maemi in 2003 caused severe wind damage on Miyakojima Island,

Japan and in Busan, Korea. Figure 7 shows damage to wind energy facilities in
Miyakojima Island, while Fig.8 shows damage to buildings in Busan, Korea.
According to the Miyakojima Island Meteorological Station, the maximum 10min-
mean wind speed was 34.8m/s, and the maximum peak gust was 74.1m/s, which
was the 10th highest recorded in Japan. The lowest pressure was 912 hPa, which was
the 8th lowest recorded in Japan. In addition, Miyakojima Self-defense Force had a
record of the maximum peak gust of 87m/s, and Cao et al. (2007) analyzed very high
wind speed records.
The roofing system of a huge structure called SPring-8 was damaged by

Typhoons Chaba (August 30, 2004) and Songda (September 7, 2004), as shown in
Figs.9 and 10(a). The plan of the building is donut-shaped. It is approximately 1500m in
circumference and 30m in width, and was completed in 1997. The roofing system
consists of two-layer folded steel plates with thermal insulating materials between
them, and the trough and ridge lines of the folded plates are in the radial direction. The
south side of the roof was damaged over an area 270m long by 10m wide by typhoon
Chaba, and the east side of the roof was damaged over an area 100m long by 10m wide
by typhoon Songda. According to precise post-disaster investigations, the damage was
attributed to the fatigue effect on the bolts connecting the roofing system to the tight
frames due to daily solar heating effects on the upper layer. The typhoon wind revealed
the hidden fatigue damage to the roofing system (Tamura et al., 2005). The main reason
for the wind damage was that the roof was designed and constructed without a careful
check of the ability of the sliding movement of the upper folded steel plates, so the
effect of the repetitive load on the bolts was ignored.

Figure 10(b) shows another example of damage to steel roof systems due to the
same typhoon, Songda in 2004. Similar damage is often observed to long-span roofs
such as gymnasiums, which should survive strong winds and be places of refuge.
Special attention has to be given to the cladding/component design and construction of
steel plate type roofing systems.
Recent Damage due to Severe Local Storms in Japan

In the year from December 2005 to November 2006, there were three tornados
in Japan that caused fatalities, as shown in Table 1. Two very rare events, train
accidents, occurred in series due to tornados in that one year.
At 19:14JST on December 25th, 2005, a JR limited express ―Inaho No.14‖ of 6

cars was overturned and derailed by a strong gust as shown in Fig.7(a). Fatalities
numbered 5, and 33 people were injured. The train was running from north to south
under strong wind conditions with 10min-mean wind speeds of around 20m/s. The
accident site was in open flat country covered by snow around 50cm deep. The
footprint of the wind-induced damage to trees, green houses and wooden residential
houses extended over an area 12km long by 20 - 40m wide, starting at the Sea of Japan
coast and heading ENE. The damage scale was estimated at F1. A low-pressure area
developed in the Sea of Japan accompanied by a southward movement of a cold air
mass, and a cold front extended from this low pressure area. The convection current
was very strong, and the wind-damaged area corresponded to a pre- frontal line of
cumulonimbus that formed on the south side of the cold front. A strong and developed
radar echo was observed just above the damaged area. This was a typical type of
tornado observed in winter in Japan, especially in the west coast region facing the Sea
of Japan. An anemometer at the seashore recorded a peak gust of 36.9m/s at 19:06 on
December 25. Steel snow fences 5km inland were damaged at 19:08, and the train
accident occurred at 19:14 10.5km inland. The Meteorological Agency has not
concluded whether the strong wind event was due to a tornado or a downburst.
However, the pattern of damage to a farm appliance shed located just upstream of the
train accident point suggested that it was a tornado rather than a downburst. The wind
speed estimated from the damage to steel snow fences was 39 - 40m/s. The train was
running at 105km/h, which was slower than usual because of the strong wind. Only
the first car was struck by the gust, and it overturned, dragging the following
cars with it. The first car weighed 43ton, and the critical overturning wind speed for
this car running at 105km/h is estimated to be in the range of 40 - 45m/s.
At 14:05JST on September 17, 2006, the first and the second cars of a JR
limited express ―Nichirin No.9‖ of 5 cars overturned due to a strong gust in Nobeoka-

city, Miyazaki Prefecture, as shown in Fig.7(b). These cars were the same type as those
of Inaho No.14. The train was running at a slow speed of 25km/h because of the strong
wind warning, and the driver noticed a swirling wind with a lot of flying debris
approaching the railway obliquely from the left front. Then, immediately after the
driver stopped the train, the first car overturned, dragging the second car with it. Thus,
the train speed was estimated at almost zero, and slight injuries to only 5 people were
reported. However, the damage scale was estimated at F2, and the wind speed was
apparently higher than in the case of ‗Inaho No.14‘. The 150 -
250m-wide damage footprint extended over 7.5km in a residential and

urban area in Nobeoka-city from the Pacific coast. Fatalities due to this tornado
numbered 3. They were due to shock, flying debris and being buried under a display
case. The moving speed of the tornado was estimated at 25m/s. This is a typical tornado
observed in summer or autumn in Japan, which is often accompanied by typhoons.
Tornados tend to appear in the Northeast quadrant of typhoons under a group of
cumulonimbus called ‗tapering clouds‘ at the outer rim of rain bands. According to
observations of falling grave stones and damage to buildings and structures, peak gusts
of 55m/s can be estimated. The houses in Fig.13 suffered severe damage from flying
debris during a tornado that occurred in 2005 and 2006 in Miyazaki, Japan.
Figure 13 shows an aerial view of the footprints of tornado damage in

Saromacho, Hokkaido, on November 7, 2006. Nine people holding a meeting on the
second floor of a construction site office building were killed. The construction site
office building and neighboring buildings were blown over and crashed to the ground.
The moving speed of the tornado was estimated at 76km/h, i.e. 21m/s, (Suzuki, 2007).

Action Taken after Tornado Damage
Severe local storms such as tornados and downbursts are known to occur
mainly over large continental plains in countries such as the US. They cause the
severest wind damage to human society. However, even in Japan, more than 20
tornados are reported every year, according to Niino et al. (1997). Considering the
small land area of Japan less than 1/20 that of the US, more than 20 tornados per year
is not small. However, for an individual building, the probability of being hit by a
tornado is very low: the annual probability is 2.61×10−5 (Tamura et al., 2008) which is
almost once every 38,000 years. Thus, it is not rational to design general buildings
against tornadoes, but how to save lives is an important issue. A system for predicting
tornado events and warning the public should be developed for saving lives, i.e. a now-
cast system for severe local storms. Incidentally, the annual probability of an individual
city being hit by a tornado is estimated at 1.4×10−3, i.e., and event happens every 700
years (Tamura et al., 2008). As shown in Fig. 11, train accidents due to a severe local
storms happen occasionally. It is roughly estimated that almost 8 tornados cross the
railways every year in Japan (Tamura et al., 2008). Of course, even if a tornado crosses
a railway line, it does not necessarily cause a train accident. That depends upon the
wind speed, the train speed, the car number hit by tornado, and so on. Severe local
storm-induced train accidents happen almost every four years in Japan. The probability
of a tornado hit for line-like structures such as railways, power transmission lines and
so on may be larger than that of general buildings. The operating system of the mass
transportation systems, buildings and facilities having a particular social importance or
containing dangerous materials should take tornado effects into account, e.g. railway
systems, airports, computer/data centers, nuclear power plants, containers of
radioactive material/wastes and so on. (Tamura et al., 2008).

After the train accident shown in Fig.11(a), a proposal addressed to the Minister
of Land Infrastructure and Transport and the Minister of State for Disaster
management was laid before the public by the Japan Association for Wind Engineering
(JAWE) on April 24, 2006. This proposal emphasized the necessity of stationing
Doppler radars at several places to cover almost all tornado- and downburst-prone
regions along seashores and in urban areas in Japan. It recommended establishing a
Doppler radar network, and developing a ‗now-cast‘ technique for predicting tornados
and downbursts within several tens of minutes based on the analysis results of data
obtained by Doppler radars. It also recommended creating an efficient system for
disclosing data and necessary information to local governments, mass transport
authorities, power plants, mass media, and researchers. Research projects should be
aimed at minimizing disasters due to small-size strong wind events, which are not
necessarily the same as those in the US or Australia.
Corresponding to those actions by JAWE, the Japan Meteorological Agency

decided to initiate an early warning system for severe local storms mainly targeting
tornados on March 26, 2008. The running control rule of JR is also being reviewed, and
various measures are being taken to cope with situations due to tornadoes and
downbursts. (JR East, 2006).
5. Vortex Shedding
The frequency of the vortices is dependent on the shape of the blunt body, and
the velocity of the fluid flow or wind hitting this body. The vortices create low pressure
zones on the downwind side of the object on alternate sides. As the fluid flows to fill the
low pressure zone, it produces a vibration at a specific calculable frequency. This
vibration is only a major concern if it happens to coincide with the natural frequency of
the structure. For structures that are tall and uniform in size and shape, the vibrations
can be damaging and ultimately lead to fatigue failure. Masts or towers are highly
susceptible to vibrations induced by vortex shedding. By completing a vortex shedding
analysis of structures under realistic wind loading, engineers can evaluate whether more
efficient structures can and should be developed.
How to Calculate Vortex Shedding:
Step 1: Determine the Strouhal number
The vortex street frequency is calculated using the Reynolds number (which
describes the fluid flow characteristics) and the Strouhal number (which describes the
oscillations of a fluid). The Reynolds number is calculated using viscosity, density, flow
velocity, and some geometry from the object in the fluid. It is calculated over a range of
flow speeds (or wind velocities). The Strouhal number is then calculated from those
Reynolds numbers, although for laminar flow situations a Strouhal of 0.2 is often used.
The frequency of the vortex street is then calculated using the Strouhal number, the
width of the body, and the flow speed. It is helpful to chart this calculation over a range
of wind speeds.
Step 2: Find the natural frequencies of the mechanical system
Many times, especially in the case of derrick/mast design or bridges, the

structure in question can have a complex geometry of gussets, cross members and

varying thickness and material. In the past, finding the correct mathematical model of
such a structure in order to find the natural frequency would be difficult and inaccurate.
Today, with the advancement of technology and engineering practice, calculating the
natural frequency can be done fairly efficiently.
The relationship of wind speed vs. vortex shedding frequency of three mast
structures
Sparta Engineering exclusively uses SolidWorks 3D CAD software to model

projects. When it comes time to do an analysis such as determining if vortex shedding is
a problem or not, the geometry is already in the computer ready for analysis. A Finite
Element Analysis software such as SolidWorks‘ Simulation Package, can be used to
calculate the natural frequency of a very complex system. The output of such analysis is
the frequencies of each harmonic (usually only the first 5 are applicable), the
displacement caused by the vibration, as well as a graphical representation of the
deflection.
Step 3: Comparing Natural frequencies to calculated frequencies
Now that we have the natural frequencies of the mechanical system from the
simulation software, we can compare these frequencies to those calculated in step 1. If
the natural frequency from the computer model line up to the frequencies calculated in
stage 1 and the wind speed scenarios, it is highly likely you could have a problem. It is
important to apply sound engineering judgment at this stage when interpreting the
results. The formulas used in this calculation are only good for a certain rage of wind
speeds and to some degree are based on experimental data. The accuracy of the analysis
also depends on how accurate of a model you chose to do your analysis with. If you
decide there is a problem or just want to be on the safe side there are several steps you
can take in order to prevent vortex shedding.
Step 4: Fixing the problem

There are three main approaches that can be applied to prevent the structural
failure from vortex shedding. The simplest is to address the fluid flow and create a
disturbance on the structure so that the vortex street cannot form. This is commonly
done by adding a spiral at the top of the structure (but any change to the body that
disrupts the vortex would work). Another
method is to design the structure itself so the
natural frequencies are outside the operating
frequencies. This can be done by varying the
cross-section along the length of the
structure or by adding or changing supports.
There are also dynamic systems such as
dampeners that can successfully be applied
to absorb vibration.
While vortex shedding is a common

phenomenon that can lead to structural
failure, it is one that is often overlooked
because of the complexity of modeling the
situation correctly. Using the steps outlined
above, vibrational problems can be easily
identified and a few hypothesis can be
tested. Design changes can be made before
any real problem arises. The key point to
remember is if you are designing a tall
slender mechanical system exposed to wind
loading, make sure the engineer is
considering vortex shedding vibrations and conducts the appropriate analysis.
Spirals added to chimneys to prevent vortex shedding
6. Differentiate natural ventilation and forced ventilation
Natural Ventilation
In natural ventilation studies the volume flows and velocities throughout the
building depend, in a linear fashion, on the reference wind speed. For the majority of the
time the reference wind speed is less than 10 m/s, so that use of strong wind data is
inappropriate. Minimum ventilation will be provided in the lowest of wind conditions.
Calm conditions do occur for hours at a stretch, so any ventilation in these conditions
will result from buoyancy forces only. Stable atmospheres reduce turbulence, and
therefore the penetration of wind into the building complex: unstable conditions do the
opposite. Neutral atmospheric conditions produce penetrations between the two
extremes. There are no data about the relative time when stable and unstable conditions
occur in towns and cities, and less still about the degree of stability, so the use of neutral
data throughout is a compromise, and supplies results which are repeatable. As results
from ventilation studies are all expressed in statistical terms, they are as accurate as

possible without additional data which are not available. It is not expected that, were
those data to be available, the final results would be much altered.
Forced Ventilation
In forced ventilation systems, the fans provide the ventilation when the wind is
absent, and the purpose of a wind tunnel study is to demonstrate that the wind does not
destroy the ventilation when it is strong. For this reason strong wind data are required
for the wind tunnel studies of forced ventilation and, these occur in a neutral
atmosphere.
7. Wind tunnel investigation on buildings with effect on Beautfort scale reading
Wind speeds, both gust speeds and mean values, are measured at head height at
a series of locations for a range of wind directions as fractions of a reference wind
speed in the wind tunnel. For the roughness of the fetch and surrounding buildings, the
ratio of the reference wind speed in the wind tunnel to the "Meteorological Wind
Speed", the hourly-average value of wind speed measured 10 meters above flat open
level ground in the vicinity of the site, is determined. From Meteorological Offices
around the world, the statistics of the Meteorological Standard Wind Speed are known,
so that the statistics of the gust and mean wind speeds at head height at the chosen
locations around the site are determined.
Criteria of Acceptability
There is a need for a set of criteria of acceptability to be established which are

approved around the world. Two topics should be addressed in any accepted set;
Comfort and Safety. There are almost as many sets of criteria as there are workers in the
field, but differences are often small between them. The first point of disagreement is
the velocity than should be used. Gust wind speeds can either be measured directly, as at
Bristol, or be computed as a mean value plus a multiple of the intensity of turbulence,
viz
and values for K differ from 0 (NPL) , 1 (Gandemer), 1.5 (Western Ontario), 2 (Feis) to 3
to 4 (Hunt). Western Ontario and Bristol express their wind speeds in terms of the
Beaufort Scale, but this has problems when it is related to a value of wind speed.
In the Bristol method a series of steps of "Perceived Response to Wind" have

been specified. In doing this, recourse has been made to the Beaufort Scale, because
Admiral Beaufort in 1805 devised his scale so that any sailor could report wind speeds
with sufficient accuracy for log purposes, and most present day sailors know the feel of
a Beaufort Scale "n" wind. The Admiral allocated a range of his scale to every different
appearance of ship (sail) or sea. However, the Beaufort Scale was found too coarse for

landlubbers, only ranges 2 to 6 being appropriate. In consequence two steps were
allocated to each range of the scale. The other parameter is a person's reaction to wind,
apart from strength, is frequency of occurrence, so that a step in the scale of perception
of wind is defined as "Exceedence of Beaufort "n" for "x" percent of the time".
Association of frequency and strength of wind allows many combinations to be used.
Some investigators choose one wind speed and define a range of frequencies depending
upon designated use of the area: this is acceptable providing that the value of wind
speed chosen is one which relates to a person's reaction. This can involve the use of
frequencies either so infrequent as to be under-represented by the parent meteorological
data, or so frequent as to be meaningless as far as reaction is concerned. Other
investigators choose a single frequency, and associate a different wind speed for each
use: this can be more practical and is the basis of the criteria for acceptance by the
LDDC (London Docklands Development Corporation) (explained in reference
T.V.Lawson "The Determination of the Wind Environment of a Building Complex
before Construction" Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol
Report Number TVL 9025 May 1990).
A hybrid system, which has been used at Bristol for the last 30 years, is
described below.
A fourth system was defined by Bill Melbourne which uses the probability
distribution function to describe the wind. Most readers use the Weibull Distribution,
viz
with the value of k centred on 1.85. For his formulation Melbourne assumed a value of 2
for "%" (i.e. a Rayleigh Distribution), leaving only a value to be ascribed to c for each
use. A fifth system has been devised in the "Local Wind Effect" section of the BREEAM
(Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method, published as a
BRE Report) document , although the requirements are not directly comparable as they
describe a maximum permissible height for a building, in either a rural or urban setting
and in a geographical position (located on a map of the UK), which will automatically
receive a "Credit" towards an overall environmental assessment of the building. Because
building shape & orientation, and height & location of surrounding buildings are not
considered, the requirement is overstrict as it has to apply to the worst combination of
parameters. Practical situations are always better. The document does allow for a wind
tunnel investigation to be performed, and the credit be awarded if local wind speeds of
Beaufort Force 4 are exceeded for less that 10% of the time at every location. This is
roughly equal to the Bristol criterion for "Business Walking". Providing a single specific
Probability Distribution could be derived for all cases, the first three criteria could be
made identical, and if it were the Rayleigh Distribution, then the first four would be the
same once the measurement of wind speed was agreed. Without a specific distribution
being applicable, then the use of either large or small values of wind speed or frequency
in the criteria could cause meaningless differences in the results.
Comfort Criteria

These are criteria which quantify a person's annoyance with the wind, in a
situation in which his safety is not in question. At this stage three subjective
descriptions of the wind environment will be made:
ACCEPTABLE when the wind will not be noticed.
TOLERABLE when the wind will be noticed but its presence will not prevent the area
being used effectively for its designated purpose. In this case remedial measures should
be taken providing they are economic and do not adversely alter the aesthetics of the
building or complex.
UNACCEPTABLE when the wind is of sufficient strength and frequency as to

deter people from using the area for its designated purpose. In this case some remedial
alterations should be made. To illustrate the difference between "Tolerable" and
"Unacceptable"; imagine a shopping precinct on which are two supermarkets "A" and
"B". Suppose the entrance to supermarket "A" is deemed to be "Unacceptable", whilst
that at supermarket "B" is "Tolerable". Then shoppers will say that it is always windy at
supermarket "A" and go, if possible, to supermarket "B". Whereas the talk of conditions
at supermarket "B" is that it was windy there to-day, with the expectation that the wind
would be unnoticeable on the next few visits. The Bristol method is the only one to
incorporate the "Tolerable" status: most other systems have only a single value which
compares with the "Unacceptable" criterion. In the choice of wind speed and frequency
for the criteria, the Bristol (hybrid) method resorts to the steps in the scale of "Perceived
Response to Wind" mentioned above. The set of steps is 4%B6: 2%B6: 6%B5: 2%B5:
4%B4: 2%B4: 6%B3: 1%B3: 6%B2: 4%B2

where 4%B6 means that there is a probability of 0.04 that Beaufort Force 6 winds will
be exceeded. This can be interpreted loosely to mean that Beaufort Force 6 wind speeds
will be exceeded for more than 4% of the time. The use of Beaufort Force has hidden
the variable mentioned above as a choice of a value for K. Different phenomena used by
the Admiral to define his different ranges were affected by gusts of different sizes. This
caused him no problem because he only needed to know the wind speed for a single
environment i.e. a ship in the open sea, and an hourly-average value suited his purposes.
When applied to comfort purposes, different effects on people occur in gusts of
different sizes.
8. Ventilation System (Brief)
The use of outdoor air for natural ventilation, combined with natural cooling
techniques and the use of daylight, have been essential elements of architecture since
ancient times and up to the first part of the 20th century. Classical architecture with H,
L, T or U-shaped floor plans was used, together with open courts, limited plan depth
and maximum windows sizes, to exploit natural ventilation and daylight. In recent
times, natural ventilation has been largely replaced by mechanical ventilation systems
in high- and middle-income countries. At first, full mechanical heating, ventilation and
air-conditioning systems appeared to be able to solve all the practical problems of
natural ventilation for year-round control of indoor environmental conditions.
However, mechanical ventilation also requires careful design, strict equipment

maintenance, adoption of rigorous standards, and design guidelines that take into
consideration all aspects of indoor environmental quality and energy efficiency. The
same is also true for high-tech natural ventilation. Natural ventilation is not without its
problems, particularly for facilities in countries where winters are cold. More work is
needed to design low-cost and reliable ventilation systems for rooms that encourage
rather than prevent the flow of air and yet allow internal temperature control.
It follows that natural and mechanical ventilation systems can, in practice, be

equally effective for infection control. However, natural ventilation only works when
natural forces are available, for example, winds or breezes, and when inlet and exhaust
apertures are kept open. On the other hand, the difficulties involved in properly
installing and maintaining a mechanical ventilation system may lead to a high
concentration of infectious droplet nuclei and ultimately result in an increased risk of
disease transmission.
9. Ventilation System (Detail)
Ventilation moves outdoor air into a building or a room, and distributes the air
within the building or room. The general purpose of ventilation in buildings is to
provide healthy air for breathing by both diluting the pollutants originating in the
building and removing the pollutants from it.
Building ventilation has three basic elements:

• ventilation rate — the amount of outdoor air that is provided into the space, and the
quality of the outdoor air;
• airflow direction — the overall airflow direction in a building, which should be from
clean zones to dirty zones; and
• air distribution or airflow pattern — the external air should be delivered to each part
of the space in an efficient manner and the airborne pollutants generated in each part
of the space should also be removed in an efficient manner.
There are three methods that may be used to ventilate a building: natural,
mechanical and hybrid (mixed-mode) ventilation.
Natural Ventilation
Natural forces (e.g. winds and thermal buoyancy force due to indoor and outdoor
air density differences) drive outdoor air through purpose-built, building envelope
openings. Purpose-built openings include windows, doors, solar chimneys, wind towers
and trickle ventilators. This natural ventilation of buildings depends on climate, building
design and human behaviour.
Mechanical Ventilation
Mechanical fans drive mechanical ventilation. Fans can either be installed

directly in windows or walls, or installed in air ducts for supplying air into, or
exhausting air from, a room.
The type of mechanical ventilation used depends on climate. For example, in

warm and humid climates, infiltration may need to be minimized or prevented to reduce
interstitial condensation (which occurs when warm, moist air from inside a building
penetrates a wall, roof or floor and meets a cold surface). In these cases, a positive
pressure mechanical ventilation system is often used. Conversely, in cold climates,
exfiltration needs to be prevented to reduce interstitial condensation, and negative
pressure ventilation is used. For a room with locally generated pollutants, such as a
bathroom, toilet or kitchen, the negative pressure system is often used.
In a positive pressure system, the room is in positive pressure and the room air is
leaked out through envelope leakages or other openings. In a negative pressure system,
the room is in negative pressure, and the room air is compensated by ―sucking‖ air from
outside. A balanced mechanical ventilation system refers to the system where air
supplies and exhausts have been tested and adjusted to meet design specifications. The
room pressure may be maintained at either slightly positive or negative pressure, which
is achieved by using slightly unequal supply or exhaust ventilation rates. For example, a
slight negative room pressure is achieved by exhausting 10% more air than the supply in
a cold climate to minimize the possibility of interstitial condensation. In an airborne
precaution room for infection control, a minimum negative pressure of 2.5 Pa is often
maintained relative to the corridor.

Hybrid or Mixed-mode ventilation
Hybrid (mixed-mode) ventilation relies on natural driving forces to provide the

desired (design) flow rate. It uses mechanical ventilation when the natural ventilation
flow rate is too low.
When natural ventilation alone is not suitable, exhaust fans (with adequate pre-
testing and planning) can be installed to increase ventilation rates in rooms housing
patients with airborne infection. However, this simple type of hybrid (mixed-mode)
ventilation needs to be used with care. The fans should be installed where room air can
be exhausted directly to the outdoor environment through either a wall or the roof. The
size and number of exhaust fans depends on the targeted ventilation rate, and must be
measured and tested before use.
Problems associated with the use of exhaust fans include installation difficulties
(especially for large fans), noise (particularly from high-power fans), increased or
decreased temperature in the room and the requirement for non-stop electricity supply.
If the environment in the room causes thermal discomfort spot cooling or heating
systems and ceiling fans may be added.
Another possibility is the installation of whirlybirds (whirligigs or wind turbines)

that do not require electricity and provide a roof-exhaust system increasing airflow in a
building.
Assessing ventilation performance
Ventilation performance in buildings can be evaluated from the following four

aspects, corresponding to the three basic elements of ventilation discussed above.
• Does the system provide sufficient ventilation rate as required?
• Is the overall airflow direction in a building from clean to dirty zones (e.g. isolation
rooms or areas of containment, such as a laboratory)?
• How efficient is the system in delivering the outdoor air to each location in the
room?
• How efficient is the system in removing the airborne pollutants from each location in
the room?
Two overall performance indices are often used. The air exchange efficiency
indicates how efficiently the fresh air is being distributed in the room, while the
ventilation effectiveness indicates how efficiently the airborne pollutant is being
removed from the room. Engineers define the local mean age of air as the average time
that the air takes to arrive at the point it first enters the room, and the room mean age of
air as the average of the age of air at all points in the room. The age of air can be
measured using tracer gas techniques.
The air exchange efficiency can be calculated from the air change per hour and
the room mean age of air. For piston-type ventilation, the air exchange efficiency is

100%, while for fully mixing ventilation the air exchange efficiency is 50%. The air
exchange efficiency for displacement ventilation is somewhere in between, but for
short-circuiting the air exchange efficiency is less than 50%.
Ventilation effectiveness can be evaluated by either measurement or simulation.

In simple terms, the ventilation flow rate can be measured by measuring how quickly
injected tracer gas is decayed in a room, or by measuring the air velocity through
ventilation openings or air ducts, as well as the flow area. The airflow direction may be
visualized by smoke. Computational fluid dynamics and particle image velocimetry
techniques allow the air distribution performance in a room to be modelled.
Comparison of mechanical and natural ventilation
Mechanical ventilation
If well designed, installed and maintained, there are a number of advantages to a

mechanical system.
• Mechanical ventilation systems are considered to be reliable in delivering the

designed flow rate, regardless of the impacts of variable wind and ambient
temperature. As mechanical ventilation can be integrated easily into air-conditioning,
the indoor air temperature and humidity can also be controlled.
• Filtration systems can be installed in mechanical ventilation so that harmful

microorganisms, particulates, gases, odours and vapours can be removed.
• The airflow path in mechanical ventilation systems can be controlled, for instance
allowing the air to flow from areas where there is a source (e.g. patient with an
airborne infection), towards the areas free of susceptible individuals.
• Mechanical ventilation can work everywhere when electricity is available.
However, mechanical ventilation systems also have problems.
• Mechanical ventilation systems often do not work as expected, and normal operation
may be interrupted for numerous reasons, including equipment failure, utility service
interruption, poor design, poor maintenance or incorrect management. If the system
services a critical facility, and there is a need for continuous operation, all the
equipment may have to be backed up — which can be expensive and unsustainable.
• Installation and particularly maintenance costs for the operation of a mechanical

ventilation system may be very high. If a mechanical system cannot be properly
installed or maintained due to shortage of funds, its performance will be compromised.
Because of these problems, mechanical ventilation systems may result in the spread of
infectious diseases through health-care facilities, instead of being an important tool for
infection control.
Natural ventilation

If well installed and maintained, there are several advantages of a natural ventilation
system, compared with mechanical ventilation systems.
• Natural ventilation can generally provide a high ventilation rate more economically,
due to the use of natural forces and large openings.
• Natural ventilation can be more energy efficient, particularly if heating is not

required.
• Well-designed natural ventilation could be used to access higher levels of daylight.
From a technology point of view, natural ventilation may be classified into simple
natural ventilation systems and high-tech natural ventilation systems. The latter are
computer-controlled, and may be assisted by mechanical ventilation systems (i.e. hybrid
or mixed-mode systems). High-tech natural ventilation may have the same limitations as
mechanical ventilation systems; however, it also has the benefits of both mechanical
and natural ventilation systems.
If properly designed, natural ventilation can be reliable, particularly when combined

with a mechanical system using the hybrid (mixed-mode) ventilation principle, although
some of these modern natural ventilation systems may be more expensive to construct
and design than mechanical systems.
In general, the advantage of natural ventilation is its ability to provide a very high air-
change rate at low cost, with a very simple system. Although the air-change rate can
vary significantly, buildings with modern natural ventilation systems (that are designed
and operated properly) can achieve very high air-change rates by natural forces, which
can greatly exceed minimum ventilation requirements.
There are a number of drawbacks to a natural ventilation system.
• Natural ventilation is variable and depends on outside climatic conditions relative to

the indoor environment. The two driving forces that generate the airflow rate (i.e. wind
and temperature difference) vary stochastically. Natural ventilation may be difficult to
control, with airflow being uncomfortably high in some locations and stagnant in
others. There is a possibility of having a low air-change rate during certain
unfavourable climate conditions.
• There can be difficulty in controlling the airflow direction due to the absence of a
well-sustained negative pressure; contamination of corridors and adjacent rooms is
therefore a risk.
• Natural ventilation precludes the use of particulate filters. Climate, security and
cultural criteria may dictate that windows and vents remain closed; in these
circumstances, ventilation rates may be much lower.
• Natural ventilation only works when natural forces are available; when a high
ventilation rate is required, the requirement for the availability of natural forces is also
correspondingly high.

• Natural ventilation systems often do not work as expected, and normal operation
may be interrupted for numerous reasons, including windows or doors not open,
equipment failure (if it is a high-tech system), utility service interruption (if it is a high-
tech system), poor design, poor maintenance or incorrect management.
• Although the maintenance cost of simple natural ventilation systems can be very
low, if a natural ventilation system cannot be installed properly or maintained due to a
shortage of funds, its performance can be compromised, causing an increase in the risk
of the transmission of airborne pathogens.
These difficulties can be overcome, for example, by using a better design or hybrid
(mixed-mode) ventilation. Other possible drawbacks, such as noise, air pollution,
insect vectors and security, also need to be considered. Because of these problems,
natural ventilation systems may result in the spread of infectious diseases through
health-care facilities, instead of being an important tool for infection control.
• ventilation systems not balanced (54% of failed rooms)
• shared anterooms (14%)
• turbulent airflow patterns (11%)
• automated control system inaccuracies (10%).
In addition, a number of problems related to the use of mechanical ventilation can

arise from the lack of active collaboration between medical and technical personnel,
which can also occur with natural ventilation. For example:
• building repair, without adequate control, may adversely affect nearby areas with
high cleanliness requirements;
• sophisticated and expensive ventilation systems are often not properly integrated into
the building design, and then maintained, or even used; and
• medical staff often have poor knowledge of the intended operational performance of
ventilation systems, even with regard to their protective functions; systems that were
originally properly designed can be misused to the extent that the intended
functionality is reduced, leading to increased risks.
Other problems with mechanical ventilation include the loss of negative pressure
differential in isolation rooms due to the opening of the doors; clogged filters; and
adjacent, negatively pressurized spaces.
10. Environmental Winds in City Blocks
Survey of wind flow in the urban area, especially within tall building in two
terms is very important:
(1) Tall buildings can cause undesirable intensification of wind flow in urban
streets and open spaces (square).

(2) On the other hand also have the ability to avoid wind flow in urban spaces.
In both cases, depending on various conditions, wind flow or wind stagnation

could be favorable or not favorable. So in the polluted urban environments, increased
air flow to prevent stagnation and accumulation of the pollution is very useful while for
pedestrian and visitors in open space are undesirable and uncomfortable. Generally
buildings depending on how their exposure to wind flow, create dual effects including
wind flow is increased or recession. Flow rate set points with a recession in the wind
and the tall buildings can deal with the accumulation of air pollution on residents to
stop. Also, despite these points can reduce the adverse environmental wind flow can be
exploited. If the distance between buildings is appropriate, the
Aerodynamic areas of each building to act individually and not interfere of wind
flow in these areas, the impact of tall building on wind flow reaches minimum level.
But if the distance between buildings is not appropriate the aerodynamic take effect,
whatever set is denser and more compact, the behaviors of wind flow and the impact on
the speed are required more complex analysis and apparent negative occurs.
Tall buildings effect on the air flow and pollution parameters is not distributed
consequently the air pollution in cites are increasing. In addition to obstruction of
visibility and confined spaces and also play a key role in changing winds direction. But
regarding population growth of cities and land shortages and high prices make them
inevitable. Other advantages of the towers can save energy and prevent pollution
increases. Therefore, the appropriate principles and standards in height, properly locate
them, the scale tall buildings, technical rules in making them, Immunization,
Landscaping and creating green space around the towers, how exposure to towers for
wind flow, appropriate distance to the other buildings, how to design them in terms of
urban landscape must be considered to reduce the negative effects of tall buildings. In
order to remove or reduce the environmental impact, create green spaces in floors and
roofs of buildings are helpful to reduce environmental problems which is named
environmentally friendly buildings and green architecture.
Today, tall building is a phenomenon that the world particularly large cities are
facing. The tall buildings in order to exploit the land with having the negative affects in
the environment create new problems including increasing congestion population,
environmental pollution, reduce citizen access to fresh air and sunlight. However,
regarding to population increasing and land shortage, tall buildings could not be
avoided. This paper investigates the relationship of tall buildings with urban air
pollution as well as the possible reducing of negative affects of tall building on
environmental pollution with respect to geographical position, technical rules,
immunization, green space, direct of wind, appropriate distance to other buildings,
design in terms of visibility and landscape and urban appearance were reviewed. The
study showed that the tall buildings cause increasing the air pollution in large urban
area due to changing in wind and its direction and also congestion of tall buildings as a

pollution sources. Therefore some techniques to design the tall building must be
considered to reduce the negative affects of the tall buildings on environmental
pollution. Unfortunately the lack of the construction roles in term of environmental
protection and also control of the rules in construction process causing the
environmental pollution particularly air pollution. It is suggested that the re-evaluate of
the rules with restricted control can improve the air quality in the large cities and also
utilization of green spaces in floors and roofs of buildings as environmentally friendly
buildings which are attempt to reduce environmental problems.
11. Building codes and its Importance

 Building codes are set of rules and regulation, provisions that must be observed in
the design, construction and maintenance of buildings.
 Purpose is to ensure that in a disaster:
 Lives are protected.
 Physical damage is limited.
 Structures critical to human welfare remain operational.
 Embody accumulated knowledge of leading scientists, engineers and building
construction experts that will produce structures that are ‗Fit for purpose‘.
 Provide the first line of defence against damage from natural hazards and help
ensure public safety.
 Must be updated regularly to include new technological developments as well as
new information after a disaster.
 New Florida code after hurricane Andrew would have saved 60% of damage if
available prior.
 Buildings use 40% of a country's energy, so retrofitting older buildings for safety and
energy use is critical.
 Building codes are generally intended to be applied by architects and engineers
although this is not the case in the UK where Building Control Surveyors act as
verifiers both in the public and private sector (Approved Inspectors), but are also
used for various purposes by safety inspectors, environmental scientists, real estate
developers, contractors and subcontractors, manufacturers of building products and
materials, insurance companies, facility managers, tenants, and others.
 There are often additional codes or sections of the same building code that have
more specific requirements that apply to dwellings and special construction objects
such as canopies, signs, pedestrian walkways, parking lots, and radio and television
antennas.
Importance of Building Codes
 Building codes save lives

 Building codes protect your investment
 Building codes save on insurance
 Building codes increase disaster resilience
 Building codes enhances building stock

12. Building Architectural Aerodynamics
 Architectural aerodynamics gains importance with the effect of rain,snow and fire
and their impact on design of buildings and their impact on usage.
 In the absence of wind, rain and snow fall vertically downwards. The effect of wind
is to give the rain drops and snowflakes a horizontal component of velocity.
 There are three consequences of this horizontal movement. The first is on the
building where the rain can now impinge on non-horizontal surfaces and so cause
staining, or allow mosses and lichens to grow, or can cause damp to penetrate the
walls to the detriment of its inhabitants. The second effect is on the comfort of
people because the rain can penetrate beneath canopies and other protective devices.
The third is a combination of building and people: in the past the materials of which
buildings were made could absorb water, and during a storm, the surface of a large
building would absorb tons of water, water which would be evaporated by the wind
once the rain had stopped. Canopies are placed over entrance doors to provide local
shelter from the rain to people entering or leaving.
The basic approach for the containment of fire in a building, as far as the wind
engineer is concerned, is that there shall be an internal volume at roof level, called a
smoke reservoir, where the smoke from a fire can collect prior to being removed from
the building. There are also considerations for false ceilings and escape routes.
The areas of openings in a fire situation should be sufficient to vent the smoke
when there is no wind. This specifies the area of the openings which must work under
buoyancy forces alone. The purpose of the wind engineer is to ensure that, under no
circumstances, shall the wind inhibit this state of affairs.
Studies of fire situations are very similar to those for Ventilation with the
exception that external flow is never allowed into smoke reservoirs. It is no good
claiming that, on average, more air leaves a reservoir than enters it, because the air
entering is cold, and when it mixes with the smoke, it will reduce the temperature of the
smoke and cause it to lose its buoyancy, causing secondary flows which might bring the
smoke into contact with people.
Tower and dome architecture:
Due to the structural efficiency and economic benefit, the hemispherical

dome is a common structural geometry shape for large span sports stadium or for
storage purposes. The curve shape makes the accurate estimation of the wind pressure
fluctuations on a hemispherical dome a difficult task due to the Reynolds number
effects. In the past years, there have been reports of collapse of curve shaped storage
domes during strong wind. The wind induced structural failure could be attributed to
inadequate wind resistant design and/or poor quality construction
Additional complexity arises for curved bodies (e.g. hemisphere and cylinders)
because the location of a separation point cannot be identified purely based on the
geometry. This leads to a strong dependency on Reynolds number, boundary
layer thickness and the turbulence intensity level of the approaching flow. A reduction

in the maximum pressure coefficient is occurred because the rough surface promotes
the turbulent boundary layer over the dome and causes earlier separation over the dome.
Consequently, the earlier separation over the dome reduced suction at the separation
point, but led to more suction overall in the wake and increased drag.
1.Write in detail on energy efficient buildings. (Nov / Dec, 2015)
(Refer energy efficiency in buildings of sustainable energy regulation, Page No:18.9 )
2.Write in detail on internal and external aerodynamic effects on various buildings. (Nov / Dec, 2015)
(Refer Wind loading of structures by John D Holmes, Page No:195)
3.Explain briefly about pressure distribution on low rise building. (May / June, 2013)
4.With necessary sketches, discuss about on wind loads and their effects on tall structures. (Nov / Dec,
2011)
5. (i) Discuss the various types of models used for studying wind effects on structure.(10)
(Nov / Dec, 2011)
(ii) Classify various problems in dealing with destructive effects of wind energy. (6) (Nov /
Dec, 2011)
(Refer Wind loading of structures by John D Holmes, Page No:163 )
6. (i) Discuss the various mechanisms which causes across wind and Torsional loads and
moments on structures.(6) (Nov / Dec, 2011)
(ii) Discuss some devices to control vortex induced oscillations on chimney structures. (6)
(Nov / Dec, 2011)
(iii) What do you mean by along wind response of a tall structure?(4) (Nov / Dec, 2011)

UNIT V :: FLOW INDUCED VIBRATIONS

1. What is flow induced vibration?
Vortex induced vibration or flow induced vibration are motions induced on bodies
interacting with an external fluid flow, produced by periodical irregularities on this flow. Flow-
induced vibrations best describe the interaction that occurs between the fluid's dynamic forces
and a structure's inertial, damping, and elastic forces. In aeronautics, it is often referred to as
flutter.
2. What is meant by Stall Flutter?

Stall Flutter is a phenomenon which occurs with partial or complete separation of flow
from the airfoil occurring periodically during oscillation.
3. Give two practical examples of flow induced vibrations.

a. Marine Cables
b. Pipe Lines
4. What is aerodynamic damping?
Whenever in-flight maneuvers result in rotation of an aircraft about or near its center of
gravity, a restoring moment is created by the changed relative airflow. This restoring moment is
known as aerodynamic damping.
5. Name the phenomena those give rise to dynamic response of structure in wind.
 Buffeting
 vortex shedding
 galloping
 flutter
6. What is the reason for “singing” of overhead power line wires in a wind?
If the bluff structure is not mounted rigidly and the frequency of vortex shedding matches
the resonance frequency of the structure, the structure can begin to resonate, vibrating with
harmonic oscillations driven by the energy of the flow. This vibration is the cause of the "singing"
of overhead power line wires in a wind
7. Define Vortex Lock

Vibration of a cylinder in a fluid flow can cause the vortex shedding frequency shift from
the natural shedding frequency to the frequency of cylinder oscillation. This is called
synchronisation or lock-in. Lock-in occurs when the vortex shedding frequency is near the natural
frequency of a structure.
8. What is Galloping?
Beyond a certain critical flow speed, a shear layer that has separated from a structure can
reattach and create a very strong attached vortex. This occurs only for certain shapes. When such
a shape is moving laterally in a flow, the attached vortex pulls it even more laterally. The
phenomenon is known as galloping.

9. What is the effect of Reynold’s number on wake formation of bluff bodies?
10. Define Torsional Divergence.

The torsional stiffness of the bridge that undergoes degradation up to reaching singularity
at the critical torsional condition is known as torsional divergence. It occurs at the critical wind
speed where the destabilizing aerostatic lift, drag and moment are such that the stiffness of the
suspension bridge vanishes. When the deck of a suspension bridge is subjected to a slight twist,
the drag load and the self-excited aerodynamic moment will cause a torsional divergence
instability. Torsional stiffness depends on the elastic torsional stiffness of the deck-girder cross
section, the tension of the cables due to dead loads and incremental elastic tension induced by the
twisting of the deck girder.

11. Define vortex lock in. (NOV / DEC, 2011)
A cylinder is said to be ―locked in‖ when the frequency of oscillation is equal to the frequency of
vortex shedding. In this region the largest amplitude oscillations occur.
12. What is aerodynamic damping?

Whenever in-flight maneuvers results in rotation of an aircraft about or near its CG, a
restoring moment is created by the changed relative air flow. This restoring moment opposes the
control demands, and it arrests maneuvers as and when the control demands cease. The
effectiveness of the restoring moment (known as aerodynamic damping) is dependent on the
dynamic pressure(i.e., indicated air speed). As altitude increases, true speed increases for the
given equivalent air speed, resulting in decreased aerodynamic forces. Thus, at higher altitudes the
pilot must apply greater opposite control movements to arrest rotation.
17. Give 2 practical examples of flow induced vibration .
 Vibration of transmission lines

 Civil structures like bridges, cooling towers
 Marine Cables
 Pipe Lines

1. Vortex induced vibration.
When a fluid flows past a bluff body (such as a circular cylinder) in a direction which is
perpendicular to the axis of the body, boundary layers develop around the body. At a low
Reynolds number, the fluid just flows past the body. However as the Reynolds number increases,
the vortices tend to separate from the body surface and roll up at the downstream side of the fluid
flow. Further increases in the Reynolds number will lead to alternate shedding of vortices due to
adverse pressure gradient. This is known as vortex shedding.
As vortices are being shed on the cylinder surface, the cylinder experiences forces which
are periodic in nature. These forces cause the cylinder to continuously vibrate as long as vortices
are shed. Vortex-induced vibration occurs anytime when a sufficiently bluff body is exposed to a
fluid flow that produces vortex shedding at, or near, a structural natural frequency of the body.
This means vortex-induced vibration occurs when vortex shedding frequency is close or equal to
the natural frequency of the body. Continuous periodic vibration of the structure could make it
susceptible to fatigue failure. Hence offshore structural members must be designed to prevent
VIV.
Some Important hydrodynamic quantities that influence Vortex Induced Vibration are:
 Reynolds Number
 Lift co-efficient
 Correlation of force components
 Shedding frequencies and their interactions
 Added mass and damping
There are three types of vortex Induced,
a) In-line Vortex Induced Vibration

b) Cross- flow Vortex Induced Vibration
c) Hybrid Vortex Induced Vibration
In-line vortex induced vibrations are caused by symmetric shedding of vortices on the
surfaces of a bluff body. These usually occur at an average reduced velocity, V of 1.25. In-line
vortex induced motion comprises two regions: 1st and 2nd instability regions. In the 1st and 2nd

instability regions, reduced velocities, VR ranges from 1 to 2.5 and 2.25 to 2.5 respectively.
Vortex-induced vibration does not occur when VR< 1.
Cross-flow vortex induced vibrations occur when vortex shedding is not symmetric.
These vibrations occur at a higher range of reduced velocity in the order of 4.0 and 6.0. Cross-
flow vibrations also have greater amplitudes of motion compared with in-line vortex induced
vibrations.
As the name suggests, hybrid vortex induced vibrations are somewhat in between in-line
and cross-flow vortex induced vibrations. They are usually a mixture of in-line and cross-flow

motions and have a reduced velocity range greater than that of in-line motions but less than that
of cross-flow motions.
Lock-In
Lock-in occurs when the vortex shedding frequency is near the natural frequency of a
structure. Vibration of a cylinder in a fluid flow can cause the vortex shedding frequency shift
from the natural shedding frequency to the frequency of cylinder oscillation. This is called
synchronisation or lock-in. At lock-in, the vortex shedding frequency equals the natural frequency
of the nth vibration mode fs = fn. The resultant vibrations occur at or nearly at the natural
frequency of the structure. Large amplitude vortex induced structural vibration can result. The
region 5≤VR≤7 where lock-in of the vortex shedding frequency to the natural frequency of the
cylinder occurs is called the synchronisation / lock-in / capture / resonant region. Consequences of
lock-in include increase in correlation length, vortex strength, lock-in band width and in-line drag
force; maximum relative amplitude and vortex shedding frequency locks onto the natural
frequency. Lock-in can be seen as resonant oscillations.
Prevention of Vortex Induced Vibrations

Different approaches that can be taken to prevent or reduce vortex induced vibrations
include:
Design: This involves designing structural members with a natural frequency that is far
away from the vortex shedding frequency.
Vortex suppression devices: VIV can be prevented in offshore structures by the use of
vortex suppression devices. These devices include strakes, shroud, axial slats, fairings, splitter
and ribboned cable. These devices act by disrupting the near wake and disturbing the correlation
between the vortex shedding and vibration thereby preventing vortex street formation. They do,
however, increase the steady drag from that which is measured on a stationary structure
Methods of reducing vortex-induced vibration

Fairings are designed to rotate, so as to align with the current, efficiently minimising
vortex shedding and drag loading. Fairings operate most efficiently in structural members which
are in a near vertical configuration. Fairings can reduce drag force to as low as one-third of its
original value and they suppress VIV almost entirely but they are an expensive option. Less
expensive alternatives include strakes. The less expensive alternatives are not as effective, but can
be adequate in many instances. Strakes are external ribs placed on the cylindrical structure, most
commonly in a helical shape. Helical strakes act to disrupt the flow pattern by creating shorter
and weaker vortices. They allow amplitudes of vibration with 10-30% of a diameter. A
disadvantage of strakes is their 30-50% additional drag force, which can increase the potential for
interference. Although strakes increase drag, they can reduce wave induced fatigue by damping
the dynamic response caused by vessel motions. Strakes destroy the correlation of vortex
shedding along a structural member. Shrouds produce a large number of small vortices.
Therefore, regular vortex shedding is disturbed and a street of smaller and weaker vortices start to
form only several diameters downstream of the body.
2. Stall flutter
Stall flutter is a phenomenon which occurs with partial or complete separation of the flow
from the airfoil occurring periodically during the oscillation. In contrast to classical flutter (i.e.,
flow attached at all times) the mechanism for energy transfer from the airstream to the oscillating
airfoil does not rely on elastic and/or aerodynamic coupling between two modes, nor upon a
phase lag between a displacement and its aerodynamic reaction. It is associated with nonlinearity

in the aerodynamic characteristic; the phenomenon may occur in a single degree of freedom and
the amplitude of vibratory motion will often be limited by the aerodynamic nonlinearities.
Although structural material damping has not been considered explicitly, it is clear that since
damping is an absorber of energy its presence will serve to limit the flutter amplitudes to smaller
values; damping limited amplitudes will obtain when the positive power flow from airstream to
airfoil equals the power conversion to heat in the mechanical forms of damping.
Motion in a third degree of freedom is possible. Oscillatory surging of the airfoil in the
chord wise direction can be related to a nonlinear behavior in the drag acting on the profile.
Airfoils are usually very stiff structurally in the chord wise direction and the drag/surging
mechanism would normally be of importance only for bluff structural shapes such as bundles of
electric power conductors suspended between towers, etc.
For bluff structural shapes, stall flutter in more than one degree of freedom may occur. In
these cases, the dynamic characteristics of normal force, aerodynamic moment (and drag)
becomes functions of an effective incidence compounded of many sources: plunging velocity,
torsional displacement, torsional velocity and surging velocity. The resultant power equation will
also contain cross-product terms in the various displacement amplitudes, and hence the equation
cannot be used to predict stability or equilibrium flutter amplitudes without additional
information concerning the vibration modes.
Dynamic moment loops
Even in pure bending motion or pure torsional motion, the dynamic force and moment are in fact
frequency dependent. The practical stall flutter prediction has been at best a semi-empirical process,
and often entirely empirical. A model is oscillated in torsion, or bending, in a wind tunnel under
controlled conditions with parametric variation of reduced frequency, mean incidence and oscillatory
amplitude.
3. Aerodynamic flutter, Types of flutter and ways to avoid structural failure due to flutter in
aircraft.
Flutter is a dangerous phenomenon encountered in flexible structures subjected to

aerodynamic forces. This includes aircraft, buildings, telegraph wires, stop signs, and bridges.
Flutter occurs as a result of interactions between aerodynamics, stiffness, and inertial forces on a
structure. In an aircraft, as the speed of the wind increases, there may be a point at which the
structural damping is insufficient to damp out the motions which are increasing due to
aerodynamic energy being added to the structure. This vibration can cause structural failure and
therefore considering flutter characteristics is an essential part of designing an aircraft.
Flutter Motion

The basic type of flutter of aircraft wing is described here. Flutter may be initiated by a
rotation of the airfoil (see t=0 in Figure 1). As the increased force causes the airfoil to rise, the
torsional stiffness of the structure returns the airfoil to zero rotation (t=T/4 in Figure 1). The
bending stiffness of the structure tries to return the airfoil to the neutral position, but now the
airfoil rotates in a nose-down position (t=T/2 in Figure 1). Again the increased force causes the
airfoil to plunge and the torsional stiffness returns the airfoil to zero rotation (t=3T/4). The cycle
is completed when the airfoil returns to the neutral position with a nose-up rotation. Notice that
the maximum rotation leads the maximum rise or plunge by 90 degrees (T/4). As time increases,
the plunge motion tends to damp out, but the rotation motion diverges. If the motion is allowed to
continue, the forces due to the rotation will cause the structure to fail.
Figure 1 Rotation and Plunge Motion for an Airfoil Exhibiting Flutter
This flutter is caused by the coalescence of two structural modes – pitch and plunge (or
wing-bending) motion. This example wing has two basic degrees of freedom or natural modes of
vibration: pitch and plunge (bending). The pitch mode is rotational and the bending mode is a
vertical up and down motion at the wing tip. As the airfoil flies at increasing speed, the
frequencies of these modes coalesce or come together to create one mode at the flutter frequency
and flutter condition. This is the flutter resonance.
Types of Flutter
Airfoils are used in many places on an airplane. The most obvious is the wing, but airfoil
shapes are also used in the tail, propellers and control surfaces such as ailerons, rudders and
stabilizers as shown in Figure 2. All of these conditions must be analyzed and tested to insure
that flutter does not occur.
Figure 2 Airfoil Sections on a Typical Aircraft
There is other flutter behavior that must be considered when designing aircraft: panel
flutter, galloping flutter, stall flutter, limit cycle oscillations (LCO) or buzz, and propeller or
engine whirl flutter. There can also be flutter due to stores mounted on the wing.

Panel flutter can occur when a surface is not adequately supported (think of the skin of an
airplane acting like a drumhead). Figure 3 illustrates panel flutter motion.
Figure 3 Panel Flutter
Galloping flutter, or wake vortex flutter, was the cause of failure of the Tacoma Narrows
Bridge. This phenomenon can be observed frequently along the roadside when telephone and
power lines ―gallop‖ due to strong winds. You may also observe car radio antenna aerials
whipping under certain driving speeds. The cause of the galloping motion is formation of wake
vortices downstream of the object. As shown in Figure 4, the vortices are shed alternately from
one side of the object and then the other. These cause oscillatory forces and produce the back-
and-forth motion. This type of flutter is an important design consideration for launch vehicles
exposed to ground winds.
Figure 4 Wake Vortex Shedding from a Cylinder
Stall flutter is a torsional mode of flutter that occurs on wings at high loading conditions
near the stall speed. Because the airflow separates during stall, this single degree-of- freedom
flutter cannot be explained by classical flutter theory.

Limit cycle oscillation (LCO) behavior is characterized by constant amplitude, periodic

structural response at frequencies that are those of the aeroelastically-loaded structure. LCO is
typically limited to a narrow region in Mach number or angle-of-attack signaling the onset of
flow separation.
Engine whirl flutter is a precession-type instability that can occur on a flexibly mounted
engine-propeller combination. The phenomenon involves a complex interaction of engine
mount stiffness, gyroscopic torques of the engine and propeller combination, and the natural
flutter frequency of the wing structure.
Figure 5 Engine Whirl Flutter
Flutter Fixes
Because flutter can be analyzed, designs can be modified to prevent flutter before an
aircraft is built, tested and flown. One design parameter is the maximum air speed. In particular,
the ratio of the energy input to the energy dissipated will depend on the air speed. A steady
oscillation may occur when this ratio is unity. The air speed for this case is called the "critical air
speed." An aircraft may have various possible flutter modes. Ideally, the lowest critical speed
exceeds the highest possible flying speed by a reasonable safety margin.
There are several additional measures to prevent flutter. One method is to uncouple the
torsion and bending motion by modifying the mass distribution to move the center of gravity
closer to the center of twist (see Figure 6 for some examples). Another method is to increase the
stiffness/mass ratios within the structure. This would increase the natural frequencies. Note that
the energy input per cycle during flutter is nearly independent of frequency. The energy
dissipated per cycle is proportional to frequency, however.

Figure 6 Potential Modifications to Mass Balance of Aileron

Flutter characteristics of a model are a function of many structural parameters including
the shape of the airfoil section, the elastic axis position, the position of the center of gravity, the
airfoil section mass and mass moment of inertia about the elastic axis, the torsion rigidity and the
frequency separation between the plunge and rotation mode.
Figure 7 Stiffness Requirements

The two plots in Figure 7 show how varying two of these parameters, rotational stiffness
and elastic axis, affects the flutter and divergence characteristics of a two-dimensional flutter
model. In the top plot of this figure, for a given rotational stiffness, the flutter speed of the model
is plotted versus the position of the elastic axis. In the bottom figure, the required rotational
stiffness value so that a particular form of instability will not occur is plotted versus elastic axis
position. Using this figure, one can determine for a given elastic axis position, what the rotational
stiffness must be such that flutter and static divergence do not occur.
4. Ground wind loads of launch vehicle, Schematic diagram representing the components of
ground winds and corresponding vehicle response.
Ground Wind Loads and Launch Operations

The static and dynamic loads discussed in the preceding paragraphs can be combined
vectorially to obtain the final load. This method is believed to provide a conservative estimate.
Since most of these loads can be determined to some extent in the design phase, the structural
integrity of the vehicle will be, in general, jeopardized only by unexpectedly large vortex
shedding loads. In this case, a study must be made of launch pad operations to determine the time
frame of vehicle exposure and the associated risk of structural damage or launch delay. It must be
emphasized that difficulties of this type should be anticipated for any new vehicle configuration
and continuing appraisal made of possible launch operations and schedules from the earliest
conception of the design. Extended exposure of the unprotected vehicle should be avoided and
the risk attendant to any proposed pad schedule should be established. The risk includes not only
structural damage but the possibility of schedule slip and failure to obtain a desired launch date
or time.
Launch vehicles smaller than Saturn V are generally assembled on the launch pad using
a large enclosed gantry for adequate wind protection. The predicted vortex shedding wind speed
is low enough to entail a substantial risk for expected exposure periods, then wind restrictions
are placed on the removal of the gantry. An important practical consideration in imposing wind
restrictions is a comparison of the time required to position the gantry with the 'forecast time'
associated with the critical wind speed. Wind restrictions are not a cure-all, especially when
launch opportunities are limited to a given launch window. In these cases, a means must be
found to alleviate the wind loads, and an attempt usually is made to suppress the dynamic loads
due to vortex shedding. Various aerodynamic devices, as well as passive dampers and servo
dampers, are available.

Typical weight and drag coefficient of cones
Vehicle nose shroud development
The Saturn V vehicle presented new problems because of its extremely large
size and the unique methods used for assembly and check-out. The vehicle is assembled on a
portable launcher which is complete with umbilical tower, and is given an Initial
check-out in a large vertical assembly building. The launcher and vehicle are then
transported to the firing pad by a crawler and secured in place for final check-outs.
A service structure, which is also transported by the crawler, is moved to the pad to
provide access to all sections of the vehicle. During this pro• cess, the vehicle is
inevitably exposed to the wind without protection and, in addition, the mobile service
structure does not provide complete protection when in place. The feasibility of a variety of
‗fixes‘ for reducing sensitivity to ground winds was studied. Aerodynamic devices such as
strakes, often used on smoke Stacks, would be effective in suppressing vortex shedding.
However, these devices are not suitable because the loads due to atmospheric turbulence would
not be diminished, the drag loads would increase by 20 percent, and the strakes would be
difficult to remove before launch. A more satisfactory solution, consisting of a passive damper

connecting the vehicle to the umbilical tower, was selected. The damper not only decreases the
vortex shedding loads, but also decreases the dynamic loads caused by atmospheric turbulence.
However, it does not reduce the effect of steady state winds. The risk of wind damage can in this
way be decreased to less than one percent for a pad stay-time of 30 days.
Wind Profiles for Space Vehicle Response Studies
The data presented in this section provide basic wind speed profile, or envelope,
information for use in studies to determine load factors for test, free standing, launch and
lift-off conditions to ensure satisfactory performance of the space vehicle. To establish
vehicle design requirements, the surface winds are assumed to act normal to the
longitudinal axis of the vehicle on the launch pad and to be from the most critical direction.
The quasi-steady-state and peak wind speeds with reference to the windiest monthly reference
period for the Cape Kennedy, Florida, area .
To establish these wind speed envelopes, all available hourly surface quasi-steady•
state wind speed data were reduced to a common reference height using the power law
described above, and a statistical analysis was made of the data to determine the percentile
values. Statistical envelope values for the quasi-steady-state wind speeds at other heights
were determined by use of the power law equation. Values for peak wind speeds were
obtained by multiplying the steady-state wind speeds by an average gust factor of 1.4. The
values given here are for monthly reference periods, and are frequently used in design
studies when the question of exposure period-or pad stay time Is.In the order of a few hours.
Typical weight and drag coefficient of cones

Annual exposure period probabilities of daily peak wind speeds
Due to the complex nature of surface wind fluctuations as a function of terrain features,
etc., the values given for the surface wind speed envelopes are considered to be representative
values only. They represent a common reference source for wind data from which approximate
load factors may be determined on a comparative basis by various design organizations. The
statistical design envelopes for given percentiles are not meant to imply a perfect correlation of
speeds over the heights shown. Furthermore, the statistical probability of wind speeds not being
exceeded is based on individual hourly observations. Continuous measurements would tend to
give higher values.
5. Effect of Reynolds number and Strouhal number on wake formation of bluff shapes.


6. Wake oscillator model and correlation model for wake induced flow analysis.




7. Prevention of Galloping or Flutter

8. Write short notes on Galloping of Cables





9. Galloping and various types of galloping.
Beyond a certain critical flow speed, a shear layer that has separated from a structure can
reattach and create a very strong attached vortex. This occurs only for certain shapes. When such
a shape is moving laterally in a flow, the attached vortex pulls it even more laterally. The
phenomenon is known as galloping.
Transverse Galloping
Galloping oscillation in wind, like vortex-induced, occurs at frequencies close to a
structural natural frequency with long elastic structures of aerodynamically bluff cross section.
For both excitation mechanisms we find an oscillation transverse to the flow. While for vortex-
induced oscillations the amplitude is approximately limited to one length of the cross-section
normal to the wind, galloping amplitudes can be 10 times this length or more. For instance, for
ice-covered transmission lines the amplitude can be 100 times this length and the word galloping
was connected to this sort of vibrations first. Vortex excitation is a resonance phenomenon, the
oscillations occur only in discrete ranges of wind speed. Galloping will occur at all wind speeds
above a critical value, it is a stability problem. ln transverse galloping the relative angle of attack
of the wind to the structural cross-section depends on the across-wind velocity of the structure.
Experience has proved that knowledge of the mean lift and drag coefficients of the cross-section
obtained under static conditions as functions of angle of attack suffices as a basis for the
analytical description of the galloping phenomenon.
Torsional Galloping
Torsional galloping is much more difficult to analyse than the translational ―heave‖
galloping considered in the previous sections. This is because (i) the fluid forces depend on both
the angle and the angular velocity, and (ii) the relative flow velocity, Vrel, varies from point to
point, hence giving rise to a varying angle of attack along the section. As a result of (ii) above, one
cannot define an equivalent static configuration and hence cannot proceed with the use of the
quasisteady assumption in the same way as for translational galloping. Another difficulty is that
the phase difference between the fluid-dynamic forces acting on the section and motion of the
section changes with flow velocity. No totally satisfactory solution has been found to these
difficulties, and hence analytical models of torsional galloping involve approximations going
considerably farther than the quasi-steady assumption. All types of rectangular, triangular, L-
shaped (angles) and H-shaped structural components are susceptible to torsional galloping. They
are widely used in open civil engineering structures; for instance, structural angles are frequently
used in high-voltage transmission towers, antenna masts and bridges, and bridge decks are
essentially H-sections. In addition to the few celebrated disasters (e.g. the Tacoma Narrows Bridge
collapse), some long, slender angle members in transmission towers have been known to
experience large-amplitude oscillations when exposed to normal atmospheric winds.
Wake Galloping
The wake-galloping is known to occur in parallel cylinders because wakes from the
upstream cylinder divergently excite the downstream cylinder. Under certain conditions the
downstream cylinder may be subjected to galloping oscillations induced by the turbulent wake of
the upstream cylinder. To suppress the wake galloping, the spacer, cable crosstie can be installed
between cables. Viscous damper can be also installed in cable anchorage. However, there are
some incidences that these devices were broken by the strong forces due to the wake galloping.
Across wind galloping
Across-wind galloping is a large-amplitude oscillation (one to ten or more across-wind

dimensions of the body) exhibited in a plane normal to the oncoming flow velocity by slender

structures with certain types of cross-section. For example, ice-laden cables subjected to winds
approximately normal to their span exhibit galloping oscillations in a vertical plane.
Across wind galloping in a bridge, is an instability that is initiated by a turbulent wind

blowing transversely across the deck. Across-wind galloping causes a crosswise vibration in the
bridge deck (Liu, 1991). As the section vibrates crosswise in a steady wind velocity U, the relative
velocity changes, thereby changing the angle of attack (a ). Due to the change in a , an increase or
decrease on the lift force of the cylinder occurs. If an increase of a causes an increase in the lift
force in the opposite direction of motion, the situation is stable. But on the other hand if the vice
versa occurs, i. e., an increase of a causes a decrease in lift force, then the situation is unstable and
galloping occurs. A classical example of this phenomenon is observed in ice covered power
transmission lines. Galloping is reduced in these lines by decreasing the distance between spacing
of the supports and increasing the tension of the lines.
Wake galloping
Soft and Hard Galloping

On rectangular cylinder with cross section 0.75 < d/b < 3.0 the galloping starts
spontaneously from rest as a manifestation of a stability loss of the trivial solution of the
corresponding differential solution. Such a galloping is called the soft galloping, For t/b < 0.75
the galloping requires initial threshold amplitudes it is called the hard galloping (a certain limit
cycle must be over crossed). The free-stream turbulence makes hard galloping softer And soft
galloping weaker or eventually suppressed. It fully corresponds with a general character of
random parametric noise influencing the stochastic stability of the response. Rectangular cylinder
of ratio 2.5 < d/b < 5.5 and with the rotation Axis identical with the cross section centre, are
sensitive to the soft torsional galloping. For relation d/b < 25 they have hard galloping character.
If the rotation axis is far from Centre, the torsional galloping is reduced to transverse galloping.
10. Forms of wind induced oscillation.
There are three forms of wind induced motion as follows:-

a) Galloping - Galloping is transverse oscillations of some structures due to the
development of aerodynamic forces which are in phase with the motion. It is characterized by the
progressively increasing amplitude of transverse vibration with increase of wind speed. Non
circular cross section are more susceptible to this type of oscillation

b) Flutter - Flutter is unstable oscillatory motion of a structure due to coupling between

aerodynamic force and elastic deformation of the structure. Perhaps the‘ most common form is
oscillatory motion due to combined bending and torsion. Long span suspension bridge decks or
any member of a structure with large values of d/t (where d is the depth of a structure or structural
member parallel to wind stream and t is the least lateral dimension of a member) are prone to low
speed flutter.
3)Ovalling : This walled structures with open ends at one or both ends such as oil storage
tanks, and natural draught cooling towers in which the ratio of the diameter of minimum lateral
dimension to the wall thickness is of the order of 100 or more, are prone to ovalling oscillations.
These oscillations are characterized by periodic radial deformation of the hollow structure.
11. Devices to control vortex induced oscillations on chimney structures.
Free-standing chimneys and masts that are not guyed are similar to towers from the point
of view of wind-induced vibrations. This is true especially for the dynamic forces induced in such
structures by gust action in the wind direction. The vibrations connected with vortex shedding
transverse to the wind direction, however, can be more important. Particularly sensitive in this
respect are steel chimneys (welded construction, not insulated or lined with masonry, fixed base).
Not the very high ones, but particularly the steel chimneys of about 30 to 40 m height are
endangered.
Dynamic actions
The structural configuration is important for the dynamic effect of wind on chimneys and
masts. The normal case is that of a freestanding chimney of constant section, while the stepped
form of construction is less common. In addition, chimneys in particular can be present in groups
or rows, whereby the distance of separation a in relation to the diameter d is important with
respect to interference effects (mutual aerodynamic influence). The tubular structure of chimneys
may be provided with external insulation and thus be itself in direct contact with the smoke
emitted, or it may be insulated internally. The tubular structure may also have multiple layer
flues, which affect the vibrating mass to a greater extent than the stiffness of the system.
Moreover, the structural damping is greater than for a simple tubular structure. Horizontal
connection of chimneys at various heights is also possible.
There are also chimneys which are fixed to a base or supporting structure. The base
structure forms part of the system as a whole, whereby it may happen that a very stiff chimney is
attached to a relatively flexible supporting structure. The wind excitation (due to vortex shedding)
then acts in some circumstances mainly on the "rigid" tube. The dynamic response, however, is
mainly governed by the flexibility and damping of the structure. For a telecommunication mast,
"chimney"-antenna of fibre-reinforced plastic construction on top of a lattice tower which acts in
the abovementioned sense as a base structure. The base structure is acted upon directly by the

wind (gust action) and responds dynamically to the vortex-induced vibrations of the attached
cylinder.
Massive chimneys (reinforced concrete construction) are in general relatively insensitive
to vortex-induced vibrations due to their high structural damping. Thus, according to the dynamic
force for this effect does not have to be investigated. If the chimney is fixed to a supporting
structure, however, the dynamic force has to be determined for the design of this structure. For
this purpose other codes have to be consulted.
Damping
The structural damping of chimneys and masts as freestanding structural systems depends
to a large extent on special structural features. The lowest damping is exhibited by steel chimneys
of welded construction without insulation. Equivalent viscous damping ratios 1; as low as about
0.002 have been observed. For groups of steel tubes joined together, the damping value increases
to about 0.008 (measured on a group of five tubes, arranged with one inside and four outside).
Corresponding with these damping ratios in the draft of DIN 4133, the equivalent
logarithmic damping decrement A for steel chimneys is given in the range of 0.015 to 0.04. If
there is a masonry lining the range increases up to 0.07 to 0.1. Thus, the range of values typical
for masonry and reinforced concrete construction are reached. Damping values for masts are of
the same order of magnitude.
Effects
Wind-induced vibrations of chimneys and masts are of no consequence to persons, since
they do not normally spend lengthy periods of time on these structures. The effects of vibrations
on the structures themselves, however, can be very significant due to structural fatigue. This
problem has to be carefully investigated, especially for chimneys. A more refined approach
following may be suitable especially for steel chimneys. It must be observed, however, that the
topic of vortex-induced vibrations in the across-wind direction - in particular for weakly damped
structures like steel chimneys - has not been thoroughly discussed among specialists at an
international level. Thus great differences are still to be found in the concepts and computed
results of various codes and standards. Therefore, in the treatment of vortex-induced vibrations of
weakly damped structures great caution is necessary. For (steel) chimneys o fflow damping and
mass the occurrence of unacceptable vortex-induced cross-wind vibrations cannot be ruled out. As

remedial measures both aerodynamic and mechanical aids should be mentioned. An aerodynamic
measure that is often employed is the Scruton helical stabilizing device with three strakes, a rise
of 4.5 to 5, a helix width of 0.1 d and helix height of 0.35h applied over the upper 0.35h extension
of the chimney. One disadvantage lies in the increased wind resistance in the wind direction, so
that for existing structures this device often cannot be considered. Besides, it has been observed
that with low structural damping the aerodynamic efficiency of the Scruton device deteriorates.
Such measures are also ineffective in reducing buffeting effects For the reasons stated, added
systems of a mechanical type (i.e. vibration absorbers) are becoming more and more popular. In
various possibilities for designing vibration absorbers, especially for steel chimneys, are
presented. In general, suspended pendulum systems consisting of a circular steel mass provided
with rubber damping elements are selected. For steel chimneys the mass ratio is often chosen to
be 0.05 r3.10]. The design of vibration absorbers to reduce wind-induced vibrations may be
carried out as described. In practice, the optimum values of natural frequency and damping are
usually not attained precisely. However, the sensitivity of such added systems with respect to
deviations from the optimum is relatively small. Additional dampers also play an important role
when the chimneys are arranged in a row or group and connected to one another. It is possible in
this case to work with a single vibration absorber on one of the chimneys. An illustrative example
of the application of remedial measures to an existing group of steel chimneys when another
chimney is added is given. All steps (problem analysis, suggested solution, execution, verification
on site) are described and discussed there.
12. Wind loading of tall buildings.
Wind is a phenomenon of great complexity because of the many flow situations

arising from the interaction of wind with structures. Wind is composed of a multitude of
eddies of varying sizes and rotational characteristics carried along in a general stream of

air moving relative to the earth‘s surface. These eddies give wind its gusty or turbulent
character. The gustiness of strong winds in the lower levels of the atmosphere largely
arises from interaction with surface features. The average wind speed over a time period
of the order of ten minutes or more, tends to increase with height, while the gustiness
tends to decrease with height. A consequence of turbulence is that dynamic loading on a
structure depends on the size of the eddies. Large eddies, whose dimensions are
comparable with the structure, give rise to well correlated pressures as they envelop the
structure. On the other hand, small eddies result in pressures on various parts of a
structure that become practically uncorrelated with distance of separation.
Some structures, particularly those that are tall or slender, respond dynamically to
the effects of wind. The best known structural collapse due to wind was the Tacoma
Narrows Bridge which occurred in 1940 at a wind speed of only about 19 m/s. It failed
after it had developed a coupled torsional and flexural mode of oscillation. There are
several different phenomena giving rise to dynamic response of structures in wind. These
include buffeting, vortex shedding, galloping and flutter. Slender structures are likely to
be sensitive to dynamic response in line with the wind direction as a consequence of
turbulence buffeting. Transverse or cross-wind response is more likely to arise from
vortex shedding or galloping but may also result from excitation by turbulence buffeting.
Flutter is a coupled motion, often being a combination of bending and torsion, and can
result in instability. For building structures flutter and galloping are generally not an
issue. An important problem associated with wind induced motion of buildings is
concerned with human response to vibration and perception of motion.
At this point it will suffice to note that humans are surprisingly sensitive to
vibration to the extent that motions may feel uncomfortable even if they correspond to
relatively low levels of stress and strain. Therefore, for most tall buildings serviceability
considerations govern the design and not strength issues.
DESIGN WIND LOADS

The characteristics of wind pressures on a structure are a function of the
characteristics of the approaching wind, the geometry of the structure under
consideration, and the geometry and proximity of the structures upwind. The pressures
are not steady, but highly fluctuating, partly as a result of the gustiness of the wind, but
also because of local vortex shedding at the edges of the structures themselves. The
fluctuating pressures can result in fatigue damage to structures, and in dynamic
excitation, if the structure happens to be dynamically wind sensitive. The pressures are
also not uniformly distributed over the surface of the structure, but vary with position.
The complexities of wind loading, should be kept in mind when applying a design

document. Because of the many uncertainties involved, the maximum wind loads
experienced by a structure during its lifetime, may vary widely from those assumed in
design. Thus, failure or non-failure of a structure in a wind storm can not necessarily be
taken as an indication of the non-conservativeness, or conservativeness, of the Wind
Loading Standard. The Standards do not apply to buildings or structures that are of
unusual shape or location. Wind loading governs the design of some types of structures
such as tall buildings and slender towers. It often becomes attractive to make use of
experimental wind tunnel data in place of the coefficients given in the Wind Loading
Code for these structures.
Typically for wind sensitive structures three basic wind effects need to be considered.
Environmental wind studies - investigate the wind effects on the surrounding

environment caused by erection of the structure (e.g. tall building). This study is
particularly important to assess the impact of wind on pedestrians, motor vehicles and
architectural features such as fountains, etc, which utilise public domain within the
vicinity of the proposed structure.
Wind loads for façade - to assess design wind pressures throughout the surface area of
the structure for designing the cladding system. Due to the significant cost of typical
façade systems in proportion to the overall cost of very tall buildings, engineers cannot
afford the luxury of conservatism in assessing design wind loads. With due consideration
to the complexity of building shapes and dynamic characteristics of the wind and building
structures, even the most advanced wind codes generally cannot accurately assess design
loads. Wind tunnel testing to assess design loads for cladding, is now normal industry
practice, with the aim of minimising initial capital costs, and more significantly avoiding
expensive maintenance costs associated with malfunctions due to leakage and/or
structural failure.
Wind loads for structure – to determine the design wind load for designing the lateral
load resisting structural system of a structure to satisfy various design criteria.
Design Criteria
In terms of designing a structure for lateral wind loads the following basic design
criteria need to be satisfied.
Stability against overturning, uplift and/or sliding of the structure as a whole.
Strength of the structural components of the building is required to be sufficient to

withstand
imposed loading without failure during the life of the structure.
Serviceability for example for buildings, where inter-storey and overall deflections are
expected to remain within acceptable limits. Control of deflection and drift is imperative
for tall buildings with the view to limiting damage and cracking of non structural
members such as the facade, internal partitions and ceilings. The ultimate limit state wind
speed is adopted by most international codes to satisfy stability and strength limit state

requirements. In many codes such a speed has a 5% probability of being exceeded in a

fifty year period.
Static Analysis
This method assumes the quasi-steady approximation. It approximates the peak
pressures on building surfaces by the product of the gust dynamic wind pressure and the
mean pressure coefficients. The mean pressure coefficients are measured in the wind-
tunnel or by full-scale tests.
Advantages:
• Simplicity
• Continuity with previous practice
• Pressure coefficients should need little adjustment for different upwind terrain
types
• Existing meteorological data on wind gusts is used directly.
Disadvantages:
• The approach is not suitable for very large structures, or for those with
significant dynamic response.
• The response characteristics of the gust anemometers and the natural variability
of the peak gusts tend to be incorporated into the wind load estimates.
• The quasi-steady assumption does not work wellfor cases where the mean
pressure coefficient is near zero.
ALONG AND CROSS-WIND LOADING
Not only is the wind approaching a

building a complex phenomenon, but the
flow pattern generated around a building
is equally complicated by the distortion of
the mean flow, flow separation, the
formation of vortices, and development of
the wake. Large wind pressure fluctuations
due to these effects can occur on the
surface of a building. As a result, large
aerodynamic loads are imposed on the
structural system and intense localised
fluctuating forces act on the facade of such
structures. Under the collective influence
of these fluctuating forces, a building
tends to vibrate in rectilinear and torsional
modes. The amplitude of such oscillations
is dependant on the nature of the
aerodynamic forces and the dynamic characteristics of the building.
Along-Wind Loading
The along-wind loading or response of a building due to buffeting by wind can be

assumed to consist of a mean component due to the action of the mean wind speed (eg, the
mean-hourly wind speed) and a fluctuating component due to wind speed variations from

the mean. The fluctuating wind is a random mixture of gusts or eddies of various sizes
with the larger eddies occurring less often (i.e. with a lower average frequency) than for
the smaller eddies. The natural frequency of vibration of most structures is sufficiently
higher than the component of the fluctuating load effect imposed by the larger eddies.
i.e. the average frequency with which large gusts occur is usually much less than any of
the structure's natural frequencies of vibration and so they do not force the structure to
respond dynamically. The loading due to those larger gusts (which are sometimes
referred to as "background turbulence") can therefore be treated in a similar way as that
due to the mean wind. The smaller eddies, however, because they occur more often, may
induce the structure to vibrate at or near one (or more) of the structure's natural frequencies
of vibration. This in turn induces a magnified dynamic load effect in the structure which
can be significant.
The separation of wind loading into mean and fluctuating components is the basis
of the so-called "gust-factor" approach, which is treated in many design codes. The mean
load component is evaluated from the mean wind speed using pressure and load
coefficients. The fluctuating loads are determined separately by a method which makes
an allowance for the intensity of turbulence at the site, size reduction effects, and
dynamic amplification.
The dynamic response of buildings in the along- wind direction can be predicted
with reasonable accuracy by the gust factor approach, provided the wind flow is not
significantly affected by the presence of neighbouring tall buildings or surrounding
terrain.
Cross-Wind Loading
There are many examples of slender structures that are susceptible to dynamic
motion perpendicular to the direction of the wind. Tall chimneys, street lighting
standards, towers and cables frequently exhibit this form of oscillation which can be very
significant especially if the structural damping is small. Crosswind excitation of modern
tall buildings and structures can be divided into three mechanisms and their higher time
derivatives, which are described as follows:
(a) Votex Shedding. The most common source of crosswind excitation is that
associated with ‗vortex shedding‘. Tall buildings are bluff (as opposed to streamlined)
bodies that cause the flow to separate from the surface of the structure, rather than
follow the body contour (Fig. 4). For a particular structure, the shed vortices have a
dominant periodicity that is defined by the Strouhal number. Hence, the structure is
subjected to a periodic cross pressure loading, which results in an alternating
crosswind force. If the natural frequency of the structure coincides with the shedding
frequency of the vortices, large amplitude displacement response may occur and this is
often referred to as the critical velocity effect. The asymmetric pressure distribution,
created by the vortices around the cross section, results in an alternating transverse
force as these vortices are shed. If the structure is flexible, oscillation will occur
transverse to the wind and the conditions for resonance would exist if the vortex
shedding frequency coincides with the natural frequency of the structure. This situation
can give rise to very large oscillations and possibly failure.

Vortex formation in the wake of a bluff object
(b) The incident turbulence mechanism. The ‗incident turbulence‘ mechanism refers to
the situation where the turbulence properties of the natural wind give rise to changing
wind speeds and directions that directly induce varying lift and drag forces and
pitching moments on a structure over a wide band of frequencies. The ability of
incident turbulence to produce significant contributions to crosswind response depends
very much on the ability to generate a crosswind (lift) force on the structure as a
function of longitudinal wind speed and angle of attack. In general, this means
sections with a high lift curve slope or pitching moment curve slope, such as a
streamline bridge deck section or flat deck roof, are possible candidates for this effect.
(c) Higher derivatives of crosswind displacement. There are three commonly

recognized displacement dependent excitations, i.e., ‗galloping‘, ‗flutter‘ and ‗lock-
in‘, all of which are also dependent on the effects of turbulence in as much as
turbulence affects the wake development and, hence, the aerodynamic derivatives.
Many formulae are available to calculate these effects. Recently computational fluid
dynamics techniques have also been used to evaluate these effects.
13. NONDIMENSIONAL / DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS


14. STALL FLUTTER


1.Write elaborately on effects of winds on suspension bridges and sky scrappers. (Nov / Dec, 2015)
(Refer Wind loading of structures by John D Holmes, Page No: 287)
2.Explain briefly about (May / June, 2013)
a) Vortex induced vibrations
b) Galloping and Stall flutter
(Refer Flow induced vibrations by Robert D Blevins, Page No: 43)
3.Write short notes on the following, (Nov / Dec, 2015)
a) Re no ranges for airplanes and windmills. (4)
b) Wind and wake galloping on structures. (4)
c) Effect of winds on launce vehicles and launch pads. (4)
d) What are thermal and jet streams in atmosphere. (4)
4. What is meant by galloping? With the aid of sketches, explain the problems associated with
galloping of circular cables. (Nov / Dec, 2011) (Refer Wind loading of structures by John D Holmes,
Page No: 298)
5.Discuss the effect of Reynold's number on the shape and size of the wake formed behind
bluff bodies facing a uniform freestream. Bring out the
essential features of the external flow over the body surface including
flow separation. Give your answer with examples like flow over a cylinder
or over a blunt cone. (Nov / Dec, 2005) (Refer Flow induced vibrations by Robert D Blevins, Page
No: 45)
6. (i) Define STROURAL Number and Show its relationship with Reynolds
number for circular cylinders. (10)(Apr / May, 2005)
(ii) Give the effects of cylinder motion on wake. (6) (Apr / May, 2005)

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M.

NATESAN, PhD (Wind Turbine Engineering)

AE 2026 - INDUSTRIAL AERODYNAMICS

UNIT I :: ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER

2. Classify terrains according to power law co-efficient and roughness height

Type of Terrain Roughness length, z0 Power law Co-efficient, α

3. How do you measure wind speeds?

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 1

6. What is meant by atmospheric boundary layer?

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 2

8. Define squalls and anabatic wind

9. What is a wind? Give the classification of wind.

Beaufort Wind speed International Beaufort Wind speed International

10. What are the causes for vertical movement of air?

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 3

12. What is jet stream?

13. Mention the types of atmospheric wind

Planetary Wind Periodic Wind Local Winds

14. Define Coriolis effects

15. What is logarthimic wind profile?

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 4

16. Define Power Law and Log Law

Zref is a chosen reference height, where any height can be

k = 0.41 is von Karman‘s constant, z0 is the roughness

17. Define shape factor and give its importance

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 5

19. Define Gradient wind velocity

20. How eddies are formed in air?

21. Define topography and topographical effect.

22. Define ABL. (NOV / DEC, 2006)

Atmospheric Boundary Layers are :

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 6

 Characterised by turbulence, which is generated by wind shear (wind is approximately

23. How wind is formed? (NOV / DEC, 2014)

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 7

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 8

Mechanical turbulence over mountain/valley terrain is invariably connected to the size,

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 9

Partly because of convenience, a number of large cities are located next to

The roughness features of land and

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 10

The mechanical turbulence over urban

2. Turbulence measurement techniques used in subsonic wind tunnels with simple

Hot Wires, Films and Thermistors

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 11

Constant-current and Constant-temperature Operation

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 12

(i) The Equatorial Low Pressure Belt

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 13

(iii) The Sub-polar low Pressure Belts

(iv) The Polar High Pressure Belts

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 14

Horizontal movement of air in response to difference in pressure is termed as wind while

(i) Pressure Gradient and Winds

(ii) The Coriolis Effect and Wind

NATESAN M, M.E (PhD) pg. 15

(a) planetary winds or permanent winds

(b) periodic winds and

(c) local winds