Zydus School for Excellence, Ahmedabad

Class X – Geography Notes (2020-21)

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 CLIMATE OF INDIA
*India has a climatic contrast because it has the places like Leh where temperature drops down to -45
degree in winter and goes as high as 55 degrees in western Deserts during summer, Also variation is seen in
the amount of precipitation for example: In mawasyram rainfall is highest and in western desert it is very
less.
*Factors affecting the climate of India:
-Latitude: India is located between 8 degree 4 minutes north to 37 degree 6 minutes north latitude.
Tropic of cancer passes through the middle of India dividing it into tropical and temperate zones; hence
CONFIDENTIAL
temperature goes very high during summer except in the high altitudes and the coastal regions.
-Himalayas: are responsible for (i) Protecting Indian sub-continent from the cold Siberian winds
coming from the north of Asia. (ii) Obstructs the south-west monsoon winds thereby causing heavy rainfall
in the northern plain of India.
-Distance from the Sea: Coastal regions have equable /moderate type of climate due to the influence
of the sea, also have very less range of temperature whereas ,places far from the sea in the plain have
extreme type of climate/very hot or very cold climate according to the season. Major places along the coast
are Chennai, Mangalore, Cochin, Vishakapatnam, Mumbai, kanyakumari, kolkota, paradeep, Pondicherry,
Surat, and Panaji.
-Altitude: Higher the altitudes lower the temperature. Place like Ooty situated near the equator has
low temperature compared to the surrounding places situated close to it in the [Link], Himalayas has
large number of hill stations where the temperature is low throughout the year. Some of the hill stations are
Nainital, Shimla, Darjeeling, Gangtok, Almora, and Srinagar.
-Relief: Western Ghats lying parallel along the western coastal plain forces the moist south-west
monsoon winds from Arabian Sea to shed most of its moisture along the western slope and the western
coastal plain the wind ward side of the mountain range also causing less rainfall along the lee ward side or
rain shadow region. Example: Mumbai receives 190 cm rainfall whereas pune about 160 km receives only
50 cm rainfall.
-Jet streams: it is a permanently blowing wind in the upper atmosphere. The westerly jet stream
prevails in the northern India during winter causing winter rainfall in Kashmir, Punjab, HP, and Haryana.
Easterly jet steam steers the tropical depressions over the Indian sub-continent causing monsoon rainfall.
-El-Nino Effects: It occurs in December January over the pacific ocean west of Peru due to the
excessive heating of ocean water causing depression, forcing the monsoon winds to move towards the
pacific region without causing any rainfall in Indian sub-continent.

*Four Seasons of India:

-Cold weather season from December to February
-Hot Dry season from March to may
-Season of s-w monsoon/ advancing monsoon from June to September
-Season of retreating monsoon/N-E monsoon from October to November.

*Cold weather season from December to February:

(i)Characteristics: Clear sky, Low temperature and low Humidity, High range of temperature, slow
cool winds in the north.
(ii)Temperature conditions in the North: Temperature drops below 21 degree in the northern part.
January is the coldest month. Temperature in the gangatic plain varies from 2.5 degrees Celsius to 17.5
degree Celsius. Dras valley in the kargil is the coldest with minimum -45 degree Celsius.

-Temperature conditions in the South: The areas below tropic of cancer remain warm. The
isotherm of 20 degree Celsius runs almost parallel to the tropic. Further south the temperature is above 25
degree Celsius.

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 (iii)Pressure conditions and wind directions: Due to the apparent migration of the sun towards
south, rays of the sun falling over India is oblique as a result High pressure is formed over the land due to
the low temperature and low pressure is formed over the surrounding water bodies due to high temperature,
As such offshore winds starts blowing towards low pressure areas in the sea. These cold dry winds blow
towards Bay of Bengal due to the peninsular plateau and which are carried away by the N-E trade winds to
wards the S-E of India.
(iv)Rainfall During winter season:
Coromandal coast in Tamil nadu: Off shore, Northeast monsoon winds blow from high pressure region to
low pressure centered at Bay of Bengal carry moisture and are carried away by N-E trade winds towards S-E
of India i.e. coromandal coast Tamil-nadu, S-E tip of Andhra Pradesh get heavy rainfall accompanied by
strong winds. Rainfall also occurs in eastern part of Kerala and Karnataka. Average rainfall is 70-75 cm.
This occurs from October till December.
Rainfall in the North-West: Westerly shallow cyclonic depressions originating in the Mediterranean Sea are
known as western disturbances. These winds reach India crossing West Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, and
Pakistan before they reach N-W of India.
Rainfall occurs from December to February. Snow fall in higher region of Jammu and Kashmir and
Himachal Pradesh occurs. Rainfall occurs in Punjab,haryana, Uttar Pradesh.

*Hot dry season from March to May:

(i)Characteristics: Dry weather and excessive heat, Sun shines overhead the tropic of cancer, range
of temperature is very high in the N-W [Link] accompanied by the dusty winds are common.
(ii)Temperature conditions over the land: During this season the temperature is very hot over the
land hence low pressure is created whereas high pressure over the surrounding sea. The temperature goes to
45 to 50 degree Celsius in the north and north-west of India and about 38 degree to 40 degree Celsius in the
south.
(iii)Pressure conditions and wind directions: Due to the high temperature over the land low
pressure trough develops between the thar and the chotanagpur. High pressure develops in the surrounding
seas due to the high pressure development these moisture carrying winds are attracted towards the Indian
peninsular region changing its direction from S-E to N-E.

*Local winds:
-Kali Baisakhi: Means the calamity in the month of Baishakhi (in Bengali). They are also called
‘norwesters’ because they blow in north-west direction. These local winds are accompanied by
thunderstorms and bring heavy rainfall. Rainfall occurs in the month of April/May. It helps in tea cultivation
in Assam, Jute and rice in west Bengal.
-Loo: Loo is hot dusty dry winds some of them called ‘sand storms’ which blow particularly in the
month of May and June in the Northern plain. Temperature rises up to 45 degree to 50 degree which may
cause sunstroke. It brings severe drought conditions. It does not affect the coastal and the areas of high
altitude. It affects the states of northern plain like Bihar, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
-Mango Showers: These occur in south India during April/May These are pre-monsoon showers in
the south which helps in the growth of mango, tea and coffee plants. In Karnataka It is called ‘Cherry
blossom’ because it helps coffee plant to grow berries.

*The Rainy Season or the Season of the South-West Monsoon:

(i) Characteristics: Distribution of the rainfall is not uniform. Tamil nadu does not receive rainfall.
Duration of the monsoon varies from 2to 4 months.
-Some time it causes flood due to heavy rainfall esp. in Assam, Bihar, U.P, while
the other parts may be reeling under severe drought due to scanty or no rainfall esp. in Rajasthan.
-It is controlled by orography. The effects caused due to the Himalayas and Western Ghats on the amount
and distribution of rainfall and the inability of the aravalis to cause rainfall in Rajasthan.

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-Some time tropical depression (low pressure system) originates in Bay of Bengal due to the local variations
of heat and moisture during the month of October and November.

(ii)Origination of S-W Monsoon: The sun shines overhead the Tropic of cancer from March to
May, the differential heating of the land and sea brings about a seasonal low pressure trough centred
between thar and chotanagpur region. As a result high pressure gradient builds up between the hot norths
India with intense low pressure. The low pressure area attracts the south east trade winds blowing in the
southern hemisphere. As such after crossing equator these winds are deflected towards Indian sub-continent
as south-west monsoon winds. These winds blow from south-west to north-east carrying large amount of
moisture from the Arabian Sea.
(iii) Advance of the Monsoon: It breaks first in the coast of kerala in the Malabar in the first week
of June. By the first and second week they overrun whole of kerala on the west, Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh proceeding towards north-east.
Also, by the beginning of the second week they reach Mumbai then Ahmedabad, Bhopal and By July
first they cover most of kachch, eastern Rajasthan, Whole of U.P, Haryana, Himachal and Eastern Punjab.
Mechanism of S-W Monsoon:
-After the spring equinox (21 march) sun apparently migrates towards northern hemisphere, slowly heating
up land and sea, hence Indian sub-continent starts heating up creating low pressure between Thar desert to
chotanagpur region and also south and northern interior landmass(excluding high altitudes).
-Due to the apparent migration of the sun pressure belt also shifts (Inter tropical convergence zone)
northwards to about 15-20 degree north latitude.
-This forces the south-east trade winds to cross the equator. Due to the corriolis effect and low pressure in
the Indian sub-continent South-east trade winds change its direction from S-W to N-E direction. Hence, the
S-w monsoon starts causing rainfall in Indian subcontinent.
Mechanism of N-E Monsoon:
-After the last spell of the s-w monsoon in the last week of September. Land starts cooling whereas
surrounding sea warms up. Apparent migration of the sun starts towards southern hemisphere from Vernal
equinox (23 September).
-High pressure over land and low pressure over sea is created, which attracts the cold dry retreating
monsoon winds towards Bay of Bengal (due to Western Ghats slope to east).
-These winds pick up moisture from Bay of Bengal and are carried away by N-E trade winds towards S-E of
India. i.e. Tamilnadu & Andhra Pradesh coastal region. This causes the on set of n-e monsoon.

The S-W Monsoon Divides into two branches due to tapering topography of peninsular India:
1-The Arabian Sea Branch
2-The Bay of Bengal Branch

1. The Arabian Sea Branch:

-This branch of the S-W Monsoon strikes first at the Malabar Coast of kerala causing heavy
rainfall along the windward side of the Western Ghats.
-Lee ward side of the Western Ghats receives very little rainfall for example; Mahabaleshwar
situated on the windward side of the Western Ghats receives 250 cm of rainfall whereas
Pune, only a few km away, receives less than 70 cm.
-Amount of rainfall goes on decreasing as Arabian sea branch moves northward.
-Arabian sea branch causes very little rainfall in Rajasthan because:
(i)Aravali’s alignment is parallel to rain bearing Southwest Monsoon winds and as
such they do not offer any obstruction.
(ii)Saturation of the moisture laden winds does not occur as the heat in the desert
region increases their capacity to hold moisture.

-Volume of Arabian Sea Branch is 3 times greater than the bay of Bengal branch due to two
reasons:

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 (i)Arabian Sea is larger than Bay of Bengal.
(ii)Whole Moisture of the Arabian sea is used up by the entire country, Whereas only
a part of bay of Bengal branch is used up in the north east of India, rest of the moisture moves
to Myanmar and Thailand.

2. The Bay Of Bengal Branch:

Andaman and Nicobar Islands are the first to receive rainfall due to Bay of Bengal branch.
-Bay of Bengal branch moves towards North-eastern states.
-Rain is intercepted by the north-east Himalayas including garo, khasi and Jaintia.
-Mawasynram 16 kilometre west of cherrapunji, gets the heaviest annual rainfall in the world
(1187.3 cm). This is relief rainfall. Shillong on the other hand lying in the rain shadow of khasi hills
gets little rainfall.
-The remaining portion of the bay of Bengal branch is deflected towards west along the
Himalayas. However, rainfall keep on decreasing as it proceeds towards the Ganga valley.

*The Retreating South-West Monsoon (October-November):

(i)Characteristics: Low pressure created during summer is weakened with decreasing
temperatures, giving way to high pressure on land and low pressure on surrounding seas. It is a
transition period between the hot rainy season and cold dry season in the month of October and
November.
-Tropical cyclone occurs over bay of Bengal and rarely over the Arabian sea.
Which causes tremendous loss of life and property..
-Rainfall in Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh is caused by retreating monsoon
coming from bay of Bengal accompanied by north-east trade winds.
-High humidity and High temperature during the month of October. Thus this
Sultry and oppressive weather is often referred to as ‘October Heat’.

(ii)Origin: In September, with the apparent movement of the Sun towards south, the low
pressure in central India starts weakening, and is no longer able to attract the monsoon winds
towards land. Slowly as the high pressure begins to build over mainland and subsequently with low
pressure over the sea, the south-west monsoon begins to withdraw from the mainland India. South
west monsoon had travelled towards the north, now it retreats towards south. This process starts in
October and is over by the end of November.

*Amount of rainfall depends upon:

-Direction of moisture laden winds.
-Relief features.
-Cyclonic depressions due to the difference in pressure.
*Rainfall over 200 cm in the north of tropic of cancer: Garo-Khasi, Jaintia and lushai hills. States:
Meghalaya, Assam, West Bengal, Bangladesh and Arunachal Parades.
*South of Tropic of Cancer: Konkan coast, Malabar coast States: Kerala, goa, Karnataka and Maharashtra.

*Areas with 100 – 200 cm rainfall:

In the north- Ganga valley. States: Bihar, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh.
In the south- North of Andhra Pradesh and southern parts of Tamilnadu

*Areas with 50 – 100 cm rainfall:

In the North – Upper Ganga valley and Eastern Rajasthan.
States: Punjab, Haryana, and Kashmir.
In the south – Southern Deccan comprising the plateau region of Karnataka.
States: Andhra Pradesh and Tamil nadu.

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*Areas with less than 50 cm rainfall:
In the North: Western Rajasthan, Northern most part of Kashmir and southern Punjab.
In the south: Central Deccan region, leeward side of Western Ghats.

*Temperature range: Maximum temperature minus Minimum temperature.

*Average annual rainfall: Total rainfall of the 12 months divided by 12.
*Annual Rainfall: Total rainfall in 12 months
*Diurnal Temperature: Maximum temperature in a day- Minimum temperature in a day.
*Mean temperature: maximum+ minimum/2
Question: Observe the climate chart and answer the following questions:
Stations JAN FEB MA APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
R
A Temp. 24.4 25.4 26.7 29.3 30.0 29.9 29.8 27.8 26.9 26.3 25.1 24.8
C
Rainfall 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.6 3.8 26.6 29.6 30.5 26.5 11.9 1.1 0.2
cm
B Temp. 8.1 8.9 15.6 20.1 25.2 24.3 24.1 22.7 20.6 18.4 14.1 9.6
A
Rainfall 0.4 0.3 0.3 1.1 1.3 3.2 7.7 10.3 5.8 0.7 0.4 0.3
cm
a. Calculate the annual rainfall of Station A.
b. Calculate the average rainfall of station B.
c. Calculate the mean temperature of Station A.
d. Calculate the temperature range of station B.
e. Calculate the rainfall of station A during monsoon.
f. Calculate the total rainfall of station B during retreating monsoon.
g. Calculate the total Rainfall of station A during winter rainfall in the north.
h. Name the station A & station B On the basis of the give data. Give reason.
Steps and Conditions to identify Places:
-Observe the temperature data: If the temperature in January is less than 9 or equal to 9 and maximum not
more than 27 during may-june-july. It means temperature range is high. Place is in higher altitude.
Now see the rainfall pattern-If rainfall occurs both in summer (june-sept) and winter (nov-jan). The place is
in the northern hilly region (Shimla, Massouri, Srinagar, Nainital, and Dalhousie).
-If the temperature is between 20 c to 32 degree and the rainfall occurs maximum in monsoon (june-sept)
and negligible in winter, then the place is located in the western coast such as Cochin, Mangalore, panaji,
Mumbai.
-If the temperature is between 20 c to 32 degree and the rainfall is maximum during winter (octo-jan) then
the place is located in the eastern coast such as Chennai, Poducherry.
-If the temp. Range is more than 15 then the climate is extreme and if less than 15 then it is equable/marine
type. Equable climate has the temperature more than 20 in January, where as extreme has less than 20 c.

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 SOIL IN INDIA
Soil is a mixture of inorganic material, minerals and organic materials like humus.
Inorganic material like silica, clay and chalk and organic matter like decay of vegetable matter.
The process of soil formation is known as Paedogenesis.
Soil Profile: Horizontal arrangement of different layers of soil. Top soil with organic content and soft soil,
Sub-soil below the top soil and then bed rock.

I. ALLUVIAL SOIL:
Alluvial soil: It occupies 45.6 percent total land area of the country. Maximum agriculture is done in this
soil.

ORIGIN: These soils originate from the transported alluvium brought by the rivers.
They are of two types- (i) Young Khadar soil (ii) Old Banger soil
(i) Khadar Soil: These are newer alluvium of sandy, pale brown composition, found in the lower areas of
valley bottom which are flooded almost every year. Known as ‘dhaya’ in Punjab. Found in Deltas and along
the river basins. Upper/ middle course of the river has light sandy texture with humus, whereas in deltas it is
clayey and lot of humus.
(ii)Bhangar soil: This consists of older alluvium, of clayey composition and is dark in [Link] soils, is
coarse in nature and contains kankar (lime stone nodules) pebbles and gravels. They are found 30 m above
flood level of the rivers they represent the ‘riverine alluvium’. Known as ‘bet’ in Punjab.

CHARECTRISTICS: These are transported type of soils. Silt are carried away by rivers from the
mountains and hills to lower plains and deltas and get deposited, hence called ex-situ soil.
These soils are coarsest in the upper section of the valley, medium in the middle and
finest in the delta region.

Colour, Texture and Composition: They are mostly light to dark in color depending on new or old
alluvium. They are rich in potash and humus, but deficient in phosphorus and nitrogen.

Fertility: Alluvial Soil is very fertile for both Rabi and kgarif crops.
Suitable for wheat, sugarcane, rice, cotton and oilseeds. In the delta region they are ideal for Jute.

AREAS: In the North- Vast track of riverine alluvium of satluj, Ganga and brahamaputra plains.
States: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam.
In the South- in the Deccan coastal strip occupying deltas of godavari, Krishna, cauvery,
narmada and tapi.
States: parts of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu

Difference between the alluvial soils of north and south:

Alluvial soils of the Deccan coastal strip are non-porous, clayey and darker in color compared to
alluvial soils of upper Ganga valley as rivers of Deccan plateau flowing through black soil region carry the
same to the delta. These soils are called ‘deltaic alluvium’. They are most suited for rice cultivation.

II. BLACK SOIL (regur soil/lava soil/self ploughing soil/cotton soil):

ORIGIN: Black soils are called rigour and Black Cotton soils as cotton is the most grown crop in these soils
as cotton is the most grown crop in these soils. These soils are formed in situ, i.e. formed where they are
found. These soils have originated from soil solidification of lava spread over large areas of Deccan plateau

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during volcanic activity. They are formed by the weathering of the Deccan trap. It is spread over an area of
5.4 lakh sq. km, i.e., 16.6 percent of the total land area of the country.

CHARECTRISTICS: Black soils retain moisture and become sticky when wet. This property of retaining
moisture and releasing it when required during dry period is very useful for the crops, especially in the lava
tracts of Maharashtra where irrigation is not possible. The deeper the soil the more moisture it can hold.
In some valleys of Narmada and Tapi the soil is 6 meter deep.

COLOUR, TEXTURE AND COMPOSITION: Black soil vary in colour from deep black to chestnut
brown, medium black or even mixture of red and black may be found at some places. The black colour is
due to the black crystalline schist and gneisses.
They are fine grained in texture with more than 60 percent clay. They do not contain gravel or sand.
Black soils contain lime, alumina, iron, potash, magnesium carbonates and calcium.
They are deficient in phosphorus, nitrogen and humus or organic matter.

FERTILITY:
Black soil of uplands are of low fertile, but they are dark deep and fertile in valleys.

SUITABILITY FOR CROPS:

Cotton, rice, wheat, Jowar, millets, sugarcane, oil seeds like linseed and sunflower, fruits and vegetables.

AREAS/STATES:
AREAS: Black soils are primarily sedentary soil. They are largely found in the regions of their origin. As
they have resulted from the weathering of the Deccan trap rocks of volcanic origin, they are vastly confined
to Deccan plateau.
STATES: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Western Madhya Pradesh.

III. RED SOILS

ORIGIN: Red soils are formed due to the weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks. The
parent rocks are acid granites and gneisses. These soils occupy an area of about 3.5 lakh sq. km. This is
about 10.6 percent of the total land area of the country.

COLOUR, TEXTURE and COMPOSITION:

The red soil is red due to its very high iron content. The colour varies from brown to red, chocolate and
yellow. Red soils are porous in nature. They lack lime, magnesia, phosphate, nitrogen and humus.
They are rich in potash and become fertile with proper use of fertilizers and irrigation.

SUITABILITY FOR CROPS:

With application of proper fertilizer and irrigation they give excellent yield of wheat, rice, cotton.
Sugarcane, pulses, millets, tobacco and oil seeds.

AREAS/STATES
North India: areas- Red soil extends to parts of Bihar, West Bengal and eastern Rajasthan, Parts of Assam,
Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya.

South India: areas- Red soils are spread over whole of Tamil nadu, large parts of southern Karnataka, goa,
and north-east Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, South-east Maharashtra.
Advantages:
-Red soil is rich in oxides of iron, which is good for all types of crops especially tea, coffee, vegetables,
pulses and millets.
-Red soil’s red color reflection to plants saplings helps in its quick growth.

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 IV. LATERITE SOILS (Leached soil)
ORIGIN: Laterite soils are formed under conditions of high temperature and very heavy rainfall with
alternate wet and dry periods. Thus, its formation takes place strictly under monsoon conditions. They cover
an area of 2.4 lakh square kilometres.

CHARECTRISTICS: The heavy rainfall (150-200cm) and high temperature (25-30 c)during the monsoon
season washes away the top soil containing silica and humus. This process is called leaching.
Laterite soils have a unique property of being valuable building material as they harden like iron when
exposed to air.

COLOUR, TEXTURE and COMPOSITION: Laterite soils are red in colour due to presence of iron
oxide. These soils are generally coarse in texture and porous in nature.
They are very rich in iron. Poor in lime, magnesia, phosphoric acid and potash.

FERTILITY:
Due to the intensive leaching, laterite soils lack in fertility and respond readily to manuring and irrigation.

SUITABILITY FOR CROPS: Laterite soils are suitable for plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber,
coconut etc. in some areas these soils support grazing grounds and scrubs forest.

AREAS/ STATES
Areas- The laterite soils are mainly found in the highland areas of the peninsular plateau i.e., summits of
western ghats at (600 to 1500 m) above sea level and summits of Eastern Ghats.
States- Karnataka, Tamil nadu, Andhra Pradesh and parts of Kerala and in the North, in some part of
Meghalaya and Assam.
SOIL EROSION
Soil erosion is the removal of top soil by different agents of weathering such as
1. Running water
2. Wind
3. Overgrazing
4. Men, plants and animals
5. Faulty methods of Agriculture.
1. RUNNING WATER: The prime factor of soil erosion is running water. Indirectly soil erosion helps in
soil forming because from wherever soil is removed it is deposited elsewhere. However, it disturbs the
agriculture pattern and should be prevented.
There are different types of soil erosion due to water:
(a) Splash erosion: Where the soil is pulverized (crush to fine particles) by the impact of heavy drops
and hailstones as in case of convectional rainfall. Aravali hills of rajasthan plains of ganaga, assam.
(b) Sheet Erosion: Due to heavy rains, a surface film of water carries away the even surface layer of the
top soil as it moves. Ex: foothills of Himalayas/summits of eastern and western ghats.
(c) Gully erosion/ Rill erosion: In steep slopes, in absence of any vegetation the flow of storm water
flows with force downhill developing into channel flow, cutting steep sided valley as it runs off.
Gullies cut up the agricultural land into bad land where no agriculture is possible. Example: Ravines
of Chambal (Madhya Pradesh).
2. WIND: The upper loose soils on extensive flat land are eroded away by wind during the dry season.
3. OVER GRAZING: Wind erosion occurs as the soil devoid of vegetation is directly exposed to the wind.
4. MEN, PLANTS AND ANIMALS: Man’s activities like construction work,

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 Ploughing, cutting down trees causes’ soil erosion. Overgrazing by animals and uprooting of plants also
results in dismantling the soil.
5. FAULTY METHODS OF AGRICULTURE: (i) shifting agriculture in the N-E,
(ii)Lack of crop rotation (iii) Wrong ploughing-ploughing deep in open land, which may cause wind
erosion.

SOIL CONSERVATION
Measures
(a) Afforestation- The best way to prevent soil erosion is to increase area under forests.
(b) To check overgrazing- Overgrazing of forests and grassland by animal grazing especially by goat
and sheep should be checked. Separate grazing ground should be provided.
(c) Construction of Dams and Barrages- Much of the soil erosion by floods can be checked by
constructing dams or barrages over such rivers. This would check the speed of water and thereby
save soil from erosion.
(d) Improved techniques of agriculture- Contour ploughing, terraced farming, crop rotation should be
practiced.
(e) Banning shifting or Jhuming or slash and burn type of agriculture.
(f) Belts of trees and shrubs should be planted to check the velocity of wind and, thus prevent wind
erosion.

NARURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA

Vegetation which grows naturally without human aid and has been left undisturbed by humans for long time
is known as natural vegetation.
India is 12th mega-diversity countries of the world. India has 47000 plant species. In diversity it is 10th in the
world and fourth in Asia.
Vegetation diversity is due to the following factors:
1. Temperature 2. Sunlight 3. Soil 4. Relief 5. Precipitation

TEMPERATURE: Temperature and humidity are the important factors which determine the character
and extent of vegetation. On the slopes of the Himalayas and the hills of the peninsula above the height of
900 meters, the fall in the temperature affects the type of vegetation and growth and changes it from tropical
to subtropical, temperature and alpine. Example: Siberia in Russia has low temperature hence taiga and
tundra type of climate is found.

SUNLIGHT: The variation in sun’s radiant energy at different places is due to the day. Due to the
abundance sunlight tree grows faster in summer. Example: Dense forests are found in the equatorial forest.

SOIL: Soil is one of the most important factors affecting vegetation. Different types of soil have different
vegetation. Changes in the soil have given rise to peculiar types of vegetation in many areas such as
mangrove forests, swamps and sandy coastal forests. Example: In sunder van delta tidal/littoral forest is
found because the soil is saline.

RELIEF: Plains, plateaus and mountains have different types of climate. Example: Himalaya has unique
type of mountain vegetation.

PRECIPITATION: Precipitation determines the density of vegetation. Areas of heavy rainfall have more
dense vegetation as compared to other areas. Example: Forests of Brazil and Congo has large density
because of frequent rainfall.

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 NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA

India has mainly five types of vegetation:

(i) The tropical evergreen forests.
(ii) Tropical deciduous forests.
(iii) Tropical Desert Vegetation.
(iv) Littoral /Tidal/Backwater Vegetation.
(v) Mountain/Montane Vegetation.

(i)THE TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST:

These forests are found in areas with an annual rainfall of 200 cm or more and temperature 28-32 degree c.
These forests grow in the areas of high rainfall and high temperature hence has 4 layers emergent layer,
canopy, under-story and bushes and shrubs on the surface.
The height of the tree may reach up to 60 meters forming canopy/emergent layer.
These forests provide hard wood and may medicinal plants.

Regions: Rain shadow region of Western Ghats, Assam, West Bengal, island groups of Lakshdweep and
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Trees found are: Ebony, mahogany, rosewood, ivory wood, rubber and cinchona.
-These forests are difficult to harvest for commercial purpose because it is very dense hence transportation is
difficult.
- Has trees are mixed strands, hence it’s difficult to harvest.
- Large number of plant and animal species are found in these forests therefore difficult to encroach.

Characteristics:
 Tropical evergreen forests are very dense with thick undergrowth due to the heavy rainfall (more
than 200 cm annually) and temperature (28-32 degree Celsius).
 The high temperature and heavy rain also causes the trees to grow vigorously, sometimes reaching a
height more than 60 meters forming canopy/ emergent layer.
 These trees are evergreen (unequal time of leaf shedding), because of the warm temperature and
plenty of water available through out the year.
 Forest floor lacks grasses because of the deep shades. Tall bushes and climbers grow.

USES OF THE TREES FOUND IN THESE FOREST:

-Ebony: musical instruments, fire wood.
-Mahogany: Has straight grain and is usually free of voids and pockets. It has a reddish brown colour. This
darkens over time, and displays a beautiful reddish sheen when polished. It is highly durable. It is used for
boat construction. And musical instruments.
-Rosewoods: Flooring, furniture, musical instruments, billiards cues, and chess set.
-Rubber: natural rubber.
-Cinchona: Its bark is used to make medicine for malaria called ‘quinine’.
-Shisham: It is a veneer (a thin covering of fine wood) timbers. The heartwood is golden to dark brown,
and sapwood white to pale brownish white. The heartwood is extremely durable and is very resistant to dry
wood termites; but the sap wood is readily attacked by fungi and borers. It is used for plywood, agricultural
and musical instruments, skis, carvings, boats, floorings.
-Chaplas: Durable and strong wood. Ship building, packing boxes.
-Gurjan: Construction work, packing boxes, tea boxes, flooring, wagon construction.
-Telsur: Bridge making, boat, masts, cart and railways.
-Sissoo: furniture making, bullock cart, agriculture implements, musical implements.
11
-Toon: tea boxes, toys, furniture.

States where they are found are: Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram, Tripura, and Western ghats of
Maharashtra, Nagaland and Karnataka.

2. THE TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FORESTS:

These are the most extensive forest in India. On the basis of availability of water these are divided into
two:
MOIST DECIDUOUS:
*Found in the areas of 100 to 200 cm rainfall.
*Due to the longer dry season, the trees in these forests are deciduous, i.e. they shed their leaves during the
dry season once or twice in a year.
*Shisham, Sandalwood, Teak and Sal are the common trees found in these forests. Other economically
important trees are Khair, rosewood, shisham, etc. Bamboos are also commonly found.
*It covers foothills of Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhatisgarh, and on the eastern slope of the
Western Ghats.

Trees and their Uses:

SANDLWOOD: making incense, medicinal products, beautiful handicrafts, soaps, talcum powder etc.
TEAK: outdoor furniture, boat decks, indoor flooring.
SAL: railway sleepers, plies, beams and other load bearing parts of bridge structures, wheels and bodies of
carts and other similar load carriers, including motor trucks, super structure of house tops.
BAMBOO: decorative, source of fuel, construction work, furniture, utensils, fibre and paper. Bamboo
shoots are eaten, food for panda.
SHISHAM: Furniture, bullock-carts, agricultural implements, musical implements.
MAHUA: Flower is used for extracting oil and flower for making wine.
MULBERRY: Cricket stumps, Hockey, Badminton, Squash racket.
PALAS: Its leaves are used in rearing shellac worms.
SEMUL: Its wood is soft and white. It is used in making Toys, Packing cases, Match boxes, and Pen
holders, Ply woods. Its fruit yields soft fibres which are used in pillows.

DRY DECIDUOUS FOREST

*Rainfall 70 cm to 100 cm.
*Plains of U.P and Bihar and also in Deccan.
Uses of Important trees:
Tendu: Used for wrapping Bidis.
Teak: construction, ship building, furniture, railway carriage,
Sal: doors, window posts, railway sleepers.
Palas: It is used in rearing shellac worms.
Amaltas: Fruit, seed, pulp and roots of amaltas have medicinal value. Asthma,
Leprosy, ringworm, fever and heart related diseases.
Khair: Hookahs, plough, handles for Knives, daggers and swords. Making charcoal.
Axlewood: Furniture, kitchen cabinets, radio, TV, and Stereo cabinets, wardrobes.

Characteristics:
-These trees shed their leaves during spring and early summer season due to the shortage of water.
Maximum height is up to 30 to 50 meters. These trees do not have dense undergrowth. Trees are not too
close like in evergreen forest therefore sunlight can easily pass across to the surface.

3. TROPICAL DESERT
* Rainfall is less than 70 cm.
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 * Trees and plants have thorns and leaves are small or thick or absent to check excessive water loss due to
high temperature.
*Areas of scanty rainfall have trees like babool, acacia, kikar and wild palm.
* Areas of more scanty rainfall have scrubs and thorny bushes.
*Roots of the desert plant is long to absorb moisture from the soil.
* Rajasthan, southern part of Punjab, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh, and the central part of the Deccan
plateau has this type of vegetation.

USES OF PLANTS:
BER: Fruit is eaten raw, made pickles or beverages. Bed steads, boat ribs, charcoal.
Babool: bark, pods and gum have medicinal virtues.
Leaves and Bark: arresting secretions and bleeding.
Gum allays: irritation of the skin and soothes the inflamed membranes of the pharynx, alimentary canal and
genitor-urinary organs.
Bark: eczema
Date palm: fruits soar throat, cold fever, syrup or paste.
Palm oil: edible vegetable oil, palm wine.
Coir: water resistant outer fibres of a coconuts used in doormats, brushes, mattresses and ropes.
Kikar: to cure diarrhoea, arresting the secretion of bleeding, removes phlegm from the bronchial tubes, fire
work and timber. Flowers for ornamental purposes, leaves as fodder for goats, wood for paper making.
Neem: Medicinal values- Skin infections, treating diabetes, allergies, ulcers.

Characteristics:
-Vegetation is small covering the ground so no moisture from the soil evaporates.
-Has thick green stems and leaves to continue photosynthesis.
-Has deep and extended root system.
-Seeds remain dormant until the rainfall occurs and then grows within 3-4 weeks as the rain pours.

4. LITTORAL OR SWAMPY FOREST:

*These forests occur in and around the deltas, estuaries and creeks where the tides occur. These forests are
also known as tidal or swampy forest.
*These forest are found along the coast such as deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
Krishna, and the Cauvery.
*These forest can survive both in fresh as well as saline water.
*Trees found here are: Sundari, Burguiera, Sonneratia, agar, bhendi, keora, nipa, amur, bhara, screw pine,
canes, and palms.

Characteristics:
Mangroves are trees and shrubs that grow in saline coastal habitats in the tropics and sub-tropics. Mangroves
prop themselves up above the water level with stilt roots and then respire through pores called
pnumetopores. Prop root systems allow these plants to respire and take nutrients from the inhospitable soil.

5. MOUNTAIN VEGETATION
In the northern slopes of Himalayas the vegetation is less due to the very less sunlight whereas the
southern slope has dense vegetation even at higher altitude due to the sufficient amount of sunlight.
*At the Foothill Zone: Tropical deciduous forests are found. Trees such as Sal are mostly found esp. in the
central and the eastern part of Himalayas.
* Sub-tropical hill vegetation: evergreen oaks, chestnuts and pine. At 1,600 meters to 3,300 meters
coniferous tress are found, such as blue pine, silver fir, cedar, and deodar.
At 3,500 meters and more only shrubs, scrubs and grasses are found.

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Uses of various trees:
-OAK: pillars, tools, wagons, vessels, and wine casks, firewood, charcoal making.
-PINE: timber, wood pulp, tar, and ornaments.
-SILVER FIR: paper making, packing crates and cheap construction work.
-DEODAR: building material, barracks, public buildings, bridges, canals, railway cars.
-CHIR: Reddish brown, moderately hard used for making tea chests, furniture, match industry, railway
sleepers, resins, turpentines.
-BLUE PINE: Doors, windows, furniture and railway sleepers, turpentines.
-SPRUCE: Construction-work, railway sleepers, packing cases.
-WALNUT: Musical instruments, gun stock, carving.
-BIRCH: plywood work, radio cabinet.
-CYPRESS: used for making furniture.
-JAMUN: construction work and house building, Furniture.

NEED FOR CONSERVATION OF FOREST:

Major forest products:
*Main products: Timber, fuel wood including charcoal.
Hard woods: teak, mahogany, logwood, ironwood, ebony, sal, kikar, semal.
Uses: furniture, wagons, tools etc.
Soft woods: deodar, poplar, pine, fir, cedar, balsam.
Uses: Construction and making paper.

*Minor forest products: other than woods:

Grasses, bamboos and canes, Tans and dyes, Oils, Gums and resins, Fibres and flosses, leaves, Drugs
spices and poisons, animal products, Edible products.
Grasses: fodder, paper
Tans: leather industry
Oils: soaps, cosmetics.
Gums and Resins: textiles, cosmetics, medicines, inks.
Fibres: rope making.

Indirect Use of Forests:

 Prevention and control of Soil erosion: surface run off or gully erosion is checked.
 Flood control: regulates flood water by absorbing and helps in recharging.
 Check on spread of desert: by checking soil erosion.
 Increase of soil fertility: humus is the soil is added due to the decomposition.
 Effect on climate: checks temperature rise and helps in causing rain.
 Vital role in country’s economy: sports good, match box, paper, furniture, doors, windows, railway
coaches, railway line, fragrance, perfume etc.

VARIOUS MEASURES FOR FOREST CONSERVATION:

1. The Ministry of Environment and Forest: Planning, promotion and coordination and
implementation of environmental and forestry programmes. Principal activities undertaken by the
ministry are: conservation and survey of flora, fauna, forest and wild life, prevention and control of
pollution, afforestation and regeneration of degraded areas.
2. Forest Policy: Since 1894 we have forest policy. 1988 forest policy was made to protect, conserve
and develop forests.
Measures under the forest conservation:
-Preservation and restoration of ecological balance.
-Conservation of natural heritage.
-Check soil erosion
-Check the spread of desert.
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 -Massive afforestation and social forestry programmes.
-To meet the demand of fire wood, fodder and minor forest products of tribals.
-Increase forest cover.
-Minimise the pressure on forest by mass movement.
3. Social Forestry: means the management and protection of the forest as well as
Afforestation of barren lands aimed at helping in environment, social, and
Rural development as against the traditional objective of securing revenue. It
is a forestry of the people, by the people and for the people.
Aim of Social Forestry: is to reduce pressure on the traditional forests areas
By developing plantations of fuel wood, fodder and grasses.

4. Joint Forest Management: It started in 1990 in order to involve village

Communities in the development and protection of degraded forests. Village
Committee known as the Forest Protection Committee (FPC) and the forest
Department enter into JFM agreement. Role of the villagers is to safe guard the
Forest resources through fire, grazing, and illegal harvesting in exchange they
Receive non-timber forest products.
Classification of Forest:
Reserved Forest: Forests are reserved for the growth of timber and other produce. Right to cultivate
and grazing is hardly allowed.
Protected Forest: Right of grazing and cultivation is allowed with few restrictions.

Forest Institutes:

ICFRE: Indian Council Of Forest Research and Education is a apex body in national forestry research
system to develop a holistic forestry research through planning, promoting, educating and coordinating
research education.
Forest research institute -Dehradun
Arid Forest institute -Jodhpur
Rain forest research institute - Jorhat
Institute of wood science and technology - Bangalore
Tropical forest research institute - Jabalpur
Institute of forest genetics and tree breeding - Coimbatore
Himalayan forest research institute - Shimla
Institute for forest productivity - Ranchi
Centre of social forestry and eco-rehabilitation -Allahabad
Institute of forestry research and human resources development - Chhindwara

Integrated Forest protection scheme:

Has been formulated with the following components under 10th 5 year plan for all the states and union
territories in order to protect forest from human and natural factors.
(i)Infrastructure development
-Working plan preparation/Survey and demarcation.
-Strengthening of infrastructure for forest protection.
(ii)Forest fire control and Management.

15
 WATER RESOURCES
Water resources of India: 4% of the world water resources.
Precipitation in a year is about 4,000 cubic km.
Surface water and replenish able ground water is 1,869 cubic km.
Total utilisable water resource in the country is only 1,122 cubic km.
States utilising ground water at a very high rate are: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Tamil nadu.
States utilising ground water resources at moderate rate: Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tripura and
Maharashtra.
States utilising the ground water at low rate: Chhatisgarh, orissa and kerala.

Irrigation: The process of supplying water to crops by artificial means such as canals, wells, tube wells,
tanks, etc. from the sources of water such as rivers, tanks, Ponds or underground water is called irrigation.

Importance of Irrigation:
-Water is a universal solvent; therefore it’s rich in minerals and other nutrients, which helps in the
cultivation of crops.
-Water is must for the commercialisation of Agriculture.
-Many crops are cultivated in a dry region like Rajasthan and other regions of India.

Need for Irrigation in India:

(i) Variability in rainfall: uncertainty of rainfall is a great disadvantage hence, irrigation is
necessary.
(ii) Unequal distribution of rainfall: Distribution of rainfall is unequal because some part gets
flooded where as some parts like saurashtra-kutch region of Gujarat, western half of Rajasthan
and parts of Punjab and Haryana receives less rainfall.
(iii) To meet crop requirements and soil needs: Rice, sugarcane, jute, cotton etc. needs more water
and needs irrigation. Sandy soil also needs more water compared to the alluvial and black soil.
(iv) To increase production: to continuously use the land for cropping to increase the production by
doing double farming and triple farming.
(v) To use the water efficiently: Most of the monsoon water drains back to the sea also has short
duration of rainfall. Therefore, it is important to use the source efficiently by storing or by
making canals.

*Factors on which the means of Irrigation depends:

Topography, Soils, Rainfall, Availability of Surface water or Ground water, Nature of Rivers and the
requirements of crops.
Main sources of Irrigation used in India are: - Wells and Tube wells, Canals, Tanks.

WELLS

It’s a hole dug in the ground to obtain the sub-soil water. But, now Tube wells are used to meet the demand
because the water levels of wells have gone down. Tube wells irrigate more than 50% agricultural land in
India.
WELLS ARE OF THREE TYPES:
1. UNLINED WELLS/ KACHHA WELLS: It can be dug only in high water table areas (about 15 meters)
because it is dug manually by farmers. These wells are known as kachha wells because its surface is not
lined with bricks or stones. These well are cheaper to dig.
SUITABLE CONDITIONS FOR WELL IRRIGATION
High water table
Cheap source of power to lift water
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Alluvial plain is suitable for digging because it consists of soft soil
Sufficient water should be present there

2. LINED WELLS/ PUCCA WELL: It is bounded by bricks and stones.

SIMLARITY BETWEEN BOTH TYPE OF WELLS: Both lined and unlined well is cheaper for Poor
farmers because water can be driven out by using ox also the cost of making is very less.

ADVANTAGES OF WELLS:
-Simplest and cheapest source of irrigation.
-Can be dug at any convenient place.
-Can be dug easily when the need arise.
DISADVANTAGES/DRAW BACKS OF WELL:
-Not deep enough hence gets dry in the long run.
-irrigation in a small area (0.2 hectares)is possible.
-Only high water table areas are suitable.
-Salinity increases in fields in a long run.

TUBE WELLS
Tube wells are deeper wells below 15 meters in depth from which water is lifted by using an electric motor
or a diesel engine.
Following conditions are considered for making a Tube well:
-Sufficient amount of ground water is necessary to irrigate a large area.
-Water table should be very deep otherwise the cost of generation would be uneconomic.
-Cheap and continuous supply of diesel or electricity is needed.
-Irrigation farmland should be large to recover the construction cost.

Well irrigation is the main source of irrigation in north India because water table is high, soil is soft,
ground water gets recharged constantly due to adequate rainfall and source of power is also cheap.
Tamil Nadu has the largest number of tube wells followed by Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.

ADVANTAGES OF TUBE WELL:

-Irrigates large area
-reliable source of irrigation
-can be used to irrigate through out the year.
-It helped in green revolution by which India became self depend in food production.
-More than one harvest of water requiring crops can be cultivated ex: rice, sugarcane etc.

DISADVANTAGES OF TUBE WELL:

- Most of the areas cheap power source is lacking
- Cost of extraction is very high hence, poor farmers cannot afford
- It has changed the cropping pattern of many regions.
- Over harvesting of ground water has lowered the water table in many parts of the country.

CANALS
Canals are the small man made streams driven out of a large river streams to provide water for irrigation of
the agricultural land, domestic and for industrial purpose. Today 40 % of the irrigation in India is done by
means of canals.
*Canals are more widespread in Northern part of India because of low relief, deep fertile soil, even surface
to dig canals and perennial flow of river.

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CANALS ARE OF 2 TYPES:
(a) PERENNIAL CANALS: These types of canals flow through out the year because they are built
along the perennial rivers. Barrages are built across the streams to check the flow.
(b) INUNDATION CANALS: These canals are non-perennial because there are no barrages to check
the flow hence it gets flooded during the rainy season whereas gets dry in the off season due to the
high level of canal than the water level in the river streams.
ADVANTAGES OF CANAL IRRIGATION:
- It is cheap for the farmers as it easily accessible.
- Water can be transported from high flow areas to low or dry areas.
Example: Indira Gandhi Canal provides water in dry region of Rajasthan.
DISADVANTAGES OF CANAL IRRIGATION:
- Excessive irrigation and intense agriculture has degraded the environment.
- Problems of water logging due to excessive irrigation, seepage and poor
Drainage.
-Increase in water table, increased salinity and finally submergence of land.
PROBLEMS OF CANAL IRRIGATION:
-High cost of construction.
-Lack of fund and expertise.
-Poorly designed hence problems like water logging due to excessive
Irrigation.
IMPROVEMENT OF CANAL IRRIGATION:
- To be built by public private relationship.
- Encouragement to the Grid system.
- Subsidy on canal water should be given only to the small farmers.

TANK IRRIGATION
Tank is storage of water by digging the land or by constructing bunds on the earth or stones built across the
streams. Size and the volume of the tank may vary from small to large depending upon its use.
Use of tank irrigation is decreasing due to the increase use of canals and wells. Tank is most widely
used in Tamil nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
Tank irrigation is mainly practiced in Deccan region because:
-Terrain of Deccan consists of hard rock which makes it difficult to dig canals or wells.
-Percolation of rain water inside the ground is very less due to the hard terrain.
-Rivers are non- perennial hence cannot supply water through out the year even if canals are built.

ADVANTAGES OF TANK IRRIGATION:

-economical and easy to construct
-Monsoon water can be stored instead of wasting.
-Helps to raise the underground water table.

DIS ADVANTAGES OF TANK IRRIGATION:

-Dry ups during hot summer, hence not useful when required.
-It requires large agricultural land to build.
-silting takes place easily

What is watershed management?

It is an efficient management of both surface and groundwater resources by preventing surface runoff as
well as storage and recharge of ground water by various methods like percolation pits, recharge wells,
borewells, dugwells, checkdams etc.

18
Need to conserve water:
Over use due to over exploitation of underground water, lowering of water table due to lack of rainfall, more
irrigation for farming, increase in population,
Polluted Rivers Lake which is not suitable
Modern Methods to conserve water:
Drip Irrigation: it is a controlled delivery of water directly to individual plants through a network of tubes
or pipes.
Advantages: Loss of fertilizer and nutrient loss is minimised due to localised application and reduces
leaching.
-Efficient use of water without much loss.
-field levelling is not necessary for uniform distribution of water.

Sprinkle Irrigation: it is a method of applying irrigation water similar to natural rainfall. Water is
distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping.
Advantages:
-No water loss.
-useful for dense plantation such as vegetables, pulses.

Aim of Rainwater Harvesting:

Prevention of losses due to evaporation and seepage. Reducing the pressure on surface and groundwater.
How water harvesting is done?
*Surface runoff harvesting: when the excess water rain water flows or due to snow melt or by other
sources can be harvested. This harvesting can be done by building check dams, tanks, making embankments,
making artificial river/lakes/ponds etc.
*Roof top rainwater harvesting: It is a technique through which rainwater is captured from the roof
catchments and stored in reservoirs. Harvested rain water can be stored in sub-surface groundwater reservoir
by adopting artificial recharge technique to meet the household needs through storage in tanks.
Need for rooftop rainwater harvesting:
-To reduce the groundwater pollution and to increase the quality.
-To reduce the runoff this chokes storm drains.
-To reduce soil erosion and flooding.

Different names given to harvest water in India?

Western Himalayas: Khatri and khul.
Gangetic plains: Baolis or Dighis.
Central India: Johads.
Deccan region: Bhandaras or kere.
Western ghats: Surangam.
Eastern hghats: Korambu.
Ladakh: Zing.

19
 MINERAL RESOURCES IN INDIA

Minerals are naturally occurring chemical compounds found in rocks and ores.
Minerals are of two types:
Metallic minerals: iron, copper, zinc, gold, silver, lead, aluminium etc.
Non-metallic minerals: coal, petroleum, mica, manganese etc.
IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS: earning foreign exchange from the export, employment, raises GDP of
the country.
IRON ORE
Varieties of Iron ore:
Magnetite: best quality, 72-75% iron present.
Haematite: 60-70% iron.
Limonite: 40-60% iron.
Siderite: 40-50% iron.

MAJOR PRODUCERS:
KARNATAKA: Bababudan hills, Kudermukh (exported through Mangalore), Sandur range (Bellary and
hospet). Karnataka is the largest producer of Iron ore in India.
ORISSA: Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj, Cuttack, koraput.
CHHATTISGARH: Bastar, Drug. Bailadila in Bastar district produces high grade iron ore which is
exported to Japan.
GOA: Satari, Ponda, Bicholim.
JHARKHAND: Singhbhum, Palamau (Iron from both the region is provided to Jamshedpur, Durgapur,
Bokaro, Rourkela and Asansol steel plants.)
ANDHRA PRADESH: Warangal, Guntur
TAMILNADU: Salem, Coimbatore
MAHARASHTRA: Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg

MANGANESE
It is used for making iron and steel also alloys are made. It increases the strength of the steel. It is used in
paints, glass and chemical industries. Indian variety is of high quality and is in great demand. Japan is the
leading importer of manganese from India. Other importing countries are U.S.A, U.K, France, Netherlands,
Germany, and Belgium.
Madhya Pradesh is the leading producer then Maharashtra and Orissa.
Madhya Pradesh: Chhindwara, Balaghat, Mandla, Jabalpur.
Maharashtra: Nagpur, Bhandara, Panchmahal.
Orissa: Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj, Talchar, Sundergarh.
Andhra Pradesh: Nizamabad, Vishakhapatnam.
Jharkhand: Singh hum, Palamau.
Rajasthan: Banswara, Udaipur.
Karnataka: Shimoga, Tumkur, Belgaum, Dharwar.

BAUXITE
It’s an ore of Aluminium. These are formed by the decomposition of rocks rich in aluminium silicates.
Uses: It is a light metal. It is used for making pots and pans because it is a good conductor of heat. It is used
to make electrical wires, cans for beverages and liquids.
Foils for wrapping foods for storage.

20
Aeroplanes, spacecrafts are also made. Duralumin is the alloy used to make outer surface of the aeroplanes.
Also used to make some parts of automobiles.

BAUXITE IN INDIA

ORISSA: Kalahandi, Sundergarh

GUJARAT: Bhavnagar, Jamnagar
JHARKHAND: Rachi, Palamau
MAHARASHTRA: Pune, Satara

Copper
It’s a composition of sulphides, oxides and carbonates.
-Automobile and defence industries.
-Electrical industries making wires and other equipments.
-With alloyed with iron and nickel to make stainless steel. Alloyed with zinc to make brass and tin to make
bronze.
-Ship building industry.
Copper IN INDIA
MADHYA PRADESH: Balaghat, betul, Jabalpur.
RAJASTHAN: Khetri, Ajmer, Bharatpur,Jaipur, Rajasamad, sirohi
ANDHRA PRADESH: Guntur, Kurnool, prakasam.
Maharashtra: Bhandara, chandrapur,Nagpur.
CONSERVATION OF MINERALS:
-should be use in a planned way judiciously
-wastage should be minimised
-use of modern technology should be done.
-substitutes should be used in order to save minerals.

CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

21
COAL
Coal is termed as ‘Black Gold’ because it is widely used in thermal power station to generate electricity, to
make petroleum, raw material for petro-chemical industries, iron and steel industries and for domestic
purpose.
Coal was formed due to the submergence of large dense vegetation in the sedimentary rock layers millions
of year ago. It became a dense black rock mainly containing carbon atoms in presence of high temperature
and pressure.
2 Types on the basis of Origin:
GONDWANA COAL FIELDS: Formed around 200 million years ago. 98% of the Indian Coal reserves. Largely
confined to river valleys like those of Damodar, Mahanadi, and Godavari. These coalfields are located at the
Indian heartland in the states of Bengal, Jharkhand, Odhisa, chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, and Telengana.
TERTIARY COAL FIELDS: Formed around 55 million years ago. It has more moisture content, more sulphur
and marine sediments. Found in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, and Nagaland. Tamilnadu (Naively
lignite field is the largest in South India).

4Types on the basis of purity/carbon content:

1. Anthracite: best variety of coal. It is hardest, shiny and lustrous almost jet black. Has 90 % carbon
content. Burns slowly leaving behind very little ash and emits negligible smoke and has high calorific value.
Uses: Domestic use and metallurgical process in Iron and steel industries.
Found in: Jammu and Kashmir only.

2. Bituminous: 80% of the world coal output.50 to 80 percent carbon content. Coking coal
is high-grade bituminous coal which has a special value because when it is heated in coke
ovens it fuses into coke, an important ingredient in iron and steel smelting in blast furnace.
Uses: Produce coke, coal gas, steam coal. High grade is used for domestic purpose.
Found in:
JHARKHAND: Jharia in Dhanbad city is the oldest and largest coal field of India.
Bokaro, Ramgarh
ORISSA: Sambhalpur, Sundergarh, Talcher
ANDHRA PRADESH: Godavari valley (Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warangal)
MAHARASHTRA: Kamptee (Nagpur), Wardha valley (Chandarpur)
WEST BENGAL: Raniganj (produces non-coking steam coal, which is used by railways and thermal plants),
purilia.
CHHATTISGARH:Raigarh, Rampur, korba, sarguja.

3. Lignite: Known as brown coal and is lower grade coal. Has 40% carbon with more moisture an d less
combustion able matter.
Use- Generation of electricity.
Found in: Tamilnadu, Rajasthan, and west Bengal.

4. Peat: Formed due to the first stage transformation of wood into coal. Most inferior
variety. Found in Nilgiri Mountains in patches, Kashmir valley and swampy coastal areas.

IMPORTANCE OF COAL:
-Coal is the main source of power generation in India.
-Prime source of energy for the manufacturing of the iron and steel industry.
-Used as raw material in chemical industries to derive ammonia, benzol.
-Used by railways/ ships and dynamos as source of power.
DISADVANTAGES OF COAL found in INDIA:
22
-Low calorific value.
-Coast of extraction and transportation is high.
-limited reserves.
-large scale pollution is caused.

PETROLEUM
It’s is obtained from the sedimentary rock layer. India has 0.5 % of world’s petroleum reserves about 762
million tonnes.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PETROLEUM
-used as fuel for transportation in air, water and land.
-easily transportable by tankers and pipelines.
-emits little smoke and can be used until the last drop.
-it provides the most important lubricating agent and used as raw material for various petrochemical
industries such as synthetic rubber, synthetic fibre, polystyrene, PVC, Phenol, gasoline, carbon black,
printing ink, film photography,cosmetics,paints,varnishes,lubricating oil and paraffin wax.
-For power generation.
DISADVANTAGES OF PETROLEUM:
-It is non-renewable source, hence, will finish soon due to high demand in various sectors.
-Generates green house gases causing pollution and global warming.
-costly and limited supply because of very high demand.
-Highly inflammable can cause fire.
-Oil spill on sea or river can cause havoc to marine life ecosystem.

DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM IN INDIA

Is obtained both onshore (on land) and offshore (on sea)
* ONSHORE oil fields in Eastern India:
Assam (digboi, naharkatiya, moran-hugrijan)
Arunachal Pradesh (kharsang and charali)
Tripura (mamunbhanga, manu, ampi bazaar)
Digboi in lakhimpur distt. Of Assam is the largest and oldest oilfield in India (1867)
*Onshore oil fields in Western India: Gujarat (Ankleshwar, Ahmedabad and Kalol)

OFFSHORE oil fields are Mumbai high (explored by ONGC in 1974)about176 km n-w of Mumbai. Oil is
explored from 1and half km deep on a specially designed platform called sagarsamrat.
Mumbai high(largest oil field of India).
 Bassein south of Mumbai high at the depth of 2 km approx.
 Aliabet in Aliabet island in gulf of khambhat

OIL REFINERIES

20 Oil refineries are present out of which 17 are public sector and 3 private sectors.
*IOC (Indian Oil Corporation limited: guwahati, digboi, bongaigao (Assam), barauni (Bihar), koyali,
Vadodara (Gujarat), Haldia (west Bengal), mathura (uttar Pradesh), Panipat (Haryana)
*HPCL (Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited): Mumbai (Maharashtra)
*BPCL (Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited): Mumbai (Maharashtra)
*EOL (Essar Oil Limited): Jamnagar (Gujarat)

NATURAL GAS

23
Origin in nature: Oil field yields natural gas. It is composed of 95% methane with small amount of propane
and ethane. Gases used in vehicles are called compressed natural gas.

LIQUIFIED NATURAL GAS: LPG

LPG is widely used for cooking. It is a by-product of Crude oil/petroleum. Main component of LPG is
butane, propane and ethane. It is odourless. To avoid accidents foul smelling as ‘ethyl mercaptan’ is added.
In some cases PNG (Piped natural gas) is used. It is same as LPG, but supplied through pipes instead in a
packed form.
CNG (Compressed natural gas): Alternative to petrol and diesel for transportation. Delhi has totally
switched on to CNG for Buses and autoricksaw’s.

Produced from: 3/4th from Mumbai high rest is derived from Assam, Tamil nadu, Rajasthan and Tripura.
ADVANTAGES OF NATURAL GAS:
-Causes less damage to the environment because has methane hence less carbon is emitted.
-pipelines, cylinders and tanks can be used for transportation.
-cleaner and cheaper fuel than diesel and petrol.
-It is used to produce hydrogen, ammonia for fertilizers and some paints and plastics.

DISADVANTAGES OF NATURAL GAS:

-Leakage is tremendously dangerous, highly toxic than carbondixide.
-By products like hydrocarbons, sulphur, water, helium, nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
-is a non-renewable source of energy, hence has limited supply.
-infrastructure to store and supply the natural gas is very high.
-provides less mileage in vehicles compared to gasoline.

HYDEL POWER
Electricity is produced from water is called hydel power or hydel electricity. Water is stored in a dam and
then water is channelized/passed in a very high speed through the turbine blade which in turn rotates the
generator and produces electricity. It does not cause any pollution. It is a renewable source of energy.
Oldest hydel power in India is Darjeeling and shimsha EST. In 1898 and 1902.
Advantages:
-It is a clean, non-polluting source of energy. Water dosent gets polluted.
-Do not produce harmful gases causing pollution or global warming.
-It is a renewable source of energy, hence can be used again and again.
-Dam can store water can be used in need.
-Economical and sustainable as saves on fossil fuel.

Disadvantages:
-Cost of building hydroelectricity power project is very high.
-Building dam alters the natural water table level.
-Can cause serious damage to geologically triggering earthquake.
-Displacement of the people from their original habitat.

BHAKRA NANGAL DAM

The Bhakra nangal project is a joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan governments. The two dams,
one at Bhakra and one at Nangal is referred as Bhakra-Nangal project.
It consists of: -Two dams at Bhakra and nangal
-Nangal hydel plant
-Power houses
-Bhakra canal system.
1. Bhakra nangal dam is the 2nd height dam of India (226 meters) after Tehri dam (261 m), the
name of the reservoir of Bhakra dam is Gobind sagar. It has the storage capacity of 9.3 billion cubic
24
 meters; it is the third largest water reservoir in India after Indira sagar dam22.2 billion cu.m
(khandwa in MAH.) and Nagarjuna sagar dam in A.P.

2. Nangal dam: On river satluj at Nangal (Punjab).It is 64 km long and 44 m deep. 13 km

downstream of Bhakra.
3. Power House: 1204 MW power is generated from ganguwal, kotla, left bank power house
and right bank power house.
4. Bhakra canal system: irrigates 27.41 lakhs hectares of land in Punjab Haryana and
Rajasthan.

HIRAKUND DAM
Hirakund dam is built across the Mahanadi River, about 15 km from Sambhalpur in Odisha.
First multipurpose river valley projects started after India’s independence.
Completed in 1953, it is the longest major earthen dam in Asia, measuring 25.8 km. Main dam has length of
4.8 km. It is the largest artificial lake of Asia, with a reservoir holding 743 km square at full capacity, with a
shore line of over 639 km. There are two observation towers on the dam one at each side. One is Gandhi
minar and the other is Nehru minar. It produces 307.5 MW. It irrigates 75000 sq. Km of land.
Area irrigates places like district of sambalpur, Bargarh, Bolangir and Subarnpur. Power plants are Burla
and Chiplima. Provides flood protection to 9500 km square.

NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

25
Non-Conventional sources of energy are those which have been developed in the recent past as an
alternative to conventional sources of energy. These include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, and nuclear and
bio-gas.
1. SOLAR ENERGY:- We generate 5000 trillion kWh solar energy per year. We can harvest lot of solar
power due to the tropical location app. 300 clear sunny days in a year. Several techniques have been
developed to harness solar energy.
(i)Solar cells: Known as photo voltaic cells. Solar cells are made up of thin wafers of semi-conductor
materials silicon and gallium. These metals convert solar energy into electrical energy. Used widely in
calculators, watches, street lights, traffic signals, water pumps.
(ii) Solar Cookers: Solar cookers use solar heat by reflecting the solar radiations using a mirror on to a
glass sheet which covers the black insulated box. The raw food is kept in the box. The inside wall of the
sides are painted black for efficient absorption of light. The heat inside the box emits infra-red radiation to
which the glass window is opaque resulting into a cooked food. Spherical reflectors are more efficient in
heating fast.
(iii)Solar Water Heater: Sunlight is allowed to fall on the flat-plate collectors, which are shallow
rectangular trays filled with water and properly inclined so that the efficiency of collection is highest. It
consists of an insulated box painted black from inside and having a glass lid to collect and store solar heat.
Inside the box it has black painted copper coil through which cold water is made to flow in. The coil gets
heated and the water gets heated and flows into the storage tanks.
ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY:
-It is a renewable source of energy.
-It can produce electricity, distil water and power satellites in the space.
-less expensive and more reliable (for 20-25 years).
-Saves fossil fuel and reduces electricity bills.

2. WIND ENERGY
Wind is an inexpensive, reliable and non-polluting source of energy for generating electricity.
Generation of wind energy: It is obtained by use of wind mills. The blades of the wind mill rotates doe to
the wind, this motion of the blade drives a number of machines like water pumps, flourmills and electric
generators. Large number of wind mills are installed in a large area called wind farms. Installed in a coastal
regions, grassland or hilly regions. India is 6th largest Harvester of wind energy in the world after Germany,
Denmark, and USA. Spain and [Link] India largest wind farm is located in Tamil nadu (Nagarcoil to
Madurai). Gujarat, Andhra padesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Lakshadweep and Maharashtra harvest wind energy.

ADVANTAGES OF WIND ENERGY

-It is a renewable source of energy.
-Clean energy creates no pollution.
-reduces dependence on fossil fuel.
-Can reduce power bills and can be sold back to the local grid.

3. TIDAL ENERGY
This energy is harvested from tides of the ocean due to the rise and fall of waves due to the gravitational
force of the moon and the sun. This rise and fall of the ocean can be used to harvest power/energy.
Generation of Tidal energy:
Tidal energy can be harvested by constructing a tidal barrage. During High Tide Sea water flows into the
barrage and turns the turbines, which in turn produces electricity by rotating generators. Reverse process
takes place during the low tide. Only few sites of the world this energy can be harvested.
In India Prospective sited is Gulf of kutchh, cambay and sunder bans. Other sites are Andaman and Nicobar
Islands and Lakshadweep.

ADVANTAGES OF TIDAL ENERGY

26
-Tides are continuously available due to the moon and sun.
-One time investment after that only minor maintenance required.
-No pollution, it’s a clean energy source.

4. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
It is a heat energy contained in the hot rock and fluids that fills the fracture and pores within the rock in the
earth’s crust. It is a sustainable.
Resources of geothermal energy range from the shallow ground to steam, hot water and hot rock accessed by
drilling wells upto thousands of feet beneath the earth’s surface. The extremely high temperatures in the
deeper geothermal reservoirs and used for the generation of electricity. The high pressure stream spins the
turbine that rotates a generator and produces electricity.

Very hot steam from the earth Passed through the pipes to the turbine it rotates (turbine)

Electricity generated

Steam condenses and

cools turns into water

Water passed through the

pipe (injection well) back
to the hot layer of rocks.
ADVANTAGES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
-Easily accessible because of its extensive distribution.
-It is environment friendly. Has low emission of sulphur, carbon dioxide and other green house gases.
-It is independent of external supply.
-It is independent of weather and season.
Distribution in India:
-India has 12000 MW of geothermal power potential that can be harnessed.. Manikaran in Himanchal
Pradesh and Puga valley in Ladakh. Hot springs are the major locations for this energy. In India different
regions have such location where the spring temp. Varies from 35 degree to 98 degree Celsius. Himalayan
geothermal province, Naga-Lushai geothermal province, Andaman and Nicobar geothermal province,
Cambey graben, son-Narmada-Tapi graben, West coast, Damodar valley, Mahanadi valley, Godavari valley.

6. NUCLEAR POWER
Radioactive elements such as Uranium, Thorium and Plutonium are used to generate nuclear energy by the
splitting the atom.
GENERATION OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
Nuclear fission takes place due to the splitting of the radioactive atom. This fission reaction produces the
tremendous amount of heat and this heat is used to produce steam which turns the turbine to run motors and
generate electricity.
The two main types of nuclear reactors used to generate electricity are the:
PWR or Pressurised water reactor:- In this type of reactor water is not boiled but pressurized ,this heated
water is circulated through tubes in steam generators allowing the water in the steam generator to turn to
steam, which then turn the turbine.
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 BWR or boiling water reactor:- Water is boiled due to the heat produced by nuclear reaction and turns
into steam to turn the turbine.
In both systems water is reused.
Distribution:
-Fourth largest power generating mode in India. There are 21 nuclear reactors in operation. 7
of them have capacity of 5780 MW. Jharkhand has a source of uranium and thorium.
Monazite rocks in Kerala are rich in thorium.
ADVANTAGES:
-Nuclear energy reduces the amount of energy generated from fossil fuel. It reduces green
house gases.
-It saves raw material but also the transport.
-It produces electricity continuously.

BIOGAS
-It is composed of methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide. It is produced
by the anaerobic degradation of animal and plant waste in the presence of water. Residue left
after the gas production is used as green manure for agriculture. Bio-gas plants in villages
are also known as ‘gobar gas plant’. Gas is used to produce to light bulbs, pump water from
wells and cooking.
Generation of Biogas-A digester tank is placed underground. The digester tank receives the
dung-water mixture through inlet pipe while the other side discharges the spent slurry
through outlet pipe. In the digester tank there is a gas outlet which is controlled by the pipe.
WRRSE (Waste recycling and resources recovery programmes are now being used from the
organic plant waste and night soil.
ADVANTAGES
--It is a clean, non-polluting and cheap fuel.
-There is no storage problem. It is supplied directly.
-sludge left behind is used as fertilizer in agriculture.
Ministry of Non-Conventional energy sources (MNES) has been promoting the
biogas programme in India.

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA

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 Food and Cash crops
47% land is under cultivation in India and nearly 2/3rd of Indian population depends on agriculture, directly
or indirectly.
*Importance of agriculture in India:
-Provides food and fodder
-Source of raw material for many key industries e.g., sugar, textile and edible oil.
-Improvement in agricultural techniques increases the demand for tractors, harvesters, threshers, chemical
fertilizers and pesticides etc. Industries are set up to meet the demands. Thus supports many industries.
-Provides employment to millions of people.
-Many agricultural products are exported and exported and export of tea, tobacco, coffee, jute and cotton
bring in the much needed foreign exchange.

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE:

1. Dependence on monsoons: Indian agriculture has always been dependent on the arrival of
monsoon which is highly unreliable- both uncertain and irregular. The area under irrigation is
only one third of crop area. Remaining suffers.
2. Variety of Crops: India’s vast relief, varying climate and soil conditions produce a variety of
crops. Tropical, subtropical and temperate crops like wheat and barley are grown.
3. Preponderance of Food crops: Since India has to feed a large population, food crop is
cultivated in large scale than the other crops. More than 2/3 rd area of cultivation is under
food crop.
4. Seasonal Pattern: India has three main crop seasons which are most influenced by the
changing season:
(i)Kharif season: Ground is prepared in April-May and seeds are shown in June on arrival of
rain. Harvesting is done in the beginning of November. Major crops of this season are rice,
maize, jowar, bajra, cotton, sesame, groundnut, pulses and jute.
(ii)Rabi season: The ground is prepared by the end of October or beginning of November
and harvesting takes place in March. Major crops of this season are wheat, barley, jowar,
gram, oilseeds and tobacco.
(iii)Zaid season: It is the summer cropping season in which crops like rice, maize,
groundnut, vegetables and fruits are grown along with pulses.
PROBLEMS OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE:
(i) Small and fragmented land holding: are the most common features of Indian agriculture.
Intensive farming, increasing population and the practice of dividing and subdividing land for
inheritance are some of the drawbacks of our agriculture. A lot of fertile land is wasted in raising
boundaries. These small land holdings are not sufficient to support a large family.
(ii) Poor quality of seeds: Due to poverty, good quality of seeds is out of reach of a majority of
farmers because of their high prices. Poor qualities of seeds are responsible for the poor
productivity and quality.
(iii) Lack of proper use of manure and fertilizer: Manures and fertilizers are essential for retention
of the fertility of the soil. Unfortunately, continuous use of Indian soil without use of proper
manure has led to depletion and exhaustion of soil, resulting in low productivity.
(iv) Pests and Diseases: Protection of crops from various pests, diseases and insects is very essential.
Biocides (pesticides, herbicides and weedicides) are used to save crops from the diseases and
avoid losses. Too much use of pesticide has also depleted the soil.
(v) Traditional upbringing: Most of the Indian farmers still use the traditional method avoiding
scientific and research based methods hence the yield is subsistence type.
(vi) Heavy rainfall leads to erosion of fertile soil in many areas reducing the yield.
(vii) Erratic nature of rainfall: Unprecedented rainfall is a major threat for Indian agriculture. Flood
and Droughts are common due to the unequal distribution of rain.
(viii) Low yield: In India, average yield of crops is much lower as compared to
Other countries.
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SOLUTIONS TO INCREASE THE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY:
(i) Large land holdings to reduce the wastage of fertile agricultural land. For example; in the states
like Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra and Rajasthan consolidation of land holding is taking place.
(ii) Government of India established the national seeds corporation of India in 1963 to provide the
better quality seeds to the farmers at affordable price to increase the better yield.
(iii) Balanced use of manure and fertilizer is very important to retain the fertility of the soil.
(iv) Farmers should be educated about the use of biocides in a proper proportion otherwise soil may
get degraded and becomes less fertile.
(v) Modern method of farming such as use of HYV seeds, use of threshers and harvesters etc. should
be inculcated among farmers for better yield with environment friendly techniques.
(vi) Terrace farming, contour ploughing, crop rotation methods and also agro forestry should be
inculcated to check soil erosion due to the heavy rainfall or check dam should be built in slope
lands.
(vii) Alternate sources for irrigation is important such as building of tanks, wells, tube wells and
canals is important because rain is erratic in nature.
(viii) Education to the farmers about the manure, fertilizers, pesticides etc. to maintain the
sustainability of the agriculture.
TYPES OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA

1. SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE: It is the system of agriculture in which the farmer produces

exclusively for his own consumption without selling in the market. In India, agriculture is still of the
subsistence type. This involves the cultivation of crops like rice, wheat and pulses. It is of two types:
2. SHIFTING/ SLASH AND BURN/ JHOOMING: In this type of agriculture, mostly practiced in N-
E India, a patch of forest land is cleared by burning and crops are grown. After 2-3 years the fertility of
the soil is exhausted, the land is abundant and the farmers move to fresh piece of land and the process
contuse.

3. COMMERCIAL FARMING: It is a system of agriculture in which food crops are produced

specifically for sale in the market by using improved variety of seeds and machinery.
4. INTENSIVE FARMING: More than one crop is raised on the same farm. The farm size is small,
hence maximum utilization of the land is made by the use of intensive labour, irrigation facilities,
fertilizers and quality seeds to maintain high yield. This type of farming is widespread in the high
density of populated states like west Bengal, Bihar, U.P.
5. EXTENSIVE FARMING: When the size of the farms is very large and there are fewer people
working on the farms, extensive agriculture is carried on. Most of the work is done by large
agricultural machines. Extensive farming is most widespread in the north-west of India. Wheat, Rice
and Sugarcane are the main crops grown here.
6. MIXED FARMING: is a system of farming on a particular farm to sustain and satisfy the essential
needs of the farmers. It includes crop production and rising of livestock, poultry, fish and
beekeeping, etc. Both these activities play a very important role in the economy. Characteristics of a
mixed farming are:
-advanced technology is used for ploughing, sowing and harvesting of crops.
-quality seeds, modern machinery and proper use of chemical fertilizers give higher yield.
-crop rotation is a common practice. Root crops like beets turnip and legumes like beans and peas are
grown to maintain fertility of the soil.
7. PLANTATION FARMING: It is a system of agriculture located in a tropical
Or semi-tropical environment, producing commodities on a large scale. Plan-
-tation agriculture was introduced in India by the British in the 19th century.
This type of agriculture involves growing and processing of single cash
Crops purely meant for sale.
Large capital, vast extensive estates, managerial ability, technical know-how,

30
 Sophisticated farm machinery, fertilizers, good transport facilities etc are the
Main features of plantation farming. This type of agriculture is mainly practi-
-ced in Assam, Sub- Himalayan West Bengal in the North and in Nilgiri,
Anaimalai and cardamom hills. Crops such as Tea, Coconut, Oil palm, Spices
Banana, Cinchona and Rubber etc.

RICE
Rice is a kharif crop. It is tropical as well as sub-Tropical crop. It is the most important crop of India and
supports half of the population mainly in the north-east and the southern part of India. There are about
10,000 varieties of rice in the world out of which 4000 types are found in India.
-Soil required: Deep fertile clayey soil (Alluvial soil), Black lava soil, Deltaic soil, flood plains, coastal
plains. Rice does not need aerated soil.
-Climate required: average temperature 24 degree Celsius. It can grow in the range of 16 degree c to 32
degree c. Temperature during the growing season 16 degree c to 20 degree c and 18 degree c to 32 degree c
at the ripening stage. Needs plenty of sunshine.
-Rainfall: 150 cm to 200 cm. needs flooded fields during the growing season. Slight rain before ripening
helps in increasing the size of the grain.

FOLLOWING METHODS OF RICE CULTIVATION ARE PRACTICED IN INDIA:

(I)BROADCASTING METHOD: This method involves sowing the seeds by sprinkling them all over the
field by hands. This method is generally used to sow inferior quality of seeds, hence the yield is low.
(II) DIBBLING: In this method seeds are droped at regular intervals in the furrows made by the farmers
with the help of plough.
(III) DRILLING METHOD: While using the plough, seeds are dropped through a bamboo shaft attached
to it, in the furrows made by the plough in a straight line.
-This method, though saving wastage of seeds, is very time consuming. It is mostly used in Tamil Nadu.
Some times seeds are soaked in water for a few hours before sowing. It helps in quick germination
especially where the soil is not moist enough.
(IV) TRANSPLANTATION: This method is practiced in the areas of fertile soil, abundant rainfall, plenty
of sunshine and large number of labours. First seeds are sown in nurseries after soaking them in water for 24
hours. After 4 weeks when the seedlings are about 20 cm tall, they are uprooted and are planted in the
flooded fields so that they can grow again. This entire process is done by hand, so large numbers of people
are required to work.

ADVANTAGE: Lot of labour is required which is easily available. When re-sowing, the weeds are
removed. There is less wastage of seeds as in broadcasting.

(V) JAPANESE METHOD OF CULTIVATION: Use of good quality of seeds and raising it in nursery
beds. Transplantation is done in rows to make weeding and fertilizing easy. Manure is used to achieve high
yield. This method yields 3 times more than the other methods.

HARVESTING: Harvesting is done by hand. The cut-crop is left in the field to dry for a period of about 3-
4 days. After that it is threshed and trampled by bullocks to separate the kernel from the seed. The rice is
then sent for polishing. By polishing, the rice may look better but important nutrients are lost in the process.
Hand pounded rice is thus considered better and more nutritious.
REGIONS OF RICE CULTIVATION:
Largest producer of rice is West Bengal. Per hectare yield is highest in Tamil nadu.
Other areas of production are Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh, Bihar.

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 WHEAT
Wheat is the most important food grain of Indians. Especially in the north & North West of India. India is
the second largest producer of wheat in the world after China. Wheat is a temperate crop. It is grown in
winter and harvested in March / April; hence it is a Rabi crop.
TYPES: On the basis of geographical variations, two varieties of wheat are grown in India:
(a) The Normal Bread variety: grown in irrigated land where the soil is loamy and clayey in nature.
Mostly cultivated in Punjab, Harayana and Uttar Pradesh.
(b) Harder variety, Macaroni Wheat: grows well in clayey black soil in areas of high rainfall. It is
mostly grown in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and western Andhra Pradesh.
SOIL: Wheat grows well in well-drained, fertile, loamy, alluvial soils of clayey composition. Mostly
cultivated in indo-ganga tic plain. Black cotton soil in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh is also well suited
for wheat cultivation. It needs a lot of fertilizers.

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS REQUIRED:

*TEMPERATURE- Wheat is a crop of mid latitudes (temperate regions) and requires a cool climate with
moderate rainfall.
- It needs 10 to 15 c at the time of sowing, but as the harvesting time approaches higher temperature is
required to help ripening. But sudden rise in the temperature is harmful.
- In India, winter temperature of north India provides more favourable conditions.
-In south and north east, temperature conditions are not so favourable hence wheat cannot be grown.
*RAINFALL- Wheat needs 50 to 100 cm rainfall during the growing season. It can be cultivated in the
areas of low rainfall 20cm- 25cm if proper irrigation is provided. Little rain before harvesting is ideal and
helps in higher yield. Frost at flowering time and hail at the time of ripening can cause heavy damage to the
wheat crop.

*METHOD OF CULTIVATION: Field is prepared by the end of November and crops are harvested in
March. Enough moisture is present in the soil due to the kharif crop.
- Seeds are sown by Broadcasting, dibbling and drilling methods.
*HARVESTING: Crop is harvested before the summer heat begins in March and the grain hardens and
straw becomes brittle. Harvesting is done by sickle and now by machine
AREA/STATE: Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of wheat in India accounting over 34 % of the
production. U.P, Haryana and Punjab put together are called “granary of India”. This has been possible due
to the green revolution in 60’s.
Supply of HYV seeds, proper use of chemical fertilizers and excellent irrigation system provided by
a close network of canals and effective pest control measures have contributed significantly to the increase
in wheat production.
-U.P is the leading producer of wheat because:
*Large area under cultivation.
*Fine alluvial soil deposited by the mighty Ganga and several other tributaries.
*Large network of canals wells and tube wells.
*50 cm to 100 cm rainfall, also rainfall during winter 3cm to 10 cm.
*Jowar and bajra is rotated with wheat which helps in the fertility of the land.

PULSES (RABI CROP)

Pulses are an important Indian diet because it supplies proteins to the vegetarian.
It is a leguminous plant with root nodules which have the capacity to fix and use atmospheric nitrogen in the
soil and are rotated with other crops to maintain or restore soil fertility.
-It provides excellent food for cattle.
-Tur (arhar), urad (Black gram), moong (green gram), masoor (lentil), matar (peas) are some of the
major pulses of India.

32
-Pulses are Rabi crops cultivated during the September to November and harvested during February
to April
SOIL: Dry, light and loamy soil.
TEMPERATURE: 20 degree Celsius to 30 degree Celsius.

RAINFALL: 50 cm to 75 cm.
METHOD OF SOWING: Dibbling method.
Major Producers: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar.

MILLETS (KHARIF CROP)

Jowar, bajra and Ragi
Millets are grown in inferior areas where main crops like rice and wheat cannot be cultivated. Grown in
kharif season. Grains are round provides food for poor and stalk and stem are used as fodder for cattle.
Jowar is also known as sorghum. Millets are drought resistant crop plants cultivated in the drier parts of the
country, especially on the Deccan plateau where rainfall is poor and unreliable. It can be cultivated in
uplands of altitude 1200 meter also in plain areas.

SOIL: Loamy, sandy and clayey deep regur soil and alluvium are the best.
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS
Temperature- 26 to 33
RAINFALL: 50 TO 120 cm

PLANTATION CROP
*BEVERAGES
TEA
-Tea is a tropical and sub tropical plant.
-Indigenous to china but in 1823, British Major Robert Brusce reported that indigenous tea bushes grew wild
on the hill slopes of upper Assam. Later on plantation was set up in brahamaputra valley by the British in
1839. In south tea plantation was set up in Nilgiri hills.

*Types/ Varieties: There are three varieties of Tea available:

Black Tea, Green Tea, Oolong tea. Black tea is planted in India (south Asia)
*SOILS: well drained, deep, friable loams with porous sub soil. Humus and Iron content is considered to be
best for tea plantation. Large proportion of phosphorus and potash imparts special flavour to tea (ex: tea of
Darjeeling). In order to increase the yield proper amount of nitrogenous fertilizer such as ammonium
sulphate should be added to the soil.
NOTE: tilling of the soil at regular interval is required to remove the weeds is essential. Grows in a hill
slopes of about 600 m to 1500 m because water logging is harmful.

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS:
TEMPERATURE: 13 to 35 degree Celsius. Tem above 35 and below 10 degree is harmful for the crop.
Alternate cool and warm waves are helpful. Tea is a shade loving plant.

RAINFALL: 150 to 250 cm rainfall is required. High humidity, heavy dew and morning for favour the
rapid development of young leaves.

METHODS:
There are two main methods for tea.
-On the cleared hill slopes tea gardens are set up. First the shade providing trees like silver oak, jack fruit
and dalap are planted in advance for 1 year. Seeds are sown in germination beds for 9 months then the
saplings are transplanted to the garden under the shade of the pre existing planted trees.
33
-In other method cutting from the good yielding mother plant instead of seeds are used. This method is
called clone planting. These small cuttings are planted in the nurseries where special care is taken. After
some days they are transplanted to tea garden. Use of fertilizers and time to time weeding is done.

HARVESTING:
Pruning is done and is essential for two reasons
-rapid growth of the lateral branches and the periodic pruning does not allow plants to grow more than 40-
50 cm which helps in plucking mainly done by women.
-more new shoots grow which increases production.
Tea is ready for plucking in 3-4 years of its plantation. Plucking is done manually by an skilled women’s
who can pluck 50 kg average in a day. It is a labour intensive work. ‘Fine plucking’ is done which means
plucking the bud along with two soft leaves. This part gives a very good flavour of the tea. Tea crop is
labour intensive and requires abundant supply of cheap and skilled labour.

PROCESSING:
Black tea involves five operations:
*Withering:- Tea leaves are spread over the racks and the warm air is passes through them to remove
excessive moisture. They become soft and are ready for rolling.
*Rolling;-Gives the twist to the leaf, breaks the leaf cells and the natural juice is exposed to the atmosphere.
Now the leaves are ready for fermentation.
*Fermentation:-Tea leaves are spread over a cement tables for fermentation. During this process tannin in
the tea is partly oxidised and the leaf changes its colour to copper red.
*Drying/ Fixing: After fermentation tea leaves are put on a conveyer belt and are passed through an oven at
a very high temperature. This needs proper supervision as excessive temperature will scorch the leaves while
the low temperature will result improper drying. After this process tea leaves get back their normal black
colour and are ready for sorting.
*Sorting: After drying the leaves are sorted out in various grades with the help of sifters and different sizes
of meshes. After sorting they are given the brand names denoting the size of the leaves.
Above mention method is old method of processing. Now CTC method is used which includes Crushing
Tearing and Curling done by the same machine.
BLENDING: Tea is greatly affected by the type of climate it is grown in. Thus by blending, the tea planter
prepares his own brand to supply his customers on the basis of its flavour, colour and texture. Each brand
has its own flavour and the blend is a closely guarded secret.
PACKING: Plywood cases with a lining of aluminium foil paper are used to keep the tea fresh and retain its
flavour. After packing the tea chests are marked and sent to the nearest port for export.
AREAS OF TEA CULTIVATION:
Areas: North-east India and South India.
North-East India: largest producer is Assam 40 % tea is cultivated, Manipur, Tripura, and Arunachal
Pradesh

West Bengal: is the second largest producer

In South India: In Nilgiri, Palni and Annamali hills. Tamil nadu, kerala and Karnataka.
IMPORTANCE OF TEA IN INDIA:
-India is the largest producer of Tea in the world providing employment to over a million workers.
-It earns a lot of Foreign exchange for the country.

COFFEE
It is the second most important beverage of India. It is a popular drink of south India .It was first planted by
the Britishers in Karnataka in 1830. It is cultivated in south India in the hills of cardamom, palni and

34
Annamalai, Nilgiris. Indian coffee is well known for its quality and is in much demand in international
market. India exports coffee to USA, UK and Other countries.

TYPES / VARIETIES: Coffee Arabica, Coffee Robusta, Coffee Liberica

SOIL: Coffee crop needs well drained rich friable loams containing a good deal of humus and minerals like
iron and calcium. The soil must be properly manured to retain and replenish fertility and increase
productivity. Therefore, Lava soil, red soil and laterite soil of Deccan is best suited for coffee plantations.
Coffee grows well between 600 m to 1500 m above sea level.

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS:

TEMPERATURE: -Coffee requires temperature between 15 degree to 28 degree Celsius. Direct rays of the
sun are harmful so it is cultivated under the shade.
RAINFALL: 125cm to 200 cm. Well distributed throughout the year. Stagnant water is harmful hence, are
cultivated in the hill slopes. Drought, snowfall or very high temperature is harmful. Dry weather is necessary
for the ripening of coffee.

METHODS OF CULTIVATION:
SOWING: Coffee plants are grown on mountain terraced slopes so that water does not stagnate. In the early
stage, it is grown under shady trees such as dalap, silver oak and jack fruit which are planted one year before
the seeds are sown.
The seeds are sown in nursery beds in rows and after 45 days are transplanted to the fields. Interplanting of
many fruit trees such as orange, cardamom, and pepper vines are done. Honey bees are also reared to
pollinate the flowers.
HARVESTING: After 3 years of planting coffee plant starts bearing fruit and continues for 30 to 50 years.
Coffee plant is pruned when they attain a height of 3-4 meters. Harvested branch is pruned for fresh fruit.
Plucking takes place in October/ November after monsoon.
PROCESSING:
WET METHOD: It is called parchment coffee method or Plantation coffee method. This done by pulping,
fermenting, washing, and drying.
DRY METHOD: Cherry method/ Native method. In this method berries are dried in the sun then the
covering is removed and seeds are pounded to remove the outer covering. At last roasting is done in both the
methods which give it a brown colour and pleasant taste.
AREAS OF CULTIVATION:
Karnataka is the largest producer; nearly 60% of the total production is done. Mostly it is produced in
shimoga, Hassan, and chikmagalur district.
In Kerala Malappuram, Kollam, Palghat. Nearly 20 % coffee comes from kerala.
In Tamilnadu in Nilgiri district. 15% IS cultivated.

SUGARCANE (KHARIF CROP)

-Most important cash crop of India. It belongs to the bamboo family and is indigenous to India.
-It is a tropical crop grown in kharif season.
-Products are like gur, khandsari, and sugar.

SOIL: Alluvial clayey loams of the Indo-gangatic plains are ideal for its growth. In south it is grown in
black soil, or laterite. Nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus are essentially required. Acidic or alkaline soil is
harmful for the plant. High amount of fertilizers and manures are required because it exhausts the fertility of
the soil quickly and extensively.

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS:

35
TEMPERATURE: 20 degrees to 30 degrees average. Very high or very low temperature is harmful for the
plant. Short cool, dry, winter season is ideal for harvesting. Frost is harmful therefore harvesting in north is
done before extreme cold weather starts.
RAINFALL: 75 cm to 120 cm. Waterlogging is harmful. It takes long duration of about 15 to 18 months to
mature.

METHODS OF CULTIVATION:
SOWING: ground is prepared in advance by ploughing and harrowing (breaking up soil) and adding the
large amount of natural manure.
Seed plantation method of sugarcane has become obsolete.
At present a new ‘setts’ method is used. Sugarcane is a long bamboo like stem with several joints. For
preparing the setts the sugarcane of healthy and well-mature is cut into several pieces at the joints. These are
known as setts. They are planted in well prepared, matured furrows at regular intervals. Weeds are cleared
periodically and soil is gathered around the plants. The plants start growing in two weeks. Rainfall and
irrigation is essential to keep the soil moist.
RATOONING: Sugarcane research institute Coimbatore in Tamilnadu introduced a new method called
‘ratooning’. In this method, after the first crop, the sugarcane is cut leaving the root intact in the soil. The
lower part of the root is well fertilized. The stem begins to grow again.
ADVANTAGES OF RATOONING:
-No plantation required, Ratoons have short maturation period, it is a cheap method because extra
investment is not required.
DISADVANTAGES:
-Productivity decreases with succession. Only one or two ratoon crops are harvested. Crop may be affected
by various pests and diseases. Fungal Diseases like red rot, smut, rust and ratoon stunting may occur.

PROCESSING: It should be sent for processing within 48 hours otherwise sucrose content falls. That’s
why most of the sugar factories are located close to the plantation area.

HARVESTING: when the new leaves stop coming and leaves at the lower stem begin to go yellow. The
sugarcane is cut at the ground level leaving just the root because sugar content is concentrated at the lower
stem. The sugar cane should be harvested before the flower appears.
CHARECTRISTICS:
-Sugarcane juice is extracted by crushing the cane by using machines or bullocks. Juice is boiled without
delay adding lime to remove impurities.

USES: About 50% of the cane is used to make gur or jaggery by boiling and 30% of the produce is used for
making white sugar. Sugarcane juice is also a popular drink during summer.
Molasses: It is dark brown syrup like liquid which is left after the recrystallization of sugar. It is used as
organic fertilizers, cattle feed, fuel for mills and as raw material in the manufacturing of paper, fibre board
and synthetic fibres etc.
Bagasse: It is crushed sugarcane after the juice has been extracted.
Press mud: Polish and carbon papers used for the wax. It is used as organic fertilizer, cattle-feed, fuel for
mills and as raw materials in the manufacturing of paper, fibre-board and synthetic fibres in textile industry.

AREAS OF CULTIVATION: India has the largest area under cultivation in the world and is the second
largest producer after Brazil.
(i) In the north, the satluj-ganga plain from Punjab to Bihar accounts for 50% of the production.
(ii) In the south, the black soil belt from Maharashtra to Tamilnadu along the eastern slope of the
Western Ghats.
(iii) Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Krishna Valley.
Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of sugar and other states are Punjab and Bihar.

36
In south India Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil nadu and Andhra Pradesh are the major sugarcane growing
areas.
SUGAR CANE CULTIVATION IN NORTH INDIA:
-In north range of temp. is 20 to 30 degrees some time whether becomes extreme.
-rainfall is high 120 cm to 150 cm. Irrigation is available due to the network of canals and tube wells.

SUGAR CANE CULTIVATION IN SOUTH INDIA;

-In the south climatic conditions are ideal with the absence of loo during summer and frost free days are
available because of maritime climate.
-Black lava soil is water retentive which is an ideal soil for sugarcane also black soil is fertile.
-Better methods, manure and fertilizers are used for cultivation.
Hence, the per hector production of sugarcane in south India is double than in the north.

RUBBER
It is a tropical crop. It is used in making tyres, shoes, belts, pharmaceutical products foam mattresses and
cushions. In India its cultivation started in 1902. Seed was brought from Brazil.

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS REQUIRED:

*Temperature:- It needs a hot an wet climate. Temperature should be over 25 degrees and not below 21
degree Celsius.

*Rainfall: It needs heavy rainfall ranging between 150 to 250 cm. Low variation in humidity and
temperature is required.

*Soil: Well drained soil. Laterite soil in the hill slopes is required.
METHODS:
-First high grade rubber seeds are grown in nurseries. When the plant attains a height of about 30 cm, they
are brought to well prepare land for plantation.
-Trees are planted in a row about 10 meters apart.
-Seven or eight years after planting, the trees become mature and attain a height of about 30 meters and a
girth of about 50 to 60 cm.
-At this stage tapping is started by making V- Shaped cuts on the bark about half a meter above the ground.
-The cuts are slanting and extended half way round the circumference of the trunk of the tree. At the base
cups are kept to collect the latex. Which are collected daily or in alternate days.
-Tapping is suspended during the leaf fall period of January –February because at that time yield is low.
Also, suspended during the heavy rainfall. Days vary from 200 to 300 days in a year.
-After tapping collected latex is transported to the factories for processing where vulcanization is done to
make it soft by treating it with sulphur.
AREAS OF PRODUCTION:
-Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka are the principle states producing rubber.
-91% is cultivated in kerala. 5% in Tamilnadu and 4% in Karnataka.
-India is the third largest producer of rubber after Thailand and Brazil.

COTTON
Cotton is the most important commercial crop of India. India is the fourth largest producer of cotton but
shares only 10% of the world production occupying the largest area under cultivation due to the low yielding
variety seeds.
TYPES: There are three types on the basis of its fibres length. Less than 2.2cm, between 2.2 to 2.8cm and
above 2.8 cm. India. India mainly grows less and medium staple cotton.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS REQUIRED:
37
TEMPERATURE: 20 c to 35 c
RAINFALL: 80 cm to 120 cm. It can be cultivated in the low rainfall area by irrigation. Abundant sunshine
is required during the growth. Frost is harmful.
SOIL: Well drained alluvial soil and black soil of Deccan.
METHOD OF CULTIVATION: Shown from April to august and is harvested between October and
March. Drilling method is used to show the seed. Weeding is essential during growth. It grows to a height of
meter or 1 and half meter. It takes about 6 months to form a cotton ball and burst. As soon as the cotton ball
bursts it is quickly picked hence large manual labour is required. After collecting the cotton balls seeds are
separated by GINNING and send for further processing of seed and cotton.

USES: Cotton seeds are used to make vanaspati ghee, pharmaceutical products, margarine, oil cake for
cattle feed and manure.

JUTE
Jute is a tropical fibre plant which grows well in the delta region of the ganga-brahamaputra. India is the
second largest producer after Bangladesh. It is known as the Golden fibre of India since its products are an
important foreign exchange earner. The jute plant grows to a height of 2-4 meters. It has a spear-like
appearance round 1 inch stems. Fibre is obtained from the inner bark of the stem.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS REQUIRED:
Temperature: The jute plants need high temperature. The best temperature is 34 degree Celsius but it can
grow with a minimum temperature of 27 degree Celsius. It also needs high relative humidity of 80% to 90%.
Rainfall: Heavy rainfall of about 170 cm to 200 cm is required evenly distributed during the growing
period. Drought is harmful to the crop.
Soil: Sandy and clay loam is best for its cultivation. It grows well in alluvial soil in the flood plains and a
delta of river which is renewed every year since jute plants depletes the fertility of the soil rapidly. That is
why it grows well in deltaic soil.
METHODS OF CULTIVATION:
Sowing: March to June. Seeds are either broadcasted, or drilling method is used.
Harvesting: It becomes ready by 4-6 months. i.e. August to November. Plants are cut close to the root or
uprooted if the ground is flooded.
Processing:
(i) Harvested plants are left for 2-3 days for the leaves to dry up and shed. Then they are tied in bundles 20
cm -25 cm thick.
(ii)Then those bundles are immersed in soft running water for 2-3 weeks. This is known as retting. After the
tenth day, the stalks are checked. If the fibres slip out easily when the stalk is pressed between the finger and
thumb. The retting process in considered complete.
(iii) After the retting process is complete, fibres are obtained from the stalk by taking ten to twelve stalks at
a time and beating them with wooden mallet to loosen the fibres. The fibres are then washed in clean water
and wrung. They are then spread out in the sun to dry.
(iv) After the fibres are dry they are made into bundles, sorted out according to quality and pressed into
bales of 180 kg and shipped to manufacturer. For the local or domestic use bales are between 55 to 150 kg.
AREAS OF CULTIVATION:
West Bengal produces 62% of the total production, because of the hot and humid climate throughout the
year, heavy rainfall above 200 cm, flat land with plenty of water for retting. Jute is also cultivated in Bihar,
Assam and Orissa.
NOTE: Mesta is a substitute for jute. It has coarser fibre and is inferior to jute in quality and strength. It can
be use to make coarser sacks and bags. Since it can tolerate drier condition, it can be grown in areas
unsuitable for the cultivation of jute. It is cultivated in Bihar, Assam, orissa, Tamilnadu, Maharashtra and
kerala.
USES : Jute is often called as brown paper bag of wholesale trade due to the wide spread use of jute fabric
for wrapping bales of cotton and wool and rice, wheat, sugar, pulses, fertilizer. It is also used to manufacture
carpets, rugs, tarpaulins, upholstery, ropes and strings.
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 OIL SEEDS
India is the leading oil seed producing country in the world. Except palm oil and olive oil, India grows all
the major oil seeds.
Economic use of oil seeds in India:
People are becoming more health conscious there for vegetable oil is in more demand in the international
market.
1. It is a necessary part of our diet. Over 80% of the vegetable oil production is used as food and the rest is
consumed by industries. Linseed oil is in more demand for industrial purposes such as paints, varnishes,
lubricants and seasonal wood.
2. Its industries provide large scale employment to the people.
3. Oil cake is a fodder for cattle’s. It can also be used as fertilizer for the crops

(I) GROUNDNUT:
India is the 2nd largest producer of groundnut in the world after china. It is a tropical kharif crop. Shown in
June & July and harvested in October-November. In Tamil nadu It is shown in Feb-march and harvested in
June-July. It is a Rabi crop in Odisha. There are two types of groundnuts on the basis of its cultivation bunch
type and runner type.
Rainfall: 50-100cm and Temperature: 20-30 degree Celsius Soil: Well drained sandy-loam and black soil.
Soil should be porous so that water does not remain stagnant.
Gujarat is the largest producer. Apart from it, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra-paradesh, Tamil nadu,
Telengana, Madhyapradesh.
USES: Groundnut is used for manufacturing soap, artificial leather and medicinal emulsions.

(II) MUSTERD SEEDS:

Mustard is important edible oil. Used widely in northern India for cooking. Oil cake is used for cattles.
Mustard leafs are eaten as vegetables. It consists of 25 to 43 % oil. It is Rabi crop widely cultivated in
northern satluj-ganga plain. It is grown mixed with wheat, gram and barley.
Temperature: 10 c to 20 c. Rainfall: 80 cm to 150 cm. Soil: Alluvial soil.
States: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan.

(III)Soya bean-High in protein content. The bean may be eaten as vegetables or made into soya sauce. It
is used as a substitute for animal protein. It is consumed as soya milk and tofu.
Climate required:
-It is a kharif crop. Shown in June. Heavy rainfall is harmful hence taken care.
Temperature required- 13 to 24 degree Celsius.
Rainfall- 40cm to 60 cm & should be distributed throughout the growing season.
Soil- Can be grown in friable loamy acidic soil.
Methods of cultivation-
-Soyabean plantation needs 3-4 time irrigation during the growing period. It is sown in June and harvested in
October.
Distribution- Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra.

AGRO-BASED AND MINERAL BASED INDUSTRIES

39
(i)Agro-based Industries: Sugar, Cotton, Silk, Woollen and Jute textiles:

Sugar Industry:
India is known as the homeland of sugar. Dutch introduced it in 1840 in north Bihar but could not succeed. Later in
1903 Britishers took initiative in the north east of uttar Pradesh and adjoining Bihar.
Factors responsible for the location of the sugar industry in India.
1. Sugarcane is produced in India in large number.
2. Sugarcane is a heavy perishable raw material and therefore it has to be crushed within 24 hours, else the
sucrose content is reduced.
3. Most of the industries are located in the vicinity of sugarcane –growing areas, especially within a radius of 25
km.
4. If the industry is very far than the sugarcane cultivating area than gur is produced from the cane.
Products and by- products of sugarcane Industry:
Products: There are three types of sugar made from the sugarcane juice.
(a) Gur or Jaggery (by boiling sugarcane juice).
(b) Khandsari (is made by the age –old method of separating molasses from sucrose.
(c) White sugar from sugar factories.
By-Products:
(a)Molasses- is used for the manufacturing of fertilizer, DDT, Alcohol, synthetic rubber, plastic, rum, chemicals and
cattle feed.
(b)Bagasse- is the residue of crushed cane and serves as the raw material for paper industry; also used for making
cardboard.
(c) Press mud- is used for making wax, shoe polish and carbon paper.
Problems faced by the sugar industry:
(a)Low and irregular supply of raw material.
(b)Fluctuation in the output of sugarcane.
(c)Short crushing season.
(d)Small and uneconomic size of sugar mills.
(e) Old and obsolete machinery
(f)Non-use of by-products.
Difference between the sugar industry of northern and peninsular India.
Sugar industry is shifting from north to south India because of the following reason;
(a)Peninsular India has tropical climate which is ideal for growing sugarcane. The black soil, higher temperature, good
amount of rainfall or irrigation and frost free growing season are best suited geographical conditions which give
higher yield per unit as compared to north India.
(b)The sucrose content is higher in the tropical variety of sugarcane in the south.
(c)The crushing season is longer in south than in the north. For example, the crushing season in north is only 4 months
from November to February, whereas it is 7-8 months in south, where it starts in October and continues till may and
June.
(d)The cooperative sugar mills are better managed in south than in the north.
(e)In south, most of the mills are new and hence, are equipped with modern machinery.
Places of sugar industry in north:
U.P – Meerut, Modinagar, Ghaziabad Haryana - Rohtak
Bihar – Munger, Motihari Punjab – Phagwara

In south:
Maharashtra – Nashik, Solapur Karnataka – Mysore, dharwar
Tamil nadu – Madurai, Quilon Andhra Pradesh – Nizamabad, Pithapura

Cotton Industry:
The first cotton textile mill was setup in Mumbai in 1854 by a local parsi entrepreneur C.N Dewar. Demand rose in
the first and the Second World War, but in 1947 when most of the cotton growing areas went to Pakistan as a result of

40
the partition. At present cotton textile manufacture is the largest organised modern industry in India. Largest numbers
of mills are situated in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamilnadu.
(a)Maharashtra: It is the largest producer of cotton textile in India. Mumbai is also known as the cottonopolis of India
because:
1) Black cotton soil is favourable for the production of cotton.
2) Humid climate due to nearby sea provides strength to the fibre.
3) TATA Hydroelectric grid provides cheap electricity.
4) Import of Machinery, and long staple cotton and also export of the finished goods is easy due to port.
5) Skilled and unskilled labours are easily available.
6) Ready market is available in India and in foreign countries.
7) Supply of soft water for dyeing and bleaching is easily available.
8) Banking facility easily available.
Cotton textile mills in Maharashtra: Mumbai, Pune, Jalgaon, Kohlapur

(b)Gujarat: is the second largest producer of cotton textile in India. It accounts 23% of the mill cloth production.
Ahmedabad has 73 mills out of 118 in Gujarat. Factors responsible for the concentration of textile industry in
Ahmedabad are:
1) It is situated at the centre of the cotton producing area; hence raw material is easily available.
2) Humid climate favours the fibre strength.
3) It has port like Kandla and Mundra and also Mumbai in Maharashtra.
4) Cheap clothes are produced therefore ready markets are available.
Gujarat textile mills: Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Surat, Rajkot, Porbandar, Morvi, Bhavnagar

(c)Tamil Nadu: also produces cotton textile.

1) Although Tamilnadu produces only about 6% of mill cloth of India, the state excels in yarn production and
accounts for nearly 1/3rd of the total yarn production of the country.
2) Its also known as the Manchester of south India.
Tamil nadu textile mills: Coimbatore, Madurai, Salem, Ramanathapuram

Problems of cotton textile industry:

(a) Scarcity of raw material: Continuous supply of the raw material is not available.
(b) Obsolete Machinery: Old machines.
(c) Inadequate power supply: Continuous power supply is a issue.
(d) Stiff competition with synthetic fibre industry and other countries.
(e) Sick mills: Losses due to above problems forced the mills to shut down.

Silk Industry
India has been well-known for production of silk since ancient times. India has unique distinction of producing all the
four varieties of silk, viz. mulberry, tasser, eri and munga
.The tough competition with Italy and Japan caused a setback to Indian silk industry. The synthetic fibres and artificial
silk being less expensive has been in competition with pure silk.
The art of rearing silk from the silk worm is called the sericulture. Sericulture has two type of industry one
mulberry and another non- mulberry. Mulberry sector produces 90% of natural silk. The areas of production are
Karnataka, west Bengal, Kashmir and himanchal Pradesh. Karnataka produces 70 % of the mulberry silk. Important
centres are Mysore, Bangalore, and kolar. West Bengal produces 13% of total production and in Jammu Kashmir
Anantnag, Baramula,Udhampur.
Non- Mulberry silk: such as munga, tassar, and eri are produced in Assam, Bihar, Orissa and Meghalaya. However,
good quality tassar alone is produced in Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal. In Assam munga silk is known as Pat and
is usually used for ceremonial dress by the people.
KARNATAKA is a major producer because:
1) Favourable climate for rearing of the silkworms.
2) Mulberry plant is available as a plantation bush.
3) Availability of the silkworm known as Bombyxmori which is reared throughout the year.
4) Availability of soft water free from alkaline salt and iron.
5) Skilled labours mainly women are there to rear the silk.

41
Note: Please read from the text book page no.214 to 217.
(ii) Mineral Based Industries: Iron and Steel, Petro-chemicals and electronic and heavy
engineering:
Iron and steel Industry:
*Iron and steel industry plays an important role in the development of the country. Consumption of the steel is the
index of the economic development of the country. It is the foundation of modern machines, tools, transportation.
Also is important for making infrastructures, bridges, agricultural implements, and many other products of daily use.
*It supplies large number of industries such as engineering, automobiles, shipbuilding, and machine tools etc, also
widely used to make defence equipments.
*Iron is widely used because of its durability, toughness and low coast of production.
Note:
 Location of almost all the steel plants are in the east including the state of orissa, chattisgarh, jharkhand and
also the coal mines are closely found in this region making a suitable place for steel industries.
 Visveswaraya Iron and Steel works at bhadravati and Salem steel plants are major exceptions which are
located far away from the main coal producing areas of the country.
 Vizag steel plant produces mainly for the ship building industry at Vishakhapatnam.
 India has 11 integrated steel plants, 173 mini steel plants. Except TISCO ‘now known as TATA steel’ all the
big steel plants are managed by SAIL (Steel Authority of India Limited).

INTEGRATED STEEL PLANTS:

An integrated steel plant is one where all the processes are carried out in one complex that is from melting of iron in
the blast furnace to steel making followed by shaping of the metals by rolling. These steel plants use raw material like
Iron ore, coal, limestone, dolomite, coke etc.
Major Iron and Steel plants
The iron and steel industry of India consists 11 integrated plants, 145 mini steel plants and a number of rolling mills.
Except TISCO, Jamshedpur, all the integrated plants are in the public sector and are managed and supervised by the
steel authority of India Limited (SAIL).
1. TATA IRON AND STEEL COMPANY:
Location: Jamshedpur. It is the oldest plant in the country. Rivers Kharkai and Subarnarekha supply water.
Availability of Raw material: Iron ore from Mayurbhanj (Orissa) and Singhbhum (Jharkhand). Manganese from
Joda in Keonjhar (Orissa), Limestone, Dolomite and Fire clay from Jharia and Bokaro coal fields.
Power Supply: Coal is supplied from Jharia and Bokaro coal fields.
Water Supply: River Kharkai and River Subarnarekha supply water throughout the year for cooling purpose.
Labour force: From Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Bengal and U.P.
Market: Kolkota for domestic and export.
Transport Facilities: Roads and Rails are connected. Eastern railway supports the transport.
Products: High grade carbon steel, Railway wheels, axels, bars, rods, sheets. It produces special alloy steel used for
making bullet-proof armour plates.

2. BOKARO STEEL PLANTS:

Bokaro steel plant was established in collaboration with the USSR in 1964 (production started in 1972)
Location: Hazaribag distt. Of Jharkhand. (Near the confluence of river Bokaro and the [Link].
Raw Materials: Coal from Bokaro and Jharia. Iron ore from Keonjhar (Orissa). Limestone from Bhavantpur and
Dolomite from Palamau (Jharkhand).
Power Supply: Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).
Water Supply: Damodar River reservoir.
Products: Pig iron, Crude Steel, Sludge and Slag is used in making fertilizers at sindri.
3. DURGAPUR STEEL PLANT:
Durgapur steel plant (w. Bengal) was technically assisted by UK .
Location: It is situated along the Damodar River in Burdwan district of West Bengal.
Raw Material: Iron ore from Singhbhum and Keonjhar (orissa). It gets coal from Jharia (Jharkhand), and Raniganj
(W.B), Manganese from Keonjhar (orissa), and Limestone from Sundergarh (orissa).
Power Supply: Coal from Jharia and Power is supplied by DVC.
Water Supply: Damodar River

42
Transport Facilities: Kolkota –Delhi rail line is connected and Water ways connection to the kolkota port through
Hoogly River.
Labour Force: Orissa, Bihar, and Jharkhand.
Products: Railway items like Wheel, axels, and sleepers, etc. It produces by products like crude coal tar, ammonium
sulphate, crude benzol, etc.

3. BHILAI IRON AND STEEL PLANT:

Bhilai steel plant was established in collaboration with the USSR in 1953.
Location: Durg district of kolkota.
Availability of raw materials: iron ore is supplied from Dalhi and Rajhara mines. Limestone from Nandini,
Manganese from Balaghat.
Power Supply: Coal from Bokaro and Jharia and power from Thermal power station at Korba.
Water Supply: Tendula reservoir
Transport facility: Mumbai-Nagpur-Kolkota rail line connects it.
Labour force: Bihar, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh.
Products: heavy rails, structural, beams, rolled wire. Plates for ship building industry. Ammonium sulphate, coal tar
and sulphate acid.

4. ROURKELA STEEL PLANT:

Rourkela steel plant was technically supported by a German firm Krupps and Demag in 1959.
Location: at the confluence of two rivers Sankha and Koel in sundergarh district of orissa.
Raw Materials: Iron ore from Keonjhar and Sundergarh (orissa), Manganese from Barajmada, Limestone from
Bhirmitrapur, and Dolomite from Baradwar.
Power Supply: Coal is obtained from Jharia, Talchar and Korba. Power from Hirakund Project.
Water Supply: Mandira dam across the Sankha river and also from Mahanadi.
Transport Facilities: Kolkota-Nagpur rail line.
Labour force: Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Orissa.
Products: Hot rolled sheets, strips, cold-rolled sheets, Galvanised sheets and electrical steel plates. Nitrogen as a by
products which is used to produce fertilizers.

6. INDIAN IRON AND STEEL COMPANY (IISCO):

It was established in 1918 at burnpur in west Bengal. It has three separate plants Hirapur, Kulti, and Burnpur. All are
one unit. The management of IISCO was taken over by the Government of India in July 1972.
Location: Hirapur, Kulti and Burnpur near Asansol north-west of Kolkota.
Raw Materials: Iron ore from Singhbhum (Jharkhand) and Mayurbhanj (Orissa), Limestone from Sundergarh and
Manganese from Jharkhand.
Power Supply: Coal from Jharia. Power from Damodar Valley Corporation.
Water Supply: Damodar reservoir.
Labour: West Bengal, Jharkhand and Bihar.
Transport: Rail and road ways are well connected to the kolkota.
Products: Kulti produces Pig Iron, Hirapur and Burnpur produces both pig iron and steel.
Rail sleepers, steel sheets and pipes are produced.

7. VISVESVARAYA IRON AND STEEL LIMITED:

It was setup in 1923 by the assistance of a US company. It was taken over by the central govt. in 1962.
Location: Bhadravati, Shimoga district. of Karnataka.
Raw Materials: iron from Kemmangundi mines, Limestone from Bhundiguda.
Power Supply: Charcoal is used for smelting which is available from near by forest of Malnad area. Electricity from
the Jog hydroelectricity and Shravati power project.
Transport Facility: Birur-shimoga branch line of the southern railway.
Products: Alloy special steel in India, Ferro-silicon, cement and mild steel and castings.

8. VIJAYNAGAR STEEL PLANT:

Location: Torangal near Hospet in Bellary district of Karnataka.
Raw Materials: Iron ore from Hospet.
Power Supply: Coal from Kanhan valley (chhattisgarh) and singareni (Andhra Pradesh).

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Water Supply: Tungabhadra reservoir and power from tungabhadra projects.
Products: ingot steel

9. VISHAKHAPATNAM STEEL PLANT

Location: Vishakhapatnam
Raw Materials: Iron ore from Bailadila in chhattisgarh. It gets limestone. Dolomite and manganese from Andhra
Pradesh and Orissa.
Power Supply: Coal fields of Damodar valley.
Products: Liquid steel and saleable steel. Steel from this plant is exported to china, S-E Asia.

10. SALEM STEEL PLANT

Location: Salem in Tamil nadu.
Raw Materials: Iron ore from near by areas and lignite coal from Neyveli in Tamil nadu.
Power and water supply: Cheap power is available from coal and charcoal and cheap electricity.
Products: Stainless steel, electrical steel.

11. DAITARI STEEL PLANT: Govt. of India has planned to make new steel plant at Paradwip (orissa) by the joint
venture of South Korea and British Company. Its responsibility has been given to TATA group.
MINI STEEL PLANTS
Mini steel plants generally use scrap, pig iron or sponge iron as their raw material. They work through electrical
furnances and have capacity from 10,000 tonnes to about 5 lakh tonnes per year. Their capital cost involves between
Rs. 1,500 to Rs. 2,500 per tonne of steel produced as against Rs. 5,000 in intergrated steel plant.

ELECTRONICS
The electronic industry developed in India in the 1950s. It began with radio manufacturing and at present has
diversified into new areas like space exploration, defence equipments, medical diagnosis, communication, information
technology, and computer systems.

1. The Indian Telephone Industries (ITI): in Bangalore. It produces equipment to meet the needs of the post
and telegraph departments, railways, defence, overseas communication services and electricity boards,
automatic telephone exchange switching systems and teleprinter exchanges and long distance transmission
systems.
2. The Electronic Corporation of India Ltd. (ECIL): in Hyderabad. It has a well equipped laboratory where
tests are carried out. Among its products are: transistorised modular systems for nuclear applications and for
use in medical, agricultural and industrial fields. Components like metal oxide resistors, analogue computers
and online digital process control computers.
3. The Bharat Electronics Ltd. (BEL): in Bangalore. It was setup to fulfil the needs of defence services. It also
caters the needs of All India Radio and the Meteorological Department. BEL makes important contribution in
the field of communications, radar, fire, control system for tanks and various kinds of optical instruments.
(i) SPACE TECHNOLOGY: it is supported by electronic industry. We have launched Apple and
INSAT series. We have launched a probe to mars. We have launched remote sensing and
Geostationary as well as geosynchronous satellite in the orbit.
(ii) SOFTWARE INDUSTRY: It is the fastest growing industry in India. The department of electronics
has adopted a proactive role to further enhance competitiveness pf India in IT and has initiated a
number of programmes for man power development, quality up gradation and stimulation of software
engineering and research.
(iii) ENTERTAINMENT: Television (BPL, Videocon, Onida and Phillips), Audio Industry, mono
players, stereo players, CD based systems and car audio systems. Production is done in Mumbai,
Chennai, Kolkota and Pune.

PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY
44
Petrochemicals are important organic chemicals, derived from petroleum products, LPG and coal. Petrochemical
industries are normally located near an oil refinery which can supply its basic needs of Naphtha or Ethylene and
Benzene. These chemicals are used for manufacturing a large variety of articles such as synthetic fibres, synthetic
rubber, ferrous and non- ferrous metals, plastics, dyestuffs, drugs and pharmaceuticals. Products are widely used today
in domestic, industrial and agricultural fields. These industries produce mainly:
- Fertilizers and Pesticides.
- Resins, adhesives and industries.
- Plastic sheets, plastic foam, bowls and baskets, paints and furniture coverings.
- Carbon black is used in printing inks, paints, carbon paper and gramophone records.

ADVANTAGES OF PETROCHEMICAL PRODUCTS

Petrochemicals are cost effective, economically stable, and cheaper and produced on a mass scale. Its raw material
is easily available, not depend on agriculture raw material as in the case of Jute. Therefore, traditional raw
materials like wood, glass and metals are being replaced by petrochemical products:

NATURAL MATERIAL PETROCHEMICAL PRODUTS

Leather footwear Plastic chappals and synthetic footwear
Natural Rubber Synthetic rubber
Jute Fibre Synthetic fibre
Steel Pipes PVC
Steel Utensils Plastic ware/ Containers
Cloth and Jute bags Polythene bags

Production Units:
1. Union Carbide India Ltd. Trombay, Maharashtra: It was the first petrochemical complex and one of
the biggest units which was established in 1966. It produces Films for packaging, bags, tarpaulins,
godown covers, films, canal lining, industrial containers, insulation for electrical wires and cables, and
pipes for carrying drinking water.
2. Herdillia Chemicals Ltd. Chennai, Tamilnadu: It manufactures a number of heavy organic chemicals
like phenol, acetone, diacetone alcohol, and their derivatives, by –products, co-products and compounds.
3. National Organic Chemicals Industries Ltd. Thana-Belapur, Mumbai: It is the biggest unit in India
sponsored by Mafatlals. It is also the first integrated plant in India which is based on the latest technology
in petro-chemical field. Plant produces Naphtha to produce ethylene, benzene, PVC, etc.
4. Petrofils Cooperative Limited (PCL). Vadodara and Naldhari in Gujarat: It manufactures yarn to
make swim suits, Undergarments, polyester filament yarn and nylon chips.
5. Indian Petro-Chemical Corporation Ltd. Jawaharnagar, Vadodara: Polymers, synthetic organic
chemicals and fibres are produced.
6. The Bongaigaon Petrochemicals Ltd
7. The Reliance industries located in Hazira.

TRANSPORTATION
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 ROADS

ADVANTAGES OF ROADWAYS:-
-Roads are the harbingers of economic development. The main advantages of using road transport are the following:
-It is through the roads that every village & hamlet can be reached.
-Roads can be constructed even in the areas of difficult terrain & where railways lines do not exist.
-Roads offer door to door service & help farmers to move their perishable products quickly to the markets.
-The movement of goods is safer through road transport as the chances of pilferage are lesser than in the railways .
DISADVANTAGES OF ROADWAYS:-
-Many roads are un surfaced & therefore, not suitable for regular vehicular traffic.
-Roads are not properly maintained. Poor road surfaces cause heavy loss in wear & tear of vehicles.
-There are multiple check-points, toll tax & octroi duties collection points on the roads which bring down the speed of
the traffic. Waste time & cause irritation to the commuters.
-Many roads have inadequate capacity, weak pavement, unbridged level crossings & lack of wayside amenities &
safety measures.
-The traffic on Indian roads, especially in cities, is too of vehicles – high speed cars, trucks, two – wheelers, animals
driven carts, cyclists & even by animals. This increases traffic time & causes congestion, pollution & road accidents

(1)EXPRESS HIGHWAYS:
Express Highways constitute the most significant feature of land transportation. These highways are cemented six-
lane roads, designed to provide smooth high-speed movement without any on-road obstacles like traffic or speed
breakers. The major Express Highway:
1. Ahmedabad – Vadodara Expressway:
2. Delhi – Gurgaon Expressway:
3. Mumbai – Pune Expressway:
4. Noida-Greater Noida Expressway:
5. Delhi – Noida Direct Flyway:
6. Panipat Expressway:
7. Bangalore-Mysore Infrastructure Corridor:

(2)NATIONAL HIGHWAY:
The main roads which are constructed and maintained by the Central Government are known as the National
Highways. There are main highways running through the length & breadth of the country connecting major ports,
state capitals, large industrial & tourist centres. They facilitate inter-state transport & movement of defence
Personnel & materials in strategic areas. National Highway in India is designated as NH followed by the highway
number.

The National Highway span about 67,000km, Even though the National Highway represent only 2per cent of the total
network length, they handle about 40 per cent of the total road traffic. The National Highways are further classified
based on the width of carriageway of the Highway. Generally, it case of a single lane, the lane width of 3.5 metres,
while in case of multi-lane National Highways, each of the lanes have a width of 3.5 metres. As of February 2008, out
of the total length, 14% have four or more lanes & about 59% have 2-lanes or are double-land, while the rest (27%) of
the National Highway network has single lane.

TWO MAJOR PROJEECTS UNDERTAKEN BY NHAI

1. Golden Quadrilateral:-
The Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) is the largest express highway
Project in India. It is the first phase of the National Highways Development Project (NDHP). It consists of
building 5,846 kilometres of four/ six lane express highways connecting Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkota & Chennai,
thus forming a quadrilateral of sorts at a cost of Rs.60,000 crores. In January, 2008 it was announced that the
project will now be expanded to cover 6,500 kilometres.

46
 --The main economic benefits of the Golden Quadrilateral Project are the following:
--This highway will interconnect many major cities & ports;
--It will give an impetus to truck transport throughout India;
--It will help in the industrial growth of all small towns through which it passes;
--It will provide vast opportunities for transport of agricultural produce from the hinterland to major cities &
ports for export; &
--It will provide job opportunities in its construction as well as increase the demand for cement, steel & other
construction material.

2. North-South & East-West Corridors:

North-South Corridor would connect Srinagar in Jammu Kashmir with Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu with a
4,076km long road. The East-West Corridor, on the other hand, would connect Silchar in Assam with the port
town of Porbandar in Gujarat with a 3,640 km of road length.

(3)STATE HIGHWAYS: The state highways are constructed and maintained by the state governments. These
highways provide linkage to the National highways, district headquarters, important towns, tourist centres and minor
ports, beside these also provide connectivity to important cities and towns as well as with National highways and the
state highways of the neighbouring states. There total length is about 131,899 km, which is about the 4% of the total
length of the country.

(4)RURAL ROADS: These roads constitute about 80% of the total road length of the country. These roads help in
the transportation of the agriculture produce and the finished products of the small scale industries from the producing
centres to the marketing centres. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadhak Yojna (PMGSY) or the prime minister rural roads
scheme was launched in December 2000 to connect all rural roads to the highways to eradicate poverty.

Other Roads:
THE BORDER ROADS (B.R.O): The border road organisation was setup in 1960 to strengthen the defence
preparedness and accelerating economic development through improvement of roads along the northern and the north-
eastern boundary of the country. This organisation has constructed the world’s highest road from Manali (H.P) to Leh
(Kashmir), at an average altitude of 4,270 meters. B.R.O also undertakes the projects of clearance of highways,
making airfields, making bridges.
THE INTERNATIONAL HIGHWAYS: These highways are constructed through finances provided by the World
Bank. Their main aim is to create friendly environment among the neighbouring countries. There are two types: (i)
connect the capitals of the countries. (ii) Connecting the important towns and ports,

THE RAILWAYS
Railways: Advantages
Railways constitute one of the most efficient and cost effective forms of transportation. It has the following
advantages:
(i)Railways help in the easy movement of the bulky goods and perishable commodities and distant places.
(ii)Railways transport raw material to the production units and finished goods to the market.
(iii)Railways have connected many villages to the cities which has helped to transfer new ideas and innovations to the
rural areas.
(iv)Railways help during natural calamities by transporting goods and people and medical help.
(v)Railways integrate the whole country into one by connecting corners of each side.
(vi)Railways help in the easy movement of the troops, weapons, equipments etc during war or emergency.
(vii)Railways provide comfortable journey by providing toilets, sleeping berth, and easy movement inside.

Railways: Disadvantages
(i)Railways cannot be made in every region because of hilly terrain or forest areas.
(ii) Railway journey is long and tedious when compared to air travel.
(iii)Train consumes lots of fuel and causes pollution.
(iv) Railways cannot cross oceans easily.
(v) Railways cannot be laid in the every industrial region of the country.

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BROAD GAUGE: The distance between rails is 1.676 meter. The total route length of broad gauge is 49,820
km which accounts 74.14% of the total rail route of the country. Konkan railway line is an engineering marvel of the
Indian railways. It is 760 km long rail route connecting Roha in Maharashtra to Mangalore in Karnataka. It crosses
146 rivers, steams, nearly 2000 bridges and 91 tunnels. It also passes through 6.5 km long tunnel which is Asia’s
largest tunnel.
METER GAUGE: The distance between two rails is 1 meter. It covers 10,621 km and accounts for 21.02% of
the total route length.
NARROW GAUGE: The distance between rails is .762 meter and 0.610 meter. It covers 2,886 km and
accounts 4.94% of the total route length. It is mainly confined to the hilly areas.

AIRWAYS
Airways: Advantages
(i)It is the fastest and comfortable mode of transport. It connects the far flung and remote areas of the country.
(ii)It can easily cross mountain barriers, sea, ocean, desert, forest etc.
(iii)It is most reliable during natural calamities to supply food , medicines, equipments and to transport people.
Airways: Disadvantages
(i)Air transport is very costly.
(ii)It depends upon the weather conditions. Some time delayed for days.
(iii)It depends upon petroleum which is non-renewable sources of energy.
(iv) It can carry less weight.
Air transport in India started with a 10 km air mail operation between Allahabad and Naini in 1911. At present there
are domestic as well as international airways carrying passengers, freight and mail.
The Airport authority of India, established on April 1, 1995 is the nodal agency responsible for providing safe,
efficient air traffic services and aeronautical communication services in the country. This authority manages 127
airports including 86 domestic, 11 international and 29 civil enclaves at air defence air fields.
Air India With this merger, air India has become the 16 largest airlines in Asia, serving 50 domestic destinations and
39 international routes, serving over 100 cities. Apart from it other private airlines are Jet airways India Ltd., Inter
globe Aviation Ltd. (Indigo), providing a wide choice and flights and connectivity to various parts of India and
abroad. One Cargo airlines- Blue Dart Aviation Pvt. Ltd. Is operating scheduled cargo service in the country.

PAVAN HANS: is a Helicopter service operating in the hilly areas and is widely used by the tourists in the north-
eastern sector.

WATER WAYS
India has 14,500 km of navigable waterways out of which about 3700 km of water and 4300 km of canals are
navigable by mechanised flat bottom vessels. IWAI (Indian waterways authority of India is the authority in-charge of
the waterways in India. It does the function of building the necessary infrastructure in these waterways, surveying the
economic feasibility of new projects and also administration and regulation. The inland waterways authority has
declared three inland waterways as national highways. These are:
1. National waterway no. 1 (NW-1): Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hoogly river navigable system which connects Haldia-
Kolkota-Farakka-Munger-Patna-Varanashi-Allahabad. Its length is about 1620 km.
2. National Waterway No. 2 (NW-2): The River Brahamaputra
Connecting Dhubri-Pandu (Guwahati)- Tezpur- Neamati- Dibrugarh- Sadiya stretching to about 891 kms was
declared a national waterway in the year [Link]-1 connects N-E region with kolkota.
3. National Waterways No. 3 (NW-3): It runs from kollam to kottapuram. It comprises 168 km of west coast canal
along with Champakara canal and Udyogmandal canal. It is one of the most navigable.

Oceanic Waterways
India has a long coastline of 7,517 kilometres forming one of the biggest peninsulas in the world. It has 12 major ports
and 185 notified minor ports.
Oceanic waterways constitute an important role in the transport sector of India’s economy. Ocean routes handle 95
percent of India’s foreign trade by volume and 70% by value. Besides international trade, these routes are also used
for transportation between the islands and the rest of the country.

48
Major Ports:
1. Kolkota (West Bengal) , Haldia (West Bengal), Paradip (Orissa), Vishakhapatnam ( Andhra Pradesh), Chennai
(Tamil nadu), Tuticorin (Tamilnadu), Kandla (Gujarat), Mumbai (Maharashtra), Jawaharlal Nehru (Nava Sheva) near
Mumbai, Marmagao (Goa), New Mangalore (Karnataka), Cochin (Kerala).

ADVANTAGES OF WATERWAYS:
(i) It is the cheapest means of transport.
(ii) It is most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky material.
(iii) It is a fuel-efficient and eco-friendly mode of transport.
(iv) Water transport is safe and has less traffic in comparison to road and air transport.
DISADVANTAGES OF WATERWAYS:
(i)It depends upon weather conditions.
(ii)It needs long travelling hours which causes sea sickness.
(iii)Water transport is limited to the areas where rivers are navigable and oceanic route exists.

-Road density:-length of the road per 100 [Link] of area.

Lowest road density is of Jammu& Kashmir, Other states with low density are Arunachal Pradesh,
Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram. Highest road density of Kerala. Other high density road states are U.P
Punjab 7& Haryana.
-Golden quadrilateral are called golden quadrilateral super highways: Includes Golden quadrilateral super
highways & East west corridor & North-south Corridor super highways. It is maintained by NHAI-National
highway authority of India.
-Mumbai-Pune expressway is also called Yashwantrao chavan expressway is the India’s first six lane high
speed expressway constructed under the golden quadrilateral scheme.
-National highway maintained by CPWD (central public work department)
-Sate high way maintained by SPWD (state public work department)
-District road maintained by Zila parishads.
-Pradhan mantra grameen sadak yojana was launched to connect villages with towns and cities by motor
able roads.
-BOT Policy- Built-Operate and Transfer policy. Under this a private company builds a road and given right
to collect and retain toll for fixed period and after the period is over the project is transferred to public
sector.
Major sea ports and significance:
Tidal port-Kandla ,Gujarat
Largest port-Mumbai, Maharashtra
Inland riverine port- Kolkota/Haldia, Bengal
Deepest landlocked port-Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
Oldest articicial port –Chennai, Tamilnadu
Natural Harbour-Tuticorin, Tamil nadu.
-Open sky policy- Liberalization of Indian skies to end the govt. Monopoly by allowing private companies
to provide cheap and better air transport services to the people.

WASTE MANAGEMENT AND POLLUTION

Sources of waste material
Sources of waste:
49
*Domestic waste: All those wastes which are generated out of domestic activities is known as domestic waste.
Example: Vegetable peels, fruit peels and seeds, stale food, burnt residue of coal and wood, paper bits, rubber plastic,
old clothes, rags, bottles, broken utensils, tins etc. It can be categorised into Garbage(organic wastes such as vegetable
peels, stale and left over food, kitchen waste, dead plants), Rubbish(wood pieces, plastic, iron, glass, polythene bags,
rags, old clothes), Sewage(eliminated waste from kitchen garden, toilets, bathrooms), Ashes(fine and solid residue of
burnt wood or coal, ashes).

*Industrial waste: While processing the raw material huge waste is expelled in solid, liquid and gases form.
Different industries have different waste materials. Example: Chemical industrial waste is mainly oil, acid and
complex synthetic material. Cement industry will release fly ash, limestone dust, Textile industry releases fibre
residue and toxic effluents. CONFIDENTIAL

*Agricultural waste: Plant remains such as dried leaves, husk, felled wood, weeds, branches, straw peels, pulses
coats, crop residue, paddy waste, shell of pea etc. Animal waste like excreta when not utilised can create foul smell.
Generally energy can be derived out of it like bio-gas or dung to fire. Processing wastes such as pesticides, weedicide,
chemical fertilizers, vegetable matters, worn and torn agricultural implements.

*Municipal waste: Waste generated by the people in both rural and urban areas collected by the municipality of the
area is called municipal waste. It includes Sewage(dirty water expelled out of houses, public places, hotels etc) and
Municipal solid waste(MSW) such as office waste, market waste, school or institution waste, glass, wood, bricks,
cardboard, packaging waste, cloth rags, bottles, paper bits, waste food, crockery, old plastic, metal chucks. It can be
classified into degradable waste matter (Paper pits, cloth bags, peels, cardboard piece, paper packaging material) and
Non-Degradable waste matter (Plastic pieces, bottles, synthetic glass bits, metal chunks, rubber pieces etc).

*Biomedical waste: Waste generated in hospitals, clinics, pathological labs, immunization programmes for animal
and humans, research activities related to medical sciences, school laboratories etc. Wastes such as needles, syringes,
bandages, blades, soiled cotton rolls, pathological wastes from hospitals, medical labs, waste medicines etc.

*Nuclear wastes: is generated while making weapons, harvesting electricity, research, medical process etc. Nuclear
waste emits radiation which is harmful and pollutes air, affects protoplasm and the chromosomes of the cell. Dumping
of the nuclear waste without environmental hazard is very necessary.

*Thermal power plant waste: Hot water released into the river leads to thermal pollution which reduces oxygen
level. Foul smell in the water bodies is caused, also releases toxins.

IMPACT OF WASTE ACCUMULATION

*Water pollution: caused by pesticides, chemicals from industries such as textiles, chemical, paper, metallurgical
etc, insecticides, fertilizers, house hold wastes, sewage etc.
Health hazard caused: Accumulation of lead, mercury and nickel leads to damage to the nervous system, vomiting,
anaemia and breathlessness, affects brain, liver, and kidney. Arsenic poisoning leads to damage to the vital body
organs, skin infections, ulcers, cancers etc. Sewage disposal in water causes Jaundice, typhoid, dysentery, cholera etc.

*Air pollution: burning of fossil fuel such as coal, dungs, woods, paper, chemical fumes etc, aerosols such as Hydro
chloro fluoro carbon gases (HCFCs), CFCs released from fridge, decaying dead bodies, decomposing substances, fly
ash from cement industries etc.
Health hazard caused: SPM causes respiratory and bronchial disorders, sulphur dioxide causes breathing problems,
and Nitrogen dioxide causes chest congestion and eye irritation.

*Soil pollution: Industrial dumps, agricultural wastes, animal dungs, human excreta, plastics, thermo cols, metal
oxides and pieces, chemical spill, nuclear waste etc.
Health hazards caused: pesticides and insecticides causes skin infection, lung disorder, respiratory problems. Cancer,
tumours, digestive system disorders, leukaemia, blood infections, hypertensions are caused. Even epidemic diseases
like cholera, plague etc may occur due to the improper dumping of the waste.

50
Health Hazards due to waste Handling: skin infections, respiratory disorders, bites of insects such as mosquitoes,
bugs, fly etc may cause, accidental poisoning and chemical burns, suffocation and breathlessness etc.

Impact on aquatic life die to waste: Alteration in dissolved oxygen results in elimination of several aquatic
organisms. Disposal of hot water or oil into water bodies raises the temperature of water thus killing aquatic
organisms and aquatic plants. Also reduces oxygen level. Growth of algae die to excessive agro-waste leads to the
biological oxygen demand (BOD) i.e. lack of oxygen in the water due to the lack of sunlight and utilization of oxygen
by the blooming algae leading to the extinction of all the aquatic species of plants and animals. Certain chemicals can
lead to the disruption in the food chain leading to biomagnification or transfer of toxin to the humans like Minamata
disease occurred in Japan due to the mercury poisoning among the people by eating mercury poisoned fishes from the
Minamata bay. CONFIDENTIAL

Impact on terrestrial life due to waste: Stray cattle eat the plastic bags, and paper leading to death and
indigestion problems. Depletion of soil conditions due to the pollutants like pesticides, fertilizers, insecticides,
chemical spills etc. Killing of minute soil friendly organisms, birds and animals due to chemicals or excessive use of
pesticides, insecticides and weedicide etc. example: Killing of vultures, kites and eagles which are called as
scavengers due to the drug dichlorofenac given to the domestic cattle’s as pain reliever which is later eaten up by
scavengers when dead.

NEED FOR WASTE MANAGEMENT

*We need to manage the waste to reduce air, water and soil pollution. To control the spread of diseases. To reduce the
burden on natural resources by selection and recycling. To treat the toxic and non-biodegradable industrial effluents.
To reduce the emission of green house gases. To quickly manage so that the waste doesn’t remains for long
decomposition period. Nuclear waste is needed important attention to reduce its radiation effects. Managements of
waste enhance the scenic beauty of a place.

Segregation of the waste: Segregation is an important aspect before treatment of the waste because there may be
various types of waste such as solid waste (cardboard, metals, glasses, wood pieces, clothes, leather etc), Liquid waste
such as oil, chemicals, medicines syrups, soap waste etc.) Segregation can be done on the basis of recycling,
decomposing and non-recycling and non-decomposing waste. There are several ways to dispose the waste: Dumping,
Land filling, Composting, incineration, Vermi-composting etc.

Waste management and pollution:

Read the following topics from the text book/sources.
-Effects of Sulphur dioxide-obstruction in breathing, causes irritation of eyes and cancer./ Causes acid rain
leading to the corrosion of metal structures, yellowing of leaves, bleaching of leaf surface.
-Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN)-damages leafy vegetables and causes premature fall, decolouration and
curling of sepals.
-Methane-affects the respiratory system, It’s a green house gas, increases temperature.
- Carbon monoxide-damages lungs, weakens bones, reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood and
damages heart.
-Ozone gas-Causes irritation of eyes and aggravates asthma.
-Nitrous oxide and Nitrous di-oxide- Cause acute respiratory infections, bronchitis, lowers resistence to
influenza.
*Harmful effects of Metals such as:
Lead-causes brain damage affects growth and leads to high blood pressure.
Arsenic-Damages kidneys cause jaundice, lung and skin cancer.
Mercury- Paralysis, nervous disorder, brain damage, kidney damage.
Cadmium-Diseases of body pain, itai-itai
-Acid rain-Nitrous oxides, sulphur di oxides and carbon di oxides when in excess in the atmosphere gets
combine with rainwater in presence causes acidic rain. This may cause soil pollution, large scale
deforestation, crop damage, dame to the metallic structures and soft rocks structures exp. Marble. It may
cause skin problems in animals and hair fall.

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-Eutrophication-It is a process of depletion of oxygen from water bodies occurring either naturally or due
to human activities. It takes place due to the introduction of nutrients and chemicals through discharge of
domestic sewage, industrial effluents and fertilizers from agriculture fields. This accumulation results in
phenomenal growth of algae, thereby reducing the penetration of oxygen, light and heat into the water body.
As a result most of the organism dies, draining water of all its oxygen.
-Biomagnifications-increase in the concentration of various toxic substances along the food chain. Toxic
level at the level of primary producers gets concentrated at each trophic level as they move up the food
chain. This phenomenon of concentrated toxic deposition at the higher trophic level is known as
bioaccumulation. Ex: toxic in water gets accumulated in algae, algae is eaten up by fishes further by humans
or other species resulting into a serious physiological problems.
-Desertification- Arid and semi-arid areas are deforested due to over grazing and human encroaching
leading to the conversion of land into desert. This happens due to extreme weather conditions and erosion
due to wind.
-Effects of radioactive pollution to humans & environment: Radioactive pollution affects human’s
directly damaging and degenerating cells and organs. Organ damage, cancer and defects in the DNA may
lead to problem generation after generations.
Environment gets radioactive pollution; all this gets contaminated air, land, water animals etc.
-Freshwater pollution-Phosphates & nitrates from the fertilizers and detergents contaminate surface water
where they act as nutrients and promote the growth of oxygen consuming algae. This in turn reduces the
amount of dissolved oxygen in water and kills fishes and other organisms.
Industrial effluents result in the addition of poisonous chemicals such as arsenic, mercury, cadmium, Lead
etc. This causes biomagnifications.
Hot waste water from power plants increase the temperature of the water resources reduces oxygen level.
-Causes of marine pollution-Oil spill and leakage, nuclear testing, missile testing, dumping of bio-
degradable and non-biodegradable materials, addition of sewage and industrial effluents adding chemicals
into it.
Effects of marine pollution: Bleaching of coral reefs, extinction of sea weeds due to the increase in the
toxic level. Death of large species such as whale /shark etc.
-Forms of waste method of disposal:
Solid waste- segregation, dumping, composting, incineration
Liquid waste- Effluents treatment before discharge.
Gaseous waste- use of scrubbers and electronic precipitators.
-3R’S- Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle with examples.
-Biodegradable/Non-bio degradable with examples.
*Causes & effects of pollution: Land, air, water, sound, radiation

BOD- Biological Oxygen Demand. It is condition in which certain chemicals esp. Phosphates and nitrates when
added to the water bodies, Algae blooms over the water surface blocking the sunlight and re-charging of oxygen in
water also oxygen present in water is utilized by the algae to grow leading to BOD Conditions.

Global warming: Rise in the average temperature of the earth due to the imbalance of the heat budget. Excessive heat
remains within the earth atmosphere resulting into rise in temperature. Green house gases such as methane, Carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur di oxide, Nitrogen di oxide etc.
Minamata disease: Minamata disease (M. d.) is methylmercury (MeHg) poisoning that occurred in humans who
ingested fish and shellfish contaminated by MeHg discharged in waste water from a chemical plant (Chisso Co. Ltd.)
sensory disturbances ataxia, dysarthria, constriction of the visual field, auditory disturbances and tremor were also
seen. Further, the fetus was poisoned by MeHg when their mothers ingested contaminated marine life. The symptoms
of patients were serious, and extensive lesions of the brain were observed. While the number of grave cases with acute
M. d. in the initial stage was decreasing, the numbers of chronic M. d. patients who manifested symptoms gradually
over an extended period of time was on the increase. For the past 36 years, of the 2252 patients who have been
officially recognized as having M. d., 1043 have died. This paper also discusses the recent remaining problems.

Bhopal Gas tragedy: The Bhopal disaster, also referred to as the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a gas leak incident on the
night of 2–3 December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh,
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India. It is considered to be the world's worst industrial disaster. Over 500,000 people were exposed to methyl
isocyanate (MIC) gas. The highly toxic substance made its way into and around the small towns located near the plant.
Estimates vary on the death toll. The official immediate death toll was 2,259. In 2008, the government of Madhya
Pradesh had paid compensation to the family members of 3,787 victims killed in the gas release, and to 574,366
injured victims. A government affidavit in 2006 stated that the leak caused 558,125 injuries, including 38,478
temporary partial injuries and approximately 3,900 severely and permanently disabling injuries Others estimate that
8,000 died within two weeks, and another 8,000 or more have since died from gas-related diseases.
Chipko movement: Chipko movement also called Chipko andolan, nonviolent social and ecological movement by
rural villagers, particularly women (esp. vital roles, including Gaura Devi, Suraksha Devi, Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi
and Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Virushka Devi and others .) in India in the 1970s, aimed at protecting trees and forests slated
for government-backed logging. The movement originated in the Himalayan region of Uttar
Pradesh (later Uttarakhand) in 1973 and quickly spread throughout the Indian Himalayas. The Hindi
word chipko means “to hug” or “to cling to” and reflects the demonstrators’ primary tactic of embracing the trees to
impede the loggers.
Chernobyl nuclear disaster: On April 26, 1986, the world's worst nuclear accident happened at the Chernobyl plant
near Pripyat, Ukraine, in the Soviet Union. An explosion and fire in the No. 4 reactor sent radioactivity into the
atmosphere. ... Plant operators made several mistakes, creating a poisonous and unstable environment in the reactor
core. In August 1986—at the first international conference on the Chernobyl disaster—the IAEA established but did
not make official a figure of 4,000 deaths as the total number of projected deaths caused by the accident over the long
term.
Ozone depletion: Ozone depletion occurs when chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons—gases formerly found in
aerosol spray cans and refrigerants—are released into the atmosphere (see details below). ... CFCs and
halons cause chemical reactions that break down ozone molecules, reducing ozone's ultraviolet radiation-absorbing
capacity. Ozone layer depletion causes increased UV radiation levels at the Earth's surface, which is damaging to
human health. Negative effects include increases in certain types of skin cancers, eye cataracts and immune deficiency
disorders.
Bioremediation: Bioremediation is a process used to treat contaminated media, including water, soil and subsurface
material, by altering environmental conditions to stimulate growth of microorganisms and degrade the target
pollutants. In many cases, bioremediation is less expensive and more sustainable than other
remediation alternatives. Biological treatment is a similar approach used to treat wastes including wastewater,
industrial waste and solid waste.
 Bioremediation enhances the ability of microorganisms to metabolize petroleum hydrocarbons into biomass, carbon
dioxide, water, and innocuous oxygenated end products. The microbes essentially treat oil as food. Light crude oils are
more biodegradable than diluted bitumen and heavy refined products, such as fuel oils (Wahab, 2015). Bioremediation
is a promising option for remediation since it is effective and economic in removing oil with less environmental
damage. Bioremediation is a human intervention, whereas biodegradation is a natural property of microorganisms.
Effect of pollution ( water, air, nuclear, land) in human health( DO IT FROM TEXTBOOK)

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