NOTES

CHAPTER I

I In this connection see:

Huhse K.: Theorie und Praxis der Curriculum-Entwicklung. Ein Bericht aber Wege der
Curriculum-Reform in den USA mit Ausblicken aUf Schweden und England, Berlin
1968.
For an overview of the situation around 1977 see:
Kapur, J. N.: 'New Mathematics movement, is it over?', International Journal of
Mathematics Education in Science and Technology 8 (1977), 259-267.
2 This distinguishing of three directions in mathematics education alongside the existing
pluriform arithmetic instruction connects fairly well with the division made by Dienes and
Williams:
a. the basic-set approach;
b. the arithmetically-oriented approach;
c. the geometrically-oriented approach;
d. the science-oriented approach;
e. the symbol-game-oriented approach;
f. the object-game-oriented approach.
We consider a. and b. to belong to the New Math and the innovative arithmetic instruction;
c. and d. agree in our view with the empirical trend;
e. and f. are in our division related to the structural direction.
These divisions are idealised, pure types: in reality blends will be encountered in which the
various approaches are found in varying proportions.
In this connection see:
Dienes, Z. P. (ed.): Mathematics in primary education, Hamburg 1966.
Williams, J. D. (ed.): Mathematics reform in the primary schoo~ Hamburg 1967.
Achter, V. van: De modernisering van het rekenonderwijs op de basisschool, 's Hertogen-
bosch 1969.
Gelder, L. van, Wijdeveld, E. J., Goffree, F. and Krooshof, G.: Moderne wiskunde ,en het
basisonderwijs, Groningen 1968.
3 The state of affairs in the "New Math" development in the USA is described in a report
by the '~Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences": Overview and analysis of school
mathematics - Grades K-12, Washington 1975.
The most important statement is: "The overwhelming conclusion to be drawn from
these findings is that mathematics teachers and classrooms have changed far less in the
past 15 years than has been supposed." (p., 77)
For the development in the Soviet Union see:
Maslov, G., Kuznetsova, L. and Leont'eva, M.: 'Improving the Teaching of Mathematics',
Soviet Education 19 (1977), 91-107.
4 Melis P.: 'Wiskunde en de basisschool', Persoon en Gemeenschap 28 (1975), p. 228.
Other sounds can be heard from this direction as well.
See, for example, the extensive report from a Belgian pedagogical work:
Vernieuwde wiskunde in de basisschool, Brussels 1976.
5 Biggs, E. E.: 'Forward and Back. Reflections after a decade of discovery mathematics',
Education 3 (1971), p. 84.

297
298 NOTES

6 Here we refer to the total utilities for mathematics education: textbooks, teachers'
manuals and instruction material.
In this respect we mention:
Denken en rekenen, 's Hertogenbosch 1968.
Elementair wiskundig rekenen, Assen 1970.
Ontdek het zelf, Groningen 1970.
Wiskunde voor de basisschool, Alphen aan den Rijn 1971.
Also translations of booklets from the "Nuffield Mathematics Project" and the "Invicta"
instructional material.
7 Boomsma, G.: 'Problemen rond de New Math', Mededelingenblad 4 (1968), p. 1l.
8 Around 1977 modern mathematics textbooks took up less than 10% of the total market
for mathematics including arithmetic.
9 The name for the IOWO (Institute for the Development of Mathematics Education) was
deliberately chosen by H. Freudenthal. The inclusion of the word "curriculum" before
development was rejected, since this does not adequately express what the institute stands
for. Curriculum development in the sense of document development is only a part of the
work that was tackled. The term "educational development" is much more suited to the
efforts of the institute.
Educational development can be divided into:
curriculum development;
- change support;
- research.
All of this took place at the IOWO.
For the term "educational development" see:
Hemphill, l. K.: 'Educational development', The Urban Review 4 (1969), 23-27.
Schultz, R. E.: 'The nature of educational development', Journal of Research and
Development in Education 3 (1970), 39-64.
10 This is the Dr. W. Drees school in Arnhem. For a description of the work see:
Frenay, K.: 'Bericht uit de ontwerpschool', Wiskobas-bulletin 1 (1972),269-273.
II Wiskobas: Matematika, handboek heroriiintering onderwijzers, IOWO publication,
Utrecht 1973.
12 By primary school we refer to the 6-12 age group. The curriculum for mathematics
contains a justification and description of the learning activities for everyday instruction.
These activities can be described extensively in such a curriculum or else contain a short
reference to the relevant sources (books, learning material).
13 long, R. de (ed.): Overzicht van wiskundeonderwijs op de basisschool, IOWO
curriculum development publication 2, Utrecht 1975.
14 By spin-off we mean that a number of publications have yet to be finalised, i.e., edited
for publication including the collection of responses.
These publications are:
long, R. de (ed.): Bussen en blokken (Work sheets for mathematics instruction for primary
schools), IOWO curriculum development publication 3, Utrecht 1976.
long, R. de (ed.): Inter-lokaal (Instruction material for mathematics instruction for primary
schools), IOWO-curriculum development publication 4, Utrecht 1976.
Wijdeveld, E. l.: Vierkubers (A theme for mathematics in the primary school), IOWO
curriculum development publication 5, Utrecht 1977.
long, R. de (ed.): De abacus, IOWO curriculum development publication 6, Utrecht 1977.
Heege, H. ter and Moor, E. de: Oppervlakte (Guide to a theme for the primary school),
IOWO curriculum development publication 7, Utrecht 1977.
Brink, l. van den and Wijdeveld, E. l.: De Kamping, IOWO curriculum development
publication 8, Utrecht 1978.
 NOTES 299

Jong, R. de (ed.): Oppervlakte II, IOwa curriculum development publication 9, Utrecht

1978.
Treffers, A. (ed.): Cijferend vermenigvuldigen en delen, IOwa curriculum development
publication 10, Utrecht 1978.
Moor, E. de: Gevarieerd rekenen, IOwa curriculum development publication 11, Utrecht
1979.
15 The material for Dutch television was designed by P. Scholten in co-operation with
others. The series includes:
Tel voor twee, grade two.
Een beetje veel, grade three.
Vier kan 't, grade four.
Kijk op kans, grades five and six.
The theme "Kamping" was designed for NCRV-School radio by J. van den Brink and E.
Wijdeveld, IOWa-curriculum development publication 8, Utrecht 1978.
16 Amongst the literature consulted is:

Slijper, J.: Reuzen en dwergen in het dierenrijk, Leiden 1964.

The following were the articles in De Haagse Post of 1973 which led to the project:

Natura

Linnaeus once said that if an elephant were as strong as a beetle, he would be able to
move mountains. And Linnaeus was a wise man. All the things we read about ants that
can lift 52 times their own weight or snails that can pull 200 times their own weight
must be considered with some reservation.
Such performances depend on nothing but the ratio between length, area and
volume. The larger the animal, the weaker the power of his muscles in proportion to his
weight. For that reason my ten year old son can carry two of his friends on his
shoulders, while I cannot carry two colleagues. Also if snails can pull 200 times their
own weight, I cannot possibly imagine why we have not designed a cart drawn by 25
snails to carry us about, if only for the lack of noise!
A small bird needs up to 30% of its body weight in food per day, a larger bird 10%
and a chicken 4%. A field mouse eats its own weight of food per day, but the smaller
titmouse eats twice its own weight. The smaller the animal, the larger the loss of energy,
the faster the rate of metabolism, the larger the need for food.
Small animals have no time off. They are constantly looking for food, which in turn
costs energy and therefore extra food. On the other hand a crocodile can live on half a
pound of fish or meat per week. He can also fast for a long time. Man is large enough
to be thrifty with his food which leaves him time for other matters. If we were the size
of mice, there would be no culture in spite of our brains. Our entire day would be filled
up with eating, sleeping and taking care of the children.

A reader responded in the following edition of the paper:

Natura Artis Magistra

Since I am a great admirer of your .articles I would allow myself to respond to your
remark: ''the smaller the animal, the greater the loss of energy ..." I have tried to
fathom this, but try as I may, I have not succeeded. I find it most unlikely, this law of
smaller/larger, more so after your illustrations: the chicken is large enough to eat only
4% of its weight. And a human - any hearty eater will be able to manage 4% of his
300 NOTES

weight daily - isn't he a much larger chicken, while the difference in dimensio.ns
between a small croco.dile and a big perso.n is no.t so. big that it can explain the
difference in co.nsumptio.n (croco.dile: half a po.und per week).
Mo.st intriguing is the bird that eats 30%. Has it go.t used to. this because it had little
else to. do., thus speeding up the co.nsumptio.n process? Do.es it no.t have time left to.
devo.te to. culture, ,has this been timed? Is it no.t remarkable that its bill can take such
large mo.rsels that the 30% can be managed in a sho.rt time? Or do.es it eat things that
render o.nly a little nutritio.n to. the bo.dy, so. that it will have to. eat mo.re? Or is its
metabo.lism so. fast because it has no. sto.rage place where fo.o.d can slo.wly be digested?
If it really has to. eat all day to. survive, to. retain sufficient energy, it wo.uld have to. die
at night. Or do.es it also. eat at night?

The jo.urnalist replied:

Imagine an animal as being a cube with edges o.f 2 cm. The area o.f that cube is then 6
X 2 X 2 = 24 cm 2 and the vo.lume 2 X 2 X 2 - 8 cm 3 - a ratio. o.f 3:1. If the cube is
do.ubled to. sides o.f 4 cm, the area beco.mes 6 X 4 X 4 = 96 cm 2 and the vo.lume 4 X 4
X 4 = 64 cm 3, a ratio. o.f 1.5:1.
Therefo.re, the larger the animal, the smaller his surface area, as well as the surface
area o.f his muscles, as co.mpared with co.ntents and weight. The larger the animal
beco.mes, the smaller his muscular capacity in relatio.n to. his o.wn weight. Fo.r example,
a bee can carry 24 times his o.wn weight, but the average human no. mo.re than his o.wn
weight.
The rate o.f metabo.lism alSo. varies with the surface area. Therefo.re we can say that
the smaller the animal, the mo.re lo.ss o.f energy per kg o.f bo.dy weight and the mo.re it
will have to. eat to. retain its temperature. There are a number o.f o.ther facto.rs invo.lved,
the nature o.f the metabo.lism and climate fo.r example, but in general the example o.f the
cube ho.lds true.
To. stay alive the bird will have to. eat 30% o.f his to.tal weight. That will get him
through the night since he will use up little energy while sleeping. During a harsh winter
there are many birds that do. no.t succeed in finding sufficient fo.o.d during the daytime
and hence do. no.t live thro.ugh the night. The essential difference between man and the
croco.dile is that o.ne is a mammal and the o.ther a reptile. Reptiles have a much Io.wer
rate o.f metabo.lism than birds and mammals. That is the reaso.n why croco.diles can fast
mo.re easily.

This discussio.n stimulated the idea o.f designing a theme dealing with these problems. This
is a remarkable example o.f ho.w keen the IOWO designers are to. find usable ideas.
Five phases o.f develo.pment can be distinguished in the "Gulliver" theme: a preparato.ry,
co.nstructio.n, deliberatio.n, revisio.n and fo.llo.w-up phase. During the preparato.ry phase o.ne
o.f the oesigners hit o.n the idea o.f using "Gulliver's Travels" as the scene o.f the instructio.n.
A first draft was designed during the co.nstructio.n phase, tried o.ut and revised.
Co.nstructio.n can mean taking o.ver o.thers' ideas and materials, o.r adapting them o.r
thinking o.ut relatively new ideas. In the last case a lo.ng incubatio.n perio.d (nurturing a
vague idea) is so.metimes fo.llo.wed by a sho.rt illuminative mo.ment (eureka!) and a lengthy
co.nstructio.n process. This was alSo. true fo.r Gulliver. Jo.nathan Swift's bo.o.k appeared to.
ho.ld so. many interesting Po.ints, that it was hard to. make a cho.ice.
The first draft was co.nsiderably lo.nger than the final versio.n. It alSo. included so.me
geo.metry, a number o.f physic~ experiments and an amo.unt o.f bio.lo.gical info.rmatio.n. The
geometry included assignments o.n the relatio.n between quantities in linear enlargement o.f
two. and three dimensio.nal figures and a number o.f applicatio.ns. One o.f the experiments
was to. sho.w that, under certain circumstances, the co.ntent o.f a smaller cube co.o.ls mo.re
 NOTES 301

quickly than that of a larger one; another experiment showed that the bearing power of a
thread varies with its thickness, that is, with the area of its cross-section. These were
experiments referring to the relation between skin-area and volume, and muscular strength
and weight respectively. The biological information concerned subjects like food, loss of
energy, and muscular strength. Much deliberation took place during the construction of
both versions.
About""deliberation" Schwab says:

It treats both end and means and must treat them as mutually determining one another.
It must try to identify, with respect to both, what facts may be relevant. It must try to
ascertain the relevant facts in the concrete case.... It must then weigh alternatives and
their costs and consequences against one another and choose, not the right alternatives,
for there is no such thing, but the best one. (Schwab, J. J.: 'The practical: a language for
curriculum', in Levit, M. (ed.) Curriculum, Urbana 1971, p. 328).

The deliberation process lacks the straightforwardness and strictness of a logical structure,
the firmness of a proof, the surveyability of a strategy: it is sometimes compared to the
activity of a jury during a trial. As far as the last comparison is concerned, it can happen
that the design group feels itself to be condemned to carrying out an impossible task - that
of constructing a consistent package from a collection of conflicting suggestions. During the
deliberation, principles are stated (''is this not a misuse of literature and in poor taste?),
convictions are pronounced (too difficult!), experiences are resported (in class ...),
reflections of a mathematical-didactical nature are uttered (how this theme fits into the
total programme), suggestions are offered (the evaluation might be done by letting the
children make a report about the theme, about their experiences, ...), questions are asked
(what do they learn?) and answers are given (yes, but ...). Concrete product goals do not
seem to play a dominating part in the deliberation process, just as they did not in the
construction process. That is, not in the sense of 'what must the pupils be capable of at the
end of this activity'? On the other hand, it might be said that the general goals are of
dominating importance in construction and deliberation since the envisaged processes are
implicitly aimed at pursuing permanently certain general goals and at concretising them in
particular learning activities.
The revision phase should, if possible, provide a definitive version that is suited to
educational practice. For Gulliver this became possible by leaving out a number of strands
in the tale and re-arranging others. Afterward the piece of instruction is fitted into the
larger context of the mathematics programme, whose lines should converge into the theme.
Thus the question arose whether or not the line of the ratio concept connected with
Gulliver, and whether or not the line of the function concept had been correctly drawn. If
not, where should the necessary adjustments in the curriculum programme be placed? So
in the construction of a piece of instruction, the still-developing curriculum around it is
permanently at issue. Broading on the main stream, the macro-process of curriculum
development, in turn brings along its own specific problems of fundamental mathematical-
didactical analysis of a subject area. For this a broad knowledge of mathematics, its
application areas, instruction and the mathematical learning processes is required.
The chain of events as sketched for Gulliver started in the exploratory phase, was
intermixed with several other theme designs, was closed off in the integration phase by the
publication of the theme in an "overview of mathematics for the primary school", and in
the spin-off phase completed by screening it during one of the four-day conferences
mentioned previously. The response was generally positive. Some question marks were put
next to the topic: Can the teacher handle this theme? Shouldn't there be some sort of brief
introductory presentation? How can the biological information be made plausible? There
were also suggestions for applications dealing with evaporation, specific weight, buoyancy,
cooking and melting.
302 NOTES

This gives an idea of the development of a part of the curriculum programme. Left out
were the discussions with children, the experiences with the first version, most of the
responses from the development team and from the macro-development.
The sketch given might even be a distorted general picture. We described the
production of a piece of instruction which was published in a later phase while in other
cases a rough product or even the initial basic idea itself was disseminated in our early
stage, thus enabling all participants to be involved in the development.
To a large degree, development of material takes place along the lines of the phases
mentioned above. Noteworthy is the increase in organisation: first some ideas, then a
structured theme, which finally was fitted into the totality of the developing curriculum.
17 Morley, A.: 'A new development in primary school mathematics. The Dutch Wiskobas

project', Mathematics Teaching, nr. 69 (1975), p. 15.

IS See for example:
Papy, F.: 'Le livre pour enfants dans l'enseignement de la mathematique', in Nico,nr. 18
(1974),73-160.
19 See:

Dienes, Z. P.: Les six etapes du processus d'apprentissage en mathematique, Paris 1970.
20 Adda, J.: 'Difficultes liees it la presentation des questions mathematiques', in
Educational Studies in Mathematics 7 (1976), p. 17.
21 Loc. cit., p. 18.
22 Serious criticism of the "New Math" came from, amongst others:
Kline, M.: Why Johnny can't add. The failure of the New Math, New York 1973.
23 O'Brien, T.: Three informal essays', Educational Studies in Mathematics 7 (1976),
p.95.
24 Loc. cit., p. 96.
25 This quotation is from an address by Hans Freudenthal, given during the awarding of
an honorary doctorate at the University of Amsterdam. See: Euclides 52 (1977), p. 337.
26 The report of the questionnaire, completed in 1969 by 80 arithmetic didacticians at
teacher training colleges, is found in an internal IOWO publication, entitled: Lochem.
Besluiten Wiskobas, internal publication, Utrecht 1971.
27 Dalin, P.: Case studies of educational innovations: Strategies for innovation in education,
Paris, 1973, p. 36.
2S Ibid.

29 A discussion about the suitable strategy was held in the Wiskobas working groups on
the basis of the article mentioned below, which was also the author's starting point for a
lecture given during the first Wiskobas conference in October 1969:
Teunissen, J. M. F.: 'De verbreding van schoolwiskunde in het basisonderwijs', in
Mededelingenblad 4 (1968), 17-30.
30 The approach followed by Wiskobas is described in a special edition of Educational
Studies in Mathematics 7, nr. 3 ("Five years IOWO. On H. Freudenthal's Retirement from
the Directorship of IOWO"): See especially, 'Curriculum development. A strategy', 351-
362.
31 Dalin, P.: Case studies of educational innovations: Strategies for innovation in education,
Paris 1973, p. 36.
32 There are many descriptions of the concept of innovation that, unlike Dalin's, place the
emphasis on "new". Chin and Downey give the following summary of these definitions:

The objective is defined as "new" if something changed in a significant and substantial

respect. No uniform criteria are available to specify new and what is meant by a
significant and substantial respect. A second approach is quantitative, innovations
which are ideas and practices or materials not yet adopted by a specified percentage,
e.g. 10% or less. A third approach is to label a new total package of practice as an
 NOTES 303

innovation. For example, in education, a different technology of teaching, as computer

aided instruction, team teaching, or modular scheduling is an innovation. A fourth
approach is in terms of defining an innovation by the critical factor of the effects on
behaviour. A fifth approach defines innovation as "perceived" as new.

In the case of innovation in mathematics education in the primary school, a~ realised by

Wiskobas, there is compliance with each of the definitions. (See: Chin, R. and Downey, L.:
'Changing change: Innovating a discipline', in Travers, R. M. W. (ed.), Second handbook of
research on teaching, Chicago 1973, p. 522.
33 Stenhouse, L.: An introduction to curriculum research and development, London 1975,
p.91.
34 Ibid.
35 For an example of constructive analysis see
Goffree, F.: 'Doorkijkspiegelingen' (,Semi-transparent mirror reflections') (Fifteen reflec-
tions on instruction material), Wiskobas Bulletin 3 (1974),474-495.
36 Sixma, J.: 'Enkele overwegingen t.b.v. het leerplandenken, gei1lustreerd aan het
leesvoorwaardenonderzoek', in Creemers, B. (ed.), Bijdragen tot de onderwijskunde, Den
Bosch 1973,p. 59.
37 Hacker tries to find a solution to this problem in a different teacher training
programme. In the Netherlands voices are also being heard that plead for an extension of
the teacher training programme in the direction of curriculum development. See:
Hacker, H.: Curriculumplanung und Lehrerrolle, Weinheim 1976.
Franssen, H. and Meyer, K.: 'Curriculumontwikkeling in de opleiding aan de Pedagogische
Akademie', PedagogischeStudiifnS4 (1977), 271-279.
38 SeeChapterVp.213.
39 Als Feinziel bezeichnet man jedes Lernziel von Abstraktionsniveau 1, ein Lernziel also,
das den hochsten Grad an Eindeutigkeit und Priizision aufweist, alle Alternativen
ausschliesst und die drei Merkmale Endverhaltensbeschreibung, niihere Bestimmung
des Endverhaltens und Angabe des Beurteilungsmassstabes aufweisen kann." "Als
Grobziel bezeichnet man jedes Lernziel von Abstraktionsniveau 2, ein Lernziel also,
das einen mittleren Grad an Eindeutigkeit und Priizision aufweist, nur einige
Alternativen ausschliesst und eine vage Endverhaltensbeschreibung ohne Angabe des
Beurteilungsmassstabes zeigt." "Als Richtziel schliesslich bezeichnet man jedes Lernziel
von Abstraktionsniveau 3, ein Lernziel also, das den geringsten Grad an Eindeutigkeit
und Priizision aufweist, nur ganz wenige Alternative ausschliesst und mit umfassenden
unspezifischen Begriffen arbeitet. (Moller, c.: Technik der Lernplanung. Methoden und
Probleme der Lernzielerstellung, Weinheim 1970, pp. 49-50).

40 Dalin, P.: Case studies of educational innovations: Strategies for innovation in education,
Paris 1973, p. 216.
41 The example-curriculum of Wiskobas for the first two grades of the elementary school
was designed by J. van den Brink of the IOWO together with the Wiskobas team and the
teachers for grades one and two of the Dr. W. Drees school in Arnhem. J. van Bruggen was
responsible for the grade three programme, H. ter Heege for grade four and L. Streefland
for grades five ahd six.
Along with the primary school group, Wiskobas has collaborators involved in in-service
training, and teacher training, as well as various other activities.
4~ We should mention that the cube image was not found until the eight starting points and
twelve general goals had been formulated and published internally. The six subject areas
completed the image of the objectives cube.
304 NOTES

CHAPTER II

I An extensive reflection concerning the· essence of mathematical activity in general and

within education in particular can be found in:
Freudenthal; H.: Mathematics as an educational task, Dordrecht 1973.
One of Freudenthal's objections to cUI;rent mathematics education is that the activities
within school mathematics often lead their own lonely life and show no resemblance to
the mathematics as acted out by mathematicians in many areas. Does this mean that
Freudenthal wishes to reserve mathematics for professional mathematicians and only
assesses the mathematical value of mathematics education exclusively from the scientific
point of view of mathematics? On the contrary, he sees mathematics as a common human
activity, that it .is an activity for everyone and not just reserved for the professional
mathematician. Hence the title: Mathematics as an educational task. It is in this sense also
that we consider the term mathematical activity. That this activity is not in conflict with
mathematical activity at the highest level is apparent from the summary in sub-section 1.11
Chapter II. The characteristics given agree on many points with those singled out by Polya
for mathematical activities at the level of higher education. See:
Polya, E.: Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning, Vol. I: Induction and Analogy in
Mathematics, Princeton 1967; Vol. II: Patterns of Plausible Inference, Princeton 1968.
Polya, E.: Mathematics Discovery, Vol. I, New York 1962; Mathematics Discovery, Vol. II,
New York 1965.
2 A profile of a subject area by means of "beacons", as given here with combinatorial
problems, was previously given for probability and statistics. See:
Euclides47 (1972),237-333.
3 Melis, J. and Lorme-Bakker, H. de: 'Kleuters en wiskunde', in Wiskobas Bulletin 2
(1973), p. 648.
4 For a description of mathematical problems of this kind, see:
Goffree, F. and .Jansen H. (eds.): 20 gevallen van stagebegeleiding: internal IOWO
publication, Utrecht 1977.
S See:

O'Brien, T. C.: 'Some notes on m~tiplication of whole numbers', Ed,ucational Studies in

Mathematics 3 (1970),63-68.
Jong, R. de (ed.): Overzicht van wiskundeonderwijs'op de basisschool, IOWO curriculum
development publication 2, Utrecht, 1975, page 138 and following. Educational psychol-
ogy backgrounds to the principle of progressive schematization can be found in:
Jong, R. de (ed.): De abacus. An important aid for mathematics instruction in the primary
school, IOWO curriculum development publication 6, Utrecht, 1977, pp. 96-112.
The above mentioned publication contains a summary of:
Bruggen, J. C. van: Leren cijferen bekeken door een leerpsychologische bril, internal IOWO
publication, Utrecht, 1975.
6 Sawyer, W. W.: Wegwijs in de wiskunde, Utrecht 1962, pp. 11-12.
7 For other combinatorial problems see:
Kirsch, A: 'Ein-eindeutige Zuordnungen im 5. Schuljahr: Begriindung des Zahlbegriffs
oder Forderung der KombinationsfahigkeitT, Die Schulwarte 8 (1974), 29-36.
Jacobs, H.: Mathematics: a human endeavour, New York 1970, pp. 310-341.
8 This activity took place at a primary school in Hilversum.
9 Two internal IOWO publications:
Goffree, F.: Kijken, tioen, denken en zien. Analyse van wiskundig-didactisch werk van
studenten P. A, internal IOWO publication 1976.
Goffree, F.: Tel/en. Analyse van wiskundigdidactisch werk van studenten P. A., internal
IOWO publication, Utrecht 1977.
And:
 NOTES 305

Goffree, F.: 'Johan, A teacher training freshman studying mathematics and didactics',
Educational Studies in Mathematics 8 (1977), 117-153.
10 The emphasis on the concept of "meaning" is found in:
Swenson, E. J.: Making primary arithmetic meaningful to children, Washington 1961.
Thorn, R: 'Modern mathematics: Does it existT, in Howson, A. G. (ed.), Developments in
mathematical education, Cambridge 1973, pp. 194-213.
II Jong, R de (ed.): Bussen en blokken (Worksheets for mathematics education in- the
primary school), IOWO curriculum development publication 3, Utrecht 1976.
Jong, R de (ed.): Inter-lokaal (working material for mathematics education in the primary
school), IOWO curriculum development pUblication 4, Utrecht 1976.
12 If it is a context problem, for example in the form of a story, the two levels can be
distinguished. In a particular instance the pupil sees that a multiplication must be carried
out to find the solution, but this operation is done by him at a low level of schematisation,
i.e., the application level is relatively high but the operation level low.
In another case the pupil does not recognise the multiplication problem, while he is
capable of performing that operation at a high level of schematisation. In short, it is
meaningful to distinguish between the level of mathematisation and the level of operation if
the learning of the basic operations takes place according to the strategy of progressive
schematisation, as sketched in sub-section 1.6. in Chapter II.
13 For differentiation in general see:
Nijhof, W.: 'Van externe naar interne differentiatieT Pedagogische Studien 53 (1976),
391-405.
Koning, P. de: Interne dijferentiatie: doel en mogelijkheden, APS edition, Amsterdam 1973.
14 The conceptions of T. Ehrenfest-Afanassjewa and D. van Hiele-Geldhof and P. M. van

Hiele are well-known. See:

Ehrenfest-Afanassjewa, T.: Wiskunde. Didactische opstellen, Groningen 1960.
Hiele-Geldhof, D. van: De didaktiek van de meetkunde in de eerste klas van het VHMO.,
Amsterdam n.d.
Hiele, P. M. van: De problematiek van het inzicht, gedemonstreerd aan het inzicht van
schoolkinderen in meetkunde-leerstof, Amsterdam n.d.
The publications mentioned above did have some influence on geometry instruction for the
first year of second3ry school, but the basic ideas of vertical planning in reasoning levels
have not always been satisfactorily worked out in modern text books. See:
Dormolen, J. van: 'Over het leren begrijpen wat een bewijs is', Euclides 50 (1975),
247-253.
This issue of Euclides is a special one devoted to geometry, and gives a good overview of
the state of affairs in primary and secondary education.
15 In this connection see:
Rilde, L. (ed.): The teaching ofprobability and statistics, New York 1970.
Dienes, Z. P.: An experimental study of mathematics learning, London 1963.
16 This quotation is from Barbel Inhelder and was recorded and disseminated by Bruner.
See:
Bruner, J. S.: The process of education, New York 1960.
Bruner, J. S.: Toward a Theory of Instruction, New York, 1966, p. 44.
17 This is most clearly evident in the misuse of the language of sets. See the book review in
the Wiskobas Bulletin 7 (1977-1978).
18 H. Freudenthal in a lecture on the language aspect of mathematics at a conference in
April 1973 in Lochem, later adapted for:
Freudenthal, H.: Weeding and sowing. Preface to a science of mathematical education,
Dordrecht 1978, pp. 233ff.
See also:
Hoffman, N.: 'Pascal's Triangle', The Arithmetic Teacher 21 (1973), 190-199.
306 NOTES

19 An overview of the possibilities of mathematical applications and an extensive list of

references is found in:
Pollak, H. 0.: 'The interaction between mathematics and other school subjects', paper for
the Third International Congress of Mathematics Education, Karlsruhe 1976.
20 For analytical and intuitive reasoning see:
Bruner, J. S.: The process o/education, New York 1960, 55-69.
Fishbein, E.: 'Intuition, structure and heuristic methods in the teaching of mathematics', in
Howson, 10. G. (ed.), Developments in Mathematics Education, Cambridge 1973, pp.
222-233.
21 For these ideas see:
Stenhouse, L.: An introduction to curriculum research and development, London 1975.
In Chapter IV we will again refer to the concept of "teaching without objectives".
22 For the relationship of starting points to objectives see:
Blankertz, H.: Theorien und Modelle der Didaktik, Miinchen 1969.
Meyer, H. L.: Einfiihrung in die Curriculum-Methodologie, Miinchen 1972.

CHAPTER III

I For the topic of goal-means see for example:

MacDonald-Ross, M.: 'Behavioral objectives: A critical review', in Instructional Science 2
(1973),1-52.
Wise, R J.: 'The use of objectives in curriculum planning. A critique of planning by
objectives', Curriculum Theory NetworkS (1976), 280-290.
2 Lists of terms are found in, among others:
McAshan, H. H.: The goals approach to performance objectives, Philadelphia 1974, p. 30.
3 For references concerning the overview in the first sub-section of this chapter we refer
to the relevant sections in the following chapters.
4 Corte, E. de, Geerlings, C. T., Lagerwey, N. A. J., Peters, J. J., and Vandenberghe, R:
Beknopte didaxologie, Groningen 1972, p. 35.
5 Tyler, R W.: Basic principles 0/ curriculum and instruction, Chicago 1970.
6 A typical quote in this connection:

The Mathematics, Architecture and Science Society at Leyden with the device
"Mathematics is the mother of science" awarded gold to a paper in 1797 with the
motto: Knowledge of geometry is the first step toward becoming a reasonable man.
Dapperen, D. van: Vormleer, Amsterdam 1825, p. 34.

7 An extensive profile of these, developments can be found in the classic:

Klein, F. and Schimmack, R: Der Mathematische Unterricht an den H6heren Schulen I,
Leipzig 1907, pp. 71 ff.
B E. W. Beth held an inquiry amongst members of the mathematics working group of the
"Werkgemeenschap tot Vernieuwing van Opvoeding en Onderwijs" where, among others,
the points quoted were enumerated See:
Beth, E. W.: Doel en zin van het meetkundeonderwijs, Euclides 14 (1939),236-244.
Opponents of this type of reflection on objectives as held by Dijksterhuis, H. J. E. Beth and
Verrijp in the 1920-1940 period, include Mannoury and Van Dantzig. Arithmetic
education was ascribed the same formal values. For an overview see:
Turkstra, H. and Timmer, J. K: Rekendidactiek, Groningen-Djakarta 1953.
9 Turkstra, H.: Psychologisch-didaktische problemen bit het onderwijs in de wiskunde aan
de middelbare school, Groningen 1934, p. 19.
 NOTES 307

10 Cuypers, K.: Het aankweeken van het wiskundig denken, Antwerpen 1940, p. 29.
II F. (initial only): 'De wiskunde op de MMS', Euclides 14 (1938), p. 31.
12 Cuypers, K.: Het aankweeken van he! wiskundig denken, Antwerpen 1940, p. 193.
13 Turkstra, H.: Psychologisch-didaktische problemen bij het onderWijs in de wiskunde aan
de middelbare school, Groningen 1934, p. 34.
14 Reindersma, W.: Over het inleidend onderwijs in de meetkunde, Groningen - The
Hague 1926,pp.16ff.
15 See the views of Ehrenfest-Afanassjewa in: Kan het wiskunde-onderwijs tot de
opvoeding van het denkvermogen bijdragen?, Purmerend 1951.
16 These are mainly the views of Van Hiele-Geldof and Van Hiele. See:
Hiele, P. M. van: De problematiek van het inzicht, Amsterdam, pp. 88-102.
17 For the views of Kohnstamm on the learning of methods of solution, and Langeveld's
theory on knowledge domains see:
Kohnstamm, Ph.: Keur uit het didactisch werk, Groningen 1952.
Langeveld, M. J.: Inleiding tot de studie der paedagogische psychologie van de middelbare-
schoolleeftijd, Groningen 1954.
18 Sluis, A. van der: 'Computerkunde bij het AVO', Euclides 46 (1970), 81-92.
19 For the meaning of number systems see the theme "The Land of Eight" in Chapter IV.
In short, the notation for the binary system is:

:4 I ~3 I :2 I ~ I I :
'10101' in the decimal system is 21 (1 + 22 + 24)
In the binary systew one has two digits at one's disposal (0 and 1). In base 3 system there
are three (0, 1 and 2), and so on.
20 This view is found in:
Beth, E. W.: 'Doel en zin van het meetkunde onderwijs, Euclidps 14 (1939).
21 Goffree, F. and Wijdeveld, E. J.: 'Een praktikum wiskunde', Euclides 44 (1966),
193-219.
22 Much attention to the socialising aspect has been paid by Wiskivon (mathematics in
secondary education). See:
Sweers, W. (ed.): Leerplanontwikkeling onderweg I, IOWO publication, Utrecht 1977.
23 As indicated in Chapter I (see Note 12) this refers to the 6-12 age group. Kindergarten
education has been paid more attention since 1975. See articles by Jeanne de
Gooijer-Quint in the Wiskobas Bulletin.
24 See:
Proeve van een leerplan for het basisonderwijs B: Rekenen, Kohnstamminstitute, Groningen
1968,p.7.
25 Dam, P. R. L. van: Sommetjes in hokjes. Einddoelstellingen van het rekenonderwijs op
de basisschool, CITO publication, Arnhem 1975.
26 The idea is not a new one, and was popular in geometry instruction, searching for a
"definitive" pseudo-deductive treatment. NaIiles include Reindersrna, Wolda, Ehrerifest-
Afanassjewa, Van Hiele-Geldof and Van Hiele. The work of the last two especially was
theoretically based and resulted in a distinction of leanling levels. See:
Hiele, P. M. van: Begrip en inzicht, Werkboek van de wiskundedidaktiek, Purmerend 1973.
27 A very strict vertical planning according to the spiral idea is used by Dienes. See: .
Dienes, Z. P.: Les six etapes duprocessus d'apprentissage en mathematique, Paris 1970.
28 The problems will arise without any doubt, since modern arithmetic and mathematical
methods like 'Elementair Wiskundig Rekenen', 'Hoi, Rekenen', GetaJ in beeld', and 'Taltaal',
'Operatoir Rekenen', 'De Wereld in Getallen', 'Rekenwerk' and 'Rekenen en Wiskunde',
which differ from existing methods in several ways, will probably do well in the coming years.
308 NOTES

29 Kirsch, A.: 'Vorschliige zur Behandlung von Wachstumsprozessen und Exponential-

funktionen im Mittelstufunterricht', Didaktik der Mathematik 4 (1976), 257-285.
30 A treatment of similar ideas is found in a paper by the Schools Council Sixth Form
Mathematics Project in Mathematics Applicable, London 1975.
31 For an extensive profile see:
Moor, E. de and Treffers, A.: 'Het aanvankelijke meetkunde-onderwijs I, II, and III',
Euc/ides50 (1974), 41-61, and 81-99.
32 An extensive analysis of text books of the "New Math" trend is found in Wiskobas
Bulletin 7 (1978), Nr. 4.
33 For an overview see:
Pollak, H. 0.: 'The interaction between mathematics and other school subjects', paper for
the Third Congress on Mathematics Education, Karlsruhe 1976.
34 An extensive reflection on these matters is found in:
'Measurement in School Mathematics', Yearbook of the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics, Reston 1976.
35 For the language aspect of mathematics see:
Brinke, J. S. ten: 'Moedertaalonderwijs en toch geen "Nederlands''', Euclides 45 (1970),
327-336.
36 A clipping from Het Parool May 15th 1973. Articles on population increase are quite
frequent.
37 For an interesting reflection on the grains problem and the use of calculators see:
Papy, G.: 'Schaakbord en zakrekenmachine', Nico, Nr. 20 (1976), 67-80.
For other possibilities in working with a calculator see Blij, F. van der: 'Voor minder dan
twee tientjes rekenpret', Wiskrant, Nr. 9 (1977),10-11.
38 Similar historically coloured reflections on general objectives for mathematics education
in West Germany and Great Britain, respectively, are found in:
Lenne, H.: Analyse der Mathematikdidaktik in Deutschland, Stuttgart 1969.
McNelis, S. and Dunn, J. A.: 'Why teach mathematics?' International Journal of
Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 8 (1977), 175-184.
39 For other reflections on general objectives see:
Bigalke, H.: 'Zur "gesellschaftlichen Relevanz" der Mathematik im Schulunterricht. Aufgabe
und Ziele des Mathematikunterrichts', Zentralblatt fUr Didaktik der Mathematik 8
(1976),25-34.
Braunfeld, P. and Kaufman, B.: 'Mathematical education: A viewpoint', International
Journal ofMathematical Education in Science and Technology 3 (1972), 287-291.
Christiansen, B.: 'Induction and deduction in the learning of mathematics and in
mathematical instruction', Educational Studies in Mathematics 2 (1969), 139-160.
Johnson, D. A. and Rising, G. R: Guidelines for Teaching Mathematics, Belmont 1969.
Kratz, J.: 'Aufgaben und Moglichkeiten des heutigen Mathematikunterrichts an den
allgemeinbildenden Schulen', Zentralblatt fUr Didaktik der Mathematik 6 (1974),
116-120.
Lenne, H.: Analyse der Mathematikdidakiik in Deutschland, Stuttgart 1969.
Servais, W::Objectives de I'enseignement de la mathematique (mimeo), 1975.
Watson, F. R: 'Aims in mathematical education and their implications for the training of
mathematics teachers', International Journal of Mathematics Education in Science and
Technology 2 (1971), 105-119.
Winter, H.: 'Vorstellungen zut Entwicklung von Curricula fiir den Mathematikunterricht in
der Gesamtschule', in Beitriige zum Lernzielproblem, Ratingen 1972.
Winter, H.: 'Allgemeine Lernziele fiir den Mathematikunterricht', Zentralblatt fUr Didaktik
der Mathematik 6 (1974),106-116.
Wittenberg, A. I.: Bildung und Mathematik, Stuttgart 1963.
A more extensive treatment, directed especially to the problems in developing countries,"is
found in:
 NOTES 309

d'Ambrosio, U.: 'Overall goals and objectives for mathematical education' (mimeo), 1976;
published in the Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Mathematics
Education, 1977.

CHAPTER IV

I The following is meant to convey some insight into the possible content of a
mathematics curriculum according to Wiskobas. It is no more than a global indication.
From the given starting points and general objectives one can come to a large variety of
choices for text books, themes etc. Some of the arguments for such a choice are of
normative character - something should be so and so - and are derived from a certain
view of man, society and subject area. Other arguments are based on facts - something is
so and so - and stem from data of educational practice, didactics, mathematics and
psychology. Often the choice is made on the basis of vague personal tastes and preferences.
Take the theme "The Land of Eight": Is there an objective (in the sense of "valid for
everyone") criterion for the choice of this theme? How about for "Gulliver" or "Grains on
the Chessboard"? No coercive arguments can be brought forward for the choice of these
themes. They can be made perspicuous or even plausible through the starting points and
general objectives.
In view of this, it is not surprising that there is no consensus, either nationally or
internationally, on the desirability of a number of subjects. The activities within the subject
areas as described here are therefore no common property, although there is agreement on
a number of them. This is not the time or place to describe the procedures followed by
Wiskobas in weighing each of the parts as far as their desirability is concerned. Matters of
deduction, legitimacy and competence are not considered.
The arithmetic system
The arithmetic system is the area that consists mainly of the classical curriculum: counting,
grouping and classifying, adding, subtracting, multiplying in the field of natural numbers,
fractions and decimal numbers; becoming acquainted with the properties of these
operations and their applications.
In mathematics education, arithmetic was given a number of new impulses, especially in
the application area, leading to a more integrated and reality-bound instruction. In a more
technical sense, where the learning of arithmetic skills is concerned, certain new charac-
teristic traits can be distinguished.
We have in mind:
practic6 games for the basic operations;
systematic counting;
calculating with pocket calculators;
calculating on magnitudes, probabilities, slot machines;
open statements with relation symbols like ", <, >;
the various number aspects, counting number, measuring number, numerosity,
reckoning. number and code number, their functions and how they are "operable";
use of the number line, grid and flow chart;
connection to subject areas like mesurement, geometry, functions and probability;
calculating with negative numbers;
generalizing, detection of formulae, and the use of letters;
calculations in other number systems, for the higher grades, thus offering an
overview and review of learned algorithms in the decimal system;
properties of operations in connection with structured reckoning;
varieties of applications of the basic operations, as in counting problems and ratio.
As we have said, an attempt is made to find connections to everyday situations. The
310 NOTES

newspaper, train timetable, sports, and advertisements were proposed. Thus the arithmetic
system offers a greater opening to meaningful reality, more so than was previously the
case.
2 Measuring
In the area of measurement we have to do with magnitudes such as length, weight and time.
Magnitudes can be captured numerically: we can add them, subtract them, multiply and
divide them. Thus the area of a rectangle is found by multiplying length and width, and the
average speed of a vehicle by dividing the covered distance by the time. The resulting units
of measure are the compound units "m X m" (m 2) and "km per hour" (kmlhour). From the
original units, new units are formed by these operations, which in turn are numerically
expressed.
Working with magnitudes leads to operations with numbers. In the traditional
programme much time was devoted to the arithmetic of time, money, length, area, volume
and weight, with the stress on the algorithms of the metric system. Yet this approach to
measurement is unsatisfactory for several reasons. Firstly, working with magnitudes is
in principle independent of the numerical interpretation. We can compare, order and
combine magnitudes without introducing specific units of measure. Secondly, a large
number of mathematical activities is possible in measuring beyond the limits of routine
arithmetic:
developing measuring strategies, e.g. by indirect measuring;
developing measuring units, e.g., for population density, traffic density, etc.
the meaning of precision and imprecision in estimating, measuring, calculating,
rounding-off;
measurements in experiments and projects, making charts and graphic processing of
data;
discovery of relations between magnitudes;
detection of rules, for example the area of a circle;
the integration of mathematics and "science" in themes and projects, for example the
consequence of enlargement of an object for its circumference, area, and volume,
and the biological consequences;
the connection to counting problems, geometry, functions, probability and statistics;
Measurement can also link mathematics to reality.
3 Geometry
Until very recently, geometry was exclusive to secondary education. It was associated with
Euclid and seen as the example of a deductive system. At primary school level there were a
few remnants of elementary geometry such as the calculation of the circumference, area,
and volume of geometrical objects. However, from the nineteen-fifties onwards, the interest
in geometry in the primary school grew almost as fast as the enthusiasm for Euclidian
geometry in secondary education faded. The Arithmetic Teacher contained not one article
on geometry in the 1954-1959 period, only an average of five per year in the next five
years, then ten and in the 1968-1973 period even fifteen per year. Internationally,
however, there is little agreement on geometry programmes for primary education. This is
possibly due to the richness of the area; geometry has many aspects that can be included in
a vertically planned curriculum only with difficulty.
For example:
the form aspect, concerned with the naming, recognition and classification of geo-
metrical objects, the design of patterns, tesselations, projections and intersections;
the constructive aspect: making of grids, working with construction straws, drawing
of patterns and ground plans and constructions with the use of compasses and ruler,
construction of buildings;
the relation aspect: congruence, similarity, parallelism, spatial orientation, views of
buildings, etc;
 NOTES 311

the topological aspects: mazes, traversing graphs, deformation of figures;

the calculation aspect: counting problems, calculation with vectors and mappings,
connections to measurement;
the transformation aspect: symmetric figures, strip ornament, stamping, paper-
cutting and folding, properties of translations, rotations and reflections, etc;
the language aspect: geometrical concepts, the description and naming of figures, the
description of ground plans;
the logical aspect: reasoning on the basis of visual evidence withitl a locally
organised system.
Geometrical activities are especially praised for their inviting character, the visual basis
they offer for mathematical activities and the possibilities they provide for an ever-
increasing mathematical organisation of the subject-area.
4 Probability and Statistics
The interest in this subject-area is even more recent than the renew~d interest in geometry.
In a well-known book Primary Mathematics Today, first published in 1970, one will search
in vain for concepts that have a crucial meaning for collecting, ordering and interpreting
numerical data such as average, mode, median, deviation and correlation. Nothing can be
found on sampling and calculating probabilities. On the whole probability and statistics
were absent as a subject-area of modem primary school mathematics until very recently.
The sudden interest, which can be explained by a desire for more applicable mathematics,
as a reaction to the many modernisation attempts in the sixties, is directed at the following
activities:
processing numerical data in pictograms, bar diagrams, line graphs, pie charts or
histograms, where measures like average, median, and mode will be dealt with;
simulation of events using 'dice, coins, spinners, telephone books and random
numbers to determine probabilities qualitatively and quantitatively;
calculations with probabilities (sum-, product- and complement rules), visually
supported by tree diagrams, road diagrams and grids;
probability connected to arithmetic: bingo, fractions, counting problems, percen-
tages and ratio;
sampling to approach a given distribution in the long run and predict real
distributions;
the law of large numbers a priori and empirically;
The subject-area of probability and statistics holds a vast wealth of didactical opportunities
, for understanding reality.
5 Relations and Functions
The title "relations and functions" labels the subject-areas that deal with order-creating and
order-describing .activities. These organising activities have always taken place in initial
arithmetic instruction, albeit in terms of ordering according to alphabet, lexicographic
ordering, arranging in order, linking, cataloguing, grouping, structuring, classifying etc.
Mathematics education has given an extension to these activities in the primary school
which goes far beyond what took place in traditional arithmetic. Attention is directed
mainly to assignments, rules, laws and prescriptions in the form of formulae, flow charts
and arrows that describe or bring about the structures of a mathematical and empirical
reality.
In this connection we mention:

ordering of objects according to certain prescriptions, such as objects according to

weight, events according to time and probabilities according to size;
forming of chains according to certain criteria, such as logi-blocks according to
differences in one property, numbers according to "is three more than", dominoes
via "is larger than";
312 NOTES

sorting of objects - possibly with overlaps - according to characteristics such as

colour, shape, size, number, or according to two or more criteria, where use can be
made of punched cards; looking for criteria for classification, ordering or sorting;
continuation of patterns for numbers, music, ornaments, etc.;
composition of arrow diagrams for certain relations, completing arrow diagrams and
then operating on them;
calculating with slot machines· that deliver a certain output to a given input
according to certain prescriptions involving additions, subtractions, multiplications,
divisions or compositions of them;
the discovery and description of relations between pairs or triples of quantities
within a situation, such as telephone or taxi costs as functions of time, oscillation
times as a function of pendulum length, height of bounce as a function of height of
fall, length of day as a function of calendar date, shipping costs as a function of
weight and distance, etc.
As important as the discovery and the description is the creation of relationship and order.
6 Language and Logic
In the past some people pleaded for a preparation in formal logic as support for mathe-
matics education. However, their pleas was disregarded. Even though the patterns of
formal logic may be suited to determine whether conclusions from certain premises are
correct and to analyse all sorts of reasoning patterns, they offer no clues for the detection
of these premises or offer support to constructive elements of mental strategies. So the plea
in favour of formal logic in secondary education did not stem from the conception of
mathematics as an activity. If, however, logic is taken to be thinking about thinking, the
matter is entirely different. In this kind of exploration we can depart from more complex
mental situations and analyse the effectiveness of the mental strategy and the language that
is used. If the emphasis is placed on language as a means of expressing thought, it is also
referred to as formalisation. If the object of thinking is the construction of mental patterns,
we speak of schematisation. Activities we can list in this respect are:

symbolising;
developing·a language of one's own;
detecting relationships between the vocabulary and syntax of ordinary language,
mathematical language and more formalised language, for example as in the use of
variables; .
translating situations into mathematical terms and vice versa: interpretating mathe-
maticallanguage into everyday terms;
the use of "and", "or", "either-or", "not", "some", "few", "always", "at least", "at
most", etc., visualising statements in which these terms occur, and vice versa: placing
statements next to illustrations;
analysing all kinds of reasoning and mental strategies on the basis of suitable
problems;
"exploration" of paradoxes.

The area of language and logic, with the exception of formal logic, has barely been touched
upon so far.
This was an overview of subject-areas, as sources of multi-dimensional objectives of
mathematics education, as pursued by Wiskobas.
7 See:
Groot, A. D. de: 'Over fundamentele ervaringen: prolegomena tot een analyse van
gesprekken met schakers', Pedagogische Studiifn 51 (1974), p. 332.
8 Popham, W. J., Eisner, E. W., Sullivan, H. J., and Tyler, Z. L.: Instructional objectives,
Chicago 1969,p. 35.
9 Loc. cit., p. 37.
10 Loc. cit., p. 33.
11 Loc. cit., p. 45.
 NOTES 313

12 Loc. cit., p. 43.

13 Lic. cit., p. 134.
14 Loc. cit., p. 8.

15 For the use of the terms "introduce to", "equip with", "confront with" and "unfold" see:
Oudkerk Pool, T.: 'Van zaakvak tot wereIdverkenning', Resonans 7 (1975), 183-188.
16 Popham, W. J., Eisner, E. W. et al.: Instructional objectives, Chicago 1969, p. 28.
17 Loc. cit., p. 16.
18 Loc. cit., p. 17.
19 Loc. cit., p. 26.

20 Loc. cit., p. 61.

21 Loc. cit., p. 62.
22 However, the terms are often not interpreted in the same way. This can be
demonstrated by the term "specific". A large number of Dutch speaking authors (De Corte,
Stroomberg, Huber, Pilot and others) use the term "specific" as a synonym for "concrete".
But sometimes the term is reserved for less concrete objectives (Westrhenen), or in
reference to a different dimension and taken as the opposite of general objectives, similarly
to abstract-concrete:
Corte, E. de: Onderwijsdoelstellingen. Bijdrage tot de didaxologische theorievorming en
aanzetten voor het empirisch onderzoek over onderwijsdoelen, Leuven 1973, p. 17.
Stroomberg, H. P.: 'Onderwijsdoelstellingen en doelstellingenonderzoek', Pedagogische
Studien 50 (1973), p. 512.
Huber, F. and Pilot, A.: Specificeren van onderwijsdoelstellingen, Utrecht 1974, p. 17.
Westrhenen, J. van: Aardrijkskundige onderwijsdoelen. Een onderzoek naar de feitelijk
nagestreefde, cognitieve leerdoelen van de aardrijkskunde in het MA VO, HA VO en
VWO, diss. Amsterdam 1976, p. 21.
Beuk, C. H.: 'Clusteranalyse in doelstellingenonderzoek', Pedagogische Studien 53 (1976),
p.457.
23 Gronlund, N. E.: Stating behavioral objectives for classroom instruction, London 1970,
p.53.
Gerlach, V. S. and Sullivan, H. J.: Constructing statements of outcomes, Englewood 1967,
p.5.
Walbesser, H. H.: An evaluation model and its application: Second Report, Washington
1968,p.7.
24 Sullivan, H. J.: 'Objectives, evaluation and improved learner achievement', in Popham,
W. J. (ed.), Instructional Objectives, Washington 1969, p. 83.
25 Eisenberg, T. A.: 'Behaviourism: The bane of school mathematics', International Journal
of Mathematics Education in Science and Technology 6 (1975), p. 164.
26 Klauer includes the concept of probability in the description of an objective: "Lehrziel
ist die Erreichung einer bestimmten Losungswahrscheinlichkeit bei Aufgabenklassen." See:
Klauer, K. J.: Methodik der LehrZieldefinition und Lehrstoffanalyse, Dusseldorf 1974,
p.. 42.
27 It is quite a problem to discover what is the relationship between an objective and the
set of tests by which it can be represented. Roughly speaking, if a formulated objective is
taken as the starting point, the problem arises as to how this objective can be unfolded in
sub-objectives that together cover the total objective, and how to refine these sub-
objectives so that they become susceptible to measuring such that the envisaged thing is
covered by what is actually measured. De Groot refers to this as the coverage problem,
which in his opinion has not been solved by the common methods of measurement. He
draws attention to the importance of students' reporting and to formulations of objectives
like "I have learned that ..." This learning can apply to oneself as well as to the world
around one. De Groot gives an important addition to common methods of measurement,
which can also be applied to mathematics.
Groot, A. D. de: 'Over fundamenteIe ervaringen: Prolegomena tot een analyse van
gesprekken met schakers', Pedagogische Studien 51 (1974),329-349.
If, however, one takes the set of tests generated by a certain concrete product goal as a
314 NOTES

starting point, as Klauer does, then the problem of coverage changes to one of description,
and the question arises as to how to provide a covering description of the set of tests.
Klauer's answer to this problem is not satisfactory. In an unpublished book review on
this matter H. Freudenthal says:

From mathematics the author borrows the idea of describing a learning objective
extensionally, Le., as a set of "Aufgaben", so that a test of the objective is a random
sample from that set. The opposite, and more acceptable, view is the intentional
interpretation of an objective where the intention is conveyed by a set of examples, a
set that only extensionally gives the impression of a random sample. What, from the
extensional point of view, looks like a sample, is intentionally to be considered as a
paradigm. The author's theory concerning learning objectives looks exact, but is so only
at the cost of its operationality. The author has operationalised it only in cases where
the operationalisation is trivial. There is not the slightest evidence that the theory, in a
broader sense, can be operationalised.

28 National Advisory Committee on Mathematical Education: Overview and analysis of

School Mathematics Grades K-12, Washington 1975, p. 51.
29 McAshan, H. H.: The goals approach to performance objectives, Philadelphia 1974, p. 2.
30 Gronlund also makes a two-way division. He speaks of instructional objectives and
behavioural objectives. Terms like knowing, understanding and applying can be used for
"instructional objectives" (McAshan would refer to "goals" here), whereas the learning
products contain terms that indicate observable behaviour (McAshan would speak of
objectives). See:
Gronlund, N. E.: Stating behavioural objectives for classroom instruction, London 1970.
31 Published earlier on this subject:

Treffers, A. and Wijdeveld, E. J.: 'Over operationele doelstellingen', Wiskobas Bulletin 2

(1973),627-636.
A broad treatment of taxonomies can be found in:
Frey, K.: Theorien des Curriculums, Weinheim 1972, pp. 187ff.
Besides the taxonomies of Bloom and Gagne, Wood's and Wilson's are also commonly
used in mathematics education.
32 Statewide Mathematics Advisory Committee: Mathematics framework for California
public schools. Kindergarten through grade eight, Sacramento 1972, p. 109.
33 Eisner, E. W.: 'Emerging models for educational evaluation', School Review 80 (1972),
573-590.
34 Oudkerk Pool, T.: 'Leerdoelen, wat doe ik ermeeT, Onderwijs en Opvoeding 26 (1975),
223-229.
35 Kieviet says:

If I might be allowed to dwell on this point, I wonder whether Eisner does not create a
pseudo-contradiction here. In the case of expressive objectives also, one has definite
intentions with the planned encounters, that is, one has certain products in mind. What
Eisner refers to as expressive objectives, the encounters, are in fact learning activities.
The outcomes can be manifested in the activity itself and in products. That which is
pursued can be formulated beforehand in terms of behaviour.

This interpretation of "expressive objectives" is not correct. In the epilogue of the

discussion Eisner says:

What I would like to describe as an expressive objective is the outcome of an encounter

of learning activity which is planned to provide the student with an opportunity to
personalise learning.
 NOTES 315

And:

The risk, therefore, of describing expressive objectives in terms of encounters is one of

confounding them with learning activities. One must therefore either be content with
taking the risk of not describing the objective at all before the encounter or activity but
waiting until after the encounter to describe what has occurred.

A different matter is what Eisner means by the outcomes of "expressive objectives". This is
dealt with in the text.
Eisner, W. W.: 'Epilogue', in Popham, W. J. (ed.), Instructional Objectives, Washington
1969,p.13l.
Kieviet, F. K.: Open and gesloten curricula, Groningen 1976, pp. 1O-1l.
36 Loc. cit., p. 28.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid.

Suppose you take three or four judges and ask them to appraise a product and then you
get some kind of consensus with respect to its value. Now that's different from
describing the characteristics of the behaviour or product that the learner is trying to
produce in the first place. I think that's the distinction we need to make. I think it is an
important one, Howard, and I don't think we have made that kind of distinction. In the
process of writing, in the process of painting, and in the process of researching, ideas
emerge which become leading ideas which then direct the course of action.

39 Bruner, J. S.: Toward a theory of instruction, New York 1966, 72.

The misunderstanding that can arise lies in the fact that the accentuation of the process
side of education need not lead to a process goal description: the use of mathematical
methods can very well be described in terms of products. It was Gagne who reacted to
Bruner's statement "knowing is a process not a product" by saying:

Knowing strategies, then, is not all that is required for thinking; It IS not even a
substantial part of what is needed. To be an effective problem-solver, the individual
must somehow have acquired masses of organized intellectual skills.

According to Gagne's train of thought, emphasising "processes" does not exclude the need
for product goals, but rather indicates the importance of giving a sequence of product
goals. He is especially concerned with equipping for, offering means to, offering thinking-
instruments, while Bruner also has in mind the confrontation with rich learning situations
in the same way as Eisner - learning situations that lead to process goal formulation. Thus
there is a difference between the empirical and structural trend, which in "science" is
exemplified by that between the ESS-project (Elementary Science Study) and the SAPA-
project (Science, A Process Approach). In the one case there is more room for "messing
about" and for initiative on the pupil's part while, in the other case, instruction is more
guided. This problem of processes will be further discussed in the course of this
publication. See:
Shulman, L. S.: 'Psychological controversies in the teaching of science and mathematics', in
Crosswhite, F. J. (ed.), Teaching mathematics: Psychological foundations, Worthington
1973, p. 19.
40 Examples of the mathematical thinking process can be found in:
Krutetskii, V. A.: The psychology of mathematical abilities in schoolchildren, Chicago
1976.
41 Raths, J.: 'Onderwijzen zonder specifieke leerdoelen als uitgangspunt', Onderwijs en
Opvoeding 26 (1975), 211-218.
 316 NOTES

42 Stenhouse, L.: An introduction to curriculum research and development, London 1975.

Arnold, W. R: 'Management by learning activities: An alternative to objectives', The
Arithmetic Teacher 25 (1977), 52-56.
43 This interpretation of process goals is in accordance with what is often encountered in
literature on the subject. However, a few other meanings are attributed to the term process
goals.
De Block describes a process goal as follows:

Some goals are pursued to ensure a purposeful course of learning, in other words, to
ensure an effective attainment of the product goals. So for a lesson in creative art one
might first of all playa record to induce a fitting atmosphere - this is a process goal.

In other words, for him process goals are to create the necessary conditions for learning.
See:
Block, A. de: Taxonomie van leerdoelen, Antwerp 1975, p. 128.
Another alternative interpretation is what, in our terminology, could be indicated as
product goals involving the methods of a certain subject area, as in the term ''the process of
science" or ''processes of mathematics". This kind of objective is also sometimes denoted
as a process goal. In fact one uses a characteristic of content - goals related to a methodo-
logical approach - rather than, what is common, a formal criterion. This interpretation is
closely connected to what is posed in Note 39. See:
Bell, A. W.: The learning of general mathematical strategies. A development study of process
attainments in mathematics, including the construction and investigation of a process-
oriented curriculum for the first year of secondary school. Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Nottingham, 1976.
44 Becker, H., Haller, H. D., Stubenrauch, H., and Wilkending, G.: Das Curriculum. Praxis,
Wissenschaft und Politik, Miinchen 1974, p. 27.
45 Goffree, F.: 'Doorkijkspiegelingen' (Semi-transparent mirror reflections) (Fifteen
reflections on teaching learning material), Wiskobas Bulletin 3 (1974),474-495.
46 McAshan, H. H.: The goals approach to performance objectives, Philadelphia 1974, p. 2.
Klauer, K. J.: Methodik der Lehrzieldefinition und Lehrstoffanalyse, Dusseldorf 1974,
p.42.
47 Many of the authors quoted agree on this point: Klauer, McAshan, De Corte and De
Groot. See also Note 49.
48 Wood, R: 'Objectives in the teaching of mathematics', in Ashlock, R B. and Herman,
W. L. (eds.), Current research in elementary school mathematics, New York 1970, pp.
22-45.
Taxonomies that show agreement with Wood's are: "Educational Testing Service"
(USA), "Tlte Indian National Council of Educational Research· Classification" (India), the
classification of ''The Schools Mathematics Study Group" and "The International Study of
Achievements in Mathematics" (Husen, Sweden). Here is a short explanation of Wood's
classification:

Knowledge
the language of mathematics: definitions, notati,ons, concepts;
specific facts;
laws and generalizations.

Skills, such as:

the use of measuring and calculation instruments;
drawing of figures and graphs;
making charts.
 NOTES 317

So that besides being able to execute all sorts of manipulations the pupil must also have
certain techniques and algorithms at his disposal.
Comprehension:
being able to transpose data; for example the conversion of data from diagrams,
charts, graphs, into verbal form and vice versa; being able to convert geometric
concepts given in a verbal form into spatial forms;
being able to interprete data: for example the interpretation of graphs, drawing
conclusions from data, the critical examination of reasoning, the distinction between
relevant and less relevant data, the distillation of the essence from an argument or
story;
interpolation and extrapolation; for example giving predictions on the basis of
available data and the filling in of gaps in a series with a certain pattern.
Applying with insight:
application of what has been learned to other situations;
application of what has been learned to relatively new situations;
determination of relations between certain data;
handling solution methods;
drawing conclusions and evaluating.
Inventiveness:
- creative performance.
49 In this connection Franssen says:

Apparently Van Parreren sees a depth structure under what we call the surface
structures. The observable behaviour is determined by this depth structure. Learning is
not in the first place a change in the observable behaviour of performance, it is a
change in the underlying structures of action. The result is not a certain behaviour
but a potential that makes this, but also other, behaviour possible. (Franssen, H.: 'Het
eksakt formuleren van doelstellingen voor het onderwijsleerproces: mogelijkheid en
betekenis', in Creemers, B. (ed.), Bijdragen tot de onderwijskunde. Den Bosch 1973,
p.163.

50 Finch, C.: Walt Disney. From Mickey Mouse to Disneyland, Amsterdam 1975.
51 For this terminology see:
Rasche, H.: 'De functie van doelstellingen in een leerplan', Pedagogische Studien 50
(1973), p. 530.
52 See Notes 39 and 43 and also:
Philp, H.: 'Mathematical education in developing countries; some problems of teaching and
learning', in Howson, A G. (ed.), Developments in mathematical education, Cambridge
1973,pp.154-181.
53 For such a strict approach to product goals see:
Corte, E. de, and Janssens, A: Praktische leidraad voor het formuleren van leerdoelen,
Leuven 1974.
54 The inadequacy of this strict approach is most clearly evident in Klauer. See the
remarks in Note 27.
55 See for example:
Greenberg, H. J.: 'The objectives in mathematics education', The Mathematics Teacher 67
(1974),639-644.
Steiner, H. G.: 'Mathematics curriculum development in the USA A look at the past
twenty years', Zentralblatt flir Didaktik der Mathematik 8 (1976), 136-141.
56 Block, A de: Taxonomie van leerdoelen, Antwerp 1975, p. 163.
318 NOTES

57 See:
Wilson, J. W.: 'Evaluation of learning in secondary school mathematics', in Bloom, B. S.,
Hastings, J. T., and Madaus, G. F. (eds.), Handbook on formative and summative
evaluation of student learning, New York 1971, pp. 643-697.
Freudenthal, H.: 'Lernzielfindung im Mathematikunterricht', Zentralblatt fUr Piidagogik 20
(1974),719-739.
58 This source of misunderstanding is also found in the above mentioned work by Wilson:
placing certain test items under certain categories is, disregarding the actual instruction
given, very arbitrary. Sullivan has also referred to this. See:
Sullivan, H. J.: 'Objectives, evaluation, and improved learner achievement', in Popham, W.
J. (ed.), Instructional objectives, Chicago 1969, p. 94.
59 See for example:

Brink, J. van den: Autobusproblemen, internal IOWO publication.

Brink, J. van den and Wijdeve1d, E.: De kamping, IOWO curriculum development publica-
tion 8, Utrecht 1978.
Wijdeveld, E.: Vierkubers, IOWO curriculum development publication 5, Utrecht 1977.
Goffree, F.: 'Kijk op kans. Proefwerk nieuwe stijl', Wiskobas Bulletin 2 (1973),907-919.
60 Popham, W. J., Eisner, E. W. et al.: Instructional Objectives, Chicago 1969, p. 35.
61 De Block on "expressive objectives":

It is clear that we are concerned here with a description of the learning process, not the
learning objectives. Of course this does not exclude that sometimes we do not know
what the actual result of certain intended objectives will be. Nor does this mean that the
learning process (subject matter, methods and media) is of no importance.... Eisner
does not make sufficient distinction between the learning objectives and the learning
process and thus comes to his highly disputable theses. (Block, A. de: Taxonomie van
leerdoelen, Antwerp 1975, p.lS7.)

62 De Groot does not use the term process goals, but what he says about the subjective
aspect of objectives, the pursuit of general objectives and the fact that the affective domain
is no separate domain, but is of a cognitive nature, fits within the terms of process and
product goals. His ideas on evaluation can therefore well be applied to the evaluation of
process and product goals. We have in mind especially his "student reporting" in the form
of "I have learned that ...". See:
Groot, A. D. de: 'Hoe stelt men eindtermen op?' Universiteit en Hogeschool 20 (1974),
213-233.
Groot, A. D. de: 'Over fundamentele ervaringen: prolegomena tot een analyse van
gesprekken met schakers', Pedagogische Studien 51 (1974), 329-349.
63 Popham, W. J., Eisner, E. W., et al.: Instructional objectives, Chicago 1969, pp. 130-
131.
64 Block, A. de: Taxonomie van leerdoelen, Antwerp 1975, p. IS 7.

CHAPTER V

I Referred to here are material aids - including written assignments and texts such as the
themes presented - which are supplied to the pupils so that they may carry out learning
activities. They can be accompanied by teachers' manuals. In the text we often use the term
"pieces of mathematics instruction".
2 Baker, E."L.: 'The technology of instructional development', in Travers, R M. W. (ed.),
Second handbook of research on teaching, Chicago 1973, p. 249.
3 The term curriculum development can refer to a wide range of planning, directed
towards instruction as a whole, school programmes, and series of lessons. Here we are
 NOTES 319

especially interested in planning lessons by means of learning packages including projects,

themes, partial curricula, such as exemplified in this study.
4 This terminology is found in:
Krathwohl, D. R. and Payne, D. A.: 'Defining and assessing educational objectives', in
Thorndike, R. L. (ed.), Educational measurement, Washington 1971, p. 21. I
5 Teunissen, J. M. F.: 'Handelingsmodellen voor de constructie van onderwijsleer-
systemen', in Creemers, B. (ed.), Bijdragen tot de onderwijskunde, Den Bosch 1973, pp.
65-111.
6 Walker, D. F.: 'Curriculum development in an art project', in Reid, W. A. and Walker, D.
F. (eds.), Case Studies in Curriculum Change, London 1975, p. 99.
7 Loc. cit. p. 95:

In their first few weeks of discussions the Project staff made several decisions that
shaped their subsequent work. They decided to prepare some lessons immediately,
rather than, say, prepare flow charts of the whole Project's work, or write a rationale or
other planning document. Also they decided to do lesson writing outside staff meetings,
working individually or in teams of two, reserving for general discussion only questions
that arose in the outside work. This decision meant that the work would be divided into
two ongoing parts, production of lessons and support materials, and discussions, or as I
later came to call it, deliberation.

8 Loc. cit., p. 108.

9 Loc. cit., p. 133.
10 The working manner followed in the "Kettering Project" described by Walker, is closely
similar to that of Wiskobas. A few people have certain basic ideas on education (the
subject area) and the appointment of the other project members is made on the basis of the
likelihood that they will be able to work as a team within that educational philosophy.
II Loc. cit., p. 133.
12 For the terms integration phase, exploration phase, curriculum, see Sub-section 2 of
Chapter I and Note 12.
13 The framework plans were never published. The six books of 40 pages each served as an
overview for the designers of pieces of mathematics education for the various grades.
14 More about these points can be found in Notes 28, 29 and 30.

IS Bruggen, J. van: 'Abacus en leerpsychologie', in De Abacus, IOWO curriculum develop-

ment publication 6, Utrecht 1977, p. 105.
16 The following can serve as information: The relation "is longer than" is indicated by "t> "
and ''is as long as" by " - " .
A statement about triples of objects (people in this case) such as ... t> ... has the
property: if a t> band b t> c, then a t> c.
This property is called transitivity. It also holds for the relation" - ".
A statement about pairs of the kind: . . . - ... has the property: if a - b, then b - a.
This property is called symmetry. It does not hold in general for tHe relation" t> " between
pairs.
A statement for elements of the kind: . . . -: ... has the property: a-a. This property
is called reflexivity. It does not hold true for" t> "
Relations, in general, can be examined with regard to these properties.
" t>" is transitive, anti-symmetrical and non-reflexive as we· have seen; it is an order
relation.
" - " is transitive, symmetrical and reflexive; it is an equivalence relation.
17 About greetings see:
Ortega y Gasset, J.: De mens en de mensen, The Hague 1958, pp. 195ff.
18 An enquiry was held among some one hundred teachers taking an in-service course. A
large majority reacted favourably to "Freckleham" and said the same for their pupils. In
320 NOTES

less than 10% the reaction was that the problem at issue was unrealistic. Experience has
shown that in a few cases the context story had been somewhat modified. We had expected
teachers to show more reserve towards this kind of theme.
19 Allerdings ist durchaus moglich, Guilford's dreidimensionale Intelligenzfaktoren als
Lehrziele zu betrachten, was beispielsweise auch in der piidagogisch-psychologiaschen
Kreativitiitsforschung geschieht (see also Muhle und Schell 1970).
Dabel ist dann auf vorbildliche Weise das Problem gelost, wie man vom Lehrziel
zum Lehrstoff und zu lehrzielorientierten Testaufgaben gelangen kann.
Ein diesem formal sehr iihnliches Konzept wird weiter unten vorgestellt, wobei die
Lehrziele durch eine Klasse von Testaufgaben definiert und gleichzeitig nach dem
Inhalts- und Verhaltenaspekt (evtl. auch nach dem Produkt-aspekt) bestimmt werden.
(Klauer, K J.: Methodik der Lehrzieldefinition und Lehrstoffanalyse, Dusseldorf 1972,
p.24.)
20 The four dimensions as suggested by De Corte are: subject matter dimension, content-
information dimension, product-information dimension and operation dimension. Klauer
takes De Corte's dimensions one and two together, which in our opinion is meaningful.
Corte, E. de: Onderwijsdoelstellingen. Bijdrage tot de didaxologische theorievorming en
aanzetten voor het empirisch onderzoek over onderwijsdoelen, Leuven 1973, p. 146.
21 Wheeler, D. K: Curriculum Process, London 1967, p.I13.
22 Block, A. de: Taxonomie van leerdoelen, Antwerp 1975, pp. 55ff.
23 Johnson, D. A. and Rising, E. R.: Guidelines for teaching mathematics, Belmont 1969.
Dormolen, J. van: Didactiek van de wiskunde, Utrecht 1974.
24 Pikaart, L. and Travers, K J.: 'Teaching elementary school mathematics: a simplified

model', The Arithmetic Teacher 20 (1973), p. 334.

25 A lesson transcript elucidating the objectives pursued can be found in the following
-IOWO publication of theWiskivon team:
Sweers, W. (ed.): Leerplanontwikkeling onderweg. IOWO publication Utrecht 1977, pp.
12-21.
An idealised or ideal type description of the didactical context can be found in articles by
Dik Oort, among others. His article entitled 'Basje, een jonge onderzoeker', appears in the
first four issues of Wiskobas Bulletin. In a series of dialogues with his father, Basje makes a
number of mathematical discoveries.
In Wiskobas curriculum publications the didactical context is often described in a
somewhat condensed form as was the case for "Freckleham".
In the field of mathematics instruction there are many examples, mainly in the English
literature, of descriptions related to instruction.
26 In the mathematical activity the accent will often be put differently as to the language
aspect, the use of models and concept formation. Thom rather emphasises the requirement
of "meaningfulness" for the mathematical activity. Wiskobas' efforts are marked, among
other things, by a high degree of attention to the meaningful reality that the mathematical
activities should have for the pupils. This appears, among other things, in the construction
of ''worlds'', but "meaningfulness" also always emerges in the theoretical reflections. In his
reflections on didactical phenomenology, Freudenthal stresses the need to depart from
the experiences lived through to arrive at the constitution of mental objects. Van den
Brink, responsible for the Wiskobas programme in the lower grades, often refers in his
papers in Wiskobas Bulletin to "realising" by which he means that the pupils should be able
to imagine a world behind the problems at issue: the problems must be meaningful to them.
In fact what Goffree calls "semi-transparent mirror reflections" with a view to the teacher
can also be applied to pupils: the pupil must be able to "see through" the problem, but also
see his own mirror image in it. The themes included in this study can be taken as examples
of "meaningful" mathematics instruction. Next to the work ~ Thorn we also refer to
 NOTES 321

Swenson's book which considers initial instruction in arithmetic from the point of view of
meaningful instruction. She says:

Meaning is experience. Children learn to know and understand what they have
experienced. ... Meaning is context. Children learn best within a rich context of
meanings.... Meaning is intent. Children's purposes and intentions are as important as
adults' purposes and intentions for them.... Meaning is organization. If the results of
learning are to be useful, they must be organized.

See:
Swensen, E. J.: Making primary arithmetic meaningful to children, Washington 1961.
Thorn, R: 'Modern mathematics: Does it exist?', in Howson, A. G. (ed.), Developments in
mathematical education, pp. 194-213.
For examples of meaningful instruction see Wiskobas publications by Van den Brink, De
Gooijer-Quint, Ter Heege, Streefiand, Wijdeveld and others in Wiskobas Bulletin; and as
regards Wiskivon (secondary education), see articles by Van Barneveld, Kindt, Kremers,
De Lange, Sweers, Leenders, Goddijn, Schoemaker, and others in both Wiskobas Bulletin
and Wiskrant.
27 From research by Inhelder, Piaget, Bruner, and others, the designer of "Freckleham"
knew that third graders, generally speaking, are capable of reproducing, completing, and
re-arranging a two-way order. It was not known, however, that children of this age are
capable of constructing a two-way order themselves. See:
Inhelder, B. and Piaget, J.: The early growth of logic in the child. Classification and
seriation, London 1964.
Bruner, J. S., Olver, R, and Greenfield, P. M.: Studies in cognitive growth, New York 1966.
Modgil, S.: Piagetian research. A handbook of recent studies, New York 1974, pp.
137-154.
28 The question of transitivity reasoning has been examined frequently in educational and
developmental psychology. The results are often conflicting. The heart of the problem lies
in the essence of reasoning by transitivity. How does it work? Suppose that for four
individuals A, B, C and D it is known that A is heavier than B, B heavier than C and D is
heavier than C; who is the heaviest; and who is the heaviest in the group A, B, C and D?
And if the relation ''is heavier than" is substituted by "is faster than" or "is older than" or
"is further ahead of" or "is longer than", will this make any difference for the reasoning? If
in the last case the lengths are drawn or represented by straws, will this change matters?
To make clear the problem we will give four illustrations, on the basis of which we will
try to answer these kinds of questions.
- A professor and his grandson are taking a walk in the snow. At an intersection they
see four bicycle tracks. First they walk over them, but later they turn back to find out
in which order the bicycles had passed. Find the original pattern.

The following drawing shows a window with four holes. Find out in which order the
damages occurred.
322 NOTES

- Arrange four individuals a, b, c and d according to weight, on the basis of the

following seesaw positions:

In Greater Freckleham (for example on a ten-by-ten grid) a has more hairs than c; b
more than a and c more than d. Arrange a, b, c and d according to the number of
hairs.
A few remarks may be made on these four isomorphic order problems:
For the first problem: each track can be given a name, for example a, b, c and d, and
the relationship "a was before b" can be recorded as (~). The tracks are related as follows:
(~), (~) and (~). Afterwards they can be placed in one scheme:

By symbolising and visualising the relations in this way, the transitivity of the order relation
is locked up in the linear order.
If we consider the four problems in their mutual relationship again in the opposite
direction, we notice an even more abstract presentation of the same mathematical problem:
the last problem calls for quantitative ordering, as in "Freckleham". The last but one can be
schematised by representing the persons by marbles of various sizes, which allows solving
without reasoning. In the second case we can see the solution, but it is seeing supported by
reasoning. In the first case we must symbolise and reason, while possibly making use of
linear order.
This shows a vertical line that can be drawn from one Freckleham basic problem to
'secondary mathematics instructjon. We could have gone even further backwards. More
"primitive" than the Freckleham problem is ordering linear objects (straws, etc.) based on
activity and observation.
The question is how such problems are solved. Is this done directly via linear order or
indirectly via transitivity reasoning? Inhelder and Piaget suppose that, with the exception of
strongly "visual" cases such as sticks, it is done indirectly. Our experiences confirm these
suppositions. With the first problem even adults also usually follow the difficult route of
reasoning rather than using the linear order.
Tests that seem to prove the opposite, thus indicating that children do not reason
deductively but "see" via the linear order, are based on the relation "is longer than" and
therefore strongly related to the linear order, where transitivity is locked in, which allows
for an immediate conclusion along visual lines.
 NOTES 323

Our relation examples are different, which makes the resulting problems much more
difficult: pure deductive reasoning prevails and impedes the use of linear order. The crucial
point is whether one can learn to use linear order as an aid to make the solution of more
difficult problems possible.
Experiences with "Freckleham" and its sequel have given rise to the hypothesis that
linear order does in fact offer an important support for reasoning problems on order
relations and that along these lines pupils are capable of performances that look impossible
by means of transitivity reasoning. The third graders in the Wiskobas design school initially
had great difficulty with transitivity reasoning, but once the linear order was used in
Freckleham and in the following seesaw problems, instruction was seen to progress
reasonably well.
The supposition that linear order and transitivity reasoning should be kept well apart
seems justified. Piaget does so, but other researchers do not. On the other hand we feel
that Piaget has not discerned the connection sufficiently. For instruction it is just the
relationship between linear order and transitivity reasoning that is of importance. The
crucial problem is whether linear order can be used as a thinking model. According to our
present rough information, this is the case, indeed. Compare:
Bryant, P.: Perception and understanding in young children. An experimental approach,
London 1974.
Johnson, M. L.: 'The effects of instruction on length relations, on classification, variation
and transitivity performances of first- and second-grade children, Journal for Research
in Mathematics Education 5 (1975), 115-126.
Smedslund, J.: 'Development of concrete transitivity of length in children', Child
Development 34 (1963),389-405.
Inhelder, B. and Piaget, J.: The early growth of logic in the child. Classification and
seriation, London 1964.
See also the articles by Davydov and Levinova in: Parreren, C. F. van and Nelissen, J. M.
C. (eds.): Rekenen, Groningen 1977.
Trabasso, T.: 'Representation, memory and reasoning', in Pick, A. D. (ed.), Minnesota
symposium on child psychology, Vol. 9. 1975.
29 This was established for some 50 teachers in in-service courses, who were presented
with the problem ofthe bicycle tracks in the snow (see Note 28).
30 Frederique Papy, especially, has stimulated the use of arrow-language for young
children. The fact that children must learn to use this language is also noticed in a study by
Wallrabenstein: older children are not capable of filling in arrow-diagrams on their own.
See:
Papy, F.: Graph Games, New York 1971.
Wallrabenstein, H.: 'Development and signification of a geometry test', in Educational
Studies in Mathematics 5 (1974), 81-91.
31 See also Note 18 for this chapter.
32 This became evident at conferences and in-service courses. First of all a number of

teachers and teacher trainers feared that the problem would not appeal to the children; and
secondly they had difficulty in coming to grips with the objectives. At the first in-service
course in Hilversum, it was seen that the instruction progressed poorly because of the lack
of holistic goal description. The first teacher-participants, who had to work without these
descriptions and explanations, were therefore less contented with the theme. Later, when
the theme was disseminated with a three-dimensional goal description attached, this
changed. We learned particularly from conferences that a clear goal description is
considered to be of great importance.
33 See Chapter I, Sub-sections 2.2, 2.3, 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3.
34 See for example:
Stake, R. E.: 'A theoretical statement of responsive evaluation', Studies in Educational
Evaluation 2 (1976), 19-23.
324 NOTES

Parlett, M. and Hamilton, D.: 'Evaluation as illumination', in Tawney, D. (ed.), Curriculum

evaluation today: Trends and implications, London 1976, 84-101.
MacDonald, B.: 'The evaluation of the humanities curriculum project: A holistic approach',
Theory into Practice 10 (1971),163-167.
Rippey, R. M.: 'The nature of transactional evaluation', in Rippey, R. M. (ed.), Studies in
Transactional Evaluation, Berkeley 1973, pp. 8-13.
Ross, L. and Cronbach, L. J. (eds.): 'A review of the Handbook of Evaluation Research',
Proceedings ofthe National Academy of Education 3 (1976), 81-107.
35 Attempts toward "Three-dimensional" educational evaluation within mathematics
education are not known to us, although the USMES-project (Unified Science and
Mathematics for Elementary Schools) does point in this direction. See:
Shapiro, B. J.: The notebook problem. Report on observations of problem solving activity in
USMES and control classrooms, USMES-publication 1972.
Shapiro, B. J.: USMES evaluation .report on classroom structure and interaction patterns,
USMES publication 1974.
See also:
Bell, A. W.: The learning of general mathematical strategies. A development study of
process attainments in mathematics, including the construction and investigation of a
process-oriented curriculum for the first secondary year, unpublished diss. Nottingham
1976.
Heege, H. ter: 'Testing the maturity for learning the algorithm of multiplication',
Educational Studies in Mathematics 9 (1978),75-83.
36 This idea was heard from school guidance counsellors in Arnhem. So-called "Indian
Cards" are also known in mathematics education.
37 See:
Bruggen, J. van: 'Abacus en leerpsychologie', in De abacus, IOWO curriculum develop-
ment publication 6, Utrecht 1977, pp. 96-112.
38 From IOWO circles we refer to:
Freudenthal, H.: Mathematics as an educational task, Dordrecht 1973, vi.
Streefland, L.: Breuk in ontwikkeling. Een orientatie in psychologie, internal IOWO
publication, Utrecht 1977.
Bruggen, J. C. van: Leerpsychologische vergelijkingen. Een literatuurstudie naar het nut van
leerpsychologisch onderzoek voor de leerplanontwikkeling ten dienste van wiskunde
onderwijs, internal IOWO publication, Utrecht 1976.
The international group, presided over by Fishbein, was installed in 1977. This group is
specially concerned with the psychology of mathematics education (PME). The first
meeting was held in Utrecht, August 1977.

CHAPTER VI

1 Brown, M.: Rules without reasons? Some evidence relating to the teaching of routine
skills to low-attainers in mathematics', International Journal of Mathematics Education in
Science and Technology 13 (1982),449-461.
Foxman, D. D. (ed.): Mathematical development, London 1980.
Hart, K. (ed.): Children's understanding of mathematics: 11-16, London 1981. .
2 A somewhat comparable approach has been sketched by Gerd Walther, although the
progressive schematisation is as it were imposed on the learner: the phases follow each
other too rapidly and little is left to the children themselves. Hutton gives the children a full
opportunity for shortening, though there is little information on the phases of the process.
Walther, G.: 'Acquiring mathematical knowledge', Mathematical Teaching, Nr. 101 (1982),
10-12.' .
 NOTES 325

Hutton, J.: 'Memoirs of a math teacher 5. Logical reasoning', Mathematics Teaching, Nr Bl

(1977),8-12
3 Engen, H. van and Gibb, E. G.: General mental functions associated with division, Cedar
Falls 1956.
Kratzer, R. O. and Willoughby, S. S.: 'A comparison of initially teaching division employing
the distributive and Greenwood algorithms with the aid of a manipulative material',
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 4 (1973), 197-205.
Laing, R. A. and Meijer, R. A.: 'Transitional division algorithms', Arithmetic Teacher 29
(1982),10-13.
4 With respect to the problem of attitude compare:
Erlwanger, S. H.: 'Benny's conception of rules and answers in IPI-mathematics', The
Journal of Children 's Mathematical Behavior 1 (1973),7-26.
Erlwanger, S. H.: 'Case studies of children's conceptions of mathematics', The Journal of
Children's Mathematical Behavior! (1975), 157-283.
5 Teule-Sensacq, P. and Vinrich, G.: 'Resolution de problemes de division au cycle
elementaire dans deux types de situations didactiques', Educational Studies in Mathematics
13 (1982), 177-203.
6 Kiihnel, J.: Neubau des Rechenunterricht II, Leipzig: Klinkhardt 1925/5.
7 Plunkett formulates his criticism on the traditional teaching of column arithmetic while
confronting it with his own approach, as follows:

Thus even if the rules can be remembered they are largely without reasons and are not
related to other number knowledge. They are far from aiding the understanding of
numbers; rather they encourage a belief that mathematics is essentially arbitrary.

A person who has to do a lot of such calculations will soon develop methods of a
brevity suited to his needs. Here is a non-standard method for long multiplication:

20 3

10 200 30
8 160 24
-+
414

which shows how much diagrams can help. The important thing is a process which is
intelligible (to the user), rather than one which is standardised or quickest. Plunkett, S.:
'Decomposition and all that rot', Mathematics in SchoolS (1979), p. 3.

8 This appears from various Dutch pieces of research and from practical experiences in
experimental schools. The gain in time is about 50%, though from this number should be
subtracted the attention given to mental, that is to say, flexible and clever, arithmetic (basic
abilities). There are virtually no failures, at least if less abridged algorithms are admitted as
final, in particular in long division. Compare the general exposition in:
Dekker, A., Heege H. ter, and Treffers, A.: Cijferend vermenigvuldigen en delen volgens
Wiskobas, Utrecht 1982.
9 Resnick, L. B. and Ford, W.: The psychology of mathematics for instmction, Hillsdale
1981.
Gagne, R. M.: 'Some issues in the psychology of mathematics instruction', Journal for
Research in Mathematics Education 14 (1983),19-29.
Gal'perin, P. J.: 'Stages in the development of mental acts', in Cole, M. Maltzman, J. (eds.),
Handbook of contemporary soviet psychology, London 1969, 149-173.
326 NOTES

Gal'perin, P. J. and Talyzina, N. F.: 'Die Bildung erster geometrischer Handlungen des
Schiilers', in Gal'perin, P. J. and Leontjew (eds.), Probleme der Lerntheorie, Berlin
1972.
Davydov, V. V.: 'Ueber das Verhiiltnis zwischen den abstrakten und den konkreten
Kentnissen im Unterricht', in Lompscher, J. (ed.), Probleme der Ausbildung geistiger
Handlungen, Berlin 1972.
Davydov, V. V.: 'Logical and psychological problems of elementary mathematics as an
academic subject', in Steffe, L. P. (ed.), Soviet studies in_the psychology of learning and
teaching mathematics, Chicago 1975, pp. 109-207.
10 See Sub-section 5 in Chapter I.
II The orientation points were described by Goffree and Treffers in an internal
publication in 1970 and 1971.
12 In the guidebook for the first in-service training block, the objectives were already
formulated in terms of activities. See:
Smaling, A and Treffers, A: Stadsplan, IOWa publication, Utrecht 1971.
13 Treffers, A: 'De Klok', in Meijer, G. H. (ed.), Matematika, IOWa publication, Utrecht
1973, pp. 7-27.
Treffers, A and Wijdeveld, E.: 'Leerplanologle. Over doelstellingen van het
wiskundeonderwijs', in Wiskobas Bulletin 2 (1973), 983-991.
14 From the moment that the three-dimensional goal description was introduced, the call
for the objectives of mathematics education has been noticeably lacking, while before that
time it was an ever-recurring point of discussion.
15 Treffers, A.: De kiekkas van Wiskobas. Beschouwingen over uitgangspunten en doelstel-
lingen van het aanvangs- en vervolgonderwijs in de wiskunde, IOWa curriculum develop-
ment publication 1, Utrecht 1975.
16 See Bloom, B. S.: Human characteristics and school learning, New York 1976, p. 217.
17 Resnick, L. B. and Ford, W.: The psychology of mathematics for instruction, Hillsdale
1982.
18 Schoenfeld, A H.: 'The wild, wild, wild, wild world of problem solving: A review of
sorts', For the Learning ofMathematics 3 (1983),40-47.
19 Cobb, P. and Steffe, L. P.: 'The constructivist researcher as teacher and model builder',
Journalfor Research in Mathematics Education 14 (1983), 95-101.
Carpay, J. A. M.: 'Westeuropese benadering van onderwijsleerprocessess', in De Corte, E.
(ed.), Onderzoek van onderwijsleerprocessen, 's Gravenhage 1982,28-36.

CHAPTER VII

I AhIfors, L. V. et al.: 'On the mathematics curriculum of the High School',-Mathematics

Teacher 55 (1962), 191-195.
2 Papy, G.: MatMmatique moderne, vo!.1, Bruxelles 1963.
3 Thom, R.: 'Modern mathematics: Does it exist?', in Howson, A G. (ed.), Developments
in rrzathematical education, Cambridge UK, 1973, pp. 194-209.
4 Whitney, H.: 'Are we off the track in teaching mathematical concepts?', in Howson, A.
G. (ed.), Developments in mathematical education, Cambridge 1973, pp. 283-299.
Whitney, H.: 'Taking responsibility in school mathematics education', in Streefland, L. (ed.),
Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference for the Psychology of Mathematics
Education, vol. 2. Utrecht 1985, pp. 123-141.
5 Hilton, P. and Pedersen, J.: Fear no more. An adult approach to Mathematics, Menlo
Park 1983.
Hilton, P.: 'Current trends in mathematics and future trends in Mathematics Education',
For the Learning ofMathematics 4 (1984),2-9.
 NOTES 327

Hilton, P.: 'Do we still need to teach fractions?', in Zweng, M. et al. (eds.), Proceedings of
the Fourth International Congress on Mathematics Education, Boston 1983, pp. 37-
41.
6 Lakatos, I.: Proofs and refutations. The logic of mathematical discovery, Cambridge UK,
1977.
7 Freudenthal,H.: Didactical phenomenology of mathematical structures, Do'rdrecht 1983,
p.ix.
8 Freudenthal, H.: Mathematics as an educational task, Dordrecht 1973, p. 121.
9 Hiele, P. M. van: Begrip en inzicht, Purmerend 1973.
Hiele, P. M. van: Structure and insight. A theory of mathematics education, New York
1985.
Hiele-Geldof, D. van and Hiele, P. M. van: English translation of selected writings,
Brooklyn New York, 1984.
10 Hofstadter, D. R.: Godel, Escher, Bach: An eternal golden braid, New York 1979.
11 Kilpatrick, J.: 'Reflection and Recursion', Educational Studies in Mathematics 16
(1985),1-26.
12 Burger, W. F. and Shaughnessy, J. M.: 'Characterizing the van Hiele levels of develop-
ment in geometry', Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 17 (1986), 31-48.
13 Freudenthal, H.: Didactical phenomenology of mathematical structures, Dordrecht
1983, pp. 32-33.
14 Morley, A: 'A new development in primary school mathematics. The Dutch Wiskobas

Project', Mathematics Teaching 69 (1975), 15-18.

15 Heege, H. ter: 'The acquisition of basic multiplication skills', Educational Studies in
Mathematics 16 (1985), 375-389.
16 Brink, J. van den and Streefland, L.: 'Young children (6-8) - Ratio and Proportion',
Educational Studies in Mathematics 10 (1979), 33-59.
Streefland, L.: 'Search for the roots of ratio: some thoughts on the long term learning
process. Part I: Reflections on a teaching experiment', Educational Studies in Mathe-
matics 15 (1984), 327-348.
Streefland, L.: 'Search for the roots of ratio: some thoughts on the long term learning
process. Part II: The outline of the long term learning process', Educational Studies in
Mathematics 16 (1985), 75-94.
17 Streefland, L.: How to teach fractions so as to be useful, Utrecht 1984.
18 Heege, H. ter and Moor, E. de: Oppervlakte (1), IOWa curriculum development
publication 7, Utrecht 1977.
Jong, R. de: Oppervlakte (20), IOWa curriculum development publication 9, Utrecht
1979.
19 Goddijn,A: Shadow and depth, Utrecht 1983.
Gravemeijer, K. and Kraemer,J. M.: Met hetoogop ruimte, Tilburg 1985.
Schoemaker, G.: 'Sieh dich ganz im Spiegel', Mathematik lehren 2 (1984), 18-33.
See for information about the Hewet-project:
Lange, J. de and Kindt, M.: 'The Hewet Project - Report on an experiment leading to a
new curriculum for pre-university students', Zentralblatt fUr Didaktik der Mathematik
16 (1984), 74-79.
20 N.C.T.M.: Report on the Second NatioMI Assessment of the National Assessment of
Educational Progress, NAEP, Reston 1980.
21 Whitney, H.: 'Taking responsibility in school mathematics education', in Streefland, L.
(ed.), Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference for the Psychology of Mathematics
Education, vol. 2, Utrecht 1985, p. 191.
22 Thompson, A B.: 'The relationship of teachers' conceptions of mathematics and
mathematics teaching to instructional practice', Educational Studies in Mathematics 15
(1984),105-129.
328 NOTES

23 Cooney, T. J.: 'A beginning teacher's view of problem solving', Journal for Research in
Mathematics Education 16 (1985), 324-336.
Cooney, T. J.: 'The contribution of theory to mathematics teacher education', in Steiner, H.
G. et al. (eds.), Theory of Mathematics Education, Bielefeld 1984, pp. 120-132.
24 Menninger, K.: Zahlwort und Zijfer, band II, Gottingen 1958.
25 Gagne, R M.: The conditions of learning, London 1965, p. 60.
26 Gagne, R M.: 'Some issues in the psychology of mathematics instruction', Journal for
Research in Mathematics Education 14 (1983), 7-19.
27 Dienes, Z. P.: The six stages in the process of learning mathematics, London 1973, p. 9.
28 See also:
Dienes, Z. P.: Building up mathematics, London 1960.
29 Dienes, Z. P.: The stages in the process of learning, London 1973, p. 9.
30 See for example:
Karplus, R, Pulos, S. and Stage, E. K.: Proportional reasoning of early Adolescents, in
Lesh, R and Landau, M. (eds.), Acquisition of Mathematics Concepts and Processes, New
York 1983, p. 81.
31 Bruner, J. S.: Toward a theory of instruction, Cambridge 1966.
Piaget, J.: Comments on mathematical education, in Howson, A. G. (ed.), Developments in
mathematical education, Cambridge 1973, pp. 79-88.
Piaget, J.: Science of education and the psychology of the child, London 1971.
32 Friedman, M.: 'The manipulative material strategy: The latest pied _paper?', Journal for
Research in Mathematics Education 9 (1978), 78-81.
Khoury, H. A. and Behr, M.: 'Student performance, individual differences and modes of
representation', Journal/or Research in Mathematics Education 13 (1982), 228-235.
Kieren, T. E.: 'Manipulative material in mathematics learning', Journal for Research in
Mathematics Education 2 (1971), 228-235.
33 -Behr, M. J., Lesh, R, Post, T. R and Silver, E. A.: 'Rational number concepts', in Lesh,
R. and Landau, M. (eds.), Acquisition of mathematics concepts and processes, New
York 1983, pp. 92-128.
Behr, M. J., Wachsmuth, I., Post, T. R and Lesh, R: 'Order and equivalence of rational
numbers: A clinical teaching experiment', Journal for Research in Mathematics Educa-
tion IS (1984), 323-342.
Lesh, R, Landau, M. and Hamilton, E.: 'Conceptual modes and applied mathematical
problem-solving research', in Lesh, R and Landau, M. (eds.), Acquisition of mathe-
matics concepts and processes, New York 1983, pp. 264-345.
34 Davis, R: 'A conceptual basis for problem-solving studies', in Dorfier, W. and Fisher, R
(eds.), Empirische Untersuchungen zum Lehren und Lernen von Mathematik, Wien 1985,
pp.70-71.
35 Davis, R B.: Learning mathematics. The cogn!tive science approach to mathematics
education, London 1984.
36 Davis, R B.: Learning mathematics. The cognitive science approach to mathematics
education, London 1984, p. 313.
37 Lawler, R W.: 'Extending a powerful idea', Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 3, 2
(1982),81-98.
Nason, R and Cooper, I.: A theory of mathematics education - an information processing
view (or developments towards an expert system for mathematics education), 1985,
draft. •
38 Kilpatrick, J.: 'Reflection and recursion', Educational Studies in Mathematics 16
(1985), p. 21.
39 Bauersfeld, H., Krummheuer, G. and Voigt, J.: 'Interactional theory of learning and
teaching mathematics and related micro-ethnographical studie$', in Foundation and
methodology of the discipline mathematics education (didactics of mathematics), Bielefeld
1985,pp.12-17.
 NOTES 329

40 Bauersfeld, H.: 'Subjektive Erfahrungsbereiche als Grundlage einer Interaktionstheorie

des Mathematiklernens und -lehrens', in Lemen und Lehren von Mathematik, K6ln 1983,
pp.I-57.
41 Lawler, R W.: Extending a Powerful Idea, Journal of Mathematical Behavior 3, 2
(1982),81-98.
Papert, S.: Mindstorms: Children, computers and powerful ideas, New York 1980.
42 Kilpatrick, J.: 'Reflection and recursion', Educational Studies in Mathematics 16
(1985),p.13.
43 Bauersfeld, H., Krummheuer, G. and Voigt, J.: 'Interactional theory of learning and
teaching mathematics and related micro-ethnographical studies', in Foundation and
methodology of the discipline mathematics education (didactics of mathematics), Bielefeld
1985,p.13.
44 Bauersfeld, H.: 'Subjektive Erfahrungsbereiche als Grundlage einer Interaktionstheorie
des Mathematiklernens und -lehrens', in Lemen und Lehren von Mathematik, K6ln 1983,
p.52.
45 Brousseau, G.: 'The crucial role of the didactical contract in the analysis and con-
struction of situations in teaching and learning mathematics', in Steiner, H. G. et al. (eds.),
Theory of mathematics education, Bielefeld 1984, pp. 110-120.
46 Balacheff, N. and Laborde, C.: 'Social interactions for experimental studies of pupils'
conception: its relevance for research in didactics of mathematics', in Foundation and
methodology of the discipline mathem~tics education (didactics of mathematics), Bielefeld
1985, pp. 1-6.
47 Bishop, A.: 'The social psychology of mathematics education', in Streefland, L. (ed.),
Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference for the Psychology of Mathematics
Education, vol. 2, Utrecht 1985, pp. 1-15.
Bishop, A. and Goffree, F.: 'Classroom organisation and dynamics', in Christiansen, B. et
al. (eds.), Perpectives in mathematics education, Dordrecht 1986, pp. 309-365.
48 Lesh, R, Landau, M. and Hamilton, E.: 'Conceptual models and applied mathematical
problem-solving research', in Lesh, R and Landau, M. (eds.), Acquisition of mathematics
concepts and processes, New York 1983, pp. 264-345.
49 Lesh, R, Landau, M. and Hamilton, E.: 'Conceptual models and applied mathematical
problem-solving research', in Lesh, R and Landau, M. (eds.), Acquisition of mathematics
concepts and processes, New York i 983, p. 266.
50 Lesh, R: 'Conceptual analysis of mathematical ideas and problem solving processes', in.
Streefland, L. (ed.), Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference for the Psychology of
Mathematics Education, Utrecht 1985, p. 79-80.
51 Vergnaud, G.: 'A classification of cognitive tasks and operations of thought involved in
addition and subtraction problems', in Carpenter, T. P., Moser, J. M. and Romberg, T. A.
(eds.), Addition and subtraction. A cognitive perspective, Hillsdale 1982, pp. 39-60.
52 Vergnaud, G.: 'Multiplicative structures', in Lesh, L. and Landau, M. (eds.), Acquisition
of mathematics concepts and processes, New York 1983, p. 172.
53 Douady, R: 'The interplay between different settings tool-object dialectic in the
extension of mathematical ability - Examples from elementary school teaching', in
Streefland, L. (ed.), Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference for the Psychology of
Mathematics Education, Utrecht 1985, pp. 35-53.
54 Resnick, L. B. and Ford, W. W.: The psychology of mathematics for instruction,
Hillsdale 1981, p. 245.
55 See for example:
Cobb, P. and Steffe/L. P.: 'The constructivist researcher as teacher and model builder',
Journalfor Research in Mathematics Education 14 (1985), pp. 95-101.
56 Davydov, V. V.: 'Logical and psychological problems of elementary mathematics as an
academic subject', in Kilpatrick, J. et al. (eds.), Soviet-Studies in the psychology of
learning and teaching mathematics, vol. VII, Chicago 1975, pp. 55-109.
330 NOTES

Davydov, V. V.: Arten der Verallgemeinerung im Unterricht Logischpsychologische

Probleme des Aufbaus flir Unterrichtsfiichern, Berlin 1977.
57 Gal'perin, P. J. and Talysina, N. F.: 'Die Bildung erster geometrischer Begriffe auf der
Grundlage organisierter Handlungen der Schiiler', in Galperin, P. J. et al. (eds.), Probleme
der Lerntheorie, Berlin 1974, pp. 106-130.
58 Lesh, R.: 'Conceptual analysis of mathematical ideas and problem solving processes', in
Streefland, L. (ed.), Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference for the Psychology of
Mathematics Education, Utrecht 1985, pp. 73-97.
59 Kilpatrick, J.: 'Reflection and recursion', Educational Studies in Mathematics 16
(1985), p. 11.
60 Hinton, G. E. and Anderson, J. A. (eds.): Parallel models of associative memory,
Hillsdale 1981.
61 Gal'perin, P. J.: 'Stages in the development of mental acts', in Cole, M. and Maltzman, J.
(eds.), Handbook of contemporary soviet psychology, London 1969, pp. 149-173.
62 Gal'perin, P. J. and Talysina, N. F.: 'Die Bildung erster geometrischer Begriffe auf der
Grundlage organisierter Handlungen der Schiiler', in Galperin, P. J. et al. (eds.), Probleme
der Lerntheorie, Berlin 1974, pp. 106-130.
63 Davydov, V. V.: 'Logical and psychological problems of elementary mathematics as an
academic subject', in Kilpatrick, J. et al. (eds.), Soviet-studies in the psychology of
learning and teaching mathematics, vol. VII, Chicago 1975, pp. 55-109.
Davydov, V. V.: Arten der Verallgemeinerung im Unterricht Logischpsychologische
Probleme des Aufbaus fUr Unterrichtsfiichern, Berlin 1977.
64 Carpenter, T. P. and Moser, J. M.: 'The acquisition of addition and subtraction
concepts', in Lesh, R. and Landau, M. (eds.), Acquisition of mathematics concepts and
processes, New York 1983, pp. 7-45.
Corte, E. de and Verschaffel, L.: 'Beginning first graders' initial representation of arith-
metic word problems', The Journal of Mathematical Behavior 4.1 (1986), 3-15.
Riley, M. 1., Greeno, J. G. and Heller, J. I.: 'Development of children's problem solving
ability in arithmetic', in Ginsburg (ed.), The development of mathematical thinking, New
York 1983,pp.153-197.
Verschaffel, L.: Representatie- en oplossingsprocessen van eersteklassers bij aanvankelijke
redactie-opgaven over optellen en aftrekken. Een theoretische en methodologische
bijdrage op basis van een longitudinale, kwa/itatiefpsychologische studie, (Ph.D. diss.),
Leuven 1984.
65 See also:
Steiner, H. G.: 'Theory of mathematics education - An introductory talk', in Steiner, H. G.
et al. (eds.), Theory of mathematics education, Bielefeld 1984, p. 25.
Steiner, H. G. (ed.): Grundfragen der Entwicklung mathematischer Fiihigkeiten, KOin 1986.
Steiner, H. G.: 'Theorie der Mathematikdidaktik', Zentrallblatt flir Didaktik der Mathe-
matik 17 (1985), pp. 57-65.
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 INDEX

activity: role in mathematics education 60- "Chessboard" see "Grains on the Chess-
61 board"
Adda, Josette 15 clever reckoning: column arithmetic 204-
Adler 148 206
algorithms "The Clock" 212
mathematical material 26,198-210 cognitive psychology 289-294
role in mathematics education 44 column arithmetic
applicability educational psychology 216-217
goal of mathematics education 103-104, mathematical problems 199-210
184 Wiskobas curriculum 225
mathematical rules 66-68 Wiskobas instruction theory 253
arithmetic computers: mathematics instruction 287
column arithmetic 199-210, 216-217, concrete product goals 125-126, 168-
225,253 169
Wiskobas curriculum 223-225 context: Wiskobas instruction theory 255-
Wiskobas instruction theory 253 258
arithmetical goal of mathematics education Cooney, T. J. 265
101-102,184 Cooper, I. 282
arithmetical trend of mathematics teaching counting problems
9,10,16-17 development by Wiskobas project 26
Arnold, W. R. 133 examples 33-36
attitude development through mathematics examples, analysed 37-53
107-108 "Freckleham" project 183
Wiskobas instruction theory 225,259
Baker, E. L. 121, 168-169 Courant 240
Balacheff, N. 285,294 "The Cube" 212
Bauersfeld, H. 279,282-285,287,294 curriculum development
Becker, H. 134 current objectives 83
Behr, M. J. 279,287 early trends 9-10
Biggs, Edith 10 Wiskobas project 10-14
Bishop, A 285, 294
Bloom, B. S. 149,215 Dalin, P. 19,21,24
Boomsma, G. 10 Davis, R. 148, 279, 280-282, 286, 287,
Bouman en Van Zelm 17 294
Bourbaki 293 Davydov, V. V. 210,217,290,293
Brousseau, G. 285,287,294 DeBlock,A 149,154,186
Braunfeld, P. 148 . decimals
Bruner, J. S. 63, 132, 251, 278, 282, 286, Wiskobas curriculum 226-231
294 Wiskobas instruction theory 253
De Corte, E. 84,186,293
calculators: use of pocket calculators 104, DeGroot,AD. 120
231 didactical phenomenology 246-247,257
Canada: mathematics education 240 didactising: Wiskobas instruction theory
Carpenter, T. P. 293 57-59
cartoons see "Land of Eight" Diets and Nauta 17

347
348 INDEX

Dienes, Z. P. 15, 63, 246, 274-276, 279, Functional Arithmetic 17

282,284,294 functions
differentiation: role in mathematics educa- curriculum content 119
tion 61-62 "Freckleham" project 183
Disney, Walt see "Land of Eight"
division Gagne, R. M. 168,252,272-274,294
column arithmetic 199,203-204,205- Gal'perin, P. J. 168, 194, 210, 290, 292-
206 293,294
progressive mathematisation 265-268 geometry
Wiskobas instruction theory 256, 257, curriculum content 119
259 Wiskobas curriculum 232-238
Donady, Regine 288-289, 294 Wiskobas instruction theory 253, 254
dynamics of mathematics 68-70, 107 Glaser 168
Goffree, F. 22,58,135,192,285,294
education: general goal description 119- "Grains on the Chessboard"
124 mathematical problem 26, 76-82
education: mathematics one-dimensional goal theme 94-109,
general goals 8-29,83-90,210 213
one-dimensional goals 28,83-111,208, three-dimensional goal theme 194
213,218-219 Wiskobas instruction theory 255, 259,
three-dimensional goals 89, 167-195, 262
209,214-219 Greeno, J. G. 293
two-dimensional goals 88-89, 119- grids: role in mathematics education 42-
158, 208-209, 213-214, 215, 43
218-219 Guilford 186
educational psychologists 217 "Gulliver"
Eisner, E. W. 119-124, 130-133, 140, mathematical problem 2-7, 26
152,154,157,214-215 mathematical study theme 14-29, 52,
elementary education 58,61,226
foundations for secondary education 96- three-dimensional goal theme 194
98 Wiskobas instruction theory 255, 259,
mathematics teaching see Wiskobas 262
empirical trend of mathematics teaching 10,
14 Hacker, H. 23
empiricism: learning theory 276-278 Hamilton, E. 279,287
"eureka experiences" 61,109, 184 Hatfield 283
expressive objectives 121-124, 129-134 Heller, J. I. 293
Hilton, P. 241,257
Ford, W. 216,290 Hofstadter, D. R. 244
Foundation for Curriculum Development holistic three-dimensional goal description
254 185-195,214
fractions Hull 272
Wiskobas curriculum 226-231
Wiskobas instruction theory 253, 254, innovation
257,268-270 matheIIiatics education 9-11, 16-23
France: mathematics education 10 mathematics education: Wiskobas project
"Freckleham" 19-23
mathematical problem 26, 160-166 Institute for the Development of Mathe-
three-dimensional g.oal theme 167-195, matics Education (IOWa) xiii, 11,
214 13,212,254
Wiskobas instruction theory 259,262 instruction theories 239-296
Freudenthal, H. 17, 65, 241, 242, 246- instructional objectives 120-121, 124-
247,250,257,264,267,288,295 129
 INDEX 349

interactive instruction 261-262 Martin 148

one dimensional 242-252 maTHEMAtica 12,212
three-dimensional 264-271 mathematics
two-dimensional 252-264 educational goals
Van Hiele levels 242-246 general 8-29, 83-90, 209-210
Wiskobas instruction theory 261-262 one-dimensional 28, 83-111, 208,
interactive instruction: Wiskobas instruction 213,218-219
theory 261-262 three-dimensional 28, 89, 167-195,
intertwining oflearning strands 262-263 209,214-219
IOWO (Institute for the Development of two-dimensional 28, 88-89, 119-
Mathematics Education) xiii, 11, 13, 158, 208-209, 213-214, 215,
212,254 218-219
isomorphism 46,64 history of mathematics education 91-93,
95,96-97,99
Johnson,D.A. 186 instruction theory 239-296
one-dimensional 242-252
Kaufman, J. 148 three-dimensional 264-271
Kilpatrick, J. 244, 282, 291 two-dimensional 252-264
Kirsch, A. 98 learning theories 273-274, 275-276,
Klauer, K. J. 136,148,186 . 277,278,280-296
Kohnstamm Institute 96 mathematical activity discussed 37-53
Krummheuer, G. 282 mathematical language 64-66
Kiihnel, J. 206 mathematics lesson described 53-59
mathematising
Laborde, C. 285, 294 defined 51-53
Lakatos, I. 241,293 progressive 247-250, 252-255,
Landau, M. 279, 287 260-263,265-270
"Land of Eight" schematic comparison 250-252
mathematical problem 26, 114-118 social relevance 99-100
three-dimensional goal theme 193,194 structural character 63-64
two-dimensional goal theme 119-158, teaching theories 273-274, 275-276,
193,214,215 277,278,280-296
Wiskobas instruction theory 268-270 Wiskobas goals of mathematics education
language 93-94,97,101,109-111
curriculum content 119 Wiskobas pririciples of mathematics
"Freckleham" project 183 . education 59-73
goal of mathematics education 102-103, Mathematics Teacher 240
184 Mathematique modeme, 240
mathematical language 64-66 McAshan,H.H. 127-128,136
Lawler, R. W. 282,283, 294 measurement
)earning theories curriculum content 119
general 271-296 Wiskobas curriculum 231-232
mathematics 273-274, 275-276, 277, Wiskobas instruction theory 254
278,280-296 mechanism: learning theory 272-274
VanHielelevels 242-246 methodological aspects of mathematics
Lesh, R. 279,285-289,294 105-106,184
linear enlargement: "Gulliver" theme 3-7 metric system: Wiskobas instruction theory
logic: 253
::urriculum content 119 models: Wiskobas instruction theory 258-
"Freckleham" project 183 260
long division see division Moller, Christine 23
Morley, Arthur 14,251
Mager, R. F. 148 Moser, J. M. 293
350 INDEX

multiplication: column arithmetic 199-203 number systems 268-270

Wiskobas instruction theory 247-250,
Nason, R. 282 252-255,260-263,265-270
National Assessment of Educational Prog- psychology
ress 256,260 cognitive psychology 289-294
Netherlands: mathematics education 10, educational psychologists 217
12-13,17,18-19,99,261 The Psychology of Mathematics for Instruc-
"New Math" 9,10,16-17,99,226,272 tion 216
number systems see "Land of Eight" pupils
goal importance 155-156
objectives primary education principles 96-98
expressive objectives 121,124, 129- Wiskobas instruction theory 260-262
134
instructional objectives 120-121, 124- Rath, James 133
129 ratios
O'Brien, T. C. 16 Wiskobas curriculum 226
Onderzoek Wiskundeonderwijs en Onder- Wiskobas instruction theory 253, 257,
wijs Computercentrum (OW &OC) 259-260
xiii, 13,212-213,254 reasoning: role in mathematics 68-70,
one-dimensional educational goals 28, 83- 184
111,208,213,218-219 relationships
operationalised product goals 126-127 curriculum content 119
Oudkerk Pool, T. 130 "Freckleham" project 183
OW &OC, University of Utrecht xiii, 13, Resnick, L. B. 216,290
212-213,254 Reynders 17
Riley, M. I. 293
Papert, S. 282 Rising, E. R. 148,186
Papy,Frederique 15,240 "Roads" problems
Pascal triangle 47,65,71 mathematical problems 26,33-36
percentage: Wiskobas instruction theory mathematical problems analysed 37-
253 53
Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich 91 Wiskobas instruction theory 255,259
phenomenology: didactical phenomenology
246-247,257 Sawyer, W. W. 48, 240
Piaget, J. 243,251,276-278,282,294 Schoenfeld, A. H. 216
Pikaart; L. 186,188, 189 secondary education
PISAgoals 129,130-132,133 primary school foundations 96-98
pocket calculators 104,231 progressive mathematisation 254
Pollak, H. O. 240 Silver, E. A. 279,287
Polya, E. 215,240 Skinner 272
Popham, W. J. 119-124, 131, 133, 135, SLO-projects 254
140,148,157,214-215 Snijders 17
Post, T. R. 279,287 statistics: curriculum content 119
primary education Steiner, H. G. 295
foundations for secondary education 96- Stenhouse, L. 21,133
98 Streefland, L. 27
mathematics teaching see Wiskobas structural aspect of mathematics 63-64,
probability: curriculum content 119 105,106,184
process goals 119-158,188 structural teaching of mathematics 9, 10,
product goals 119-158,188 15-16,169
progressive mathematising structuralism: learning theory 274-276
fractions 268-270 Sullivan,H.J. 131,133
long division 265-268 symmetry 45-46
 INDEX 351

teachers relationships to other theories 241,247,

role of teachers 21-22 274-276,278,283,294
views on mathematics instruction 264- three-dimensional description 264, 267,
265 268
teaching: mathematics lesson described two-dimensional description 252,260
53-59 Wiskobas context 295
teaching theories Vergnaud, G. 257,288,294
general 271-296 Verschaffel, L. 293
mathematics 273-274, 275-276, 277, vertical instruments: Wiskobas instruction
278,280-296 theory 258-260
Ter Heege, H. 27 vertical planning: role in mathematics educa-
textbooks: general trends 261,263-264 tion 62-63
Thom,R. 240 Voigt, J. 282
Thompson, A. B. 265
Thorndike 272 Wachsmuth 287
three-dimensional educational goals 28,89, Walker, D. F. 169-170,172
167-195,209,214'-219 Wheeler,D.K. 186
Tolman 272 Whitney, H. 241,257
Travers, K. J. 186,188,189 Wilson, J. W. 149
two-dimensional educational goals 28, 88- Winter,H. 257
89, 119-158,208-209,213-214, Wiskivon 13, 99, 254
215,218-219 Wiskobas
Tyler,R. W. 87,131,133 aims of project 19-23,72-73
comparison with other teaching trends
United Kingdom: mathematics education 14-19
10 curriculum programme 26,222-238
United States development of "Freckleham" project 26,
mathematics education 10, 16, 240 170-173
educational goals 126-128 framework for instruction theory 239-
Utrecht University xiii, 13, 212-213, 296
254 goals of mathematics education 93-94,
97,101,109-111,157-158,206-
Van Bruggen,J. 27 210,213-219
VandenBrink,J. 27 history of project 9-14, 211-213
Van Dormolen, J. 186 principles of mathematics education 59-
Van Hiele levels 73
one-dimensional description 242-246, Wiskobas Bulletin 11,12,20,212
247,250,251 Wood,R. 149