Experiment: 1

AIM: To study and measure the solar radiation on horizontal and tilted surface using solar radiation
measuring instruments
Objective:
(1) To know construction and working of Pyranometer
(2) To familiar with sunshine recorder
(3) To know Pyrheliometer

Theory:

Global Horizontal Radiation - also called Global Horizontal Irradiance; total solar radiation; the
sum of Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI), Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI), and ground-
reflected radiation; however, because ground reflected radiation is usually insignificant compared
to direct and diffuse, for all practical purposes global radiation is said to be the sum of direct and
diffuse radiation only:
GHI = DHI + DNI * cos (θz)
where
θz is the solar zenith angle.

Pyranometer

Fig. 01 – Pyranometer
A pyranometer is an instrument for measuring total hemispherical solar (beam plus diffuse)
radiation, usually on a horizontal surface. If shaded from the beam radiation by a shade ring or
disc, a pyranometer measures diffuse radiation.

A pyranometer is used to measure global solar radiation falling on a horizontal surface. Its sensor
has a horizontal radiation-sensing surface that absorbs solar radiation energy from the whole sky
(i.e. a solid angle of 2π steradian) and transforms this energy into heat. Global solar radiation can
be ascertained by measuring this heat energy.

Fig. 02 Thermoelectric pyranometer and sensing

Thermoelectric pyranometers - Temperature difference derived between the radiation-sensing
element (the hot junction) and the reflecting surface (the cold junction) that serves as a temperature
reference point is expressed by a thermopile as an thermoelectromotive force.

In the case of a pyranometer, methods of ascertaining the temperature difference are as follows:
1) Several pairs of thermocouples are connected in series to make a thermopile that detects the
temperature difference between the black and white radiation-sensing surfaces (Figures 2 (a) and
(c)).
2) The temperature difference between two black radiation-sensing surfaces with differing areas
is detected by a thermopile.
3) The temperature difference between a radiation-sensing surface painted solid black and a
metallic block with high heat capacity is detected by a thermopile (Figure 2 (b)).

A pyranometer has a black surface, which heats up when exposed to solar radiation and the
temperature goes on increasing till the rate of heat gain equals the rate of heat loss by convection,
conduction and radiation.

Fig. 03 – Pyranometer for measuring global radiation

1. Black surface
2. Glass domes
3. Guard plate
4. Leveling screws
5. Mounting plate
6. Grouted bolts
7. Platform
Hot junctions of a thermopile are attached to the black surface. Cold junctions do not receive the
solar radiation due to their position. Hence, electromotive force i.e. emf is thus created. It lies
within a range of 0-10 milli volts. It can be read, recorded and even summed up over a period of
time.

Hot junctions arranged in the form of a circular disc of diameter 25 mm. Special lacquer coating
which absorbs the solar radiation very well. Two concentric hemispheres of 30mm and 50 mm
diameter exist hemispheres are made of optical glass with very high light passing properties. The
optical glass assembly also keeps the disc surface safe from any weather related effects.

Brief construction features of the shading ring

Fig. 04 – Shading ring arrangement for the measurement of diffuse radiation

This pyranometer is also used to measure the diffuse radiation. It is done by mounting it at the
center of a semicircular shading ring. This ring is put up such that its plane is parallel to the plane
of the path of sun‟s daily movement across the sky. It shades the thermopile element. Two glass
domes of the pyranometer also remain shaded from the direct sunshine. In this way, the
pyranometer measures just the diffuse radiation received from the sky. The movement of the ring
up and down the arms can change the sun‟s declination.
It is made of aluminium 50 mm broad and is bent to a radius of 450 mm. Inner side of the ring is
painted dull black and the remaining part is painted dull matt white. A thick plate P is fixed with
a circular slot to the bottom of the frame ABCD. Frame can be adjusted in its proper position by
rotation about a vertical axis. Pyranometer is mounted on another metal plate P fixed on the top of
frame.
 Fig. 05 shading ring

Pyrheliometer

Fig. 06 – Pyrheliometer for the measurement of beam radiation

1. Tube blackened on inside surface
2. Baffle
3. Alignment indicator
4. Black absorber plate
5. Thermopile junctions
6. Two-axis tracking mechanism
It measures the intensity of direct solar radiation. This instrument is more in use when planning
the installation of concentrated solar power systems. Hot junction of a thermopile is attached to a
black absorber plate and black absorber plate is placed at the base of a tube. Tube is put in the path
of the sun rays by a two-axis tracking mechanism/alignment indicator. Black plate receives just
the beam radiation along with a very small amount of diffuse radiation falling within the
‘acceptance angle’ of the instrument.

Sunshine Recorder:
It is a simple device to record hours of sunlight in a day. It is generally made of a glass sphere that
focuses the sun rays on a graduated paper strip. A track is burnt along the strip.

This corresponds to the time when the sun is shining. Sunshine Recorder records the actual
duration of sunshine.
 Fig. 07 Working of a Sunshine Recorder

The time period for which the bright sunshine is present is measured by a sunshine recorder. The
sun rays are focused by a glass sphere to a point on a card strip. The card strip is held in a groove
in a spherical bowl mounted concentrically with the sphere. During the bright sunshine, a powerful
image is formed. It is enough to burn a spot on the card strip. This image moves along the strip as
the sun moves throughout the day across the sky. Traces of burning form in this way. The length
of these traces is proportional to the time period of the sunshine.
 Experiment 2

AIM: To evaluate the performance of solar liquid flat plate collector

OBJECTIVE:
(1) To know construction and working of liquid flat plat collector
(2) To know method finding heat transfer coefficient of Liquid flat plate collector
(3) To familiar with experimental set up of liquid flat plat collector

THEORY

The solar energy option has been identified as one of the promising alternative energy sources for
the future. Solar flat plate collector is made up of dark absorber surface to absorb solar radiation. A
part of the absorbed radiation is transferred to water, which is useful heat gain. It is simple in design,
has no moving parts and requires little maintenance. It can be used for a variety of application in
which temperatures ranging from 400c to about 1000c are required. It is supposed to be one of the
most promising technologies to take the place of the fossil fuels applied to the power plant,
industrial process heat, air-conditioning, refrigeration, chemistry production, and irrigation. So
beneficial for the developing countries with the rapid economic increase to solve the environmental
problems brought in by the consumption of the fossil fuels is this clear energy technology.
PERFORMANCE EVALUYATION OF LIQUID FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR:
The useful heat gain obtained by the liquid flat plate collector can be given by,

Where,
= useful heat gain (W);
= mass flow rate (kg/s);
= outlet fluid temperature (°C);
= inlet fluid temperature (°C);
= specific heat of water (kJ/kg°C);
= incident solar flux absorbed in the absorber plate (W/m2 );
= overall heat loss coefficient (W/m2 °C);
=L1*L2=Absorber plate area;
L1= Absorber plate length;
L2=Absorber plate width;
= ambient temperature (°C);
= collector efficiency factor;
The useful energy gain of the collector can be expressed by,
- )]
Where:
= mean fluid temperature (°C);
The collector efficiency factor ( ) defined by,

The useful energy gain of the collector can be expressed by,

Where,
= collector heat removal factor;
Heat removal factor ( ) is given by,
The instantaneous collection efficiency can be calculated by,

= ;

Where, = Total intensity of solar incident on surface.

Top loss coefficient ( )

The calculations of overall loss coefficient were based on convection and re-radiation
losses. Heat loss rate from top per unit length can be given by,

= - )

= - )

= - )

Where,
= temperature of the glass cover 1 and 2;
=Effective temperature of sky = -6
= wind heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K);
= emissivity of absorber surface for long-wavelength radiation;
= emissivity of the cover for long-wavelength radiation;
= heat transfer coefficient between the absorber plate and 1st glass cover.
= heat transfer coefficient between the 1st glass cover and 2nd glass cover.

Bottom loss co efficient ( ):

- ).

Side loss co efficient ( ):

= ; - ).
Top loss co efficient (

Where,
C = 365.9 (1-0.00883 β + 0.0001298 )

Overall loss coefficient ( )

It is defined as sum of overall top loss, bottom loss and side loss coefficient.

Where,
, , Overall top loss coefficient, Overall bottom loss coefficient, Overall side
loss coefficient, Overall loss coefficient respectively.
= Height of collector casing.
= Thermal conductivity of insulation.
= Back and side thickness of insulation.

Heat transfer co relations :

1. Heat transfer
coefficient between inclined parallel surfaces (Co-relations by buchbergate):

Where, = Nusselt number.

= Rayleigh number = ;
;
;

2. Wind heat transfer coefficient

= 8.55 + 2.56
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP

FIG. Liquid flat plate collector

Component Specification
Collector
Area 1.7 m2
Length 1.7 m
Width 1.0 m
Bottom header
Material Copper
Diameter 20 mm
Length 1.0 m
Riser pipes
Material Copper
Diameter 13 mm
Length 164 mm
No. of pipes 8
Top header
Material Copper
Diameter 20 mm
Length 1.0 m
Inclination of flat plate collector 20° facing south
Corrugated, dull black
Absorber plate painted copper plate (emissivity=O.88)
Number of glass covers One (3 mm thickness)

Dimensions of the flat plate collector

Experimental Methodology
The flat plate collector was installed on a leveled ground with an inclination of 20° facing
due south. The storage tank was filled with 100 kg of water and the fluid tubes were filled with
acetone (commercial grade) through the liquid inlet pipe with the help of a funnel. The liquid was
filled up to the top header and the filling tube was plugged. The glass plate was shaded with canvas
during filling then exposed to sunlight and the collector was set in operation. Since acetone is
inflammable, irritating and easily evaporating fluid, care should be taken while filling the fluid.
Acetone vapour coming from the riser tubes was allowed to pass through the heat exchanger,
transfer heat to water and condensed back to liquid. Solar insolation (mw/sq.cm.), absorber plate
temperature (0C), glass plate temperature (0C), acetone inlet to exchanger temperature (0C), acetone
outlet from exchanger temperature (0C), water temperature
(0C) and ambient temperature (0C) were recorded at 3D- minute intervals. Solar insolation was
measured by surya mapi (commercially available instrument to measure solar insolation) and water
and ambient temperatures were measured by mercury thermometers. All other temperatures were
measured by copper constant thermocouples fixed at the respective spots. An overview of the unit
with all observation instruments is shown in Fig.

Observations on solar flat plate collector with alternate working fluid

Time Solar insolation Absorber Glass Acetone Acetone Water Water
Plate cover inlet outlet inlet outlet

8.00 56 40 38 38 32 26 26
8.30 56 40 38 38 32 26 26
9.00 56 40 38 38 34 26 26
9.30 60 52 40 42 36 26 28
10.00 68 60 45 48 36 26 30
10.30 72 65 48 54 36 26 32
11.00 78 88 52 60 36 26 38
11.30 78 90 56 62 40 26 42
12.00 82 90 58 68 40 26 48
12.30 84 90 58 68 42 26 52
1.00 85 93 60 70 43 26 56
1.30 85 93 60 70 43 26 56
2.00 82 93 60 70 43 26 56
2.30 82 90 58 66 38 26 56
3.00 80 88 58 66 36 26 56
3.30 78 85 58 63 36 26 56
4.00 75 80 56 60 32 26 56
4.30 70 80 50 55 30 26 56
5.00 64 72 46 52 30 26 54

CONCLUSION
Alternative working fluids such as acetone, methanol and ethanol can be considered for
substituting water in the flat plate collector in view of the fact that the fluid has low boiling point
coupled with high latent heat. However, problems with the handling of the fluid, corrosion of the
components and the environment effects have to be kept in mind before choosing an alternative
fluid. Careful consideratio n has to be made in cases where the hot water is used for edible purposes
which may be contaminated with diffused working fluid in the heat exchanger
due to hairline cracks, pressure build up or due to corroded components. These alternate fluids
have potential for further exploration as working fluid instead of water and it is also possible to
de-link the flat plate collector from the storage tank.
 Experiment: 3

AIM : Performance evaluation of solar water heating system.

OBJECTIVE :

(1) To know working of solar water heating system

(2) To know mathematical model of solar water heating system

(3) To know heat balance of solar water heating system

THEORY
Due to environmental issues and limited fossil fuel resources, more and more attention is being given
to renewable energy sources. A recent government study shows that Americans are using less energy
overall and making more use of renewable energy resources.
In the recent year’s solar energy has been strongly promoted as a viable energy source. One of the
simplest and most direct applications of this energy is the convergence of solar radiation into heat.
Solar radiation can be widely used for water heating in hot water systems, swimming pools as well
as a supporting energy sources for central heating installations.
More than one hundred years ago, black painted water tanks were used as simple solar water heaters
in a number of countries. However, the solar water heating technology has greatly improved during
the past century. Today there are more than 30 million square meters of solar collectors installed
around the globe, RETScreen [2012].
Most solar water heating systems for buildings have two main parts: a solar collector and a storage
tank. Solar collectors are the key component of solar- heating systems. They gather the sun's energy,
transform its radiation into heat, and then transfer that heat to a fluid (usually water or air). Solar
water heating systems can be either active or passive, but the most common are active systems.
Active systems rely on pumps to move the liq uid between the collector and the storage tank, while
passive systems rely on gravity and the tendency for water to naturally circulate as it is heated.
MATHEMATICS MODELING SYSTEM BEHAVIOR

Assumption

In this work, it assumed that the sky is considered as a black body at uniform temperature Ts ; the
surrounding system ambient air temperature is also uniform. The thermo-physical properties of
different materials used in the solar collector manufacturing are considered as constant and does not
vary with their temperature; view the thickness of the absorber, the temperature gradient in its
direction is negligible and it is also assumed equal to the temperature of the tubes; air gap confined
between the absorber and the glazing is supposed transparent to the sunlight; The heat loss through
the lateral and back of the solar collector to the atmosphere by radiation exchange mode are
negligible.

(a)
 (b)
Fig.1 Thermal balance in the various components of solar water heater[1]

Heat balances
In figure 1.a shows the different energy exchanged between the different elements constituting the
solar collector and that exchanged with their surroundings.

1. Heat balance at the transparent cover

The heat exchanged between the transparent cover and its environment is written as following:

Mc, Cpc, Tc, αc, Ac, are respectively, specific heat capacity, temperature, absorption coefficient and
area of the glass cover, Tp, Ts are the absorber, and sky temperature calculated by equation. Tai is
the temperature of the air gap between the absorber and glass plates. hc-ai-c, hc,c-am, are respectively
the convective heat convection between the glass cover and air gap and between the
glass cover and the ambient air. hr,c-pand hr,c-s are the coefficient of heat exchanged by radiation
mode between the glass cover and respectively with the absorber and the sky.

2. Heat balance of the confined air between the absorber and the cover
The air confined between the absorber and the transparent cover is subjected to several convective
exchanges including that with the collector, the glass cover and with the outside environment through
the lateral surface back side of the box. The correspondent heat balance is expressed by the following
equation:

In equation (2), mai, Cpai, Tp, Ap, Ulat, Alat are respectively the mass, heat capacity coefficient of air
gap, the absorber temperature and surface, the global heat loss from the solar collector lateral surface
and its area. hc,p-ai is the convective heat coefficient exchanged between the air gap and the absorber.
3. Heat balance at the absorber plate
The energy balance describing the dynamic behavior of the absorber can be written:

eis-ar and Aar are respectively the thermal conductivity, the back insulation thickness and the back
surface of the solar collector. At and Tf are respectively the internal wall tube area and the working
fluid temperature. (τα)eff is the effective transmittance absorption product of the solar collector. GT
is the global solar irradiation incident on the solar collector. hc,p-f is the convective heat coefficient
between internal surface of the duct and the working fluid.
4. Heat balance for the working fluid
For the working fluid, the heat exchange with its surrounding is convective and takes place only with
the inner surface of the tube. Thus, a heat transmitted to absorber or extraction from the absorber
occurs respectively when the temperature of the tube wall is lower or greater than that of the working
fluid. The thermal behavior of the working fluid is described by the following equation:

Where:
ρf, Cf, Dti represent respectively the volumetric weight, heat capacity of the working fluid and
inner diameter of the duct.

Heat balance at the storage tank

In this work, the system operates in the absence of drawing and it is also assumed that the fluid is
mixed homogeneously without stratification. For this, the well mixed model which assumes that the
distribution of temperature in the storage tank is homogeneous. So, during the day time, it is
considered that the heat loss from working fluid to the environment takes placeboth directions: radial
and axial through the cylindrical and from the circular plate faces respectively. And during the night
time, the heat is transferred from storage tank to the ambient.
So, view the complexity of modeling, the heat exchanged at the storage tank (see figure 1.b), heat in
transferred from the collecting circuit to the stored water via a heat exchanger which allows to
introduce εes as its thermal efficiency. Hence, according to this consideration, the following equation
describing the evolution of the of the stored water temperature:
Tfs and Tfe correspond respectively to outlet and inlet fluid temperature. M st, Cpeau, Tst , mf and Req-
fex are respectively the mass of stored water, its heat capacity, temperature of stored water, the mass
flow of the working fluid passing through the tank and the equivalent thermal resistance of material
between the stored fluid and the outside environment. This is calculated by the following equation:
To highlight the effect of series and parallel connection of a set of solar flat plate collectors on the
performances of a such system under, in this work we consider a small solar water heating system
for which four scenarios of 2, 3, 4 and 5 solar collectors are considered. Thus, for each scenario, we
propose two operating modes of solar system, the first concern a parallel connection of a set solar
collector, the second mode consist to connect the same number of collector in series. So, in all
considered cases, it will be noted that the working fluid circulating is ensured with a pump. The
geometrical and thermo physical characteristics of the solar collector and those of the storage tank
(volume= 600 liters).
The natural circulation depends mainly from the pressure drop occurring by the equipment
constituting the hydraulic circuit of solar water system. For his reason, a solar system working under
the principle of natural circulation is limited in size and is generally used only in a case of the
individual level.
In parallel assembly mode, each collector is directly fed by a portion of the fluid from the turn of
storage tank and to which is connected in the same time the output of each collector by a main
collector duct.

D. Pressure drop calculation

In solar water heating system, the flow of fluid in the close circuit is made possible only if the
pressure losses are offset by the used pump. Generally, in such system, the linear and singular
pressure drop are present.
The linear pressure drop is calculated by the Darcy-Weisbach equation given by:
Δpc is the pressure drop expressed in Pa; L is the pipe length (m); Vf is average speed of the fluid in
the pipe (m/s); D : pipe diameter (m); f : dimensionless pressure drop coefficient is function of he
Reynolds number and depends on the condition of the inner pipe surface.
Otherwise, the singular pressure losses are only linked to the change in momentum and their
calculation are usually very complicated and elsewhere are not always feasible. So, in term of
equation, the results can always be presented in the following general forms:
In term of singular pressure drop this is expressed by :

And in term of pressure drop related to the height level, this is calculated by the following equation:

k is the singular pressure drop depending from the considered element included in the hydraulic
circuit. Thus in the hydraulic circuit, the total pressure drop is calculated by the general following
equation:

CONCLUSION
From above experiment I concluded that connecting a set of collector in parallel leads decreasing
the outletincrease the pressure drop in the hydraulic circuit of the system which in turn leads to
increase the pump power consumption. By const connecting collector in parallel avoid the pressure
increasing in the hydraulic circuit and avoid decreasing the collector’s efficiency but the output
temperature level through the panel remains relatively lower. Hence, for solar water heating system
the choice of the connecting configuration depends from the user need in term of temperature level.
 Experiment: 4
AIM : To evaluate the performance of concentrating collectors.
OBJECTIVE:
(1) To know construction and working of concentrating collectors
(2) To find out theoretical expression of concentrating collector.
(3) To know experimental set up for find out heat transfer coefficient

THEORY
A parabolic trough is a type of solar thermal collector that is straight in one dimension and
curved as a parabola in the other two, lined with a polished metal mirror. The energy of sunlight
which enters the mirror parallel to its plane of symmetry is focused along the focal line, where objects
are positioned that is intended to be heated. For example, food may be placed at the focal line of a
trough, which causes the food to be cooked when the trough is aimed so the Sun is in its plane of
symmetry. Typical thermal applications requiring the use of concentrators are medium or high
temperature energy conversion cycles and numerous systems for supplying industrial process heat at
intermediate temperatures from 100 to 400 or at high temperatures above 400 .
Parabolic trough solar collectors are supposed to be one of the most promising technologies to take
the place of the fossil fuels applied to the power plant, industrial process heat, desalination, air-
conditioning, refrigeration, chemistry production, and irrigation. So beneficial for the developing
countries with the rapid economic increase to solve the environmental problems brought in by the
consumption of the fossil fuels is this clear energy technology.
THEORATICAL EXPRESSION
The energy balance equation for the absorber tube can be given by,

…(1)
Where,
= useful energy delivered from the concentrator (W);
= intensity of beam radiation (W/m2);
= tilt factor for beam radiation;
= width of the parabolic reflector (m);
= outer diameter of the tube (m);
 = specular reflectivity of the concentrator surface;
= intercept factor, the fraction of the reflected radiation intercepted by the
absorber tube;
= average value of the transmissivity-absorptivity product for beam
radiation;
= overall heat loss coefficient (W/m2 °C);
= mean receiver surface temperature (°C);
= ambient temperature (°C);
= length of the concentrator (m);

The flux absorbed by the absorber tube can be given by,

…(2)

Where,
= Flux absorbed by absorber tube (W/m2)

Equation (1) thus becomes,

…(3)

Where,
= concentration ratio =

The useful energy delivered from the concentrator can also be given by,

…(4)
…(5)

Where,

= heat transfer coefficient on the inside surface of the tube (W/m2 °C);
= inner diameter of the tube (m);
= local fluid temperature(°C);
= mass flow rate (kg/s);
= specific heat of water (kJ/kg °C);
= outlet fluid temperature (°C);
 = inlet fluid temperature (°C);

Combining equations (1) & (3) and eliminating absorber tube temperature from equation,
we get,

…(6)

Where,
= collector efficiency factor

The collector efficiency factor can be given by,

…(7)

The useful energy delivered from the concentrator can also be given by,

…(8)

…(9)

Where,
= heat removal factor

The heat removal factor can be given by,

…(10)

The instantaneous collection efficiency can be calculated by,

…(11)

Where,

= instantaneous collection efficiency

Overall loss coefficient and heat correlations

Heat transfer coefficient on the inside surface of the absorber tube,
Heat transfer coefficient on the inside surface of the absorber tube ) and pressure drop

for fully developed flow ( ):

 …(12)
…(13)

For Thermic fluid,

…(14)
Where,

X = Tape twist ratio =

H = Length over which the tape is twisted through 180º
Pressure drop based on Date and Singham,
…(15)

…(16)

…(17)

Heat transfer coefficient between the absorber tube and the cover,
The calculations of overall loss coefficient were based on convection and re-radiation
losses. Heat loss rate per unit length can be given by,
…(18)

…(19)

Where,
= temperature of the cover (°C);
= wind heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K);
= emissivity of absorber surface for long-wavelength radiation;
= emissivity of the cover for long-wavelength radiation;
= heat transfer coefficient between the absorber tube and the cover

The heat transfer coefficient for the enclosed annular space between a horizontal
absorber tube and a concentric cover is calculated by,
…(20)
Where,
= effective thermal conductivity defined as the thermal conductivity that the
motion less air in the gap must have to transmit the same amount of heat as
the moving air;
= modified Rayleigh number related to the usual Rayleigh number by
following equation

…(21)

Where,
= radial gap =

And the properties are calculated at mean temperature

…(22)

Heat transfer coefficient on the outside surface of the cover,

…(23)

Where, and are constants having following values:

For 40 ˂Re˂ 4000, ,
For 4000 ˂Re˂ 40000, ,
For 40000 ˂Re˂ 400000, ,
…(24)
 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Figure: The parabolic trough system with storage tank.

The parameters and dimensions of the terms used in the experimentation
Parameter Dimension
Aperture of the concentrator (W) 1.20 m
Inner diameter of absorber tube (Di) 0.023 m
Outer diameter of absorber tube (Do) 0.025 m
Inner diameter of glass tube 0.046 m
Outer diameter of glass tube 0.048 m
Length of parabolic trough 1.5 m
Concentration ratio 15
Collector aperture area 1.8 m2
Storage tank capacity 40 L
Focal distance 0.2 m
Collector orientation Axis in N-S direction
Mode of tracking E-W (Manual)
Specular reflectivity of concentrator (ρ) 0.80
Glass cover transitivity for solar radiation(τ) 0.80
Absorber tube emissivity/emissivity (α) 0.80
Emissivity of absorber tube surface (εp) 0.15
Emissivity of glass (εc) 0.82
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
A schematic sketch of the test setup of the constructed parabolic trough concentrator for
domestic hot water application is shown in Figure The test setup It consists of a solar collector,
storage tank of 40-L capacity, control valve used to regulate the flow rate through the circuit.

The necessary instruments are attached to the apparatus. For performance evaluation of a
system, data collection is important, and for the data collection, measuring instrument is needed.
The following instruments were used

1. Wind Velocity: digital anemometer

2. Temperature measurements: Digital Multimeter with thermocouple kit. (digital
display)/ IR Thermometer (Make-Fluke)
3. Solar radiation: pyranometer
4. Mass flow rate: flow meter

The experiment procedure was started by flushing the system. Then, the system was filled
with water and the flow rate was adjusted to the required value. And the proper working of all
measuring instruments was checked, Cold water from the storage tank enters the receiver of the
parabolic trough collector. The tank was located above the level of the collector to assure the natural
flow of water. As water in the receiver tube, which is located at the focal axis of the trough, is heated
by solar energy, heated water flows automatically to the top of the water tank and is replaced by
cold water from the bottom of the tank. When the water gets heated upon rising to the collector, its
density will decrease and the lighter-density water will move up and be stored on top of the storage
tank. Higher-density water from the bottom of the tank again enters the parabolic trough and gets
heated and moves up and stored in the top of the storage tank. Data of all readings of ambient, fluid,
receiver body, and storage tank temperatures and total solar radiations with wind speed every half
an hour were collected. The experiment has been performed for 7 h over the day from 0930 hours
to 1530 hours. The experiment has been continued with changing input parameters, such as mass
flow rate of water.

During the experimentation, a cylindrical parabolic collector has been oriented with its
focal axis pointed in the north–south (N-S) orientation so that the focal axis is inclined.(angle of
inclination-30°) Sun tracking was provided to the parabolic trough collector. Manual tracking was
provided to the parabolic trough collector. E-W direction. The trough was rotated manually
to get a good focus on absorber tube so that solar beam makes minimum angle of incidence with
the aperture plane at all times.

OBSERVATION

CONCLUSION
The performance of a new parabolic trough collector with hot water generation system is
investigated through experiments over one full day in winter period. The maximum value of each
of those parameters is observed around noon, when the incident beam radiation is at its peak. The
fabrication and design of a solar parabolic trough using locally available materials is possible
hence low temperature trough will be a better solar thermal device for the rural and remote area.
From the result It has been seen that the parabolic trough is better option during winter season to
reducing the water heating cost. The solar Parabolic Trough is among the best way to use solar
energy efficiently due to its advantages to convert abundantly available solar energy into effective
and convenient form of heat energy which can be used for various purposes.
 Experiment No. : 5

AIM:- To study about the Solar Still and its Performance Evaluation.
Objective:
(1) To know classification of solar still
(2) To know principal of solar distillation
(3) To know performance evaluation of solar still.

THEORY:-
The need for good drinking water is on increase over the years due to importance of good health.
The rising waves of water born disease have also affected mankind as result of poor quality water
intake in the society. Water consumption in the world increases every day due to geometric world
population increase. The world health organization (WHO) and other health organization estimated
that one individual should take at least two litres of water every day. Most people in the world
have no access to good drinking water. The sea water and some rivers are not good for drinking due
to salt in it and other impurities. Hence the need for solar water distillation otherwise called solar
still.
Distillation is one of many processes that can be used for water purification. Most commercial
stills and water purification systems require electrical or other fossil- fuelled power sources. The
use of electricity in distillation apparatus, like in fractional distillation, is energy intensive. Air
pollution, acid rain, global warming and climate change are but a few of the consequences that are
attributed to use of fossil fuels and have been widely investigated.
Solar energy can be used to supply the energy required to heat water by making use of a solar still.
A solar still operates on the same principle as that of rain formation: water from the ocean
evaporates, then cools, condenses, and returns to earth as rainwater. Water to be cleaned is poured
into the still to partially fill the basin. The glass cover allows the solar radiation to pass into the still,
which is mostly absorbed by the blackened base. This interior surface uses a blackened material
to improve absorption of the sunrays. The water begins to heat up and the moisture content of the
air trapped between the water surface and the glass cover increases.
Classification of solar still:-

• According to the basin

a) Single basin solar still
b) Double basin solar still
• According to the types cross section
a) Double sloped symmetrical still with continuous
basin
b) Double sloped symmetrical still with basin divided
into two bays
c) Solar still with single slope and continuous basin
d) Unsymmetrical double sloped still with divided
basin
e) V-trough type solar still
f) Solar still with plastic inflated cover
g) Solar still with stretched plastic film and divided

basin fig: -1 cross section of some typical basin

type solar stills[1]
Principle of Solar Distillation

A basin of solar still has a thin layer of water, a transparent glass cover over the water is covered
the basin and channel for collecting the distillate water from solar still. The glass tr ansmits the sun
rays through it and saline water in the basin or solar still is heated by solar radiation which passes
through the glass cover and absorbed by the bottom of the solar still. In a solar still, the temperature
difference between the water and glass cover is the drinking force of the pure water yield. It
influences the rate of evaporation from the sun surface of the water within the basin flowing
towards condensing cover. Vapo ur flows upwards from the hot water and condensate. This
condensate water is collected through a channel.
 Fig: -2 Major heat fluxes for a solar still [1]

Performance Evaluation of solar still:-

The performance of the solar still can be predicted by writing the energy balance equation
The instantaneous heat balance equation on basin water

IαWτ= qe+qr+qc+qb+Cw
The instantaneous heat balance equation on glass cover

qga+ Cg = Iαg +qe+qr+qc

Now the heat balanced equation on the solar still

I αW τ + I αg = qca + qra + qb + Cg + Cw
The heat transfer by the radiation qr from water surface to glass cover:
qr = F σ (T 4 – T 4)
w g

Where, F is the shape factor (F=0.9)

qr = 0.9 σ (T w4 – T g4)
The convective heat loss from the hot water surface in the still to the glass cover
qc = hc (Tw – Tg)
Where, hc is the convective heat transfer coefficient, the value which dependence on temperature
of water and glass, density , conductivity, specific heat ,viscosity
etc.

hc = 0.884 1/3

Where, Pw and Pg are the saturation partial pressure of the water vapour at water temperature and
glass temperature respectively.
The evaporation heat loss qe from water to glass cover,
qe = 16.28 hc (Pw – Pg)
Heat loss through the ground and periphery qb
qb = Ub (Tw – Ta)
where Ub is the overall heat transfer coefficient from bottom
The convective heat loss qc glass cover to ambient air
qca = hca (Tg – Ta)
Where hca forced convection heat transfer coefficient
hc = 2.8 + 3.8 V
Where V is the wind speed in m/s.
The radiative heat loss qra from glass cover to sky can be calculated by,
qra = εg σ (Tg4 – Ts4)
Where, εg is the emissivity of the glass cover,

The exact solution of the above equation is not possible and hence iterative technique is employed
to find the solution. The amount of heat transfer by radiation ,convection and evaporation depends
on the temperature difference between water and transparent cover ,(Tw - T g).The magnitude by
the heat flow by radiation ,convection and evaporation expressed as percent of total flow for various
values of (Tw - T g) and water temperature can be seen the fig. from this figure it is concluded that
for a particular set of (T w - T g) if the water temperature Tw increase the evaporation heat flow
increases which means that the efficiency increases. And the second graph shows that the
performance prediction of the solar still for finding out the hourly distillate rate using the chart. by
this way we can assumed the value of the Tg from the chart and do the iterative procedure is adopted
till the radiative heat loss equation is satisfied.
 Fig: -3 Effect of basin water temperature Fig: -4Chart for estimating production rate
on the evaporative, convective and of a solar still [1]
radiative heat flow in a still [1]

CONCLUSION: -
It is known that, the solar distillation exhibits considerable economic advantages over the other
water distillation processes. Because of less cost, fee energy and reduces operating costs.
Producing fresh water by a solar still with its simplicity would be one of the best methods to supply
fresh water.
Distilled water could be obtained from dirty/brackish water by simply evaporating the water in an
enclosed dish painted black and also covered with glass cover inclined to an angle. The water that
evaporated drip down the glass cover and is collected in storage tank, this is called solar distillation.
 Experiment 6

AIM: To evaluate the performance of box type solar cooker

Objective:

(1) To know construction of solar cooker

(2) To know heat transfer arrangement of solar cooker

(3) To know specification of box type solar cooker

Introduction
In the box type solar cooker, which is the simplest in terms of operation and fabrication, the temperature
of around 100oC is achieved. This range of temperature is suitable for cooking by boiling, which is
prevalent in the most parts of India. However, in spite of having these desired features, such cooker
may either fail to cook or take a longer time to cook full load of food. The design parameters of solar
cooker are among the several other important parameters that influence its thermal performance.
Therefore, the knowledge of these design parameters is essential for evaluation and comparison of
different cooker designs, in addition to providing a basis for the selection of proper materials for the
construction of cooker. The present experiment is focused on the determination of important design
parameters- optical efficiency and heat capacity of the solar cooker.
The optical efficiency of any solar collector depends on several factors t hat include angle of
incidence of solar radiation, the number of covers (glazings), material for covers, coating of cooker
absorber plate, etc.
In the test procedure, the need to obtain high ratio of optical efficiency to overall heat loss coefficient,
as a figure of merit of the solar cooker, was emphasized. However, the procedure did not quantify
these design parameters separately. The other design parameter, namely the heat capacity of cooker
may be estimated by knowing the types of materials used, their dimensions and physical properties.
Since the reliable and accurate data for these materials are not always available, the use of these values
may lead to erroneous results.
In order to analyze the thermal performance of a box-type solar cooker in a better qualitative manner,
it is therefore necessary to have the knowledge of design parameters-optical efficiency and heat
capacity of the cooker. To date, to the best of author’s knowledge, there is no experimental published
work carried out on the determination of these parameters. Therefore, the objectives of this experiment
are: (a) to propose a simple test procedure to determine these parameters using the experimentally
obtained F2 data for different load of water; (b) to apply the proposed procedure to predict the heating
characteristic curves; and (c) to validate the proposed methodology by comparing the predicted values
with those obtained experimentally.
Specification of box type solar cooker
 Procedure
The first figure of merit, F1 of a box-type solar cooker is defined as the ratio of optical efficiency to
overall heat loss coefficient and is given as

where F’ηo and F’UL are the optical efficiency and overall heat loss coefficient of the cooker,
respectively, Hs and Tas are, respectively, the insolation and ambient air temperature at the time when
the plate stagnation temperature Tps is reached.
The second figure of merit, F2 of a box-type solar cooker can be obtained from water heating test by
specifying the temperature limits Tw1 and Tw2 on the sensible heating curve for a given quantity of water
and using the following relation

where A represents the aperture area of the solar cooker. τ is the time interval during which the wa ter
temperature rises from Tw1 to Tw2 .¯H and Ta are the average insolation and ambient temperature,
respectively, during the time interval

where, CR is the heat capacity ratio of the solar cow oker. (MC)’w is the sum of the heat capacity of
cooker interior materials, (MC)’and the heat capacity of water, (MC)w. The cooker interior materials
include toughened inner glass cover, absorber plate, rubber gasket, some portion of aluminum frame,
cooking pots, etc. CR cannot be known accurately because of uncertainty in assessing the correct and
reliable values of heat capacity of cooker’s interiors (MC)’.The left-hand side of Eq. (2a) can be rewritten
as:
 It is obvious from Eq. (4) that F2 can also be predicted for the known values of design parameters,
F’ηo and CR. In order to obtain these parameters, Eq. (4) is linearised by inverting it to give:

The above equation represents the straight line in the following form

It is clear from Eq. (5) that a plot of 1/F2 versus 1/(MC)w will be linear with a slope of (MC)’/ F’ηo and
an intercept of (1/ F’ηo). A linear regression analysis of experimental F2 data for different load of water
is used to determine F’ηo and (MC)’.
Heating characteristic curves modeling
The heating characteristic curves (or time required for the pot water temperature to reach certain
temperature) of the box-type solar cooker for a given load of water can be predicted with the known
values of daesign parameters (F’ηo , F’tUL, and (MC)’) and climatiisc parameters (¯H ; Ta¯) , using Eq.
(7). Analyzing over an infinitesimal time interval during the sensible heating curves for water, the time
taken dτ for a water temperature rise dTw is

(MC)’w and F’ηo are obtained from the linear plot of Eq. (5). The overall heat loss co efficient F’UL is
calculated from the left- hand side of Eq. (1), knowing F1 from stagnation (no load) test. It is found to be
equal to 5.29 W/m2oC. Eq. (7) is then used to develop the heating characteristic curves of the cooker by
determining the time required for small increments in the pot water temperature (0.25oC taken for
calculation made in this study) for the given load of water, average absorbed solar energy (=A F’η o ¯H )
and ambient air temperature Ta¯ (Table )
Experimental arrangement and procedure

A double- glazed box-type solar cooker of aperture area 0.245 m2 with a fibre body was used for
experimentation (specifications are given in Appendix A). A series of out-door experiments were
performed for the determination of two figures of merit F1 and F2 during the month of May. The
experimental arrangements are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The procedure for their determination is described
elsewhere. The experiments were performed ± 2h of solar noon, when there are slight variations in the
insolation and ambient temperature, as suggested by Funk. In F1 (no- load) test, the ambient
temperature, absorber plate temperature and the insolation were recorded at the plate stagnation
temperature, while in F2 (water sensible heating) test, the temperature of water in pots, ambient
temperature and the insolation were recorded with the time of the day. The booster- mirror was not used
during these thermal tests, as suggested by Bureau of Indian Standards. The experiments for F2 were
performed for varying quantity of water such as 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 kg. The quantity of water was
distributed equally among the four black painted aluminum pots. The pots, each of diameter 0.18 m
and height 0.065 m were placed symmetrically inside the cooker. The water temperature was allowed to
rise until it reached the maximum temperature near the boiling point. Calibrated copper-constantan
thermo-couples connected to micro-voltmeter (accuracy 0.01o C) were used for all temperature
measurements. The pot water temperature was measured by inserting one junction of thermo-couple
through a fine hole in the pot lid. The ambient air temperature was also measured through separate
thermo-couple. The insolation was recorded with the help of calibrated pyranometer through milli-

voltmeter (least count 1.25 W/m2). A calibrated 3-cup anemometer using chopper type sensor was
used for the measurement of wind speed at the place of experiment.
Computation procedure
The first figure of merit of the solar cooker, F1 =0.1175 was obtained with the values of T ps =133. 9O C,

Ta s =37.2 O C and Hs =823. 0 W/m2 for a typical day of May using Eq. (1). The second figure of merit,
F2 was determined from the experiments by finding the time interval, τ corres pon ding to specified
initial and final temperatures equal to 55and 95 O C on the sensible heating curves for different quantity
of water and using right- hand side of Eq. (2a). The selection of initial and final temperature limits was
made, as recommended by Mullick et al. Table above presents the representative input data ofa series of
water heating tests undertaken along with the experimental results of F2. Fig. 3 shows straight line curve
fitting of experimental data of 1/F2 and 1/(MC)w, using the linear regression analysis. F’ηo and (MC)’,
as obtained from slope and intercept of the regressed line are equal to 0.6216 and 2252.86 J/O C,
respectively. The F’ηo is found to match very closely to the value calculated from Eq. (2b), using computed
values of F1 and CR and experimental data.
The correlation for F2 as a function of load of water for a given solar cooker is proposed and can be
expressed as:
 Conclusion
The presently discussed a thermal test procedure to determine the design parameters, which in turn, can
be used to predict the heating characteristic curves (or thermal performance) of a box-type solar
cooker. The close agreements between the predicted and experimental heating characteristic curves as well
as F2 reveal that the proposed methodology is capable of predicting the thermal behavior of the solar
cooker. The mathematical formulation is quite general and can easily be used with the reasonable accuracy
and confidence, thus avoiding the time-consuming large-scale experimentation. It may also be used as an
important tool by the standardizing agency for certification of various designs and sizes of the box-type
solar cooker.
 Experiment 7
AIM: To study the various types of wind mill and evaluate the performance parameter of wind. mill.

Objective:
(1) To know various types of wind mill
(2) To know power generation in wind mill
(3) To know construction of horizonatlal wind mill

Introduction:
− The main components of a wind energy conversion system (WECS) in the form of block
diagram.
− A wind energy conversion system converts wind energy into some form of electrical
energy. In particular, medium and large scale WECS are designed to operate in parallel
with a utility AC grid. This is known as a grid-connected system. A small system,
isolated from the id, feeding only to a local load is known as autonomous or isolated
power system.

Wind energy conversion system

Types of wind mills
1. According to orientation of the axis of rotor
 Horizontal axis: When the axis of rotation is parallel to the air stream (i.e.
horizontal), the turbine is said to be a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT).
 Vertical axis: When the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the air stream (i.e.
vertical), the turbine is said to be a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

2. According to useful electrical power output

 Small output: up to 2 kW
 Medium output: 2 to 100 kW output
 Large output: More than 100 kW output

3. According to type of rotor

 Propeller type: It is horizontal axis high speed rotor.
 Multiple blade type: It is horizontal axis low speed rotor.
 Savonius type: It is vertical axis rotor.
 Darrieus type: It is vertical axis rotor.
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)
− Horizontal axis machines have emerged as the most successful type of turbines. These are
being used for commercial energy generation in many parts of the world.
− They have low cut-in wind speed, easy furling and, in general, show high power coefficient.
− However, their design is more complex and expensive as the generator and gear box are to
be placed at the top of the tower. Also, a tail or yaw drive is to be installed to orient them in
the wind direction.

− Main components:
1. Turbine blades
2. Hub
3. Nacelle
4. Power transmission system
5. Generator
6. Yaw control
7. Brakes
8. Tower

1. Turbine blades
− Wind turbine blades need to be light weight and possess adequate strength and hence
 require to be fabricated with aircraft industry techniques.
− The blades are made of glass fibre reinforced plastic (F.R.P.). They have an aerofoil type of
cross section to create lift as the air flows over them.
− The blades are slightly twisted from the outer tip to the root to reduce the tendency to stall.
− In addition to centrifugal force and fatigue due to continuous vibration, there are many
extraneous forces arising from wind turbulence, gust, gravitational forces and directional
changes in the wind. All these factors have to be considered at the designing stage.
− The diameter of a typical, MW range, modern rotor may be of the order of 100m.
− Modern wind turbines have two or three blades.
− Two or three blade rotor HAWT are also known as propeller type wind turbine. Three blades
are more common in Europe and other developing countries including India. The American
practice, however, is in favour of two blades.
2. Hub
− A hub is the central solid portion of the rotor wheel. All blades are attached to the hub. The
pitch angle control mechanism is also provided inside the hub.
3. Nacelle
− It houses the generator, the gear box, brakes, hydraulic system, and the yawing mechanism.
Nacelle is placed at the top of the tower and is linked with the rotor.
4. Power transmission system
− Mechanical power generated by rotor blades is transmitted to the generator through a gear
box. From the gear box, the transmission shaft rotates the generator with a built-in friction
clutch. The gear box is provided to increase the speed to suit the generator.
The generated electrical power is conducted to ground terminals through a cable
5. Generator
− Generally, the grid connected large wind turbines have induction generators. They use
reactive power from grids and feed the generated power to boost the grid supply.
− Medium capacity wind turbines use synchronous generators installed to electrify villages and
remote places.
− Small capacity wind turbines use permanent magnet DC generators which supply power to
microwave stations and illuminating light houses.
6. Yaw control
− Yaw control continuously tracks and keeps the rotor axis in the wind direction. Yawing is done
by two yawing motors, which mesh with a big-toothed wheel mounted on top of the tower.
Wind direction sensor is used to maintain the orientation.
− During high speed wind, i .e. more than the cut-out speed, the machine is stopped by turning
the rotor axis at right angles to the wind direction. In small wind turbines, a tail vane is used
for passive yaw control.
7. Brakes
− Brakes are used to stop the rotor when power generation is not desired. An emergency stop
activates the hydraulic disc brakes fitted to the high speed shaft of the gear box.
8. Tower
 − The tower supports the nacelle and rotor. Modern wind turbine generators are install led on
tubular towers.
− Both steel and concrete towers are being used.

POWER IN WIND
− Wind possesses energy by virtue of its motion. Any device capable of slowing down the mass
of moving air like a sail or propeller can extract part of the energy of the energy and convert
it into useful work.
− Three factor determine the output from a wind energy converter:
 The wind speed
 The cross-section of wind swept by rotor
 The overall conversion efficiency of the rotor, transmission system and generator or
pump.
− Wind mill/turbine converts the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy.
− The total power of the wind stream is equal to the time rate of kinetic energy.
1
K.E. = mV 2
2
− The amount of air passing in unit time through an area A with velocity V
= A.V m3 / s

.˙. Mass flow rate of air m =ρ A • V Where, ρ

is the density of air.
1
K.E. = (AV)V 2
2

1
Total Power Pt = A.V3 J/s
2

Comparison of horizontal and vertical wind mill

Horizontal axis turbine Vertical axis turbine

1. Axis of rotation is parallel to the air 1. Axis of rotation is perpendicular to

stream the air stream.
 2. Yaw control mechanism is required to 2. No orientation of rotor is required;
adjust the rotor around vertical axis to these turbines can generate power
keep it facing the wind. with the wind coming from any
direction.

3. The heavy nacelle containing the 3. The nacelle is not required because the
gearbox, generator, etc. is mounted gearbox, generator, etc., are located
at the top of the tower, thus the at the ground, thus the design and
design and installation is complex. installation is simple.

4. The power coefficient and tip speed 4. The power coefficient and tip speed
ratio are high. ratio are considerably low.

5. The rotor is mounted at the top of 5. The rotor is generally mounted near
high tower, it experience higher ground proximity, it experience
velocity wind. This yields more lower velocity wind. This yields less
energy output energy output.

6. Suitable for large scale power 6. Suitable for small scale power
generation. generation and pumping
applications.

7. Initial and maintenance cost are 7. Initial and maintenance cost are low.
high.

Conclusion:
From above study it is conclude that horizontal axis wind mill is suitable for large scale power generation but
have high initial and maintenance cost.
 Experiment 8
AIM: To study the various types of gasifier and biogas plant.

Objective:
(1) To compare various type of biogas plant
(2) To know gasifier and function of gasifier
(3) To know various bio gas generation processes

Introduction:
In the past few years, there have been significant improvements in renewable energy
technologies along with declines in cost. The growing concern for the environment
and sustainable development, have led to worldwide interest in renewable energies
and bioenergy in particular. Biomass can be converted into modern energy forms
such as liquid and gaseous fuels, electricity, and process heat to provide energy
services needed by rural and urban populations and also by industry. This paper
explains the different ways of extracting energy from biomass and a comparison is
made among them. This paper also explains about the potentiality of biomass energy
in India, analyses current situation compares bio- energy and other options for
promoting development, brings out the advantages over the other renewables
putting forth the drawbacks to be overcome to make it still more successful. This
paper analyses current situation compares bio-energy and other options for
promoting development, explore the potential for bio-energy.

Different Ways of extracting energy from biomass

The different methods of biomass extraction can be broadly be classified as:
1) Anaerobic Digestion
2) Gasification
3) Liquefaction

Solid fuel combustion

The simplest and most common way of extracting energy from biomass is by direct
combustion of solid matter. Majority of the developing countries especially in rural
areas obtain the majority of their energy needs from the burning of wood, animal
dung and other biomass. But burning can be inefficient. An open fireplace may let
large amounts of heat escape, while a significant proportion of the fuel may not even
get burnt.
Gasification
gasification is a process that exposes a solid fuel to high temperatures and limited
oxygen, to produce a gaseous fuel. This is a mix of gases such as carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen and methane.
Gasification has several advantages over burning solid fuel. One is convenience - one
of the resultant gases, methane, can be treated in a similar way as natural gas, and
used for the same purposes.
Another advantage of gasification is that it produces a fuel that has had many
impurities removed and will therefore cause fewer pollution problems when burnt.
And, under suitable circumstances, it can produce synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen. This can be used to make almost any hydrocarbon (e.g.,
methane and methanol), which can then be substituted for fossil fuels. But hydrogen
itself is a potential fuel of the future.
Paralysis
Paralysis is an old technology with a new lease of life. In its simplest form it involves
heating the biomass to drive off the volatile matter, leaving behind the black residue
we know as charcoal. This has double the energy density of the original material.
This means that charcoal, which is half the weight of the original biomass, contains
the same amount of energy - making the fuel more transportable. The charcoal also
burns at a much higher temperature than the original biomass, making it more
useful for manufacturing processes. More sophisticated Paralysis techniques have
been developed recently to collect the volatiles that are otherwise lost to the system.
The collected volatiles produce a gas rich in hydrogen (a potential fuel) and carbon
monoxide. These compounds, if desired, can be synthesized into methane, methanol
and other hydrocarbons. 'Flash' Paralysis can be used to produce bio-crude
Digestion
Biomass digestion works by the action of anaerobic bacteria. These microorganisms
usually live at the bottom of swamps or in other places where there is no air,
consuming dead organic matter to produce, among other things, methane and
hydrogen.
We can put these bacteria to work for us. By feeding organic matter such as animal
dung or human sewage into tanks - called digesters - and adding bacteria, we can
collect the emitted gas to use as an energy source. This can be a very efficient means
of extracting usable energy from such biomass - up to two-thirds of the fuel energy
of the animal dung is recovered.
Another, related, technique is to collect gas from landfill sites. A large proportion of
household biomass waste, such as kitchen scraps, lawn clippings and pruning, ends
up at the local tip. Over a period of several decades, anaerobic bacteria are at work
at the bottom of such tips, steadily decomposing the organic matter and emitting
methane. The gas can be extracted and used by 'capping' a landfill site with an
impervious layer of clay and then inserting perforated pipes that collect the gas and
bring it to the surface.
Fermentation
Like many of the other processes described here, fermentation isn't a new idea. For
centuries, people have used yeasts and other microorganisms to ferment the sugar
of various plants into ethanol. Producing fuel from biomass by fermentation is just
an extension of this old process, although a wider range of plant material can now
be used, from sugar cane to wood fiber. For instance, the waste from a wheat mill in
New South Wales has been used to produce ethanol through fermentation. This is
then mixed with diesel to produce 'dishelm', a product used by some trucks and
buses in Sydney and Canberra.
An elaborated discussion on Digestion and Gasification, which are the major ways
employed in India, are explained in subsequent sections.

Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic Digestion is a biochemical degradation process that converts complex
organic material, such as animal manure, into methane and other byproducts.

What is Anaerobic Digester?

Anaerobic digester (commonly referred to as an AD) is a device that promotes the

decomposition of manure or “digestion” of the organics in manure to simple
organics and gaseous biogas products. Biogas is formed by the activity of anaerobic
bacteria. Microbial growth and biogas production are very slow at ambient
temperatures. These bacteria occur naturally in organic environments where oxygen
is limited. Biogas is comprised of about 60% methane, 40% carbon dioxide, and 0.2
to 0.4% of hydrogen sulfide. Manure is regularly put into the digester after which the
microbes break down the manure into biogas and a digested solid. The digested
manure is then deposited into a storage structure. The biogas can be used in an
engine generator or burned in a hot water heater. AD systems are simple biological
systems and must be kept at an operating temperature of 100 degrees F in order to
function properly. The first methane digester plant was built at a leper colony in
Bombay, India. Biogas is very corrosive to equipment and requires frequent oil
changes in an engine generator set to prevent mechanical failure. The heating value
of biogas is about 60% of natural gas and about 1/4 of propane. Because of the low
energy content and its corrosive nature of biogas, storage of biogas is not practical.

There are two major types of biogas designs promoted in India

1) Floating Drum
2) Fixed Dome

The floating drum is an old design with a mild-steel, Ferro-cement or fiberglass drum,
which floats along a central guide frame and acts as a storage reservoir for the biogas
produced. The fixed dome design is of Chinese origin and has dome structure made
of cement and bricks. It is a low-cost alternative to the floating drum, but requires
high masonry skills and is prone to cracks and gas leakages. Family biogas plants
come in different size depending on the availability of dung and the quantity of
biogas required for cooking. The average size of the family is 5-6 persons, and thus
biogas plant of capacity 2-4 m3 is adequate. The biomass requirement is estimated to
be 1200 liters for a family.

Comparison between two designs:

Fixed dome Floating Drum

Digester and gas holder, masonry or Digester, masonry, Gas holder, mild steel or
concrete structure fiberglass
 Requires high masonry skills Low masonry or fabricating skills
Low reliability due to high High reliability, gas holder prefabricated
construction failure
Variable gas pressure Constant gas pressure

Requires space above ground for three tanks;

Digester could be inside the ground inlet, digester, outlet

Low Cost (2 m3 = Rs.5000) Low Cost (2 m3 = Rs.8000)

Biomass Gasifies:
Biomass, or more particularly wood, can be converted to a high-energy combustible
gas for use in internal combustion engines for mechanical or electrical applications.
This process is known as gasification and the technology has been known for
decades, but its application to power generation is of recent origin. A biomass
gasified consists of a reactor where, under controlled temperature and air supply,
solid biomass is combusted to obtain a combustible gas called Producers gas
(consisting of H2 and CH4). This gas passes through a cooling and cleaning system
before it is fed into a compression ignition engine for generation of mechanical or
electricity (by coupling to a generator). An assessment of its potential concluded that
India presents a unique opportunity for large-scale commercial exploitation of
biomass gasification technology to meet a variety of energy needs, particularly in the
agricultural and rural sectors. The large potential of biomass gasification for water
pumping and power generation for rural electrification was recognized.

Conclusion:
Bio gas is best alternative of convention fuel due to its renewal nature and
environmentally friendly.
 Experiment 9
AIM: To study the ocean energy, wave energy, geothermal energy conversion systems.
Objective:
(1) To know OTEC system
(2) To know wave energy conversion system
(3) To know geothermal power plant

Introduction

 75% of the Earth Covered by water

 Ocean water stores much more heat than the atmosphere
 World’s total estimated ocean energy are about 130 × 10 6 .
 Five Principal ocean: Indian ocean, Pacific ocean, Arctic ocean, Antarctic ocean,
Atlantic ocean
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OCEAN TIDAL ENERGY CONVERSION SCHEME (HYDRO TECHNOLOGY
1. Single Basin Scheme:
2. Single effect scheme
3. Double effect scheme
4. Modified single effect scheme
5. Two basin scheme
6. Multiple basin scheme
7. Pump storage scheme
Tidal energy conversion scheme comprise of
1. One or more barrage (dams) with sluice and gates
2. Ducts (Passage for water) in barrage
 3. Turbine generator units in ducts
4. Electrical and mechanical auxiliaries, power station

Different Geothermal Energy Sources

 Hot Water Reservoirs: As the name implies these are reservoirs of hot underground water.
There is a large amount of them in the US, but they are more suited for space heating than
for electricity production.

 Natural Stem Reservoirs: In this case a hole dug into the ground can cause steam to come
to the surface. This type of resource is rare in the US.

 Geopressured Reservoirs: In this type of reserve, brine completely saturated with natural
gas in stored under pressure from the weight of overlying rock. This type of resource can be
used for both heat and for natural gas.

 Molten Magma: No technology exists to tap into the heat reserves stored in magma. The
best sources for this in the US are in Alaska and Hawaii.
Dry Steam Power Plants (Vapor Dominated)

 In dry steam power plants, the steam (and no water) shoots up the wells and is passed
through a rock catcher (not shown) and then directly into the turbine. Dry steam fields are
rare.

 “Dry” steam extracted from natural reservoir

 180-225 ºC ( 356-437 ºF)

 4-8 MPa (580-1160 psi)

 200+ km/hr (100+ mph)

 Steam is used to drive a turbo-generator

 Can achieve 1 kWh per 6.5 kg of steam

 A 55 MW plant requires 100 kg/s of steam

 A few geothermal reservoirs produce mostly steam and very little water.

 The rock-catcher protects the turbine from small rocks that may be carried along with the
steam from the reservoir.
Dry Steam Schematic with Cooling Tower
 Dry steam extracted from the geothermal field may contain water and solid particles. These
are in removed in a centrifugal separator.

• The exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed in the condenser with the help of cooling
water circulated. The resultant hot water is returned to the cooling tower. The condensate is
either sent to chemical recovery or injection well

• These plants working with corrosive gases and abrasive materials which cause problems.
 Experiment 10
AIM: To estimate the economics of the solar energy conversion equipment.

Objective:
(1) To know initial cost and life cycle cost
(2) To know simple and compound interest
(3) To know Net present value.
INTRODUCTION
The costs associated with climate change are growing and include rising health care costs, destruction
of property, increased food prices and more. Wide scale adoption of solar and other renewable
energy must continue so we can address the negative societal and economic impacts of dirty fossil
fuels
A project's initial costs are those that are incurred during the design and construction process. They
can include any of the following: Planning, preliminary engineering, and project design.
Construction costs, including improvements to existing facilities.
The annual cost includes charges for depreciation (purchase price minus salvage value), interest on
the money invested, repairs for normal use, property taxes, and insurance. ... Interest is often loosely
accounted for multiplying an average value of the item by an interest rate (discount, opportunity,
MARR).

The equivalent annual cost method involves the following steps:

 Step 1 – Calculate the net present value (NPV) of cost for each potential replacement
cycle.
 Step 2 – For each potential replacement cycle an equivalent annual cost is calculated.
 The decision – The replacement cycle with the lowest equivalent annual cost may
then be chosen, although other factors may also have to be considered.

Life Cycle Costing

Engineering economy is the application of economic factors and criteria to evaluate
alternatives, considering the time value of money. The engineering economy study
involves computing a specific economic measure of worth for estimated cash flows
over a specific period of time.
The terms interest, interest period and interest rate are useful in calculating equivalent
sums of money for an interest period. Interest is the manifestation of the time value of
money. It is the difference between an ending amount of money and the beginning
amount over an interest period. For more than one interest period, the terms simple
interest and compound interest become important.
Simple Interest:
Simple interest is calculated using the principal only, ignoring any interest accrued
in preceding interest periods. The total simple interest over several periods is
computed as: Simple Interest = (Principal) x (Number of Periods) x (Interest Rate)
Here the interest rate is expressed in decimal form. The total sum accrued at the end
of n interest periods is given by:
S = P(1+ n* i) ............................................................................... (1)
S = Sum accrued at the end of interest periods (also called
Future Worth) P = Principal (also called Present Worth)
n = Number of interest periods (normally one year is taken as one interest period) i =
Interest rate (normally annual interest rate)
Compound Interest:
For compound interest, the interest accrued for each interest period is calculated on
the principal plus the total amount of interest accumulated in all previous periods.
Compound interest reflects the effect of the time value of money on the interest also.
The interest for one period is calculated as:
Compound Interest = (Principal + All accrued Interest) x (Interest Rate)
We can see from the above two expressions that the sum accrued at the end of first
year would be same for both simple interest and compound interest calculations.
However,
for interest periods greater than one year, the sum accrued for compound interest
would be larger.
What happens if the interest is compounded more than once in a year?
Inflation:

In all the above equations, we had assumed that there is no inflation. Inflation is an
increase in the amount of money necessary to obtain the same amount of product
before the inflated price was present. Inflation occurs due to downward change in the
value of the currency. If ‘C’ is the cash in hand today for buying a product, f is the
inflation rate, then the amount we need to pay for the same product after n years would
be C(1 + f)n, assuming uniform inflation over the years.

Life Cycle Cost:

Life cycle costing or LCC is an important factor for comparing the alternatives and
deciding on a particular process for completing a project. The different components
taken into account for calculating LCC are:
LCC = Capital + Replacement cost + Maintenance cost + Energy cost - Salvage
Here, Capital is the present worth. Replacement cost that may occur at a later years
need to converted to present worth. Maintenance cost is annual maintenance cost and
needs to be converted to present worth and so is the energy cost. Salvage is the money
that is obtained while disposing the machinery at the end of life cycle period. Even
this amount has to be converted to present worth for calculating LCC. Once we have
the LCC value, we can easily find the Annual Life Cycle Costing using the following
equation: These equations would be clearer once we do some problems

Net Present Value

Net present value (NPV) is the difference between the present value of cash inflows and
the present value of cash outflows over a period of time. NPV is used in capital budgeting and
investment planning to analyze the profitability of a projected investment or project.