CHAPTER 1

TOPICS
 Nature of Electricity
 Static Electricity
 Classification of
Materials from the
Electricity:
Standpoint of Electrical
Conductivity
 Voltage, Current,
Resistance and
Basic
Conductance
 Direct Current Principle
 Electrical Unit of
Principles
Measure
 Multiples and Sub-
multiples
 1.1 Nature of Electricity

Electricity is a form of energy. Among the many forms of energy, it is one of the most

important. Life in a modern society is almost totally dependent upon its availability. Just imagine

a day without electricity. What would we use as

light sources? How do we transmit information

to the society at large without the electronic

media? How do we replace the motors that run

the wheels of industry? In fact, it would be very

difficult to find a replacement for electricity?

Electricity is considered as the greatest of all the discoveries of man. The phenomenal and

usefulness of electricity paved the way to the more sophisticated inventions making what originally

seemed impossible become realities.

Actually, contrary to some belief, electricity is not new, it is here with us and its existence

is as old as the universe. Its discovery, however, by the ancient Greeks sometime in 600 BC was

only accidental. The English Physicist, William Gilbert published studies on “The Electric

Attraction” and “The Electric Force” which accredited him as the Father of Electricity.

The most obvious effect of electricity in nature is observed in a lightning flash. Another

effect observed as long ago as 600 BC by the Greek philosopher Thales, is that a piece of amber

that has been rubbed will attract tiny objects towards it. A curious connection between electricity

and magnetism is that the word “electricity” comes from the Greek word “electron” which means

amber used by Thales behaved very much like a magnet. In 1700’s the American politician and

scientist, Benjamin Franklin, flew a kite in a thunderstorm to show that lightning is caused by

electricity.
 Static Electricity

It was discovered centuries ago that certain types of materials would mysteriously attract

one another after being rubbed together. For example, after rubbing a piece of silk against a piece

of glass, the silk and glass would tend to stick together. Indeed, there was an attractive force that

could be demonstrated even when the two materials were separated.

Glass and silk aren’t the only materials

known to behave like this. Anyone who has ever

brushed up against a latex balloon only to find that

it tries to stick to them has experienced this same

phenomenon. Paraffin wax and wool cloth is

another pair of materials early experiments recognized as manifesting attractive forces after being

rubbed together.

This phenomenon became even more

repulsion
interesting when it was discovered that identical

materials, after having been rubbed with their

repulsion
respective cloths, always repelled each other.

Some experimenters speculated that invisible “fluids” were being transferred from one

object to another during the process of rubbing, and that these “fluids” were able to affect a

physical force over a distance. Charles Dufay was one of the early experimenters who

demonstrated that there were definitely two different types of changes wrought by certain pairs of

objects together. The fact that there more than one type of change manifested in these materials
was evident by the fact that there were two types of forces produced: attraction and repulsion. The

hypothetical fluid transfer was known as charge.

One pioneering researcher, Benjamin Franklin, came to the conclusion that there was only

one fluid exchanged between rubbed objects, and

that two different “charges” were nothing more

than either an excess or a deficiency of that one

fluid. Following Franklin’s speculation of the

wool rubbing something off of the wax, the type

of charge that was associated with rubbed wax

became known as “negative” (because it was supposed to have a deficiency of fluid) while the

type of charge associated by the rubbing wool became known as “positive” (became it was

supposed to have an excess of fluid).

It was discovered much later that this “fluid” was actually composed of extremely small

bits of matter called electrons, so named in honor of the ancient Greek word for amber; another

material exhibiting charged properties when rubbed with cloth. Experimentation has since revealed

that all objects are composed of extremely small “building-blocks” known as atoms, and that these

atoms are in turn composed of smaller components known as particles. The three fundamental

particles comprising most atoms are called protons, neutrons and electrons. Electrons have a

negative (-) electric charge. Protons have a positive (+) electric charge. Neutrons have no electric

charge.
 Classification of Materials from the Standpoint of Electrical Conductivity

 Conductors

Conductors are materials that have a low resistivity that allowing them to easily pass an

electrical current due to their being plenty of free electrons floating about within their basic atom

structure. Examples of good conductors are generally metals such as copper, aluminum, silver or

non-metals such as carbon because these materials have very few electrons in their outer “valence

shell” or ring, resulting in them being easily knocked out of the atom’s orbit. This allows them to

flow freely through the material until they join up with other atoms thereby creating an electrical

current.

Generally speaking, most metals are good

conductors of electricity, as they have very

small resistance values, usually in the region of

micro-ohms per meter with the resistivity of

conductors increasing with temperature

because metals are also generally good

conductors of heat. Other examples of conductors are gold, iron, steel, brass, bronze, mercury and

graphite.

 Insulators

Insulators on the other hand are the exact opposite of conductors. They are made of

materials, generally non-metals, that have very few or no “free electrons” float about within their

basic atom structure because the electrons in the outer valence shell are strongly attached by the

positively charge inner nucleus. So, if a potential voltage is applied to the material no current will

flow as there are no electrons to move and which gives these materials their insulating properties.
Insulators also have very high resistance, millions of ohms per meter, and are generally not affected

by normal temperature changes (although at very high temperature wood becomes charcoal and

changes from an insulator to conductor). Examples of good insulators are marble, fused quartz,

p.v.c., plastics, rubber, glass, oil, asphalt, fiber glass, porcelain, ceramic, dry cotton, dry copper,

dry wood, are, diamond, mica, vacuum, textile, fiber, wax and shellac.

Insulators play an important

tool within electrical and electronic

circuits, because without the,

electrical circuit would short together

and not work. For example,

insulators made of glass or porcelain

are used for insulating and supporting overhead transmission cables while epoxy-glass resin

materials are used to make printed circuit boards (PCB), etc.

 Semiconductor

Semiconductor materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and gallium (Ga) have

electrical properties somewhere in the middle, between those of arsenide (As) a “conductor” and

an “insulator”. They are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence their name

semiconductor). The most commonly used semiconductor material by far is silicon. It has four

valence electrons in its outer most shell. The significant advantage of silicon over germanium is

that it is less temperature sensitive. This is an important requirement for any electronic device to

achieve high levels of reliability. Thus, silicon became the semiconductor material of choice.
 Voltage, Current, Resistance and Conductance

All materials are made up of atoms, and all atoms consists of protons, neutrons and

electrons. Protons have a positive electrical charge. Neutrons have no electrical charge while

electrons have a negative electrical charge. Atoms are bound together by powerful forces of

attraction existing between the atom nucleus and the electrons in its outer shell. When these

protons, neutrons and electrons are together within the atom they are happy stable. However, if we

separate them they exert a potential attraction called potential difference. If we create a circuit or

conductor for the electrons to drift back to the protons the flow of electrons is called a current. The

electrons do not flow freely through the circuit, the restriction to this flow is called resistance.

Then all basic electrical or electronic circuit consist of three separate but very much related

quantities, voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R).

 Voltage

Voltage is the potential energy of an electrical supply stored in the form of an electrical

charge. Voltage can be thought of as a force that pushes the electrons through a conductor and the

greater the voltage the greater is its ability to do work and this potential energy can be described

as the work required in joules to move electrons in the form of an electrical current around a circuit

from one point or node to another. The difference in the voltage between two nodes in a circuit is

known as potential difference, p.d. sometimes called voltage drop.

The constant voltage source is called a DC voltage with a voltage that varies periodically

with time is called an AC voltage. Voltage is measured in Volts, with one volt being defined as

the electrical pressure required to force an electrical current of one ampere through a resistance of

one ohm. Voltages are generally expressed in volts with prefixes used to denote sub-multiple of
the voltage such as microvolts (µV = 10-6 V), millivolts (mV = 10-3 V) or kilovolts (kV = 103 V).

Voltage can be either positive or negative.

Voltage Symbol

 Electrical Current

Electrical current is the movement or flow of electrical charge and is measured in Amperes,

symbol I, for intensity. It is the continuous and the uniform flow (called a drift) of electrons (the

negative particle of an atom) around a circuit that are being “pushed” by the voltage source.

Generally, in circuit diagram, the flow of current through the circuit usually has an arrow

associated with the symbol I, or lower case I to indicate the actual direction of the current flow.

However, the arrow usually indicates the direction of conventional current flow and not necessarily

the direction of the actual flow.

a) Conventional Current Flow

Conventionally, this is the flow of positive charge around a circuit. The diagram at the left

shows the movement of the positive charge (holes) which close from the positive terminal of the

battery, through the circuit and returns to the negative terminal of the battery. In circuit diagram,

the arrows shown are symbols for components such as diodes, and transistors point in the direction

of conventional current flow. Conventional current flow is the opposite in direction to the flow of

electrons.
 b) Electron Flow

The flow of electrons around the circuit is opposite to the direction of the conventional

current flow. The current flowing in a circuit is composed of electrons that flow from the negative

pole of the battery (the cathode) and return to the positive pole (the anode). The flow of electrons

is called electron current flow. Therefore, electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive.

The direction of current flow does not affect what the current does within the circuit.

 Resistance

The resistance of a circuit is its ability to resist or prevent the flow of current through

making it necessary to apply bigger

voltage to the circuit to cause the

current to flow again. Resistance is

measured in Ohms, Greek symbol

(Ω, Omega) with prefixes use to

denote kilo-ohms (kΩ = 103 Ω) and Mega-ohms (MΩ = 106 Ω). Resistance cannot be negative

only positive.
 Resistor Symbols

 Conductance

Resistance is symbolized by the capital letter “R” and is measured in the unit of “ohm”.

However, we can always think of this electrical property in terms of its inverse: how easy it is for

electrons to flow through a component, rather than how difficult. If resistance is the word we can

use to symbolize the measure of how difficult it is for electrons to flow, then a good word to

express how easy it is for electrons to flow would be conductance.

Mathematically, conductance is the reciprocal, or inverse, of resistance.

1
𝐺=
𝑅

Where: G = conductance, Siemens

R = resistance, ohms

The greater the resistance, the less the conductance, and vice versa. Carrying this idea

further, a symbol and unit were created to represent conductance. The symbol is the capital letter

“G” and the unit is the mho (Ʊ), which is “ohm” spelled backwards. Despite its appropriateness,

the unit of the mho was replaced in later years by the unit of Siemens (abbreviated by the capital

letter “S”). This decision to change unit names is reminiscent of the change from the temperature

unit of degrees Centigrade to degree Celsius, or the change from the unit of frequency, c.p.s. (cycle
per second) to Hertz are all surnames of famous scientists, the name of which, sadly, tell us less

about the nature of the units than the units’ original designations.

Direct Current Principle

Direct Current or DC as it is more commonly called, is a form of current or voltage that

flows around an electrical circuit in one direction only, making it an “Unidirectional” supply.

Generally, both DC current and voltages are produced by power supplies, batteries, generators or

solar cells, etc. A DC voltage and current has a fixed magnitude (amplitude) and a definite direction

associated with it. For example, +12V represents 12 volts in the positive direction or -15V

represents 15 volts in the negative direction.

We also know that DC power supplies do not change their value with regards to time, they

are a constant value flowing in a continuous steady state direction. In other words, DC maintains

its value for all times. A unidirectional or DC supply never becomes negative unless its connections

are physically reversed. An example of a simple DC or direct current circuit is shown below.

DC Circuit and Waveform

Electrical Units of Measure

The standard SI units used for measurement of voltage, current and resistance are the Volt

(V), Ampere (A) and Ohms (Ω) respectively. Sometimes in electrical or electronic circuits and

systems it is necessary to use multiples or sub-multiples of these standard units when the quantities
are being measured at very large or very small values. The following table gives a list of some of

the standard units used in electrical formulas and component values.

STANDARD ELECTRICAL UNITS

PARAMETER SYMBOL MEASURING UNIT DESCRIPTION

Unit of Electrical Potential

Voltage Volt V or E
V=IxR

Unit of Electrical Current

Current Ampere I or i
I = V/R

Unit of DC Resistance
Resistance Ohm R or Ω
R = V/I

Reciprocal of Resistance
Conductance Siemen G or Ʊ
G = 1/R

Unit of Capacitance
Capacitance Farad C
C = Q/V

Unit of Electrical Charge

Charge Coulumb Q
Q=CxV

Unit of Inductance
Inductance Henry L or H
VL = -L(di/dt)

Unit of Power
Power Watt W
P=VxI

Unit of AC Resistance
Impedance Ohm Z
Z2 = R2 + X2

Unit of Frequency
Frequency Hertz Hz
f = 1/T
 By using multiples and sub-multiples of the standard unit we can avoid having to write too

many zeros to define the position of the decimal point.

MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES

PREFIX SYMBOL MULTIPLIER POWER OF TEN

Exa E 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 1018

Peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015

Terra T 1,000,000,000,000 1012

Giga G 1,000,000,000 109

Mega M 1,000,000 106

Kilo k 1,000 103

Deci d 1/10 10-1

Centi c 1/100 10-2

Milli m 1/1,000 10-3

Micro µ 1/1,000,000 10-6

Nano n 1/1,000,000,000 10-9

Pico p 1/1,000,000,000,000 10-12

Femto f 1/1,000,000,000,000,000 10-15

Atto a 1/1,000,000,000,000,000,000 10-18

 TEST YOURSELF

Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. The electric current is expressed in terms of _____.

a. The rate of movement of electrons c. The number of ions

b. The rate of movement of protons d. The magnetic flux

2. The emf induced in a conductor is directly proportional to the _____.

a. Rate of change of flux c. Magnitude of magnetic flux alone

b. Rate of flow of electrons d. The length of magnetic flux

3. The ratio of flow of an electric current is measured in _____.

a. Volts c. Ohms

b. Farad d. Ampere

4. The emf induced in a conductor is measured in _____.

a. Volts c. Ohms

b. Farad d. Ampere

5. The electric current can be realized by _____.

a. Electric shock c. Effects produced

b. Electric flashing d. Electric heating

6. The electric heater is an example of the _____ of electric current.

a. Magnetic effect c. Heating effect

b. Chemical effect d. Magnetic drag

7. Whenever the electric current flows through an electrolyte it decomposes into _____.

a. Atoms c. Neutrons

b. Ions d. Lattices
8. The changes in the electrolyte when an electric current is passed are _____ changes.

a. Magnetic c. Electrical

b. Chemical d. Mechanical

9. One millivolt is equal to _____.

a. 0.01 volt c. 0.0001 volt

b. 0.001 volt d. 0.1 volt

10. One kilo ohm is equal to _____.

a. 103 ohms c. 106 ohms

b. 1003 ohms d. 10 ohms

11. The property of a substance which opposes the flow of current is known as _____.

a. Conductance c. Resistance

b. Reluctance d. Admittance

12. The property of a circuit which helps the current to complete its path is known as _____.

a. Conductance c. Resistance

b. Reluctance d. Admittance

13. The material through which current cannot flow is known as _____.

a. Liquid c. Conductor

b. Solid d. Insulator

14. The _____ allows the current to complete its path easily.

a. Resistance c. Conductor

b. Insulator d. Semiconductor

15. The forbidden space is overlapped in _____.

a. Conductor b. Insulator
 c. Semiconductor d. Magnet

16. When an electron moves because of the pressure applied to it. What is the resulting process?

a. Melting c. Flow of current

b. Generating d. Magnetic induction

17. Which is the best conductor of electricity?

a. Aluminum c. Copper

b. Silver d. Carbon

18. Out of the following, select the best conductor of electricity?

a. Polyethylene c. China clay

b. Graphite d. Ceramic

19. Electric pressure in an electric circuit is also called _____.

a. Resistance c. Voltage

b. Power d. Energy

20. The conductance through metals is due to the movement of _____.

a. Ions c. Electrons

b. Neutrons d. None of the above