PHASED ARRAY TECHINQUE

Preface
This presentation is related to ultrasonic phased array testing, both for
newcomers and for more experienced users who want a review of phased
array principles. It begins with what phased array testing is and how it works,
then outlines some considerations for selecting probes and instruments, and
ends with links to phased array application notes and a phased array glossary.

Some illustrations are included and a series of interactive Flash files as learning
tools.

Ultrasonic phased array testing is a powerful NDT technology and one whose
use is growing rapidly, however it can seem complex to a person who has not
worked with it.
Summary
 Introduction;
 Brief history of Phased Array technique;
 Phased Array technique;
 Types of Phased Array equipment;
 Types of Phased Array accessories;
 Types of scanning;
 Scan plan (using ESBeamTool);
 Types of Phased Array calibrations;
 Phased Array applications;
 Setup creation and Data collection (using Omniscan) – Annex A;
 Practical calibrations (using Omniscan) – Annex B;
 Analysis (using Omniscan / Tomoview) – Annex C;
Introduction
Ultrasonic test instruments have been used in industrial applications for more
than 60 years. Since the 1940s, the laws of physics that govern the propagation
of high frequency sound waves through solid materials have been used to
detect hidden cracks, porosity, and other internal discontinuities in metals,
composites, plastics, and ceramics, as well as to measure thickness and analyze
material properties.

Ultrasonic testing is completely nondestructive and safe, and it is a well

established test method in many basic manufacturing, process, and service
industries, especially in applications involving welds and structural metals.

In the late 1940s, researchers in Japan pioneered

the use of ultrasonic testing in medical
diagnostics using early B-scan equipment that
provided a two-dimensional profile image of
tissue layers.
Introduction
By the 1960s, early versions of medical scanners were being used to detect and
outline tumors and similar conditions.

The latest advances in ultrasonic instruments have been based on the digital
signal processing techniques and the inexpensive microprocessors that became
available from the 1980s onward. This has led to the latest generation of
miniaturized, highly reliable portable instruments and on-line inspection
systems for flaw detection, thickness gaging, and acoustic imaging.
A Brief history of PA technique
During their first couple decades, commercial ultrasonic instruments relied
entirely on single-element transducers that used one piezoelectric crystal to
generate and receive sound waves, dual element transducers that had separate
transmitting and receiving crystals, and pitch/catch or through transmission
systems that used a pair of single-element transducers in tandem.

These approaches are still used by the majority of current commercial

ultrasonic instruments designed for industrial flaw detection and thickness
gaging, however instruments using phased arrays are steadily becoming more
important in the ultrasonic NDT field.

The principle of constructive and destructive

interaction of waves was demonstrated by English
scientist Thomas Young in 1801 in a notable
experiment that utilized two point sources of light
to create interference patterns. Waves that
combine in phase reinforce each other, while
waves that combine out-of-phase will cancel each
other.
A Brief history of PA technique
Phase shifting, or phasing, is in turn a way of controlling these interactions by
time-shifting wave fronts that originate from two or more sources. It can be
used to bend, steer, or focus the energy of a wave front. In the 1960s,
researchers began developing ultrasonic phased array systems that utilized
multiple point source transducers that were pulsed so as to direct sound
beams by means of these controlled interference patterns.

In the early 1970s, commercial phased array systems for medical diagnostic use
first appeared, using steered beams to create cross-sectional images of the
human body.
A Brief history of PA technique
Initially, the use of ultrasonic phased array systems was largely confined to the
medical field, aided by the fact that the predictable composition and structure
of the human body make instrument design and image interpretation relatively
straightforward.

Industrial applications represent a much greater challenge because of the

widely varying acoustic properties of metals, composites, ceramics, plastics,
and fiberglass, as well as the enormous variety of thicknesses and geometries
encountered across the scope of industrial testing. The firsts industrials phased
array systems were introduced in the 1980s. Portable, battery-powered phased
array instruments for industrial use appeared in the 1990s

With very rapid growth in the last 10 years, the Phased Array technique has
been used increasingly to replace the conventional ultrasonic and
radiographic testing.
Phased Array technique
What is a Phased Array?
An array transducer is simply one that contains a number of separate elements in
a single housing, and phasing refers to how those elements are sequentially
pulsed.

A phased array system is normally based around a specialized ultrasonic

transducer that contains many individual elements (typically from 16 to 256) that
can be pulsed separately in a programmed pattern. These transducers may be
used with various types of wedges, in a contact mode, or in immersion testing.
Their shape may be square, rectangular, or round, and test frequencies are most
commonly in the range from 1 to 10 MHz.

More information about phased array probes will be found in the

following sections of this presentation.
Phased Array technique
What do they do?
Phased array systems pulse and receive from multiple elements of an array.
These elements are pulsed in such a way as to cause multiple beam
components to combine with each other and form a single wave front traveling
in the desired direction. Similarly, the receiver function combines the input
from multiple elements into a single presentation.

Because phasing technology permits

electronic beam shaping and steering,
it is possible to generate a vast
number of different ultrasonic beam
profiles from a single probe assembly,
and this beam steering can be
dynamically programmed to create
electronic scans.

Typical Straight Beam Linear Scan

with Phased Array Probe
Phased Array technique
What do they do?
This enables the following capabilities:

 Software control of beam angle, focal distance, and beam spot size. These
parameters can be dynamically scanned at each inspection point to
optimize incident angle and signal-to-noise for each part geometry.

 Multiple-angle inspection can be performed with a single, small, multi-

element probe and wedge, offering either single fixed angles or a scan
through a range of angles.

 These capabilities provide greater flexibility for inspection of complex

geometries and tests in which part geometry limits access.

 Multiplexing across many elements allows motionless high-speed scans

from a single transducer position. More than one scan may be performed
from a single location with various inspection angles.
Phased Array technique
What are the advantages?
Ultrasonic phased array systems can potentially be employed in almost any test
where conventional ultrasonic flaw detectors have traditionally been used. Weld
inspection and crack detection are the most important applications, and these
tests are done across a wide range of industries including aerospace, power
generation, petrochemical, pipeline construction and maintenance, structural
metals, and general manufacturing. Phased arrays can also be effectively used to
profile remaining wall thickness in corrosion survey applications.
The benefits of phased array technology over conventional UT come from its
ability to use multiple elements to steer, focus and scan beams with a single
transducer assembly. Beam steering, commonly referred to sectorial scanning,
can be used for mapping components at appropriate angles. This can greatly
simplify the inspection of components with complex geometry.
Phased Array technique
What are the advantages?
The small footprint of the transducers and the ability to sweep the beam
without moving the probe also aids inspection of such components in situations
where there is limited access for mechanical scanning.

Sectorial scanning is also typically used for weld inspection. The ability to test
welds with multiple angles from a single probe greatly increases the probability
of detection of anomalies. Electronic focusing permits optimizing the beam
shape and size at the expected defect location, as well as further optimizing
probability of detection. The ability to focus at multiple depths also improves
the ability for sizing critical defects for volumetric inspections. Focusing can
significantly improve signal-to-noise ratio in challenging applications, and
electronic scanning across many groups of elements allows for C-Scan images to
be produced very rapidly.
Phased Array technique
What are the disadvantages?
The potential disadvantages of phased array systems are a somewhat higher
cost and a requirement for operator training, however these costs are
frequently offset by their greater flexibility and a reduction in the time
required to perform a given inspection.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer Construction
To understand how phased array transducers work, it is helpful to first consider the
conventional monolithic ultrasonic transducers designed for NDT applications.
These transducers come in a wide variety of sizes, frequencies, and case styles, but
most have a common internal structure. Typically, the active element of the
transducer is a thin disk, square, or rectangle of piezoelectric ceramic that converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy (ultrasonic vibrations), and vice versa.

Dual element transducers,

commonly used in corrosion
survey applications, differ in that
they have separate transmitting
and receiving elements separated
by a sound barrier, no backing, and
an integral delay line rather than a
wearplate or lens.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Beam characteristics
Conventional single element longitudinal wave ultrasonic transducers work as a
piston source of high frequency mechanical vibrations, or sound waves. As
voltage is applied, the piezoelectric transducer element (often called a crystal)
deforms by compressing in the direction perpendicular to its face. When the
voltage is removed, typically less than a microsecond later, the element springs
back, generating the pulse of mechanical energy that comprises an ultrasonic
wave. The graphic below shows a conceptualized example of how a
piezoelectric element responds to a brief electrical pulse .
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Beam characteristics

Type - The transducer will be identified according to function as a contact, delay

line, angle beam, or immersion type. Inspected material characteristics such as
surface roughness, temperature, and accessibility as well as the position of a
defect within the material and the inspection speed will all influence the
selection of transducer type.

Diameter - The diameter of the active transducer element.

Frequency - The number of wave cycles completed in one second, normally

expressed in Kilohertz (KHz) or Megahertz (MHz). Most industrial ultrasonic
testing is done in the frequency range from 500 KHz to 20 MHz, so most
transducers fall within that range, although commercial transducers are
available from below 50 KHz to greater than 200 MHz. Penetration increases
with lower frequency, while resolution and focal sharpness increase with higher
frequency.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Beam characteristics
As a working approximation, the beam from a typical unfocused disk
transducer is often thought of as a column of energy originating from the
active element area that expands in diameter and eventually dissipates.

In fact, the actual beam profile is complex, with pressure gradients in both the
transverse and axial directions. In the beam profile illustration below, red
represents areas of highest energy, while green and blue represent lower energy.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Beam characteristics
The sound field of a transducer is divided into two zones, the near field
(Fresnel zone) and the far field. The near field “N” is the region close to the
transducer where the sound pressure goes through a series of maximums and
minimums, and it ends at the last on-axis maximum at distance N from the
face. Near field distance represents the natural focus of the transducer.

The far field is the region beyond N where the sound pressure gradually drops
to zero as the beam diameter expands and its energy dissipates.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Beam characteristics
The near field distance is a function of the transducer's frequency and
diameter, and the sound velocity in the test medium, and it may be calculated
as follows for the square or rectangular elements commonly found in phased
array testing:

Because of the sound pressure variations within the near field, it can be
difficult to accurately evaluate flaws using amplitude based techniques
(although thickness gaging within the near field is not a problem). Additionally,
N represents the greatest distance at which a transducer's beam can be
focused by means of either an acoustic lens or phasing techniques.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Beam characteristics
The aspect radio constant is as follows, based on the ratio between the short
and long dimensions of the element or aperture:

Ratio short/long k
1.0 1.37 (square element)
0.9 1.25
0.8 1.15
0.7 1.09
0.6 1.04
0.5 1.01
0.4 1.00
0.3 and below 0.99

In the case of circular elements, k is not used and the diameter of the element
(D) is used instead of the length term:
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Wave front dynamics
Wave front formation
While a single element transducer may be thought of as a piston source, a
single disk or plate pushing forward on the test medium, the wave it generates
may be mathematically modeled as the sum of the waves from a very large
number of point sources. This derives from Huygens' Principle, which states
that each point on an advancing wavefront may be thought of as a point source
that launches a new spherical wave, and that the resulting unified wave front is
the sum of all of these individual spherical waves.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Wave front dynamics
Beam spreading
In principle, the sound wave generated by a transducer will travel in a straight
line until it encounters a material boundary. What happens then is discussed
below. But if the sound path length is longer than the near field distance, the
beam will also increase in diameter, diverging like the beam of a spotlight. The
beam spread angle of an unfocused transducer can be calculated as follows:
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Wave front dynamics
From the Beam spread´s equation, it can be seen that beam spreading increases
with lower frequencies and smaller diameters. Since a large beam spread angle
can cause sound energy per unit area to quickly drop with distance, effectively
decreasing sensitivity to small reflectors, echo response in some applications
involving long sound paths can be improved by using higher frequency and/or
larger diameter transducers.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Wave front dynamics
Attenuation
As it travels through a medium, the organized wave front generated by an
ultrasonic transducer will begin to break down due to imperfect transmission of
energy through the microstructure of any material. Organized mechanical
vibrations (sound waves) turn into random mechanical vibrations (heat) until
the wave front is no longer detectable. This process is known as sound
attenuation.

Reflection and transmission at a perpendicular plane boundary

When a sound wave traveling through a medium encounters a boundary with a
dissimilar medium that lies perpendicular to the direction of the wave, a
portion of the wave energy will be reflected straight back and a portion will
continue straight ahead. The percentage of reflection versus transmission is
related to the relative acoustic impedances of the two materials, with acoustic
impedance in turn being defined as material density multiplied by speed of
sound.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Wave front dynamics
The reflection coefficient at a planar boundary, the percentage of sound
energy that is reflected back to the source, may be calculated as follows:

From the equation above, it can be seen that as the acoustic impedances of the
two materials become more similar, the reflection coefficient decreases, and as
the acoustic impedances become less similar, the reflection coefficient increases.
In theory the reflection from the boundary between two materials of the same
acoustic impedance is zero, while in the case of materials with very dissimilar
acoustic impedances, as in a boundary between steel and air, the reflection
coefficient approaches 100%.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Wave front dynamics
Refraction and mode conversion at non-perpendicular boundaries
When a sound wave traveling through a material encounters a boundary with a
different material at an angle other than zero degrees, a portion of the wave
energy will be reflected forward at an angle equal to the angle of incidence. At
the same time, the portion of the wave energy that is transmitted into the
second material will be refracted in accordance with Snell's Law, which was
independently derived by at least two seventeenth-century mathematicians.

Snell's law related the sines of the incident and refracted angle to the wave
velocity in each material as diagramed in the next page.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Wave front dynamics
Refraction and mode conversion at non-perpendicular boundaries
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Wave front dynamics
If sound velocity in the second medium is higher than that in the first, then
above certain angles this bending will be accompanied by mode conversion,
most commonly from a longitudinal wave mode to a shear wave mode. This is
the basis of widely used angle beam inspection techniques. As the incident angle
in the first (slower) medium such as a wedge or water increases, the angle of the
refracted longitudinal wave in the second (faster) material such as metal will
increase.
As the refracted longitudinal wave angle approaches 90 degrees, a progressively
greater portion of the wave energy will be converted to a lower velocity shear
wave that will be refracted at the angle predicted by Snell's Law. At incident
angles higher than that which would create a 90 degree refracted longitudinal
wave, the refracted wave exists entirely in shear mode. A still higher incident
angle will result in a situation where the shear wave is theoretically refracted at
90 degrees, at which point a surface wave is generated in the second material.
The diagram in the next page shows this effect for a typical angle beam assembly
coupled into steel.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Conventional Transducer – Wave front dynamics
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Composite Monolithic Transducers

Composite transducers are made by dicing standard piezoelectric material into a

grid. The spaces in the diced element are filled with epoxy, and the bottom is
ground away to leave a series of tiny piezoelectric blocks in an epoxy matrix.
Both sides are then plated for electrical contact.

The raw material is cut to size in a square, rectangular, or circular shape

depending on the model of transducer it will become.

Epoxy
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Composite Monolithic Transducers

The main advantages are:

 The many piezoelectric blocks each act as point sources for spherical wave
fronts that combine into a single wave in accordance with Huygens'
Principle.
 The presence of the epoxy lowers the acoustic impedance of the transducer,
creating more efficient sound coupling into wedges, delay lines, and water,
as well as into nonmetallic test materials like composites and polymers.

 Transducer sensitivity is increased because the individual piezoelectric

blocks can more freely expand and contract as compared to a given point in
the middle of a solid disk or plate.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - What is an array?
An array is an organized arrangement of large quantities of an object. The
simplest form of an ultrasonic array for NDT would be a series of several single
element transducers arranged in such a way as to increase inspection coverage
and/or the speed of a particular inspection. Examples of this include:

 Tube inspection, where multiple probes are often used for both crack
detection, finding laminar flaws, and overall thickness measurement.
 Forged metal parts, which often require multiple probes focused at different
depths to enable detection of small defects in a zonal manner.
 A linear arrangement of probes along a surface to increase detection of
laminar flaws in composites or corrosion in metals.

These inspections require high speed multi-channel ultrasonic equipment with

proper pulsers, receivers, and gate logic to process each channel as well as
careful fixturing of each transducer to properly set up the inspection zones.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - What is an array?

In its simplest form, one can think of a phased array probe as a series of
individual elements in one package. While the elements in reality are much
smaller than conventional transducers, these elements can be pulsed as a group
so as to generate directionally controllable wavefronts. This "Electronic Beam
Forming" allows multiple inspection zones to be programmed and analyzed at
very high rates of speed from a single position transducer.

Inside a Phased Array Transducer

While phased array transducers come in a wide range of sizes, shapes,
frequencies, and number of elements, what they all have in common is a
piezoelectric element that has been divided into a number of segments.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Inside a Phased Array Transducer

Contemporary phased array transducers for industrial NDT applications are

typically constructed around piezocomposite materials, which are made up of
many tiny, thin rods of piezoelectric ceramic embedded in a polymer matrix.
While they can be more challenging to manufacture, composite transducers
typically offer a 10 to 30 dB sensitivity advantage over piezoceramic
transducers of otherwise similar design.

Segmented metal plating is used to divide the composite strip into a number
of electrically separate elements that can be pulsed individually. This
segmented element is then incorporated into a transducer assembly that
includes a protective matching layer, a backing, cable connections, and an
overall housing.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Inside a Phased Array Transducer

The animation above depicts a linear array, with a rectangular footprint, which is
a very common configuration for a phased array. Arrays can be arranged as a
matrix to provide more beam control over a surface cross section, or as circular
arrays which provides a more spherical focusing pattern.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Inside a Phased Array Transducer
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased Array Transducer Characteristics

Phased array transducers are functionally categorized according to the following

basic parameters:

Type: Most phased array transducers are angle beam type, designed for use with
either a plastic wedge or a straight plastic shoe (zero degree wedge) or delay
line. Direct contact and immersion transducers are also available.

Frequency: Most ultrasonic flaw detection is done between 2 MHz and 10 MHz,
so most phased array transducers fall within that range. Lower and higher
frequency probes are also available. As with conventional transducers,
penetration increases with lower frequency, while resolution and focal sharpness
increase with higher frequency.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased Array Transducer Characteristics
Number of elements: Phased array transducers most commonly have from 16
to 128 elements, with some having as many as 256. A larger number of
elements increases focusing and steering capability, and can increase area
coverage as well, but also increases both probe and instrumentation costs. Each
of these elements is individually pulsed to create the wavefront of interest.
Hence the dimension across these elements is often referred to as the active or
steering direction.

Size of elements: As element width gets smaller, beam steering capability

increases, but large area coverage will require more elements at higher cost.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased Array Transducer Characteristics
The dimensional parameters of a phased array are customarily defined as
follows:

This information is use by instrument software to generate the desired beam

shape. If it is not entered automatically by probe recognition software, then it
must be entered by the user during setup.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased Array Transducer Characteristics

APERTURE (A) – Aperture determined by the total number of elements

available in the probe. A=nxp
n= number of elements
p = pitch

ACTIVE APERTURE (A) – Aperture determined by the total number of active

elements for the desirable inspection.

Delay – Electronic delay applied during signal pulsing and signal reception in
order to change the acoustic characteristics.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased Array Transducer Characteristics
Phased Array probe

Ex: 5L64-38.4x10-A2-P-5.0-OM Connector type (OM = Omniscan connector)

Cable length (5 = 5,0 meters)
Cable type (P = PVC) / (M = Metal)
Probe type/ (A = Angle beam with external wedge
and 2 = Casing type) / (W = Angle beam with
internal wedge) / (I = Immersion)
Elevation
Active Aperture (Aperture = Nº of elements x pitch)
Total number of elements
Array type (L = Linear) / (A = Annular)
Probe frequency (MHz)

- The name stamped in the probe is reduced, which for the example above is 5L64-A2.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased Array Wedge Characteristics

In addition to the array transducer itself, phased array probe assemblies usually
also include a plastic wedge.

Wedges are used in both shear wave and longitudinal wave applications,
including straight beam linear scans. These wedges perform basically the same
function in phased array systems as in conventional single element flaw
detection, coupling sound energy from the transducer to the test piece in such
a way that it mode converts and/or refracts at a desired angle in accordance
with Snell's Law.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased Array Wedge Characteristics
While phased array systems do utilize beam steering to create beams at
multiple angles from a single wedge, this refraction effect is also part of the
beam generation process. Shear wave wedges look very similar to those used
with conventional transducers, and like conventional wedges they come in
many sizes and styles. Some of them incorporate couplant feed holes for
scanning applications. A typical phased array wedge is seen below.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased Array Wedge Characteristics
Zero-degree wedges are basically flat plastic blocks that are used for coupling
sound energy (and for protecting the transducer face from scratches or abrasion)
in straight linear scans and also for low-angle longitudinal wave angled scans.

Wedges can also be custom contoured to accommodate complex part geometries.

There are several wedge dimensions in addition to incident angle that are used in
programming phased array scans, to insure proper distance and depth calibration
as well as proper refracted angle. This information is use by instrument software
to generate the desired beam shape. If it is not entered automatically by probe
recognition software, then it must be entered by the user during setup.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased Array Wedge types
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased Array Wedge types
Phased Array wedge

Ex: SA2-N55S-IHC-AOD12 External diameter (inches)

Curvature type (AOD = Axial external diameter)
/ (COD = Circumferential external diameter)
IHC = Used for water supply trough the irrigation
canals / Carbides to avoid wedge wear)

Wave type (S = Shear) / (L = Longitudinal)

Refracted angle in steel (º)

Probe mounting in the wedge (N = Normal) /

(L = Lateral)
Wedge type (related to the probe Ex: A2)

- The name stamped in the wedge is identical of the example above.

Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased pulsing and its effects
Whenever waves originating from two or more sources interact with each other,
there will be phasing effects leading to an increase or decrease in wave energy
at the point of combination. When elastic waves of the same frequency meet in
such a way that their displacements are precisely synchronized the wave
energies will add together to create a larger amplitude wave. If they meet in
such a way that their displacements are exactly opposite (180 degrees out of
phase), then the wave energies will cancel each other.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased pulsing and its effects – Conventional UT
As seen before, a conventional angle beam transducer uses a single element to
launch a wave in a wedge. Points on this wave front experience different delay
intervals due to the shape of the wedge. These are mechanical delays, as opposed
to the electronic delays employed in phased array testing. When the wave front
hits the bottom surface it can be visualized through Huygen's principle as a series
of point sources. The theoretically spherical waves from each of these points
interact to form a single wave from at an angle determined by Snell's Law.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased pulsing and its effects – Conventional UT

Delay
Excitation pulse

Crystal
Wedge
A B C

Material
A B C
Location
Wave front

Beam steering using conventional UT probe (EMISSION) :

 acoustic beam generated by Huygens principle;
 angled wedge introduces appropriate delays during emission to generate
angle beam.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased pulsing and its effects – Conventional UT

Delay
Received signal

Crystal
Wedge

A B C
Material
A B C
Location

Beam steering using conventional UT probe (RECEPTION) :

 acoustic beam in wedge generated by Huygens principle;
 angled wedge introduces delays during reception, so that only waves “in
phase” yield constructive interference on crystal.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased pulsing and its effects – Conventional UT

SINGLE ELEMENT
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased pulsing and its effects – Phased Array
In phased array testing, the predictable reinforcement and cancellation effects
caused by phasing are used to shape and steer the ultrasonic beam. Pulsing
individual elements or groups of elements with different delays creates a series
of point source waves that will combine into a single wave front that will travel
at a selected angle. This electronic effect is similar to the mechanical delay
generated by a conventional wedge, but it can be further steered by changing
the pattern of delays. Through constructive interference, the amplitude of this
combined wave can be considerably greater than the amplitude of any one of
the individual waves that produce it.

Elements are usually pulsed in groups of 4 to 32 in order to improve effective

sensitivity by increasing aperture, which reduces unwanted beam spreading and
enables sharper focusing.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased pulsing and its effects – Phased Array

Delay

Time
Focal law

Wave front
Element

Beam steering using phased-array probe (EMISSION) :

 acoustic beam generated by Huygens principle;
 appropriate delays introduced electronically during emission to generate
angle beam.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased pulsing and its effects – Phased Array

Beam steering using phased-array probe (RECEPTION) :

 appropriate delays introduced electronically during reception;
 Only signals “satisfying” delay law shall be “in phase” and generate significant
signal after summation .
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased pulsing and its effects – Phased Array
The returning echoes are received by the various elements or groups of
elements and time-shifted as necessary to compensate for varying wedge
delays and then summed. Unlike a conventional single element transducer,
which will effectively merge the effects of all beam components that strike its
area, a phased array transducer can spatially sort the returning wavefront
according to the arrival time and amplitude at each element.

When processed by instrument software, each returned focal law represents

the reflection from a particular angular component of the beam, a particular
point along a linear path, and/or a reflection from a particular focal depth. The
echo information can then be displayed in any of several standard formats.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Phased pulsing and its effects – Phased Array
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Focal law sequencing

As noted previously, phased array beams are generated by pulsing the individual
probe elements or groups of elements in a particular pattern. Phased array
instruments will generate these patterns based on information that has been
entered by the user.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Focal law sequencing
Software known as a focal law calculator establishes specific delay times for
firing each group of elements in order to generate the desired beam shape
through wave interaction, taking into account probe and wedge characteristics
as well as the geometry and acoustical properties of the test material.

The beam can be dynamically steered through various angles, focal distances,
and focal spot sizes in such a way that a single probe assembly is capable of
examining the test material across a range of different perspectives. This beam
steering happens very quickly, so that a scan from multiple angles or with
multiple focal depths can be performed in a small fraction of a second.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Shaping
The response of any ultrasonic test system is a combination of factors: the
transducer used, the type of instrument used and its settings, and the acoustic
properties of the test material. The responses produced by phased array
transducers, like those from any other ultrasonic transducers for NDT, will be
related both to transducer design parameters like frequency, size, and
mechanical damping, and to the parameters of the excitation pulse that is used
to drive it.

Frequency – The test frequency has a significant effect on near field length and
beam spreading. In practice, higher frequencies can provide better signal to
noise ratio than lower frequencies since they offer potentially sharper focusing
and thus a tighter, more optimized focal spot. At the same time, penetration in
any test material will decrease with frequency because of increasing material
attenuation as frequency goes up. Applications involving very long sound paths
or test materials that are highly attenuating or scattering will require use of
lower frequencies. Commonly, industrial phased array probes are offered with
frequencies between 1 MHz and 15 MHz.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Shaping

Element size - As the size of individual elements in an array decreases, its beam
steering capability increases. The minimum practical element size in
commercial probes is typically around 0.2 mm. However if the element size is
less than one wavelength, strong unwanted side lobes will occur.
Number of elements - As the number of elements in an array increases, so can
the physical coverage area of the probe and its sensitivity, focusing capability,
and steering capability. At the same time, use of large arrays must often be
balanced against issues of system complexity and cost.
Pitch and aperture - Pitch is the distance between individual elements, aperture
is the effective size of a pulsing element that is usually comprised of a group of
individual elements that are pulsed simultaneously (virtual aperture). To
optimize steering range, pitch must be small. For optimum sensitivity, minimum
unwanted beam spreading, and strong focusing, the aperture must be large.
Today's phased array instruments most commonly support focal laws for up to
16 element apertures. More advanced systems allow up to 32 or even 64
element. apertures.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Shaping
The key concepts for a general understanding phased array beam can be
summarized as follows: A group of elements is fired with a programmed focal
law. This builds the desired transducer aperture and beam characteristics.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Shaping

Effect of element size “e”

As “e” decreases:
 Beam steering increases;
 Number of elements increases and also the cost increases due to more
elements needed

Effect of number of elements “N”

As “N” increases:
 Area of coverage increases;
 More steering and focusing capabilities and also more cost.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Steering
The essence of phased array testing is an ultrasonic beam whose direction
(refracted angle) and focus can be steered electronically by varying the
excitation delay of individual elements or groups of elements. This beam
steering permits multiple angle and/or multiple point inspection from a single
probe and a single probe position.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Steering
Ultrasonic beam characteristics are defined by many factors. In addition to
element dimension, frequency and damping that govern conventional single
element performance, phased array transducers behavior is affected by how
smaller individual elements are positioned, sized and grouped to create an
effective aperture equivalent to its conventional counterpart.

For phased array transducers N

elements are grouped together
to form the effective aperture
for which beam spread can be
approximated by conventional
transducer models.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Steering
Fermat principle
The most important Phased Array characteristic is the ability to sweep the
angle for a focus point.

For this situation the Fermat principle is used, as can be seen in the Picture
below.

Snell point X axis

Interface
Exit point
“Law scan offset”

Focal point (X,Z)

Depth
Angle
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Steering
Fermat principle
In 1650 Pierre de Fermat formulated a principle for light beam, used now for
the sound beam in phased array technology, which considers that a ray that
travels from one point to another will follow a path such that, compared to the
next path, time required will be minimal.

time

Sound path (time)

In the wedge
In the material
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Steering

It is the ability to modify the refracted angle of the beam generated by the
phased array probe, allowing inspection with multiple angles, using only one
probe;

The angle sweep can only be applied on a plane, when used 1D arrays (linear);

Can generate LW (longitudinal) and SW (transversal) using a single probe;

The angle sweep capacity is related to the width of each individual element of
the array.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Steering

BEAM STEERING
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Steering

For shear waves, the

time delay pattern has
a “slant” as shown
here.
Focusing can be
performed by using
“parabolic” time delays
(see previous slide), as
well as the slant.
BEAM STEERING
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Steering

For phased array transducers, the

maximum steering angle (at -6 dB) in a
given case is derived from the beam
spread equation. It can be easily seen
that small elements have more beam
spreading and hence higher angular
energy content, which can be combined
to maximize steering. As element size
decreases, more elements must be
pulsed together to maintain sensitivity.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Grating Lobes and Side Lobes
Another phenomenon associated with phased array probes is the generation
of unwanted grating lobes or side lobes, two closely related phenomena
caused by sound energy that spreads out from the transducer at angles other
than the primary path.

This phenomenon is not limited to phased array systems - unwanted lobes also
occur with conventional transducers as element size increases. These
unwanted ray paths can reflect off surfaces in the test piece and cause
spurious indications on an image.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Grating Lobes and Side Lobes
The amplitude of grating lobes is significantly affected by pitch size, the number
of elements, frequency, and bandwidth. The beam profiles below compare two
situations where the probe aperture is approximately the same, but the beam at
left is generated by 06 elements at 0.4 mm pitch and the beam at right by 03
elements at 1 mm pitch.

The beam at left is approximately

shaped as a cone, while the
beam at right has two spurious
lobes at approximately a 30
degree angle to the center axis of
the beam.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Grating Lobes and Side Lobes

Grating lobes will occur whenever the size of individual elements in an array
is equal to or greater than the wavelength, and there will be no grating lobes
when element size is smaller than half a wavelength. For element sizes
between one-half and one wavelength, the generation of grating lobes will
depend on the steering angle.

Thus the simplest way to minimize grating lobes in a given application is to use
a transducer with a small pitch. Specialized transducer design incorporating
subdicing (cutting elements into smaller elements) and varying element
spacing will also reduce unwanted lobes.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Focusing
In the steered or active plane, the beam can be electronically focused to
converge acoustic energy at a desired depth. With a focused transducer, the
beam profile can typically be represented by a tapering cone (or wedge in the
case of single-axis focusing) that converges to a focal point and then diverges at
an equal angle beyond the focal point, like this:
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Focusing
The near field length and hence the natural divergence of an ultrasonic beam
are determined by aperture (equal to element diameter in the case of
conventional monolithic transducers) and wavelength (wave velocity divided by
frequency). For an unfocused transducer, the near field length, beam spread
angle, and beam diameter can be calculated as follows:

The near field length in a given material also defines the maximum depth at
which a sound beam can be focused. A beam cannot be focused beyond the
end of the near field.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Focusing

A focused transducer's effective sensitivity is affected by the beam

diameter/width at the point of interest. The smaller the beam diameter, the
greater will be the amount of energy that will be reflected by a small flaw. The
beam diameter/width of a focused transducer at the focal point can be
calculated as follows:

Beam width = d = λ . Z / A
Where:
Z = Depth of focus
A = Aperture

Increasing the aperture size increases the sharpness of the focused beam, as
can be seen in these beam profiles. Red areas correspond to the highest sound
pressure, and blue areas to lower sound pressure.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Focusing

BEAM FOCUSING

The combination of individual beam components allows beam focusing at any

point in the near field.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Focusing

Beam shaping is
performed by pulsing the
elements with different
time delays. This picture
shows the elements in
the array, and the delay
applied to each element.
These time delays (green
histogram) generate a
focused normal beam,
from the symmetrical
“parabolic” time delays.
BEAM FOCUSING
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Focusing
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Focusing
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Focusing
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Focusing
DDF – Dynamic Depth Focusing
Depending of the acquisition instrument, it is possible to focus in different depths
using one Phased Array probe.
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Focusing - BE CAREFUL
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Focusing and Steering

MANY ELEMENTS
Phased Array technique
Transducers - Beam Focusing and Steering

The picture shows the

generated beams in very
early, mid-stage, late and
at focus.
For angling and focusing,
we use a combined slant
and parabola.

BEAM STEERING AND FOCUSING

Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - Introduction
Both conventional and phased array ultrasonic instruments utilize high
frequency sound waves to check the internal structure of a test piece or
measure its thickness, and both rely on the same basic laws of physics that
govern sound wave propagation. Similar concepts are employed in both
ultrasonic technologies to present ultrasonic data.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - Introduction
Conventional ultrasonic instruments for NDT commonly consist of either a single
active element that both generates and receives high frequency sound waves, or
two paired elements, one for transmitting and one for receiving. A typical
instrument consists of a single channel pulser and receiver generates and
receives an ultrasonic signal, with an integrated digital acquisition system which
is coordinated with an onboard display and measurement module.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - Introduction

Phased array instruments are naturally multi-channel as they need to provide

excitation patterns (focal laws) to transducer assemblies with from 16 to as many
as 256 elements. Unlike conventional flaw detectors, phased array systems can
sweep a sound beam from one probe through a range of refracted angles, along a
linear path, or dynamically focus at a number of different depths, thus increasing
both flexibility and capability in inspection setups.

This added ability to generate multiple transducer paths within one probe adds a
powerful advantage in detection and naturally adds the ability to "visualize" an
inspection by creating an image of the inspection zone.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - View
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics – A-Scan Data
Any ultrasonic instrument typically records two fundamental parameters of an
echo: how large it is (amplitude), and where it occurs in time with respect to a
zero point (pulse transit time). Transit time in turn is usually correlated to reflector
depth or distance, based on the sound velocity of the test material and the simple
relationship.
The most basic presentation of
ultrasonic waveform data is in the form
of an A-scan, or waveform display, in
which echo amplitude and transit time
are plotted on a simple grid with the
vertical axis representing amplitude and
the horizontal axis representing time.
The example below shows a version with
a rectified waveform; unrectified RF
displays are also used.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics – A-Scan Data
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics – Single value B-Scan Data

Another way of presenting this information is

as a Single Value B-scan. A Single Value B-scan
is commonly used with conventional flaw
detectors and corrosion thickness gages to plot
the depth of reflectors with respect to their
linear position. The thickness is plotted as a
function of time or position while the
transducer is scanned along the part to provide
its depth profile.

In the case below, the B-scan shows two deep

reflectors and one shallower reflector,
corresponding to the positions of the side
drilled holes in the test block.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics – Single value B-Scan Data
Correlating ultrasonic data with actual transducer position allows a proportional
view to be plotted and allows the ability to correlate and track data to specific
areas of the part being inspected. This position tracking is typically done
through the use of electromechanical devices known as encoders.

These encoders are used in fixtures which are either manually scanned or in
automated systems that move the transducer by a programmable motor-
controlled scanner. In either case the encoder records the location of each data
acquisition with respect to a desired user-defined scan pattern and index
resolution.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - C-Scan Mapping Data

Another presentation option is a C-scan, a

two dimensional presentation of data
displayed as a top or planar view of a test
piece, similar in its graphic perspective to
an x-ray image, where color represents the
gated signal amplitude or depth at each
point in the test piece mapped to its
position. Planar images can be generated
on flat parts by tracking data to X-Y
position, or on cylindrical parts by tracking
axial and angular position. For conventional
ultrasound, a mechanical scanner with
encoders is used to track the transducer's
coordinates to the desired index resolution.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics – Phased Array C-Scan Data

A C-scan from a phased array system is very similar to the one from the
conventional probe seen before. With phased array systems however, the probe
is typically moved physically along one axis while the beam electronically scans
along the other according to the focal law sequence. Signal amplitude or depth
data is collected within gated region of interest just as in conventional C-scans.
In the case of phased arrays, data is plotted with each focal law progression,
using the programmed beam aperture.

Additionally, the phased array image usually is made much faster than
conventional.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics – Phased Array C-Scan Data
Below is an actual scan of the same test
block showed in the previous section using
an encoded 5 MHz, 64 elements linear
array probe with a straight wedge or show.
Each focal law uses 16 elements to form
the aperture, and at each pulsing the
starting element increments by one. This
results in 49 data points that are plotted
(horizontally in the image below) across
the transducer's 37 mm (1.5") length. As
the transducer is moved in a straight line
forward, a planar C-scan view emerges.
Encoders will normally be used whenever
precise geometrical correspondence of the
scan image to the part must be
maintained, although non-encoded manual
scans can also provide useful information
in many cases.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics – Cross Sectional B-Scan Data
A cross sectional B-scan provides a detailed end view of a test piece along a
single axis. This provides more information than the single value B-scan
presented earlier. Instead of plotting just a single measured value from within a
gated region, the whole A-scan waveform is digitized at each transducer
location. Successive A-scans are plotted over elapsed time or actual encoded
transducer position so as to draw pure cross-sections of the scanned line. This
allows visualization of both near and far surface reflectors within the sample.
With this technique, the full waveform data is often stored at each location and
may be recalled from the image for further evaluation or verification.

To accomplish this, each digitized point of the wave form is plotted so that color
representing signal amplitude appears at the proper depth.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics – Cross Sectional B-Scan Data

Successive A-scans are digitized,

related to color and "stacked" at user
defined intervals (elapsed time or
position) to form a true new cross-
sectional image
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics – Cross Sectional B-Scan Data
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - Phased Array Linear Scans
A phased array system uses electronic
scanning along the length of a linear
array probe to create a cross-sectional
profile without moving the transducer.
As each focal law is sequenced, the
associated A-scan is digitized and
plotted.
In practice the electronic sweeping is
done in real time and successive
apertures are "stacked" so a live cross
section can be continually viewed as
the transducer is physically moved.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - Phased Array Linear Scans
It is also possible to scan at a fixed angle across elements. As discussed later this
is very useful for automated weld inspection. Using a 64 element linear phased
array probe with wedge, shear waves can be generated at a user defined angle
(often 45, 60 or 70 degrees). With aperture sequencing through the length of
the probe full volumetric weld data can be collected without the need for
physically increasing distance to weld center line while scanning. This provides
for single pass inspection along the weld length.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - Phased Array Sectorial Scans (Azimuthal)
Of all imaging modes discussed so far,
the Sectorial scan is unique to phased
array equipment. In a linear scan, all
focal laws employed a fixed angle with
sequencing apertures. Sectorial scans,
on the other hand, use fixed apertures
and steer through a sequence of
angles.

Two main forms are typically used. The

most familiar, very common in medical
imaging, uses a zero degree interface
wedge or shoe to steer longitudinal
waves at relatively low angles, creating
a pie-shaped image showing laminar
and slightly angled defects.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - Phased Array Sectorial Scans (Azimuthal)
The second format employs an
angled plastic wedge to increase the
incident beam angle for generation
of shear waves, most commonly in
the refracted angle range of 30 to 70
degrees. This technique is similar to
conventional angle beam inspection,
except that the beam sweeps
through a range of angles rather
than a just single fixed angle
determined by a wedge. As with the
linear scan, the image presentation
is a cross-sectional picture of the
inspected area of the test piece
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - Phased Array Sectorial Scans (Azimuthal)
The actual image generation works on the same stacked A-scan principle that was
discussed in the context of the linear scans. The end user defines the angle start,
end, and step resolution to generate the sectorial image. The waveform response
from each angle (focal law) is digitized and plotted related to color at the
appropriate corresponding angle, building a cross sectional image.

In actuality, the sectorial scan is produced in real time so as to continually offer

dynamic imaging with transducer movement. This is very useful for defect
visualization and increases probability of detection, especially with respect to
randomly oriented defects, as many inspection angles can be used at once.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - Combined Image Formats - Layout
Phased array images are powerful in their ability to provide real time
visualization of volumetric data. Phased array instruments have the ability to
display multiple image types and store complete raw waveform information for
the entire inspection allows post-scanning analysis of the inspection. Because
all the ultrasonic waveform data is collected, this post-analysis enables allows
reconstruction of sectorial scans, C-scan and or B-scans with corresponding A-
scan information at any inspection location.

For example, the screen

below simultaneously
displays the rectified A-scan
waveform, a cross-sectional
B-scan profile, and a C-scan
image of a set of reference
holes in a steel test block.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - Overview of Beam Effects
The scan images below show the effect of
increasing the virtual aperture of a
phased array probe by pulsing the
elements in groups. Using a 64 element
probe with a 0.6 mm pitch, elements are
pulsed in groups of 4, 8, and 16 while
imaging side-drilled holes in a reference
block. The largest aperture (16 elements)
produces an image that is much sharper
that that produced by the smaller
apertures, and it also gives the highest
amplitude response from the target
holes. Of course large apertures can be
achieved only with probes that have a
large number of elements, which in turn
are more expensive and typically require
more expensive instrumentation to drive
them.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - Overview of Beam Effects
Another variable in setting up a phased array test is the number of
programmed focal laws or angular increments in a scan, which effectively
controls the number of individual views used to generate an image. A larger
number of focal laws will generally produce a more detailed picture, but
potentially at the expense of scanning speed and power consumption. Fewer
focal laws means that images can update faster and power consumption is
reduced, but the resulting images are less sharp.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - Overview of Beam Effects
Like aperture and the number of focal laws, electronic beam focusing can have
a significant effect on both the sharpness of an image and the amplitude of the
reflection from a target. The scans below show unfocused (left) and focused
(right) 5 MHz images of three side drilled holes in a steel reference block.
Phased Array technique
Imaging Basics - Overview of Beam Effects
Higher frequency will typically offer greater resolution than lower frequencies,
while lower frequencies have a penetration advantage in applications involving
very long sound paths, or test materials that are highly attenuating or scattering.
The scans below show a series of side drilled holes in a steel reference block
imaged with a 5 MHz, 64 element probe (left) and a 2 MHz, 16 element probe
(right), in both cases using a 16 element aperture. The 5 MHz image is
significantly sharper.
Phased Array technique
Phased Array Instrumentation - Overview
While the linear array probe is certainly the most commonly used
configuration, customized transducers with high element counts and varying
element placements are also available, often designed to meet demanding
application needs requiring high-speed full volumetric coverage and/or
complex beam steering.
To meet these needs, there are varying levels of phased
array instrumentation now commercially available in three
general classifications: field portable manual, field portable
automated, and rack instruments for in-line inspection.
Phased Array technique
Phased Array Instrumentation - Diagram
The fundamental requirement of all phased array instruments is the ability to
configure a defined group of elements with the programmed pulser and
reception delays commonly referred to as a focal law. The instrument forms
images by sequencing focal laws with different pulser and receiver delays across
the same aperture, or multiplexing the same law across stepped apertures.
Phased Array technique
Phased Array Instrumentation - Diagram
During pulsing, a trigger is sent to a bank of pulsers with the delay sequence
required to achieve the desired beam. At reception, the signals are digitized and
delayed according to a focal law and summed to form a single RF response. This
waveform is then amplified, filtered as required, digitized, processed and stored.
As one sequence of focal laws is being completed, the image is simultaneously
displayed along with an associated A-Scan and measurements.
Phased Array technique
Phased Array Instrumentation - Diagram
In linear scanning, groups of elements are stepped through a multiplexer to
reduce cost and electronic complexity. A conceptual overview is shown below in
a reduced configuration consisting of four pulser/receivers exciting an 8 element
probe.
Phased Array technique
Phased Array Instrumentation - Diagram

Using the same configuration as before, for sectorial scans the maximum
number of elements that can be used is four.
Phased Array technique
Phased Array Instrumentation - Specifications Phased Array
Because of the multi-element nature of phased array instruments, there are
additional key specifications that need further consideration and review.

Number of Pulsers: Will define the maximum number of elements that can be
grouped to form an active aperture or virtual probe aperture.

Number of Receivers: Will define the total number of elements that can be
used for sequencing apertures that leads to the potential increase in coverage
from a single probe footprint.

XX:YY: Naming convention used where XX = Number of pulsers and YY=

Number of receiver paths. The number of receivers is always greater or equal
to number of pulsers. Instruments from 16:16 to 32:128 are available in field
portable packaging. Higher pulser and receiver combinations are available for
in-line inspection and/or systems that use larger element count probes.
Phased Array technique
Phased Array Instrumentation - Specifications Phased Array
Focal Laws: The number of focal laws that can be combined to form an image is
often specified. In general, higher XX:YY configurations can support more focal
laws as they support greater element apertures and/or more aperture stepping
in linear scanning.
Phased Array technique
Phased Array Instrumentation - Specifications Phased Array
Examples for the number of focal laws required performing linear scans with
varying combinations of virtual probe apertures and total element counts are
shown below.

VPA (Virtual Probe Aperture) =

(Number of probe elements – Number of active elements) + 1
Phased Array technique
Phased Array Instrumentation - Specifications Phased Array

Probe recognition: The ability to recognize phased array probes reduces operator
setup time by automatically configuring an instrument setup with proper number
of elements and probe geometry.

Image types: Sectorial and linear scans are typically available in phased array
instruments. The ability to stack these image modes to create amplitude and
depth C-scans allows planar images to be formed and provides expanded means
for sizing defects.

Waveform storage: The ability to store raw RF waveforms allows data to be

reviewed off line. This is particularly useful when collecting data over a large
area.
Phased Array technique
Phased Array Instrumentation - Specifications Phased Array

Multi-Group support: More capable phased array instruments allow multiple focal
law groups to be sequenced on one or more connected transducers. This is
especially useful in cases where it is important to collect volumetric data which
will be analyzed off line. For example, a 5 MHz, 64 element probe can be
programmed to use elements 1-16 for a 40 to 70 degree sector scan, while a
second group can be used to perform a 60 degree linear scan with an aperture of
16 elements, stepping by one element over the entire 64 element length.

Encoding: There are two classes of instruments generally available: manual and
encoded.
A manual phased array instrument works much like a conventional flaw detector
as it provides real time data. Along with an A-scan, the instrument also shows real
time S-scan or linear scan images which can aid in detection and discontinuity
analysis. The ability to use and visualize more than one angle at a time in a test
would be the main reason for using this type of instrument. In some cases like
crack sizing, the image can be used as a tool to help size crack depth.
Phased Array technique
Phased Array Instrumentation - Specifications Phased Array
A phased instrument with encoder interface merges probe positional data,
probe geometry, and programmed focal law sequences to allow top, end and
side view images of test specimen. In instruments that also store full waveform
data, images can be reconstructed to provide cross sectional views along the
length of the scan or regenerate planar C-scans at various levels. These
encoded images allow for planar sizing of defects.
Reference Cursors: Instruments will provide various cursors that can be used on
an image for direct sizing. In a sectorial scan, it is possible to use cursors for
measurement of crack height. Approximate defect size can be measured in
encoded linear C-scans as well.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display
This section provides further insight into how phased array images are
constructed. In particular, it will further explain required inputs, and the
relationships of the various phased array display types with respect to the actual
probe assembly and part being inspected. We will also explain the typically
available A-scan views associated with the phased array image.

As discussed previously, there are many factors that need to be identified in order
to properly perform any ultrasonic inspection. In summary, there are material
specific characteristics and transducer characteristics needed for calibrating the
instrument for a proper inspection.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display
Material:
1. Velocity of the material being inspected needs to be set in order to properly
measure depth. Care must be taken to select the proper velocity mode
(longitudinal or shear). As you may recall, compressional straight beam testing
typically uses longitudinal waves while angle beam inspection most often uses
shear wave propagation.

2. Part thickness information is typically entered. This is particularly useful in

angle beam inspection. It allows proper depth measurement relative to the leg
number in angle beam applications.

3. Radius of curvature should be set considered when inspecting non-flat

parts. This curvature can be algorithmically accounted for to make more
accurate depth measurements.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display
Transducer:
1. Frequency must be known to allow for proper pulser parameters and receiver
filter settings.

2. Zero Offset must be established in order to offset electrical and mechanical

delays resulting from coupling, matching layer, cabling and electronic induced
delays for proper thickness readings.

3. Amplitude response from known reflectors must be set and available for
reference in order to use common amplitude sizing techniques.

4. Angle of sound beam entry into the material being inspected.

5. For phased array probes, the number elements and pitch need to be known.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display
Wedge:
1. Velocity of sound propagation through the wedge;

2. Incident angle of the wedge;

3. Beam index point or front of probe reference;

4. First element height offset for phased array.

In conventional ultrasonic testing, all of the above steps must be taken prior to
inspection to achieve proper results. Since a single element probe has a fixed
aperture, the entry angle selection, zero offset, and amplitude calibration are
specific to a single transducer or transducer/wedge combination. Each time a
transducer or its wedge is changed, a new calibration must be performed.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display
Using phased array probes, the user must follow these same principles. The
main advantage of phased array testing is the ability to change aperture, focus,
and/or angle dynamically, essentially allowing the use of several probes at one
time.

This imparts the additional requirement of extending calibration and setup

requirements to each phased array transducer state (commonly referred to as a
focal law). This not only allows accurate measurements of amplitude and depth
across the entire programmed focal sequence, but also provides accurate and
enhanced visualization via the natural images that phase array instruments
produce.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display
The following values must normally be entered in order to program a phased
array scan:
Probe Parameters:
Frequency
Bandwidth
Size “e”
Number of elements “n”
Element pitch “p”

Wedge Parameters:
Incident angle of the wedge
Nominal velocity of the wedge
Offset Z = Height to center of first element
Index offset X = distance from front of wedge
to first element
Scan offset Y = distance from side of wedge to
center of elements
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display - Focal Law Setup
To gain the full advantages of linear array scanning, typically a minimum of 32
elements are used. It is even more common to use 64 elements. More
elements allow larger apertures to be stepped across the probe, providing
greater sensitivity, increased capacity of focusing and wider area of inspection.
The instrument must have the basic probe and wedge characteristics entered,
either manually or via automatic probe recognition. Along with typical UT
settings for the pulser, receiver and measurement gate setup, the user must
also set transducer beam and electronic steering (focal law) characteristics.

Required User inputs:

• Material Velocity;
• Element Quantity (the number of elements used to form the aperture of the
probe);
• First element to be used for scan / The last element in the electronic raster;
• Element step (defines how defined aperture moves across the probe);
• Desired focus depth, which must be set less than near field length (N) to
effectively create a focus;
• Angle of inspection.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display - Focal Law Setup
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display - Straight Beam Linear scans

A phased array system uses electronic scanning along the length of a linear
array probe to create a cross-sectional profile without moving the transducer.
As each focal law is sequenced, the associated A-scan is digitized and plotted.
Successive apertures are "stacked", creating a live cross sectional view.

In practice, this electronic sweeping is done in real time so a live part cross
section can be continually viewed as the transducer is physically moved. The
actual cross section represents the true depth of reflectors in the material as
well as the actual position typically relative to the front of the probe assembly.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display - Straight Beam Linear scans
Below is an image of holes in a test block made with a 5L64-A2, 64-element
5 MHz linear phased array probe. The probe has a 0.6mm pitch.

The result is an image that clearly shows the relative position of the holes
within the scan area, along with the A-scan waveform from a single selected
aperture, in this case the 29th aperture out of 49, formed from elements 29-
45, is represented by the user-controlled blue cursor. This is the point at which
the beam intersects the second hole.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display - Straight Beam Linear scans
The instrument can be set to display an
"all laws" A-scan, which is a composite
image of the waveforms from all
apertures. In this case, the A-scan
includes the indications from all four
holes within the gated region. This is
particularly useful mode in zero degree
inspections, although it can also be
confusing when working with complex
geometries that produce numerous
echoes.

In this example, the first three screens

show views in which the A-scan display
depicts the waveform from a single
virtual probe aperture in the scan, each
of which is centered over one of the
reference holes.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display - Straight Beam Linear scans
This fourth screen shows an all laws A-scan in which the signals from all
apertures is summed, thus showing all three hole indications simultaneously.

Yet another A-scan source mode on some more advanced instruments allows
the A-scan to be sourced from the first or maximum signal within the gated
region.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display - Angled Linear Scans
A linear scan can also be programmed at
a single fixed angle, much like the beam
from a conventional single element
angle beam transducer. This single-angle
beam will scan across the length of the
probe, allowing the user to test a larger
width of material without moving the
probe. This can cut inspection time,
especially in weld scanning applications.

In this example, the beam is sweeping

across the test piece at a 45 degree
angle, intercepting each of three holes
as it moves. The beam index point, the
point at which the sound energy exits
the wedge, also moves from left to right
in each scan sequence.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display - Angled Linear Scans
In any angle scan not involving very
thick materials, it is also necessary to
consider the actual position of
reflectors that fall beyond the first leg,
the point at which the beam first
reflects from the bottom of the test
piece. This is usually a factor in tests
involving typical pipes or plates.

In the case below, as the beam scans

from left to right, the beam component
from the center of the probe is
reflecting off the bottom of the steel
plate and hitting the reference hole in
the second leg.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display - Angled Linear Scans

The screen display has been set up to show by means of the dotted horizontal
cursors the relative positions of the end of the first leg and the end of the
second leg on the image. Thus, this hole indication, which falls between the
two horizontal cursors, is identified as being in the second beam leg.

Note that the depth scale on the left edge of the screen is accurate only for the
first leg. To use the scale beyond that, a correction must be applied. In the
second leg, it is necessary to subtract the apparent depth as read off the scale
from twice the thickness of the test piece to get the true depth of an
indication. For example, in the case in previous slide the actual depth of the
second leg indication in the 25 mm thick plate is (2 x 25) - 38, or 12 mm.

In the third leg, it is necessary to subtract twice the thickness of the test piece
from the apparent depth of the indication to obtain true depth. Most
instruments are able to do this automatically and display the result.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display - Focal Law Sequence
This is very similar to the linear scan setup described before in that the
parameters listed there must be entered, except that a range of angles must also
be selected. Along with typical UT settings for pulser, receiver and measurement
gate setup, the user must also set transducer beam and electronic steering (focal
law) characteristics.

Required User inputs:

• Material Velocity;
• Element Quantity (the number of elements used to form the aperture of the
probe);
• First element to be used for scan / The last element in the electronic raster;
• Element step (defines how defined aperture moves across the probe);
• The first angle of the scan;
• The last angle of the scan;
• The increment at which angles are to be stepped;
• Desired focus depth, which must be set less than near field length (N) to
effectively create a focus.
Phased Array technique
Anatomy of Phased Array Display - Focal Law Sequence
Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – Voltage

This is the voltage of square wave pulses. Each channel uses the same voltage
generator, so only one voltage can be chosen.

For most inspections it is recommended to set voltage to low at first and

should not be changed until necessary.

Pulser voltage will affect probe performance, battery life, and heat
considerations;
Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – Rectification

The rectification modifies the displayed signal A-scan, which can be Full Wave
(full rectification signal) or RF waveform (sine full wave);

The smoothing mode can not be activated if the rectification is set to RF

Waveform;

The rectification parameter has an impact on the maximum amplitude. The

maximum range can be from -100 to 100% depending on the rectification
parameter;

If the correction is complete "Full", the maximum range is from 0 to 100%;

If there is no rectification "None", the maximum range is from -100 to -100%

The rectification applies to the signals displayed and recorded.

Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – Signal Averaging
A random noise introduced in samples 1 through 4. The noise, positioned at
different time paths within the material. With the use of averaging, the effects
of the random noise diminish in the final waveform.

Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4

Averaged
signal
The averaging is the number of samples (A-Scans) summed for each
acquisition step on each A-Scan displayed.
Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – Signal Averaging

 Random electronic noise is averaged out reducing influence;

 Increases the SNR by reducing random noise;
 Reduces the acquisition speed, and increases data file size.
 Grain interference not reduced.;
 Standing echoes not reduced;
 True indications not affected;
 Grating lobes are not removed.

Signal averaging allows flaw signal reorganization from the background noise by
the principle that a flaw signal is consistent but noise is not.
Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – PRF

PRF is the effective pulse repetition frequency for each transducer.

The PRF determines how often the system triggers the high voltage on all
channels, and also defines how often the system will sample the signals in
each channel.

Selectable PRF values typically range from 60Hz to 20,000Hz.

Improved technology makes PRF considerations irrelevant. With the digital

control of data acquisition systems the entire process from firing the element(s)
to collecting, displaying and saving the received signals is all computer
controlled.
Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – Scan Speed
The scan rate can be established empirically or reference standard may
stipulate a maximum speed, based on the characteristics of the probe or
beam, and PRF.

Scanning velocity can be determined by: Vc = Wc x (PRF/3)

Vc = velocity / Wc = -6dB bandwidth / 3 = 3 firings with in the bandwidth.
Where is the Wc is the narrower width -6dB to the appropriate working distance from the
probe, determined by design requirements, PRF is the effective pulse repetition frequency
of each probe.

The fact that each firing of the transmitter is controlled by the distance
intervals coded, means the need to determine the beam width dimension 6dB
(Wc) and ensure that the encoded sampling interval is less than 1/3 of that
distance.

This formula is not applicable for systems that use data acquisition activated by
encoder.
Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – PRF and Scan Speed

Effect Of Erroneously Low Pulse Rate

 May lead to intermittent data imaging;

 Loss of lines of data;
 Serious risk of missing defects.

Causes: low PRF, high

travel speed, wide swept
angles, high resolution,
high averaging, low
communication speed.
Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – PRF and Scan Speed

Effect of Excessively High PRF

 Low velocity materials or thick cross-sections may not return pulses before
subsequent pulsed waves are transmitted;
 Potential to cause standing echoes from colliding wavefronts (ghosts) -
Two waves running in opposite direction through the plate but at the
same frequency meeting in phase;
 Digitisation overload on instruments as well as data bottlenecks.
Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – PRF and Scan Speed
Effect of Excessively High PRF

False indications This image is

Flat bottom
from PRF Ghosts obtained by
hole
reducing
the PRF

The picture on the left exhibits “ghosting” (false defect multiples)

created from a real flat bottom hole visible in the right picture.
Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – Band pass filters
Band Pass Filters - A band pass filter is an electronic circuit or device that limits
the useable frequency range.
Peak
100%
value With the use of a High
90%
pass filter, the
80% frequency in the lower
70% range of the bandwidth
Low pass
60% High pass Filter to is not “seen”.
Filter to 12MHz
50%
3MHz
40%
With the use of a Low
pass filter, the
30%
frequency in the higher
20%
range of the bandwidth
10%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
is not “seen”.
0% MHz

General guide is to set the low pass at 2x centre frequency

and set the high pass to 0.5 of the centre frequency
(3-12MHz for the 6MHz centre frequency illustrated)
Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – Band pass filters
Band pass filters may be used to increase the SNR (signal to noise ratio) in
course grain material inspections.

Caution!!
 If the high pass filter is set incorrectly you will filter out relevant indications;
 Flaw responses are typically received at slightly lower frequencies than originally
transmitted;
 Therefore individual circumstances require careful adjustment and may warrant
switching off the high pass filter.
Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – Band pass filters

20MHz Incorrect 5MHz Correct

1MHz Incorrect Wide Not

band ideal

Example of Incorrect Band-pass Filter Settings

Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – Band pass filters

It is evident from the left two displays that much of the reflected energy
received from the flaw targets is lower in amplitude, as well as definition.

The top right display is correct in settings and appearance. The three flaw
targets are easily resolved.

The bottom display is wide band and practically little filtering depicted. Wide
band signals are subjected to grain boundary noise inherent in the inspection
material
Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – Video Smoothing Filters
Video filtering is an electronic feature used to create an envelope over the
rectified signal to reduce the amplitude error.
Smoothing, such as filtering, affects the signal A-scan and the whole image.

Smoothing improves the visual appearance of the display.

Smoothing provides a better display for crack tip diffraction. Pitch between
smoothing point set
Smoothing keeps vertical linearity errors to a minimum. by a frequency filter
Smoothing reduces the digitising frequency.
Phased Array technique
UT Settings parameters – Video Smoothing Filters

Without With video

video smoothing
smoothing

Smoothing does not misrepresent the data received from the reflecting flaw.
Phased Array technique
Defect Positioning
Phased array instruments, like quality conventional ultrasonic flaw detectors,
offer software tools for identifying the position of defects and other reflectors.
Typically these locate a reflector in terms of its horizontal position with respect
to the probe, its depth with respect to the material surface, and the sound path
distance between the beam index point and the reflector. Additionally, when
skip paths are employed the instrument should identify the skip leg in which the
reflector occurs.

First, it is important to remember that the beam index point (the point at which
the center of the sound beam exists the wedge) is a fixed location for a
conventional wedge, and a moving point for phased array wedges. In the case
of linear scans, the beam index point will move along the length of the probe
as the scan sequences. In the case of angular sector scans, different angular
components will exit the wedge at different points.
Phased Array technique
Defect Positioning
Because the beam index point of a phased array probe is variable, a common
way of referencing flaw position is with respect to the front edge of the wedge
rather than the BIP. The following dimensions can then be calculated from the
beam information:

DA = depth of the reflector in Gate A;

PA = forward position of the reflector with respect to the tip of the wedge;
RA = distance between the wedge reference point and the reflector;
SA = sound path length to the reflector.
Phased Array technique
Defect Positioning
In this display format, the transition between the first and second leg and
second and third leg regions of the display is marked by dotted horizontal lines.
In the example below, the bottom corner reflector occurs at the transition
between the first and second leg zones, and the top corner reflector is at the
transition between the second and third legs. Additionally, the position
readouts at the top of the screen show the reflector's location.
Phased Array technique
Defect Positioning
Types of Phased Array equipment
As with other categories of ultrasonic test equipment, phased array systems are
available in a variety of models with increasing complexity and capability.
Instruments range from basic models that perform simple sector and linear
scans with 16-element probes to advanced systems that offer multi-channel
capability and advanced interpretive software with probes of up to 256
elements.
Types of Phased Array equipment
Types of Phased Array equipment
The Omniscan equipment has 02 parts - Mainframe and Module.
 The mainframe is the from part of the equipment which contains the
screen.
 The module is the back part of the equipment which contains all the
circuits, software for the techniques (Phased Array, TOFD, Conventional UT,
Eddy current). When the module is connected in the mainframe is
recognized automatically.

Module and Mainframe Types of modules

Types of Phased Array accessories

Splitter Encoder

Software key
Preamplifier

Extension cable
Umbilical
Types of Phased Array accessories
Encoder - Device used to enable the correlation between the signals recorded
on the computer or equipment with the actual position (physical) of the same
in the test pieces.

Splitter – Device to allow the use of 02 Phased Array probes simultaneously.

Extension cable - Device used to enable the use of the Phased Array technique
and TOFD technique simultaneously.
Preamplifier - Device used to amplify the ultrasonic signals in order to reduce
possible electronic noise and improve image quality (usually is used for
inspection with TOFD technique) .

Umbilical - Device to involve all cables (probes, encoder, preamplifier, etc) of

system´s interconnection (equipment - Scanner ) to protect and easy handling
during inspection services.

Software key – Device to allow access to a specific analysis software.

Types of Phased Array accessories
Scanners
Types of scanning
Automatic scanning

Semiautomatic scanning
Types of scanning
Manual scanning

With an encoder Without an encoder

Scan plan (using ESBeamTool)
There are many software that allow the user to simulate an inspection in many
types of geometry using advanced ultrasonic techniques, such as Phased Array.

All the simulations for each component to e tested shall be made prior to field
inspection.

DEMONSTRATION IN THE SOFTWARE ESBeamTools

Types of Phased Array Calibration
Calibration Method: The method of calibration for phased array transducers
can be varied.

As beam formation relies on variant element delays and groups, it is important

to normalize the response from each focal law, to compensate both for
element-to-element sensitivity variations in the array transducer and for
varying wedge attenuation and energy transfer efficiency at different refracted
angles.

Calibration of wedge delay and sensitivity over the entire inspection sequence
not only provides clearer image visualization, but also allows measurement and
sizing from any focal law. While some instruments allow full calibration, many
instruments will only allow calibration of one focal law at any one time.
Types of Phased Array Calibration
Types of Phased Array Calibration
TVG/DAC for phased array: For sizing defects, A-scan amplitude techniques
using DAC curves or TCG - time corrected gain are common. These methods
account for material attenuation effects and beam spreading by compensating
gain levels (TCG) or drawing a reference curve based on same size reflector
response as a function of distance.

As in sensitivity calibrations, some instruments allows a TCG to be built at

multiple points over all defined focal laws. In these instruments, the view can
be switched from TCG to DAC curve at any time. This allows use of sizing curves
at multiple angles for sectorial scans or at any virtual aperture in linear scans.

The calibrations demonstration will be done in a further section

(Annex B)
Types of Phased Array Calibration
Calibration blocks

ASME V

API 1104
Phased Array applications
The main applications in the industry with Phased Array technique are:

 Piping weld inspection based on ASME B31.1 and ASME B31.3;

 Onshore and offshore Pipeline weld inspection based on API 1104 and
DNV-OS-F101;
 Tank weld inspection based on API 620 and API650;
 Pressure vessel weld inspection based on ASME VIII Div.1 and Div.2;
 Boiler and Air cooler weld inspection based on ASME I;
 B-Scan and C-Scan Corrosion mapping in materials;
 Onshore and Offshore metallic structures based on AWS D1.1 and
DNV-OS-F101;
 Nozzle weld inspection;
 Other applications, such as, Aerospace, Nuclear, Turbine and etc.
Phased Array applications
Piping weld inspection – Carbon steel welds
Phased Array applications
Piping weld inspection – Stainless steel, duplex, superduplex and dissimilar
welds
Phased Array applications
Piping weld inspection – Stainless steel, duplex, superduplex and dissimilar
welds

Dissimilar welds and welds in austenitic stainless steel,

duplex and super have challenging configurations for the
test by Ultrasonic, mainly due to problems in the
propagation of sound.

 High attenuation of the ultrasonic beam;

 High ultrasonic noise caused by reflection on the

individual grains;

 Distortion, dispersion and change in the direction of

the sound beam;
 Variations along the structure.
Phased Array applications
Piping weld inspection – Stainless steel, duplex, superduplex and dissimilar
welds

To meet the challenges of inspection in these materials, advanced ultrasonic

probes that generate low-frequency longitudinal waves transmit / receive (TRL)
are the best solution - Dual Matrix Array (DMA) Probes.

 The use of low frequency (0.5 to 2.5 MHz) reduces the attenuation and the
effect of the grains;

 The setting Transmit / Receive (TRL) is less affected by the beam degradation
and provides a significant improvement in SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio)
providing lower noise level;

 TRL probes generate compression wave (longitudinal), being less affected by

anisotropy of the material of the transverse waves;

 These probes are capable to generate waves up to 89º LW, using wedge with
80º for detection of surface and subsurface discontinuities.
Phased Array applications
Piping weld inspection – Stainless steel, duplex, superduplex and dissimilar
welds

Detection of surface discontinuities

Phased Array applications
Piping weld inspection – Stainless steel, duplex, superduplex and dissimilar
welds

Detection of subsurface and surface discontinuities

Phased Array applications
Piping weld inspection – Stainless steel, duplex, superduplex and dissimilar
welds

Height

Length

Crack in the weld root

Phased Array applications
Onshore and offshore Pipeline weld inspection based on API 1104 and
DNV-OSF101

# See in the Zone discrimination training #

Phased Array applications
Tank weld inspection in materials based on API 620 and API650

Usual Materials: Carbon steel and Austenitic stainless steel

Phased Array applications
Pressure vessel weld inspection based on ASME VIII Div.1 and Div.2

Usual Materials: Carbon steel and Austenitic stainless steel.

Can be used in several geometries.
Phased Array applications
Boiler and Air cooler weld inspection based on ASME I

Usual Material: Carbon steel

Phased Array applications
Boiler and Air cooler weld inspection based on ASME I

Several piping welds are found in boilers and industry requires a quick
inspection to reduce downtime;

Radiographic test may be used, but it has several drawbacks;

The lack of clearance between tubes (boilers) can also represents a challenge.

Phased Array inspection technique provides a reliable and efficient

alternative for this application
Phased Array applications
Boiler and Air cooler weld inspection based on ASME I

Phased Array probes with 16 or 32 elements, 5 MHz frequency, 7.5 MHz and
10 MHz.

Wedges in rexolite with curvature range from ½ '' to 4 ''. Irrigation and easy
interface for scanning.

With the clearance of 11mm system provides a solution to the lack of space
between pipes.
Phased Array applications
B-Scan and C-Scan Corrosion mapping in materials
Phased Array applications
B-Scan and C-Scan Corrosion mapping in materials

The corrosion mapping in equipment, pipes, pipelines, etc. is important for the
operation of these, pointing to the need to apply non-destructive tests in order
to characterize, measure and record the existing damage in the equipment.

There are some methods available to detect and establish the severity of the
corrosion. However, some only detect the problem without characterize and
others have a lot of uncertainty in the measurements without registering.

The corrosion mapping with record by Phased Array technique is a reliable

and efficient alternative for this application
Phased Array applications
B-Scan and C-Scan Corrosion mapping in materials
Phased Array applications
Onshore and Offshore metallic structures based on AWS D1.1 and
DNV-OS-F101

Usual Materials: Carbon steel, Austenitic stainless steel Duplex and Superduplex.
Can be used in several geometries.
Phased Array applications
Nozzle weld inspection

Usual Materials: Carbon steel, Austenitic stainless.

Setup creation (using Omniscan)

See Annex A
Practical calibrations creation (using
Omniscan)

See Annex B
Analysis (using Omniscan / Tomoview)

See Annex C