Learning Guide in

Educ 8 – Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education

Activity 5 (Week 13-15)

Group No. 2 Date: December 10, 2021

Name/s: Andoy, Teresa L. Program

Lope, Mariel A. & Year: BSEd English 3
Nagal, Joycie V.
Instructor: Christine V. Cubillo
Class MWF 10:00-11:00 Rm. 101
Schedule: 1st sem., 2021-2022 Score:

Title Onward Philippines!

Learning a. review knowledge of differentiated assessment strategies that are

Outcome responsive to the needs and strengths of diverse learners;

b. describe learning resources that could be utilized to accommodate

teaching the possible type of inclusive learners in class, including
special needs or situations.

Brush-up Change is constant and, more often, inevitable. Do we look forward to

it? Hopefully, for the betterment of all of us, including the whole of
mother earth. If you recall history of education in the world, there have
been so many changes. Just look at the basic education curriculum; it
has changed over the years and tertiary education. Early geniuses
were even asked to stop attending regular classes, mainly because
there were odd, not “normal.” One can just imagine the struggles for
those who were far below the “normal” learner as to the ability to
socialize, to speak, to think, to act, to hear, to see, etcetera.

Encounter At a point in our life, we looked up to someone. We are motivated to be

like that person in one way or another. It is true in institutions, may it be
in the field of education or otherwise. The programs, projects, or
activities of others that led to the successful planning, implementation,
monitoring, and evaluation inspire others to adapt or modify to suit
targeted clients/customers/learners.
a. review knowledge of differentiated assessment strategies that are
responsive to the needs and strengths of diverse learners;

Assessment strategies may be differentiated in order to be responsive

to the needs and strengths of diverse learners as reflected in the
choices of assessment tools, learning resources and instructional
(INPUT) Accommodation

Recall the discussions of the types of authentic assessment in your

Assessment in Learning 2 class which included the following:

1
 1. Observation Checklist
 One of the most appropriate method of assessment for practical
skills hence it allow teachers to record information quickly about
how students perform in relation to specific outcomes from the
program of studies. As the teacher is actively watching and
recording the actions of the subject during an observational
assessment, the results can be deemed to be more reliable. It ks
therefore a more accurate reflection of whether an individual has
acquired the skills they need.
2. Anecdotal Report
 Anecdotal records are a form of authentic assessment. These
observational notes allow the teacher to record authentic
experiences, unintended outcomes of literacy development,
levels of engagement, curiosity, motivational factors, and more.
For teachers, these records facilitate assessment conversations
between educators and others.
3. Portfolio Assessment
 A portfolio assessment can be an examination of student-
selected samples of work experiences and documents related to
outcomes being assessed, and it can address and support
progress toward achieving academic goals, including student
efficacy.
Learning Published/Copyright 2017 to present:
Resources
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September 2020.
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UNESCO Bangkok (2018). Inclusion of learners with special needs in the national
assessment of the Philippines. https://bangkok.unesco.org/content/inclusion-
learners-special-needs-national-assessment-philippines Accessed 07
September 2020.
Vickerman, P. & Maher, A. (2019). Teaching physical education to children with
special educational needs and disabilities. Second Edition. Great Britain:
Routledge.

Published/Copyright 2012 to 2016:

3
Baylongo, J.T., Cuartel, I. E., Carreon, M. L., Iringan, T. C., Castro, F. A., Salazar, C.
G., Borabo, M. L., et. al. (2012). Special topics in education. Volume 1. QC,
Philippines: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
Behan, Dawn. (2015). Taking sides: clashing views in special education. McGraw-Hill.
Bjorklund, D. F. & Blasi, C. H. (2015). Child and adolescent development: An
integrated approach. Pasig City, Phils.: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd
(Philippine Branch)
Dayagbil, F. T., de Leon-Abad, E., Lapingcao, N. V., Polinar, D. DG., Laplap, F. N.,
Villareal, N. M., Borabo, H. G. L., et al. (2012). Special topics in education.
Volume 3. QC, Philippines: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
De Vera, E. D., Mambil, W. J. L. & Semorlan, A. A. P. (2016). Special education.
Quezon City, Phils.: Great Books Trading.
Dilna, S. G. (2016). Inclusive education for children with special needs in Cotabato
City. Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences.
http://saspjournals.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/SJAHSS-44B453-456.pdf
Accessed 07 September 2020.
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Learning Asia Pte. Ltd.
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AmBisyon 2040. Phils.: National Economic and Development Authority.
https://www.deped.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Education-Summit-
2016_NEDA_Edillon.pdf Accessed 01 September 2020
Gargiulo, Richard M. (2015). Special Education in Contemporary Society: An
Introduction to Exceptionality. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.
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& supporting children with special educational needs & disabilities in primary
schools. 2nd Edition. Singapore: SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd.
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profound and multiple learning disabilities. Convention on the Rights of the Child
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Books.
Millenium Development Goal2. Universal primary Education by 2015
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September 2020.
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understanding mental health issues in primary schools. London: Bloomsbury.
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on literacy and numeracy instruction for students with special needs, kindergarten
to grade 6. Accessed on 29 September 2021 from
http://www.oafccd.com/documents/educationforall.pdf
Rabara, N. D. (2016). The education of exceptional children in public elementary
schools in region I. Third Asia Pacific Conference on Advance Research
(APCAR, Melbourne).
https://apiar.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/5_APCAR_July_BRR7120_EDU
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Rivadelo-Caballa, G. (2016). Authentic assessment of the child with special needs.
Manila, Phils.: Rex Book Store, Inc.
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https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/downloads/2013/05may/20130515-RA-10533-
BSA.pdf Accessed 07 September 2020.
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2012: The future we want
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4
 development
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Accessed 02 September 2020.
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Mundus.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Accessed 07 September 2020.

Published/Copyright 2011 and earlier:

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special education. C & E Publishing, Inc.
Asian Development Bank (2010). Strengthening inclusive education.
https://www.eenet.org.uk/resources/docs/5165.pdf Accessed 07 September
2020.
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Growing Up Gifted: Developing the Potential of Children at Home and at School.
2008 ed, p.362-364.
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teachers. QC, Philippines: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
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strategy for increasing participation rate of children.
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Accessed 07 September 2020.
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Differentiation and Enrichment Strategies for Gifted Students
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Accessed 07 September 2020.
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A step-by-step workbook for parents and carers. London: Jessica Kingsley
Publishers.
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N.Y., U.S.A.: Routledge.
Quijano, Y. S. (2011). Inclusive education: The Philippine perspective.
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20111.ppt Accessed 07 September 2020.
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Accessed 07 September 2020.

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development sustainabledevelopment.un.org
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%20for%20Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf Accessed 02 September
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education programs in local schools. Education Quarterly, 66 (1), 50-70.
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?
doi=10.1.1.831.7968&rep=rep1&type=pdf Accessed 07 September 2020.

Learning Learning Resources and Instructional Accommodation

Task
Create an appropriate comparative table to describe learning resources
utilized to accommodate teaching the possible type of inclusive learners
in class, including special needs or situations in the Philippines and in
the country you presented in the Midterm Project in similar
programs/contexts. Madrasah is unique to the Philippines but others
countries who are predominantly Muslim may have a special curriculum
for other non-Muslim population in their respective countries.

Learning Resources and Instructional Accommodation can be classified

depending on the level of the learners like preschool,
primary/elementary, middle school, senior high school.

Attached searched materials with this activity.

1. Special Education Programs

2. Inclusion Programs
3. Indigenization and Contextualization of the Curriculum
4. ALS, OSY, and Disadvantaged Children d. Adult Learners
5. Madrasah ALIVE
6. Special Interest Programs.
7. Quality Differentiated Instructions
8. Homeschool/ Distance Learning

6
 ASPECTS PHILIPPINES MEXICO
Special Education Resource Materials To enhance the delivery of
Programs Development for Children with special education services, the
Special Needs Mexican National Public
Education Secretariat
One of the functions of the developed two systems:
Special Education Division is to support service units for regular
undertake studies necessary schools and multiple attention
for the preparation of centers.
instructional/resource materials
for special education. It has Support service units for regular
designed the following schools. Support service units
preparations: are designed to provide
adaptations to curricula on the
1. Materials Production in basis of the context and
Braille and in Large Print characteristics of the
communities in which the
The Philippine Printing House schools are located. Units must
for the Blind (PPHB) an be located in schools and are
attached office of the SPEDI designed to provide human,
Division, prepares all textbooks technical, methodological, and
in braille and in large print. conceptual support focusing on
These materials are later inclusive classes, and
distributed to schools with eliminating or at least
organized classes for the blind minimizing barriers to learning.
upon request. Closely helping Multiple attention centers.
the PPHB in this undertaking is Multiple attention centers focus
the Resources for the Blind, on students who have a harder
Inc. (RBI) an NGO, which does time being integrated into
massive production of resource regular class rooms. The
materials in braille through the centers focus on children with
use of computers. visual, auditory, physical, and
mental disabilities and provide
2. Development, Finalization specialized resources that are
and Printing of Handbooks on: unavailable in regular schools.
2.1 Inclusive Education In addition to offering primary,
2.2 Educating Children with middle, and high school levels
Learning Disabilities of education, the centers
2.3 Educating Children with provide vocational education for
Behavior Problems students ages 15-22 who have
2.4 Socio-Recreational and higher levels of physical or
Sports Activities mental disabilities. The centers
2.5 Learning Competencies for also support families of the
the Gifted (LCG) and students as well as their own
Enrichment Materials (EM) for personnel through work shops
Grades 1-111 and conferences offered on site
(Mexican Secretariat of Public
Except for Nos. 2.1 and 2.5, the Education 2014).
rest are still in the process of
finalization and printing.

Special Education Program

Learning Resources:
7
Principles and Guidelines of
SPED in the Philippines
Article 5: Curriculum Content,
Instructional Strategies and
Materials Section 1: Curriculum
Content, Instructional

Strategies and Materials

1.1 The following schemes

or options may be
adopted for Special
Education Programs
1.1.1 Regular curriculum
– the curriculum
prescribed for regular
children.
1.2
1.1.2 Modified curriculum – the
curriculum prescribed for
regular children with certain
adaptations to meet the needs
of special children.

1.1.3 Special curriculum – the

curriculum for children with
special needs aimed primarily
at developing special adoptive
skills to maximize their
potentials.

1.3 Curriculum plans shall

be research based,
tested successfully on a
pilot basis before their
implementation on a
bigger scale, and
evaluated periodically.
These plans shall be
accompanied by a
variety of instructional
materials.
1.4
1.3 The modified curriculum for
the visually impaired shall
include sensory training,
special instruction in Braille
reading and writing,
mathematics, orientation and
mobility, Braille music, and
typing.

8
1.5 The modified curriculum
for the hearing impaired
shall emphasize
communication and
language development
based on the philosophy
of Total Communication
which is tailored to meet
the individual child’s
communication, and
educational needs. The
curriculum, in addition,
shall include special
instruction in speech and
speech reading, auditory
training and rhythm. The
multi-sensory approach
shall be maximized and
speech/speech reading
and sign language shall
be encouraged starting
in Grade I.
1.6
1.4.1 Pilipino Sign Language
shall be used in the education
of the hearing impaired.

1.5 The modified curriculum for

children with behavior problems
shall include special activities
and instructional techniques for
the normalization of behavior
with emphasis on moral, civic
and spiritual values as well as
training in livelihood, and
technical and academic skills to
prepare them for the world of
work.

1.7 The curriculum for the

physically handicapped
child shall include
functional exercises.
1.8
1.7 The special curriculum for
the mentally retarded shall
emphasize training in self-care,
socialization, motor and pre-
vocational and vocational skills.
For the more severely retarded
child, emphasis shall be on
development of self care skills.

9
 1.9 Teaching strategies shall
be creative and multi-
dimensional. They shall
make maximum use of
all remaining sense
modalities and provide
for active participation in
the learning process.
1.10
1.9 All special schools shall
strengthen their vocational and
technical training programs.
Arrangements shall be made to
enable the child with special
needs to attend special courses
offered in the regular vocational
schools whenever practical.

1.11 A community-based,
home-based or any
useful alternative special
education delivery
system shall be
established to reach
those who cannot avail
of regular institution-
based programs.
1.12
1.11 Effective guidance and
counselling programs shall be
developed and maintained.

Section 2: Instructional
Materials 2.1 Low cost and
indigenous materials shall be
developed for the use of
children with special needs.
Inclusion Programs This shift in perspective shaped General Law of Education
policy direction globally and in
the country. The Philippines, as The General Law of Education
a member-state of the United (Ley General de Educación)
Nations, reaffirmed the world was revised in 1993 to include
Programme of Action provisions on the rights of
Concerning Disabled Persons persons with disabilities. This
in the promotion of full was the first law in Mexico that
participation and equalization of required Mexican states to
opportunities for PWDs. This educate all children with
paved the way for the disabilities (Sanchez 2). One of
enactment of Republic Act the main focuses of this law is
7277 or the Philippine Magna educational integration in order
country also signed and ratified to promote social equality.
UN CPRD in 1998 and became Article 3 of the law addresses

10
the 23rd country that committed equity in education and Article
to fully implement the 39 stipulates that general,
provisions of the Treaty. The special, and adult education all
Convention states that PWDs encompass the Mexican
should be guaranteed the right national education system.
to inclusive education at all Article 41 mandates the
levels, regardless of age, integration of children with
without discrimination and on disabilities to have an
the basis of equal opportunity. appropriate education through
Specifically, State Parties mainstream classes. This article
should ensure that: also requires the involvement of
parents or guardians,
children with disabilities are not educators, and special
excluded from free and education personnel to be
compulsory primary education, involved in the process of
or from secondary education; developing the child-specific
adults with disabilities have special education plan (Russo
access to general tertiary 33).
education, vocational training,
adult education and lifelong Article 33 authorizes the
learning; establishment of additional
persons with disabilities receive support services that facilitate
the necessary support, within the integration of students with
the general education system, disabilities into the national
to facilitate their effective education system whenever
education; and possible. From this article,
effective individualized support support teams known as Units
measures are put in place to of Support Services to Regular
maximize academic and social Education (USAER; Unidades
development. de Servicios de Apoyo a la
States Parties should take Educación Regular ) and
appropriate measures, such as: facilities called Centers for
Multiple Attention (CAM;
endorsing the learning of Centros de Atención Múltiple)
Braille, alternative script, are created. USAER enter
augmentative and alternative schools to support and guide
modes, means and formats of students with disabilities and
communication and orientation their teachers within the typical
and mobility skills, and classroom.
facilitating peer support and
mentoring; They also provide information to
supporting the learning of sign parents and school staff.
language and promoting the
linguistic identity of the deaf CAM are centers for children
community; who are incapable of
advocating that education of succeeding in the regular
persons, particularly children, school setting. The centers
who are blind and/or deaf, is provide resources that are
delivered in the most unavailable in regular schools,
appropriate languages and and vocational education for
means of communication for students ages 15–22 (in
the individual; and addition to primary and
employing teachers, including secondary levels of education)
teachers with disabilities, who who have more severe levels of
are qualified in sign language physical or mental disabilities

11
 and/or Braille, and to train (Russo 34). These centers
education professionals and segregate certain students in
staff about disability
hopes of providing additional
awareness, use of
services to prepare them for
augmentative and alternative future integration into regular
modes and formats of
classrooms if possible (Reich-
communication, and Erdmann 137). Once evaluated,
educational techniques and students with Special
materials to support persons Educational Needs (SEN) can
with disabilities. be placed in CAM, general
schools that have support of
USAER, or general schools
without USAER support
(García-Cedillo (2014) 77). This
law emphasizes the protections
of their rights to education
without discrimination of all
school-aged adolescents with
disabilities and their guardians.
Indigenization and Curriculum Indigenization in the Curriculum Indigenization in
Contextualization of the Philippines Mexico
Curriculum
The Philippines is
On August 27, the United
"indigenizing" its basic Nations Development Program
education curriculum for the declared education in the south
country's various ethnic groups of the Mexico “insufficient”,
to boost the development of blaming the inequality in
what has been regarded as educational services as the
marginalized people without cause of the high rate of
dissolving their respectiveilliteracy. Mexico has indicated
cultures and traditions. that they will develop
educational programs for the
Supported by DepEd order No. indigenous in southern Mexico
101 s. 2010, the Alternative that will be geared more toward
Learning System (ALS) the skills needed to survive in
Curriculum for Indigenous their communities.
Peoples (IPs) Education was
developed in coordination with The National English Program
the National Commission on in Basic Education (NEPBE or
Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) and Programa Nacional de Inglés
validated by IP leaders in IP en Educación Básica, PNIEB) is
communities. a comprehensive framework
established to guide the
“The curriculum was teaching of the language
specifically-written to be throughout the country
culture-sensitive with the end- (Secretaría de Educación
view of helping them become Pública - SEP, 2011). Some
functionally literate and be net Mexican HEIs have also
contributors to our society,” incorporated English as a
Luistro added. The learning compulsory subject across their
competencies of the IP curriculum. Even though the
curriculum were drawn from the Mexican educational system
existing ALS curriculum for the has already made huge efforts
basic literacy, elementary and in providing students with
secondary levels. The opportunities to learn English, it
12
curriculum content, however, is suggested that the results of
was based on Indigenous ELT, in the Mexican public
Peoples Act (IPRA) or Republic education system in general,
Act 8371. and in public state universities
in particular, are “indeed
generally extremely poor”
(Davies, 2009, p. 1). Including
English in the wider
undergraduate curriculum
seems to be an innovative
institutional policy. However,
the initiative is not derived from
school experience and
experimentation; it is not in line
with the reality of the school.
There is literature which
suggests that centralized
decisions do not always
produce the expected results
and a probable reason for
failure is a hierarchical
approach to curriculum
(Glasgow, 2014).
Conversely, an alternative
approach to curriculum design
and development would appear
to depend less on policy
directives and more on
curriculum design and
development activities which
are located at the school level.
This more decentralized
strategy to promote curriculum
innovation has been labeled
school-based curriculum
development (SBCD), which
can utilize action research (AR)
as an effective tool to conduct
research activities at school
level (Elliott, 1997). Empirical
studies have reported the
improvement of curriculum
through AR (Bat & Fasoli, 2013;
Carver & Klein, 2013;Nason &
Whitty, 2007).

◾ On August 27, the United

Nations Development Program
declared education in the south
of the Mexico “insufficient”,
blaming the inequality in
educational services as the
cause of the high rate of
illiteracy. Mexico has indicated
that they will develop

13
 educational programs for the
indigenous in southern Mexico
that will be geared more toward
the skills needed to survive in
their communities.
ALS, OSY, and The ALS utilizes learning THE GENERAL CONTEXT OF
Disadvantaged Children modules. Each module is ADULT LEARNING IN MEXICO
d. Adult Learners complete in itself. It contains
the description of the module,
objectives, learning activities, 5. Mexico, officially named
and pre and post tests. Mexican United States, is a
Modules for the basic and federal republic made up of 31
lower elementary level learners states and federal district,
come with a Facilitator’s Guide. Mexico Distrito Federal (in
Meanwhile, modules for English, Mexico City). The
advanced elementary and Mexican political landscape was
secondary levels were shaped by the Revolution of
designed for self-learning. 1910, and all subsequent
governments have had to
In the conduct of ALS sessions, contend with a society
use of supplementary learning characterized by vast
materials is being encouraged economic, social and cultural
particularly those that are diversity. The need to foster
developed by the Facilitator to national consolidation has
suit the local need and context resulted in a centralized system
and are locally available. of government with strong
federal institutions and a
In partnership with various relatively weak capacity for
organizations, both local and economic and social policy
international, the DepEd-BALS development at the state and
was able to adapt and/or local levels. In recent years,
produce print and non-print there has been a movement
learning materials to toward greater decentralization
supplement the existing of programs giving states and
modules in the conduct of ALS municipalities more control over
learning sessions. allocation of resources. As a
result, there are growing
Supplementary materials are conflicts between federal and
important in the conduct of ALS provincial responsibilities about
learning sessions. Additional adult learning – an issue we will
materials make learning return to throughout the report
sessions more effective by and section 3.2.2 in particular.
reinforcing newly acquired During our review we were only
literacy skills. They also serve able to visit two states;
as springboards to a new Aguascalientes and Chiapas.
lesson, thus, making learning These two states offer widely
more fun and interesting. Use contrasting social and economic
of multi-media also gives both contexts for adult learning and
Facilitators and learners illustrate the diversity of
chance to access new Mexican society and the
information and technology and division between the
activates multi-sensory prosperous, modern north and
learning. the less developed south.
However, the reviewers are
◾ The Heart of Childhope cognizant of the fact that there
14
Philippines Toward Out-of- are particular local features that
School Youth were unable to be accounted
We at Childhope value the right for in this review.
to protection and fulfillment of
the Filipino street children. We 6. In the 2000 presidential
believe that just like other election, the Institutional
children, our out-of-school Revolutionary Party (PRI), in
youth should also be given a power for 71 years, lost to
chance to maximize their Vicente Fox and the National
potentials and secure their Action Party (PAN). President
future through our programs. Fox came to power on a
For them to achieve holistic platform that promised broad
growth, we organize programs social and economic reforms
related in education and health. aimed at addressing the
We call this the Street country’s extensive poverty. An
Education and Protection improvement of the population’s
(STEP) Program. Guided by human capital is at the core of
the Caring Healing Teaching this strategy. It is in this context
framework, the STEP Program that we assess the capacity of
has 4 major components. present and planned adult
education and training
Education. In our KalyEskwela, strategies in Mexico.
we use mobile van with
audiovisual equipment to 7. The Thematic Review of
conduct substitute education Adult Learning in OECD
sessions and basic literacy and countries focuses primarily on
numeracy classes. Also, we the individuals aged 25-64
conduct trade and tech skills years. In the context of Mexico
training called Youth this fails to account for a large
Empowerment Project to help group of young people aged 15-
them gain income to support 25 who left school before
themselves and their families. completion and are gainfully
Psychosocial Interventions. We employed. Therefore, this
provide psychosocial aid and review covers ages 15 and
counseling for kids and parents above in accordance with the
to cope up with stress while General Education law that
learning. In addition, we defines adult education as
provide assistance to shelters, education for individuals aged
especially to completely 15 and older who have not
neglected and abandoned attended or completed primary
children. education.

Health and Medical Services. 8. As a background to the

Through our KliniKalye, we analyses of the adult education
ensure children that they are and training system we will
healthy and able to learn. We begin with a brief overview of
provide primary preventive the challenges to adult learning
medical care, consultations, posed by the structure and
and treatments to them. inefficiencies of the Mexican
Skills Development. Our economy, the prevalence of
training helps street children poverty and the shortcomings of
and out-of-school youth in the formal educational system.
leadership, computer literacy,
sports, arts, and other skills
and apply them in life. These

15
 are vital in honing themselves.

◾ Philippine Disadvantaged
Children

Over the past decades, the

Philippines has made
significant strides toward
realizing child rights especially
since the ratification and
commitment to realizing the
Convention of the Rights of
Children in 1990.

Infant mortality was reduced

from 41 to 21 per 1000 live
births and under-5 child
mortality from 59 to 27 between
1990 and 2015. While this
represents major progress,
more intense work is needed to
further reduce infant and child
mortality targets of 15 and 22
respectively.

Filipino children are still facing

multiple and deep-rooted
deprivations and vulnerabilities
that impede their survival,
development, protection and
participation according to the
latest Situation Analysis of
Children in the Philippines
summary report based on data
gathered in 2017, launched
today by the Government of the
Philippines and UNICEF.
Madrasah ALIVE ◾ Through the project, 1,047 The Mexican National Union of
Muslim learners (410 Education Workers (SNTE),
Kindergarten and 627 Grade I together with UNESCO, has
learners) enrolled as of 2018 published a ground-breaking
now have access to the given guide for teachers to help them
resources. Eight stories were excel in the delivery of
developed, one story per Indigenous education in the
grading period per grade level. classroom.
The recipient schools received
16 copies of the materials. The Guide seeks to provide
strategies and methods so that
The availability of the materials teachers can best address the
provided learning and challenge of Indigenous
assessment activities and education. It equips teachers
relevant information that with tools to create useful
addressed the competencies to didactic materials, according to
be achieved by the ALIVE the cultural and social context in
learner. The given learning which they perform their work.
16
 resource materials aided the These tools will also help
educators’ teaching methods teachers to facilitate their
and strategies transitioning into students to acquire verbal,
a learner-centered interaction written and reading skills, all in
from that of a traditional way of bilingual and multilingual
teaching. educational situations. It is
expected that this guide will
Learning resources designed to benefit over 1.2 million
enhance and support the preschool and primary school
effectiveness of the learning children from 62 Indigenous
process which ALIVE classes Peoples.
lack. It is also ensured that the
resources are within the
context of Filipino Muslim
culture, customs, tradition, and
interest.

Education Secretary Jesli

Lapus said the mainstreaming
of Madrasah education in our
system of basic education will
give our Muslim schoolchildren
an education that is culturally-
sensitive, Islamic friendly and
will give them equal work
opportunity.

◾ Governance of Basic
Education Act (RA 9155)
To institute a framework of
governance for basic
education, establishing
authority and
Accountability among other
purposes.

It recognized that the regions,

divisions, schools and learning
centers herein referred to as
the field offices. The opening of
ALIVE classes is a reflection of
the local initiative towards
helping improve the quality of
basic education in Region XI
and ensures that

The values, needs and

aspirations of a school
Community are reflected
Special Interest BCD-SCPD-0-2019-959 Special Education Resource
Programs DM-CI-2019-00384 Unit
MEMORANDUM
The Special Education
The Department of Education Resource Unit (SERU) provides
through the Bureau of a range of learning and
17
Curriculum Development (BCD) teaching materials and
will conduct the Workshop on specialized services which
the Validation and Finalization support children and students
of the Curriculum Guides of the with disabilities and learning
Special Interest Programs difficulties such as:
(SIP).
-equipment for use in schools
As a creative way to make our -special supports for children at
schools a place where all school
learners can participate, the -resources and publication
BCD has developed the SIPA
as a means of enhancing the ◾ If a student requires testing
capabilities of children by accommodations, they must be
exploring curated learning documented in the IEP. The
programs.
NMPED expects
accommodations to have been
implemented for at least three
months in the classroom. This
enables the student, his or her
teachers, and other staff, if
necessary, time to adequately
prepare for the test’s
administration and provide
necessary accommodations in
instructional settings. Students
benefit not just from receiving
necessary accommodations,
but also by acclimating to the
use of the accommodation so
that the testing situation is not
novel. Determining

Appropriate Accommodations—
Some Important Considerations
for IEP Teams As mentioned
previously, the student’s IEP
team makes the decision as to
the specific accommodations, if
any; a student will receive
during the administration of
state-mandated assessments. It
is not a unilateral decision
made by one individual. It is
important that those involved in
the decision-making process
during the IEP meeting have a
clear understanding of the
student’s needs as well as the
specific assessments that the

18
 student is required to take.

Accommodations selected for

assessment must have
instructional relevance and be
connected to a specific skill
deficit. The IEP team should
also be able to explain how the
skill deficit impacts a student’s
ability to demonstrate his or her
level of mastery of the content
areas measured by the
particular assessment. This
prior knowledge of the student
and the test will enable the IEP
team to make sound decisions
as to what accommodations, if
any, the student requires for
participation in state and
district-wide assessments. This
decision must be accurately
documented in the student’s
IEP. The SEB recommends that
the team address and
document answers to the
following questions when
developing the IEP
Quality Differentiated Education For All” is the Differentiated instruction (DI) is
Instructions primary an inclusive practice-proven
goal of Philippine education approach that acknowledges
regardless of the “differences”. student diversity and carefully
The Philippine aligns learning tasks with the
Education For All (EFA) 2015 is individual learning needs of
a vision and a holistic program students (Loreman,2017).
of reforms that aims at Hence, it can be assumed that
improving the quality of basic DI functions as are active
education for every Filipino by inclusive teaching approach
2015. Through this, the that responds to the needs of
Philippine government is students (Griful-Freixenet,
committed in improving the Struyven, Vantieghem and
quality of education at all grade Gheyssens, 2020; Lindner &
levels (Philippine Education for Schwab, 2020). In order to
All,2015). As grade 11 start this maximize learning, Tomlinson
school year2016-2017, the (2017) suggests that teachers
teachers are challenged toad should modify the content,
dress the diversity of Filipino processes and prod-ucts in
students, and to accommodate correspondence to their
these differences as they students ‘readiness, interests
motivate the students to learn. and learning profiles, as well as
In response to the different continuously monitor their
levels and needs of the students ‘academic process
students, differentiated (Dack, 2019). There is a variety
instruction will be the approach of DI practices that can be
in the learning environment in implemented to address

19
 the Philippine classroom that classroom diversity, such as the
has 40-50students or more. In use of tiered assignments,
this study differentiated homogeneous or
instruction will be applied to heterogeneous subgroups
determine whether there is a based on students
difference in achievement ‘performance, readiness or
between the students who are interests(Coubergs, Struyven,
exposed to differentiated Vanthournout et al., 2017;
instruction and those that Tomlin-son, 2017).
undergo the traditional or Furthermore, tutoring systems,
conservative instructional staggered non-verbal material
approach. such as helping cards, and
open education practices, such
as station-based work, project-
based learn-ing, or portfolios
have been also considered as
important DI practices
(Tomlinson, 2017). Lastly,
research has also pointed out at
variants of mastery learning
strategies suchas jigsaw
puzzles, enrichments or
prioritized curricula directed at
high and low achieving students
as effective DI practices
(Darnon, Buchs and Desbar,
2012; Lawr-ence-Brown, 2004
Homeschool/ Distance Home Study Programs are If you are homeschooling a
Learning implemented by interested child with special needs, you
divisions of the Department of need to follow your state’s
Education in consonance with homeschool regulations. There
the 1987 Constitution (Article are no additional requirements
XV) which provides that quality for homeschooling children with
education at all levels be made special needs.
accessible to all Filipinos, and
that non-formal and indigenous While a parent could request
learning systems, as well as that his or her homeschool
self-learning and out-of-school student be evaluated to see if
study programs, particularly he or she could be eligible as a
those that respond to child with a disability,
community needs be homeschool students are not
developed. entitled to obtain special
education services. Please see
The Divisions of Quezon City this memo from the New
and Rizal in the National Mexico Public Education
Capital Region have home Department.
study programs. The objectives
of the home study program in The statutory definition of a
Quezon City are to: “private school” specifically
excludes homeschools and
“provide an affordable homeschool satellite programs.
secondary education for all, Section 22-1-2(L) NMSA 1978.
and bring about an opportunity
to enhance the quality of life of Homeschool students with
the citizenry; give opportunity disabilities who enroll in one or
20
for sickly and working students more public school courses my
to finish their secondary be eligible for Section 504
schooling; and help solve the accommodations.
school problem of shortage of
teachers and classrooms.”

Students in the program are

issued the same textbooks in
all subjects for the school year.
They are given topics to study
every week and required to
answer questions given by
teachers at the end of each
topic. Contact sessions of
students and teachers are on
Saturdays. These sessions are
for clarification of difficult topics
encountered by students during
the week.

The program in Quezon City

addresses educational needs
of working students, such as
factory workers, baby sitters,
vendors, canteen helpers,
janitors, laborers, salesladies,
the sickly, and street children
who are willing to finish
secondary education.

◾ Collaboration between the

parent and the teacher is
crucial in this ‘new normal,’”
according to Rose Maderse,
special education (SPED)
teacher and coordinator of a
public school in Quezon City
that will be using the modular
distance learning. Under this
system, worksheets and
modules will be distributed on a
weekly basis to parents, who
will then guide their children.
For students with internet, the
SPED department plans to
monitor and observe them. “For
example, in one hour, one
batch of learners with the same
skills will simultaneously work
on the modules while the
teacher is guiding them through
video call and the parent is
aiding the on-ground
execution,” Maderse said.

21
 SEARCHED MATERIALS
PHILIPPINES:
CHILD RIGHTS NETWORK, n.d Inclusive Education for Children and Youth with Disabilities
https://childrightsnetwork.ph/advocacies/inclusive-education-for-children-and-youth-with-
disabilities/

Aranda, Ma. Rita R. and Zamora, Joel L. n.d, Using Differentiated Instruction in Improving
the Academic Performance of Students in Filipino Language
https://www.academia.edu/39293792/
Using_Differentiated_Instruction_in_Improving_the_Academic_Performance_of_Students_in
_Filipino_Language

Regional Memorandum: Workshop on the Validation and Finalization of the Curriculum

Guides of the Special Interest Programs
http://27.110.168.75/rox/phocadownloadpap/2019/RM_741_Workshop%20on%20the
%20Validation%20and%20Finalization%20of%20the%20Curriculum%20Guides%20of
%20the%20Special%20Interest%20Programs.pdf

Philippines: Legal status and resources on homeschooling in the Philippines

https://hslda.org/post/philippines

Project Highlight: Big Books Developed by Project ALIVE Distributed to Madrasa Schools in
Iligan City, 2019
https://formindanao.com/big-books-developed-by-project-alive-distributed/

Bautista, Jane 2020. Teachers, parents share burden of educating special needs students
https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1312344/teachers-parents-share-burden-of-educating-special-
needs-students/amp

Cajes, Timoy n.d. Alive Program-R Xi

https://www.scribd.com/presentation/175898155/Alive-Program-r-Xi

The Philippines is “indigenizing” its basic education curriculum for the country’s various
ethnic groups to boost the development of what has been regarded as marginalized people
without dissolving their respective cultures and traditions.
https://news.abs-cbn.com/nation/10/25/13/philippines-indigenizes-basic-
education#:~:text=MANILA%20%2D%20The%20Philippines%20is%20%22indigenizing,their
%20respective%20cultures%20and%20traditions.

DepEd offers special curriculum for indigenous people

https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2011/07/11/deped-offers-special-curriculum-for-
indigenous-peoples/

Featured Programs
http://www.depedimuscity.com/als.php

The Hope of Out-of-School Youth in the Philippines

https://childhope.org.ph/out-of-school-youth-philippines/

22
Despite progress, children are deprived of basic rights in the Philippines
https://www.unicef.org/philippines/press-releases/despite-progress-children-are-deprived-
basic-rights-philippines

MEXICO:

General Law of Education

The General Law of Education (Ley General de Educación) was revised in 1993 to include
provisions on the rights of persons with disabilities. This was the first law in Mexico that
required Mexican states to educate all children with disabilities (Sanchez 2).
https://digitalcommons.murraystate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1088&context=honorstheses

Operation of Special Education in Mexico

To enhance the delivery of special education services, the Mexican National Public
Education Secretar iat developed two systems: support service units for regular schools and
multiple attention centers.
https://ecommons.udayton.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1176&context=eda_fac_pub

Disability support at school

The Special Education Resource Unit (SERU) provides a range of learning and teaching
materials and specialised services which support children and students with disabilities and
learning difficulties such as:
-equipment for use in schools
-special supports for children at school
-resources and publications
https://www.education.sa.gov.au/parents-and-families/health-and-disability-support/
disability-support-school

If a student requires testing accommodations, they must be documented in the IEP. The
NMPED expects accommodations to have been implemented for at least three months in
the classroom. This enables the student, his or her teachers, and other staff, if necessary,
time to adequately prepare for the test’s administration and provide necessary
accommodations in instructional settings.
https://www.ccsdnm.org/Downloads/NMPED-and-CCSD-Policies-6.pdf

Differentiated instruction DI is an inclusive practice-proven approach that acknowledges

student diversity and carefully aligns learning tasks with the individual learning needs of
students (Loreman,2017). Hence, it can be assumed that DI functions as are active inclusive
teaching approach that responds to the needs of students (Griful-Freixenet, Struyven,
Vantieghemand Gheyssens, 2020; Lindner & Schwab, 2020).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351372640_A_change_of_perspective_-
Exploring_Mexican_primary_and_secondary_school_students’_perceptions_of_their_teache
rs_differentiated_instructional_practice

Mexico proposes a new indigenous education program

23
https://www.culturalsurvival.org/news/mexico-mexico-proposes-new-indigenous-education-
program

Interwoven Approaches: Indigenization and Internalization

https://www.eaie.org/blog/interwoven-approaches-indigenisation-internationalisation.html

CHAPTER 2
The Purpose of Authentic Assessment in Context

Contextual factors play a major role in determining the specific purpose of accon.
and how to maximize results to influence educational programming. Does the essment
being conducted to determine school placement or evaluate its appropriaten essment ddress
sment
the child's needs? ls the primay purpose or assessment focused on measurina has
skills with emphasis on the child's strengths to formulate an Individualized Fruc eline Pla
(IEP)2 The scope and level of speciicity of the assessment would generally depend
purpose of the assessment, driven by the family's goals for the child with special eds.
Authentic Assessment for Educational Placement and Programming
Differences in Purpose for Inclusive and Self-Contained Settings
The Role of the Family in Determining the Purpose of Assessment

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you are expected to:
1. discuss how authentic assessment can be useful in determining the
appropriateness of educational placement and its implications on educational
programming for the individual child with special needs;
2. compare the differences in purpose between authentic assessment administered
for students in inclusive settings and that done for students in self-contained
settings; and
3. acknowledge the important role of the family in influencing the purpose of the
assessment, thus, defining its scope and specificity.

KEY TERMS
Early Intervention Barangay
Republic Act No. 9442 Eligibility
Transdisciplinary Individualized Education Program (EP)
Self-Contained Settings Inclusive Settings
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) Response to Intervention (RTI)
Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) Family Systems Approach

Authentic Assessment for Educational Placement and Programming

Prior to embarking on the process of assessment, it is important to clarify hy d
assessment is being administered toa child with special needs at a particular time. he
tocus, breadth, and depth of an assessment would vary depending on the specinc p ose
Identihed by the family for seeking for an assessment. It is possible that the reaso

assessment encompasses both placement and programming. Limitations of time dn

specialist capability would, however, require that the purpose of assessment be identinea
so as to successtully meet the objectives of the assesment.
At different transition phases in the life of a child with special needs, parents go througn
a period oft searching for the best possible school placement most suited to address tne
child's unique needs. From early intervention to a formal educational setting, at direrent
grade levels spanning from kinderqarten to grade 12, in transitioning from an academic
program to one geared toward community living or vocational training-a comprehensive
24
assessment is needed to guide decision-making for educational placement purposes. 10
ensure that the child's educational goals are appropriate to his/her developmental needs,
there are generally three different kinds of documents accomplished by the SPED teacher
throughout the child's educational years. These are the Individualized Family Service Plan
(IFSP), the Individualized Educational Plan (IEP), and the Individualized Transition Plan
(TP).
The IFSP is similar to the IEP, but with greater emphasis on attaining holistic
developmental goals across domains in the child's natural environment. IFSP goals are
likewise centered on the family's priorities, goals, and resources. The IEP, on the other
hand,
shifts to a more academic perspective with the inclusion of specific content subject areas,
Specifying differentiated learning outcomes. Once the child transitions to adulthood, an
ITP should be designed to reflect how the student can practically apply learning to the
community setting, focusing on developing life skills and pre-vocational training.
4 Transition Program to Community
Living/Vocational Educational
K to 12 Individual Transition Plan (1TP)
Individualized
Earty Intervention Educational Plan (IEP)
individualized Family
Service Plan (IFS)

Authentic Assessment
Figure 2.1. Assessment for Educational Placement Transitions
The complexity of the needs of children receiving special education warrants a
thorough evaluation of their abilities and limitations. These often do not fit into typical
learning profles; thus, there is the issue of which educational setting is most suited for them
to optimize their potentials.

Early Intervention
Children with special needs ages zero to three benefit from a systematic, structured,
and coordinated set of services, which begins with a comprehensive assessment of the
child's baseline skills. Since it is highly individualized, assessment in early intervention
serves
to customize the child's program to his/her unique needs. In a country like the Philippines
where at least 70% of the population lives below the poverty line, access to specialist
assessment is, to a great extent, limited. The cost of assessment poses a barrier to access,

coupled with the small number of qualified professionals trained to administer as sessments
to at-risk children with special needs.
Chapter 3, Section 18 of the Republic Act 7277, otherwise known as the Magn:
for Disabled Persons, stipulates that: gna Carta
The Department of Health in coordination with the National Council fa
Welfare of Disabled Persons, shall institute a national health program which hall
aim to attain the following:
(a) prevention of disability, whether occurring prenatally or post-natally
(b) recognition and early diagnosis of disability; and
(c) early rehabilitation of the disabled.
The legal basis for early intervention is established in the Philippine law. There is,
however, an obvious shortcoming in the implementation of the law by mandated agencie
In an ethnographic study conducted among informal settlers in an urban communith
(Rivadelo, 2012), it was found that disability awareness was significantly lacking at the
community level, thus, preventing early recognition of disability and risk for disability
There was no defined process of screening and referral for assessment in spite of the legal
provisions to guarantee recognition and early diagnosis of disability. As an outcome of the

25
study, a proposed system of community-based referral for assessment and intervention was
drafted (Figure 2.2).
In the proposed process, there are two levels of screening, the first level facilitates
access to initial assessment through the barangay daycare center and the barangay health
center. The barangay is the most basic administrative unit in the Philippine government.
First-level screening would require extensively training the daycare and health workers
to screen for disability or risk for disability in coordination with the barangay childhood
programs coordinator. If there is a child with a suspected disability, this child can undergo
the
second-level screening with qualified professionals to confirm initial findings. The barangay
can organize a medical mission headed by a Developmental Pediatrician and participated
in by community medical volunteers, in order to identify children who may benefit from
early intervention. These children can also be referred to the nearest public hospital that
offers assessment services for free or at subsidized rates. Once a diagnosis of a disability
has
been confirmed, the child can now apply for a PWD (Person With Disability) identification
card under Republic Act 9442, an Act Amending Republic Act 7277, to entitle him/hertoa
20% discount on medical services, as well as other basic and enhanced public services.
Earny
intervention can then be initiated to optimize the child's potential for development ana
learning.

Brgy Day-Care 2nd Level

eachers Screening Brgy PWND Focal Referral for Early
Brgy Health Workers Brgy Community Person Intervention
Brgy Chldhood Oulreach (Medical City PWD-Affairs Disability-Inclusive
Programs Coordinator Misslon) Office Daycare
Public Hospital Social Brgy. Resource Room
1st Level Services Divislon ssuance of PWD Public Hospital
Screening9 (Rehab.Serices)
D

Fiqure 2.2. Proposed Process of Community-Based Early Detection of Disability

This strategy is supportive of the Department of Education's (DepEd) five-year

Development Plan for the Education of Children and Youth with Disabilities. One of the
strategies proposed by the DepEd as part of its Child-Find Program is the Community-Based
Mapping of Children with Disabilities (Luistro, 2015). Recognizing the physical, economnic
and social barriers posed by disability, the DepEd supports efforts toward early identification
of children with special needs at the barangay level. According to DepEd Secretary Brother
Armin Luistro (2015), "Part of the barangay's mandate is to make sure that every child is in
school"That includes children with disabilities.
Bruder (2010) identified three best-practice core characteristics of early intervention:
(1) family-centered orientation; (2) natural and inclusive learning environments; and
3) collaborative team process. These core characteristics should also be evident in the
assessment process for placement into an early intervention facility.
For assessment to be authentic during the early intervention years, the family
should not only be the source of relevant information, but should be the recipient of all
efforts of intervention. Children with special needs also have families that have unique
requirements for support from the early intervention team. Having a child with a disability
has a psychosocial impact on the entire family. A study by Tomasello, Manning, and Dulmus
(2010) revealed that the limitations of a child with a disability are often linked to the stress,
depression, and feelings of helplessness of family members. To understand the context
of disability, assessment should focus on the family's structure, attitudes, expectations,
capabilities, and available resources.

26
Assessment in the home setting, considered as the child's natural and inclusive learning
environment, is an essential component of an early intervention assessment. The behavior
of a child in the infancy and toddler period is best observed in the home. A clinical setting
would most likely elicit anxiety in a child with Autism who has difficulty adjusting to new
environments. Play would hardly be spontaneous in a contrived setting wherein toys and
space are limited for mobility and exploration. The family, likewise, would be less guarded
in their responses in a natural environment. Conducting the family interview in the child's
home would yield richer, qualitative information that can lead to a better understanding
of the family context. There is less pressure to respond according to social norms since the
uniqueness of the context would be physically evident upon actual observation.
Collaborative team processes in assessment are crucial in early intervention. Develop-
ment cuts across all domains and specializations. The need for collaborative assessment is
inevitable during the early years when domains of development are most interrelated. The
child should be seen as a whole child and cannot be assessed using a developmental lens
specific to only one or two aspects of development. For instance, the physiotherapist as-
sessing an infant with Down Syndrome may be focusing on the attainment of gross-motor
Skills such as rolling, creeping, and sitting. These mobility skills, however, cannot be
assessed
without observing the child's eye-hand coordination when asked to balance in sitting while
reaching for a toy, a function typically assessed by an Occupational Therapist. Receptive
language skills such as following verbal commands are also being assessed during the task
of reaching for a toy, one of the skills included in the assessment of a Speech-language
Pathologist working with very young children. The type of play demonstrated by the child
is included in the assessments of the Pediatric Physiotherapist, Occupational Therapist, and
Speech-language Pathologist in order to assess for early cognitive development.

Authentic assessment, therefore, should be collaborative for it to be comprehensi

and accurate especially during the early years. Setting a strong foundation for learnino
is important to the success of future educational programming. A systematic and well.
designed intervention program stemming from an authentic assessment is a key component
ent
for developmental progress.
The Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children has developed
Professional Standards for Early Childhood Special Education (ECSE) or Early Intervention
(E
in October 2008 (Gargiulo & Kilgo, 2014). Standard #8 of these professional standards. a
shown in Table 2.1, is specific to the knowledge and Skills on assessment that are required
for all ECSE/El personnel.
Table 2.1.Professional Standards on Assessment in Early Childhood Special Education/
Early Intervention (Council for Exceptional Children)
Knowledge Professlonal Standard
SK1 Role of the family in the assessment process.
8K2 Legal requirements that distinguish among at-risk, developmental
delay, and disability.
8K3 Alignment of assessment with curriculum, content standards, and
local, state, and federal regulations.
Skill Professional Standard
8S1 Assist families in identifying their concerns, resources, and priorities.
8S2 Integrate family priorities and concerns in the assessment process.
853 Assess progress in the five developmental domains, play, and
temperament.
8S4 Select and administer assessment instruments in compliance with
established criteria.
8S5 Use informal and formal assessment to make decisions about infants
8S6 and young children's development and learning.

27
Gather information from multiple sources and environments.
857 Use a variety of materials and contexts to maintain the interest of
infants and young children in the assessment process.
858 Participate as a team member to integrate assessment results in the
859 development and implementation of individualized plans.
Emphasize child's strengths and needs in assessment reports.
8S10 Produce reports that focus on developmental domains and functiona
concerns.
8S11 Conduct ongoing formative child, family, and setting assessments to
monitor instructional effectiveness.

Authentic assessment in early intervention requires a high degree of knowledge and

skill in order to meet professional standards of practice.

Kindergarten to Grade 12 (K-112)

Transitioning from early intervention to basic education, encompassing kindergarten
to grade 12, entails reviewing the child's readiness for formal education. Once he/sne
has transtioned to formal schooling, periodic authentic assessment is needed as he/she
navigates through the educational system. His/Her needs would vary with developmental
maturation, alongside increasingly complex academic and social expectations. Most
children with special needs would participate in formal schooling from kindergarten until
the third grade, consistent with either developmental age or grade-level norms. GIven
appropriate instructional and behavioral support, some can continue on until the 12th
grade. This can only be possible if authentic assessment is administered throughout the
school-age years.
According to Gargiulo and Kilgo (2014), there are four basic assessment purposes:
1. Screening
2. Eligibility
3. Program Planning
4. Progress Monitoring and Evaluation
Authentic assessment features should be evident when fulfilling these purposes.
Screening for disability should be done in a natural and inclusive context. For a child who is
enrolled in kindergarten, he/she should be observed both in school and at home wherein
his/her behaviors are most spontaneous. Data should come not only from his/her family,
but also from his/her teachers and other school personnel. He/She should be observed at
different times of the day-during play, snack time, storytelling time, and most especially
during transitions when behavioral concerns are triggered in most children aversive to
change in routines. Authentic assessment calls for fairness and utmost objectivity. Ethical
considerations should be strictly observed since the impact of assessment outcomes can
have serious consequences on the family.
Eligibility refers to individual therapeutic services or to specific school accommodations.
In a country like the Philippines wherein social services benefit a select few, it is important
to maximize available resources. Authentic assessment can guarantee the provision of
interdisciplinary services and educational accommodations to those who need them the
most.
What are the identified strengths of the child and the family that can be utilized to
provide services in order to address the priorirized need? Is it possible to engage the
services
of an interdisciplinary team, or should the model of intervention be transdisciplinary
considering the scarcity of professional expertise?
In a transdisciplinary model, only one person assumes the role and function of several
professionals or significant others. If the child resides in a remote rural community, authentic
assessment can yield program decisions that would explore alternative learning systems
and caregiver empowerment toward optimizing developmental potential.
Authentic assessment for program planning involves the development of an

28
Individualized Educational Plan (IEP). IEP is the cornerstone of educational programming
for children with special needs. It is collaboratively accomplished by the different members

of the interdisciplinary team led by the child's family, the process of which is facilitated bya
SPED teacher. Layton and Lock (2008) enumerated six contributions of authentic
assessment
to IEP development:
1. It offers students data based on real-world performance.
2. It presents results that have already been generalized into pragmatic use.
3. It gives information that provides a holistic view of student performance.
4. It uses strengths-based assessment to meet clearly defined priority needs.
5. It produces positive outcomes for students with disabilities.
5
6. It provides information that verifies results from informal testing and formal
6.
standardized testing.
Lastly, authentic assessment guarantees that progress monitoring and evaluation
are responsive to the child's actual needs and his/her current context. Unlike traditional
assessment measures, the child's strengths are recognized independent of established
norms.The child with special needs is appreciated fully in the light of his/her exceptionality.
Given that he/she demonstrates atypical development and clearly lags behind in academic
expectations, how can he/she still benefit from his/her current educational placement?
What educational alternatives are available to him/her? A thorough assessment, the results
of which are translated into the formulation of EP goals, objectives, learning experiences
and outcome measures, can provide clarity to the appropriateness and comprehensiveness
of his/her educational placement and the educational alternatives available to him/her.

Transition Program to Community Living/Vocational Education

During the transition phase, authenticity in assessment is reflective of how well it
simulates real-life contexts in preparation for eventual employment. Gulikers, Bastiaens,
and Kirschner (2007) suggested five dimensions of authenticity in designing assessment
ontexts that correspond with workplace realities:
1. Authentic Tasks. Activities should resemble the complexity of problems requiring
1.
multiple and flexible approaches. Students should experience personal responsi-
2 bility, accountability, and consequences akin to workplace ethos.
Physical Context. This influences the nature of learning and the learners
engagement with what is being learned.
3 Social Context. Workplace collaboration where merit is collectively given should

A be part of the assessment design to render it authentic.

Form of Assessment. A wide repertoire of assessment methods administerea
over a period of time are needed to match diverse forms of learning and learner
profiles.
5 Results and Criteria. Authentic assessment criteria should reflect the realistic
outcomes of students' work, comprising both criterion-referenced and standards
based assessment.
From early intervention to transition programs, the value of authentic assessment
in influencing relevant educational programming and appropriate placement caninot be
undermined. In special education, the curriculum is both an outcome and a reason for

assessment. Authentic assessment results in the development of a meaningful curricuium.

On the other hand, the curriculum establishes the context in which authentic assessment
can take place (Gullo, 2006).

29
Assessment Curriculum
purpose is to inform practice sets the context for authentic
(curriculum) assessment

Figure 2.3. The Relationship of Assessment and Curriculum

Differences in Purpose for Inclusive and Self-Contained Settings

There are a number of placement considerations that could stem from assessment
recommendations. A range of options is available for children with special needs with
regard to where the child should be placed as a result of assessment findings. Simply put,
on one end are inclusive settings, and on another end are specialized settings. In between
these two extremes are a range of placements, which varies in terms of philosophy, policy
professional competency, resources and capability, assessment procedures, and teaching
strategies.
A primary consideration in recommending placement based on authentic assessment
findings is the amount of learning support required by the student which is related to class
size, teacher competency to differentiate instruction, and institutional systems supportive
of learners with special needs. The relationship of class size to teacher competency
differentiation approaches, and institutional systems supportive of learners with special
needs is shown below (Figure 2.4).

Differentiated Teaching and

Institutional Supports

Specialized Inclusive
Settings Settings

Class Size and SPED

Specialist Capability

Figure 2.4. Significant Variables Influencing Educational Placement Decisions

More specialized settings are characterized by smaller class sizes and higher SPED
teaching competency. A child who has been assessed to require more assistance in
performing learning tasks and managing behavior as a result of his/her unique limitations
may learn best in a self-contained cass. By self-contained, we pertain to a class composed
entirely of children with disabilities. Although there is a growing movement toward inclusive

education, a deeper understanding of the philosophy of inclusive education and its vallue
for children with moderate to severe disabilities should be aimed for.
All children are different. Each child would have unique needs that require varyina
degrees of support within different learning environments. Historically, inclusive education
has been founded on arights-based perspective, having political and economicjustification.
Parents fought for their children's right to be educated alongside peers without disabilities
in the public school system where education is freely provided. This, however, does not
equate with the quality of teaching and learning within inclusive schools. Some would
argue that inclusive education dilutes learning for children with disabilities. Children with
moderate and severe disabilities are deprived of intensive care and specialized teaching that
are commonly received in self-contained settings. A thorough and well-designed authentic
assessment can identify the child's strengths and needs in a detailed manner to be able to
recommend the most useful interventions that are developmentally appropriate.
On the other hand, a child with a mild disability may optimize his/her full potential in
an inclusive classroom wherein learning expectations are higher and there are more role
models for age-appropriate behavior. One of the setbacks of self-contained classrooms is
the overemphasis on individual skills devoid of generalization to more natural contexts.

30
There is a tendency to task-analyze excessively and aim for mastery learning, diminishing
the relevance of these skills in daily functioning. Higher expectations characterize inclusive
classrooms. This is necessary especially for students who underachieve and lack the
motivation to succeed. Institutional support should be in place to guarantee that the child
learns through scaffolding within his/her Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), applying
Vygotsky's theory of learning. Having expectations that are too high can result in learned
helplessness, while very low expectations can breed complacency.
Crosland and Dunlap (2012) identified the school context as a key variable in
the successful inclusion of students with Autism. Institutional procedures that define
identification, assessment, and intervention strategies determine the extent to which
successful inclusion becomes feasible. The concept of the Least Restrictive Environment
(LRE) still holds true in determining placement as a result of assessment findings. For
students who would most likely optimize their potentials in a mainstream environment,
they should be given the opportunity to be educated in such a context given appropriate
learning supports.
The concept of the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE), as contained in the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 2004 states that:
To the maximum extent appropriate, children with disabilities, including children in
public or private institutions or other care facilities, are educated with children who are
not disabled, and special classes, separate schooling, or other removal of children with
disabilities from the regular educational environment occurs only when the nature or
severity of the disability of a child is such that education in regular classes with the use
of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily.
An authentic assessment that would include an observation of the child in the school
context, specifically in a class that would be most appropriate for his/her age and ability
level,
would lend credence to assessment findings and recommendations. According to Sands,
Kozleski, and French (2000), the more real or authentic the assessment task, the greater the
possibility that students will be able to meet the challenges they will encounter in school.
ie Aeeacenacnt of tha Chil aith c

Authentic assessment involves evaluating the child's performance or the outcome of his/
her effort under conditions that approximate reality.
Often, with traditional assessment protocols, placement decisions are based soleiy
parental interviews and individual clinical observations. These, however, are ot d urate
predictors of behavior, particularly in a social environment. The learning environment
schools is usually very different from the structured setting found in assessment centers and
doctors' clinics. Contextual variables such as noise, space, the presence of otner Cud
and social norms influence the child with special need's response to varied assessment
procedures.
Dr. Temple Grandin (2008), a self-advocate and an accomplished adult with Aspergers
Syndrome, eloquently painted an analogy of how traditional methods of teaching (and
assessment) can prove to be unreasonable and unfair for children with Autism:
Expecting children with ASD to learn via the conventional curriculum and teaching
methods that have"always worked" for typical children is to set everyone up tor tailure
right from the start. It would be like placing a young child on a grown up's chair and
expecting his feet to reach the floor.
An assessment and teaching framework that has been steadily gaining popularity
because of its learner-centered orientation is the Response to Intervention (RTI) framework.
RTI "integrates high quality teaching and assessment methods in a systematic way so that
students who are not successful when presented with one set of instructional methods can
be given the chance to succeed with the use of other practices" (Brown-Chidsey & Steege,
2005, p. 3). Using a three-tiered support system, RTI seeks to proactively identify students
in need of a more intensive academic or behavioral support structure. Regular benchmark
assessments and progress monitoring are prominent in RTI when used in inclusive settings.

31
It reflects the importance of dynamic and consistent use of authentic screening measures
to determine the adequacy of both behavioral and academic support given to individual
students. Assessment then becomes the basis for informed decision-making.

Tier 3
Intensivee
Individualized
Support
Tier 2:
Targeted, Support
to Struggling
Students

Tier 1:
Universal Core
Instruction and
Supports

Figure 2.5. Assessment and Problem Solving in Response to Intervention (RTI)

Authentic assessment should inform practice. Norm-referenced, traditional assess.

ments simply segregate students into smart, average, and academically- or behaviora
ly-challenged, but not with RTI. The ongoing assessment characteristic of RTI, sometime
referred to as Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS), influences the provision of
necessary
supports for every student to succeed. It is learner-centered at every tier, beginning with all
students at Tier 1 being supported through evidence-based "best practice" teaching. For the
few who are struggling with specific content areas, they can be grouped under Tier 2 and
be provided with accommodations and modifications necessary for them to suCceed. This
can be in the form of increased duration and frequency of instruction for subjects found to
be difficult. A special area content teacher like a Reading Specialist or a Math Specialist can
use a range of pedagogical approaches that can make learning complex concepts easier for
students in Tier 2. Severely challenged students, on the other hand, can benefit from the
intensive and individualized support given in Tier 3 without immediately referring them to
self-contained settings. Continuous collection of information, a possible referral to a multi
disciplinary team, and assessment for eligibility for SPED services characterize Tier 3.
Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt (2013) reported that when correctly implemented, MTSS
can result in:
all students receiving high-quality instruction in the general education setting;
a reduction of referrals for special education eligibility consideration;
the use of assessment information to make decisions about all students as they
are screened for academic and behavior problems;
ongoing monitoring of individual student progress and analysis of the data to
pinpoint specific difficulties experienced by individual students;
at-risk students receiving immediate individual attention without having to wait
to be identified as eligible for special education services;
consistent, rigorous implementation of progress monitoring and effective
interventions; and
all students receiving appropriate instruction prior to consideration for special
education placement.
An Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) that is collaboratively accomplished by the
child's interdisciplinary team can be an offshoot of an assessment done for K-12 students.
Whether the child is in a self-contained setting or in an inclusive setting (most likely at lier
3), an IEP would guarantee that individual learning differences are recognized. The unique
needs of the child are determined after a thorough authentic assessment and this would be

32
the basis for making education relevant for him/her.
The Role of the Family in Determining the Purpose of Assessment
s the family involved from the very beginning of the assessment process until the final
results are reported in a manner that is easily understood by them? Does the assessment
consider the primary language spoken by the family? Is the family interview conducted
sensitively, with high regard for socio-cultural differences? Most importantly, what is the
family's purpose for seeking an assessment?

At the center of authentic assessment is the child and the family, taken as One u
(Figure 1.1). The child cannot be seen apart from the family that he/she belongs to.
Researcn
has proven that one of the greatest predictors for the growth and wel-being of students
with disabilities is family involvement and empowerment (Edwards & Da Fonte, 2012).
Family-centered assessment is still not the norm in most settings catering to chiare
with special needs. A study by Rivadelo (2000) of 111 parents from different preschools and
therapy centers in Metro Manila revealed that the three most common goals communicared
by parents of children with special needs are the following: (1) sharing of expectations witn
the family; (2) being part of decision-making; and (3) collaborating with professionals.
The willingness of the family to divulge sensitive information related to the child's
condition is crucial to the depth and validity of the assessment report. Often, professionals
would tend to assume parental expectations. The purpose of the assessment, however,
should be established beforehand and not pre-determined by professionals. This should
come from the parents and should set the tone for drafting the assessment report. An
assessment can only be considered authentic if guided by the goals and expectations of the
family, with whom the child shares his/her most important day-to-day experiences.
Every family is different. Each member within a family is also unique and would respond
differently to the child with special needs. Turnbull et al. (1984) adopted a Family Systems
Theory to explain the interrelatedness and interdependence of experiences and reactions
within a family, particularly the family of the child with special needs. They identified four
key elements of this family systems conceptual framework:
1. Family characteristics - attributes such as cultural background, financial well
being, size, age, geographic location, abilities, and disabilities
2. Family interactions-daily relationships among family members
2.
3. Family functions - social, emotional, educational, and physical needs met by the
3.
family
A. Family life cycle changes that affect families and influence family resources,
interactions, and functions
Most families would seek for an assessment to find out if there is anything "wrong" with
the child, referring to atypical development. It can be a delay in any of the developmental
domains (language, physical, social, adaptive, cognitive), or unusual behaviors that can
be considered red flags of a certain disability. An appropriate response would be to first
acknowledge the family's concerns, as well as their fears and hopes for positive outcomes in
spite of a potential disability.
There may be cultural factors at play, such as the higher regard of traditional Chinese
families for the firstborn son compared to the birth of a daughter. Accepting that the first-
born son may potentially have a disability can have implications on the purpose, as well as
the timing of assessment. According to tradition, this son would inherit the family's wealth,
and should therefore be nothing less than pertect, Expectations even at a very young age
run high. The impact of a disability on this family may be significant and should therefore
be handled with utmost patience and sensitivity. Parental expectations may be far from
realities revealed asa result of the assessment.

In a typical extended Filipino family, wherein there is a shared responsibility for raisina

33
children and wherein the involvement of the grandparents sometimes exceeds that of the
biological parents, there may be differences in expectations and the identified purpose
of the assessment. The grandparent of the child may contradict behavioral observatione
of the biological parent and dismiss these as "normal" thus, disapproving of the familys
decision to pursue an assessment. Their cooperation is crucial to the assessment process.
A
conscious effort to respect differences in opinion while promoting greater involvement in
the assessment process should be undertaken.
Ultimately, the family knows the child best. Authentic assessment seeks to recognize
differences in families and respects varying intentions in seeking for an assessment.
Whatever purpose the family has identified for pursuing an assessment for the child with
special needs, what is important is that the truth is upheld and all efforts are focused on
discovering the child's potential to learn and become.

SUMMARY
Authentic assessment influences educational placement and programming at different
stages of the child's life starting with the early intervention years, followed by the school-
age years (kindergarten to grade 12), and finally, during transition to community living or
vocational education. The purpose of authentic assessment is to influence practice reflected
in the appropriate provision of necessary behavioral and academic supports, whether
the child is in a self-contained setting or in inclusive context. A Response to Intervention
(RTI) framework characterized by ongoing assessment and responsive decision-making
promotes successful learning for majority of children with special needs. The provision
of an IEP ensures the developmental appropriateness of the curriculum as an outcome
of assessment findings. The family is central to the assessment process. Families differ in
their expectations and purpose for seeking an assessment for the child with special needs.
Authentic assessment respects the family's significant role in providing relevant data that
would achieve the purpose for which the assessment was done.

CHAPTER 3
Developmental vs. Disability Perspective in Assessment

Authentic assessment involves two often complimentary perspectives in gathering

nd analyzing data. The developmental and disability perspectives in assessment allow
the assessor to holistically view the child both from a sociocultural and physiological lens
Balancing these two perspectives will result in a more accurate proñling of the strengths.
potentials, and priority needs of a child with a disability. A thorough understanding of the
principles of "normal" and atypical child development, along with knowledge of the clinical
profile of specific disabilities particularly prognosticating factors, can result in a credibly
authentic assessment.
Changing Paradigms of Disability: The Sociocultural and Physiological Views
Understanding "Normal"and Atypical Child Development
The Whole Child Perspective as a Function of Development and Disability

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you are expected to
1. debate on the changing paradigms of disability from a deficit perspective to a
1.
strengths-based perspective, based on the rights-based approach and a growing
emphasis on individuality;
2 explain the principles of "normal" development and compare this with atypical
child development; and
3. analyze how the developmental and disability perspectives in the assessment of
3.
the whole child can contribute to the credibility of the assessment process.

34
KEY TERMS
Physiological View of Disability Sociocultural View of Disability
UN-CRPD Person-First Language
Deaf Culture Batas Pambansa 344
Neuromaturational Theory Developmental Delay
Experiential Learning Whole Child Perspective
Atypical Development International Classification of
Functioning (ICF)

Changing Paradigms of Disability: The Sociocultural and Physiological Views

Disability has traditionally been viewed from a deficits perspective. Assessment serves
to determine how far a child's abilities are from norm-referenced expectations. When a child
is referred for special education, the child's disabilityoften becomes the focus ofintervention.

wmmwxorocr ooco:ococo:ooo******xX***S

rather than looking beyond the limitations imposed by the disability. Labels and diagi
define the child. This is the physiological view of disability, The child is seen as "impaired
and lacking; thus, he/she needs to be "fixed" In order for him/her to function and o
his/her abilities have to approximate the norm. Otherwise, he/she would always De gauy
as deficient. As a result, interventions are geared toward developing skills in the indiviaua
child across different domains of development and functioning. Recommendauo
intervention are more remedial in nature since the expected outcome of the assessment
would be a listing of problem areas that need to be worked on in the child with specid
needs. For instance, a child with Dyslexia would most likely have dificulties with audirory
processing, phonemic awareness, and reading comprehension. The clinical proile or
Dyslexia would be consistent with such language and cognitive deficits. Nonetheless, this
does not paint a complete picture of the child that would be useful in drafting an educational
program that would be customized for his/her unique interests, attitude, personality, speciic
learning requirements, and family resources.
Stereotypes of behavior and functioning are passed on from one context to another,
as children with special needs are discriminated upon by virtue of the labels imposed
upon them. There is value in identifying gaps in learning and development. There should,
however, be a balance in perspective as both needs and strengths are emphasized during
the assessment process.
Often, attitudinal barriers brought about by indiscriminate labeling prevent the
full integration of children with special needs into the mainstream of society. School
administrators may outright refuse school admission to a child with special needs, denying
him/her the right to qualify for an entrance test. This, however, violates the child's basic right
to education. Education is a fundamental human right.
The United Nations Convention of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities or the UN-
CRPD (www.ncda.gov.ph) guarantees that "State Parties shall take all necessary measures
to
ensure the full enjoyment by children with disabilities of all human rights and fundamental
freedoms on an equal basis with other children" Furthermore, Section 12 of Republic Act
No. 7277, otherwise known as the Magna Carta for Persons with Disabilities (NCDA, 2008),
stipulates that "It shall be unlawful for any learning institution to deny a person with disability
admission to any course it offers by reason of handicap or disability. The State shall take
into consideration the special requirements of persons with disabilities in the formulation
of educational policies and programs"
There is still a huge gap between what the law stipulates and the exercise of these laws
designed to protect the rights of children with special needs to access quality education. In
reality, less than five percent of Filipino children with special needs have access to
education

35
(DepEd, 2005). They remain twice marginalized, both by poverty and disability. On a global
Scale, millions of primary school-aged children do not attend school, 90% of them coming
from the low to lower middle-income countries (UNESCO, 2003). The physiological view
perpetuates the segregation of persons with disabilities (PWDs) as that sector of society
that deviates significantly from the norm, lacking the capacity to adapt due to biological
deficiencies. Unless their sensory or cognitive faculties are complete, PWDs would have to
struggle to meet expectations of normalcy. Applied to education, the physiological view
assumes that children belonging to the same disability category have identical learning
arning
profles, thus, necessitating placement in disability-speciic classes. The child's educational

program revolves around remediating deficits, essentially aiming to "hx" the child in order
to approximate normal developmental functioning.

Physiological View
"Fix"' the Child: Deficits
Perspective; Remediation Model

Sociocultural View
"Fix" the System/Environment
Rights-Based, Inclusive
Approach: Strengths-Based
Figure 3.1. A Paradigm Shift: Physiological to Sociocultural View
Over the years, politically correct terminologies have evolved to reflect the changing
paradigm of disability. From viewing disability through a physiological lens that emphasizes
deficits in the child, there is a shift to a sociocultural perspective, which recognizes the
child as a function of his/her environment. The child is regarded as a whole person, de-
emphasizing his/her disability. He/She is first and foremost, a child. His/Her disability,
though it is necessary for educational purposes to consider it and its accompanying speciał
learning requirements, is only one aspect of who he/she is. Politically correct terminology
dictates that the child is mentioned first, instead of referring to the child according to his/
her disability. The child's disability does not define him/her. To give an example, instead of
calling the child as Down Syndrome (or worse, mongoloid as children with this condition
have been previously called), he/she is referred to as a "child with Down Syndrome' The
same applies to most other developmental conditions and sensory impairments (see Table
3.1).

Table 3.1.Politically Correct Terminology: Person-First Language

Past Person-First Language
Autistic Child with Autism
Mentally Retarded Child with Intellectual Disability
Mongoloid Child with Down Syndrome
Learning Disabled Child with Learning Disability
AD/HD Child with AD/HD
(Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder)
Blind |Child with Visual Impairment or Blind
Deaf-Mute/Deaf and Dumb Deaf
Lame/Crippled Child with Orthopedic Handicap
Cerebral Palsy Child with Cerebral Palsy

For children with sensory disabilities such as blindness and deafness, there is no

consensus with regard to what is considered as politicallv correct. Many blind indiviaua
do not mind being referred to as "blind" or "with visual impairment" since there varying in
degrees of blindness that are related to the accommodations needed for them to ru

36
a "seeing worid. Ihrough the years, this has not been an issue within the blind commun
Blindness is one of the oldest disability categories and being called blind has generany De
acceptable even among the blind.
On the other hand, the deaf community continues to struggle with a common idenu
as philosophical issues remain to surface alongside deeply rooted language issues. >OmE
argue that deafness is not a disability. The deaf speak a different language, that S, Sig
language. There is a deaf culture that is distinct from the rest of the hearing world, but is
largely unrecognized. Many do not like to be referred to as "hearing-impaired, connoting
a lack of functional ability; a deficit in hearing that is overemphasized. They preter to De
simply called "deaf" There is a sense of pride in being deaf and being part of this unique
culture that may be dificult to penetrate for those who can hear and speak. In the dear
world, it is the hearing who are disabled unless they can proficiently sign and communicate
through their hands.
The World Bank (2014) defines disability as "the result of the interaction between
people with different levels of functioning and an environment that does not take thnese
differences into account" Consistent with the sociocultural view, disability is perceived as
a result of physical, social, and learning barriers inherent in a system that excludes children
who do not fit into typical measures of normalcy. Marginalization secondary to a disability
is promoted by practices that do not consider individual differences.
A perfect example would be physical barriers such as installing stairs over ramps in
educational institutions. There are countless examples of students with physical limitations
who have been deprived of an education because of handicapping, structural facilities
in both public and private schools. Although capable of learning alongside peers and
maybe even excelling academically, many students who are wheelchair-bound are forced
to drop out of school because of the daily grueling ascent to the third floor classroom,
requiring manually lifting a child on a wheelchair to get to the classroom. Without an able
companion, he/she will not be able to independently go to his/her class. Given that he/
she is developmentally at par in all domains except for his/her physical limitations, he/she
would have succeeded as a student, given that the physical environment had been inclusive
and barrier-free.
Batas Pambansa 344, otherwise known as the Accessibility Act (www.ncda.gov.ph),
stipulates that "Educational institutions.. shall install and incorporate in such building,
establishment, institution or public utility, such architectural facilities or structural features as
shall reasonably enhance the mobility of disabled persons such as sidewalks, ramps,
railings
and the like."The law provides protection for children who are orthopedically handicapped
and who are entitled to their basic right to education. The physiological view perceives the
child as unable to walk, but the sociocultural view sees the environment as disabling, and is
thus the barrier preventing access to education. It is the environment that needs "fixing" not
the child.
Authentic assessment relies on the recognition of strengths in the individual child. This
WOuld require a paradigm shift from a mindset of lack, to one of potential. Considering that
the child has a disability, how can his/her current abilities be optimized and what.

possible avenues for developing talent and creativity? A strengths-based, inclusive, and
rights-based approach to assessment challenges the resourcefulness of the assessor while
setting a positive direction for program planning. Designing a curriculum from a strengths
based approach encourages student progress and from a parental perspective, highlights
the value of the student (Layton & Lock, 2008).

Understanding "Normal" and Atypical Child Development

Child development is complicated. An interplay of unique genetic and environmental
factors that influence a child's early experiences are responsible for the developmental
outcome of every child. There are numerous theories on child development that must be
considered to authentically assess a child with special needs. Table 3.2 summarizes

37
selected
major theories of child development, their major proponents, and basic principles.
Table 3.2. Selected Major Theories of Child Development
Developmental Major Proponent/s Basic Principles
Theory Behavior shaping is an outcome
of observational learning,
Behavioral Bandura, Pavlov, Skinner environmental stimulus, response,
and consequences.
Montessori, Piaget, Development of thinking and
Cognitive Vygotsky active learning progress in stages of
|increasing complexity.
The child's environment strongly
Ecological Bronfenbrenner influences development, emphasizing
the family unit as a major factor in
learning.
Child development is directly related
Neuromaturational| Bobath, Bayley, Gessel to brain maturation and readiness to
learn while following a set sequence.
An understanding of these developmental theories is necessary from the time the
assessment procedure is being specifically designed for a child with special needs, to the
analysis of assessment data. The National Association for the Education of Young Children
(NAEYC) has enumerated 12 Principles of Child Development and Learning
(www.naeyc.org)
that can serve as a guide in further understanding"normal"and atypical child development
1. All areas of development and learning are important.
1.
In an interdisciplinary team, professionals may tend to be biased toward
developing skills that are within their area of expertise. The physical therapist may
prioritize gross-motor skills and mobility; the Occupational Therapist may regard
behavior, handwriting, and daily living skills as being of utmost importance; the
Speech-language Pathologist may prioritize communication above all other skills; and
the SPED teacher may emphasize academic competencies in literacy and mathematics
as priority areas. Learning in all of the developmental domains, however, is important
in the holistic development of the child. There may be some identified priority areas
AL

according to the family's expectations at set periods of development (e.g, durn

the early intervention years, learning to walk may be the family's priority for a child
with Global Developmental Delay), but all other developmental domains should be
considered in planning for both home and school interventions.
2. Learning and development follow sequences.
The neuromaturational theory of development emphasizes the progression
of learned skills according to set sequences, related to the growing complexity of
the child's central nervous system. Development proceeds from simple to complex
(babbling to meaningful one-word utterances): gross to fine (grasping the baby bottle
to picking up objects using isolated thumb-index finger movement); head to foot or
cephalocaudal progression (developing head and trunk control before leg control and
stability); and proximodistal progression (attaining core muscle strength and balance
in sitting before being able to use the hands for reaching and manipulation). Following
the normal sequence of development is important particularly for training motor
skills in children with poor muscle tone or hypotonia, such as in children with Down
Syndrome (Haley, 1986).
3 Development and learning proceed at varying rates.
There may be norm-referenced developmental milestones that specify particular
ages when developmental skills have to be attained, but these usually span a range of

38
several months when variations are still considered acceptable. There are individual
differences in children's rate of learning due to biological and environmental factors
that influence the learning of these skills. An example would be gender differences
wherein most boys learn how to walk earlier than girls, while most girls talk earlier
than boys. A lack of opportunity to practice skills will most likely cause a delay in the
achievement of developmental milestones. For instance, a child who is overdependent
on a nanny can miss the opportunity to learn how to feed by himself/herself and dress
by himself/herself, as appropriate for his/her age. According to the Division of Early
Childhood (DEC) Position Statement on the classification of Developmental Delay, this
does not refer to a condition in which a child is slightly or momentarily lagging in
development... It is an indication that the process of development is significantly
affected and that without special intervention, it is likely that educational performance
at school age will be affected" (Simpson &Warner, 2010, p. 212). Not all developmental
delays are therefore eligible for special education, considering that there are individual
variations in development.
4. Development and learning result from an interaction of maturation and
experience.
Both biological and environmental factors play a role in the development of a
child with special needs (Gargiulo & Kilgo, 2014). Early intervention bridges the gap
between what the child is inherently capable of becoming, given his/her particular
disability and the experiences that would enable him/her to optimize his/her potentials
to the fullest. There is a parenting phenomenon wherein parents over-schedule their
children and bombard them with all possible interventions, setting their hopes on
accelerating development with the frequency of structured learning opportunities.
The human brain, however, in spite of its plasticity and responsiveness to stimuli, has
its own pace of building synapses and developing accordingly. The brain's capacity to

learn varies with age, genetic differences, function, and stimulation. For learning to
take place, both neural maturation and experiential factors are valuable predictors of
development.
5. Early experiences have profound effects on development and learning.
A substantial amount of research has proven the effectiveness of early
intervention for children with special needs (Bruder, 2010). The period from zero to
seven years old has been considered as the critical period of development, otherwise
known as "the window of opportunity'when the brain acts like a sponge in its capacity
to absorb large amounts of information. Maria Montessori, the developmental theorist
who has contributed greatly to early childhood special education, highights these
sensitive periods of development when childhood experiences are crucial to learning
According to Gargiulo and Kilgo (2014), early intervention has the following signifcant
benefits: (a) it prevents or minimizes the effects of a handicapping condition upon
a child's growth and development; (b) it maximizes opportunities to engage in the
normal activities of early childhood; and (C) it supports and empowers the families
accomplishing their goals. The impact of early childhood experiences cannot be
undermined. For children with special needs, these experiences increase their chances
of being mainstreamed into schools where they can learn with typically developing
peers and wherein their intelligence and creativity can be honed to the fullest.
6. Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self-regulation, and symbolic
6.
or representational capacities.
Children learn by actively constructing knowledge. Jean Piaget explained
cognitive development as a progression in stages of increasing complexity: 0-2
years old, Sensorimotor Stage; 2-7 years old, Preoperational Stage; 7-11 years old,
Concrete Operations Stage; 12 years old to adulthood, Formal Operations Stage. Even
for children with AD/HD, symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity begin to taper
as they learn to regulate their emotions with behavioral support mechanisms (www.

39
webmd.com). In terms of learning appropriate behaviors, intrinsic motivation replaces
external reinforcements (such as tangible rewards) for establishing good behaviors.
On the other hand, in learning academic concepts like in the study of mathematics,
the use of concrete objects to count and make sets is later on replaced by numerical
representations that lay the foundation for solving mathematical operations. The
same is true with language development when vocabulary is initially built with actual
reference to or pictures of familiar people and common objects. These are eventually
expanded using word associations embedded in literary material targeting reading
comprehension.
7. Children develop best when they have secure relationships.
The study of Tomasello et al. (2010) has proven that providing family-centered
care to children with disabilities is an essential component of high-quality early inter
vention services. Families are considered as the experts in their children's development
as they make informed decisions regarding their children's education and supportive
interventions. Bronfenbrenner, in his ecological theory of child development, stresses
the role and influence of the family in facilitating learning. The emotional well-being
of the child, grounded in having secure attachments to significant others, is of primary
importance in ensuring that he/she would learn to the best of his/her ability.

8. Development and learning occur in and are infuenced by multiple socialana

cultural contexts.
The socioCultural framework of Vvaotsky (1981) illustrates how societal and
cultural infiuences impact the development of a child. The child cannot be see d
apart from the family and the community he/she belongs to. According to MCAIEE
and Leong (2011), the context of the child can either be hindering or supportin9
development and learning. Some of the possible contextual factors would be the
placement and arrangement of furniture and equipment in a learning environment
the choice of instructional materials, the amount of environmental distractions, ana
appropriate guidance from a parent or teacher. All of these can have a significant effect
on the pace and quality of learning of a child with special needs. In the same manne,
these contextual variables are important to consider when conducting an authentic
assessment that is usually done in the child's natural setting.
9 Children learn in a variety of ways.
There is no one way to learn, and the phrase "one size fits all" does not apply to
teaching and learning. Research has proven that children learn differently; thus, there
is a need to use a variety of strategies to cater to the diversity of learning needs. The
concept of Learning Styles and Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1993) both
present ways by which individual learning strengths are recognized. Naturalistic data
obtained through an authentic assessment relies heavily on recognizing uniqueness
of talent (linguistic, mathematical-logical, visual-spatial, musical, bodily-physical,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic) and preferred sensory modalities (visual,
auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic) as possible avenues for optimizing developmental
potential (Layton & Lock, 2008).
10. Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation and promoting
language, cognition, and social competence.
The primary preoccupation of children is play. Child development theorists
generally support play as a valuable means of understanding how children think
and learn. When assessing children with special needs using play-based assessment,
a simple play activity can elicit performance across several developmental domains.
For example, ball throwing and catching can measure gross-motor skills (ability to
throw and catch a ball as a developmental milestone), attention span (without which
the child cannot catch the bal), receptive language (ability to follow the commands
throw"and "catch"and practice turn-taking as a pre-requisite to communication), self-
regulation (ability to wait and keep still), and the capacity to engage in associative
play with peers (indicative of social competence, language, and cognition). Play can

40
engage children much more than any other activity intended to measure learning and
development.
Development and learning advance when children are challenged.
Learning only takes place when children go beyond their comfort zones and
attempt to performa new task. Repetitively performing a learned skill is not actually
learning, but simply practicing to do the task. Transferring this learning, however, to
practical situations and novel contexts canqualiry as real learning.For instance, children
with Autism who are by nature, comfortable with structure, are extremely challenged
when faced with new environments. They may know how to cross a street during

simulation activities when they are trained to walk when they see a visual cue (a green
stoplight sign) and stop walking when they see another visual cue (a red stopliqht
sign). Authentic assessment would require observing the child generalize this learned
skill to a naturalistic context wherein he/she would have to cross the pedestrian lane
in a real intersection, following cues from an actual stoplight.
12. Children's experiences shape their motivation and approaches to learning.
Experiential learning, as explained by David Kolb (www.psychology.about.
com), is "the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of
experience"Kolb classified learners into "watchers"(reflective observation) and "doers
(active experimentation). Whether children have actually witnessed or participated in
an experience, such experience would influence their desire to learn more and how
they would engage in the learning process. A child who has had a positive experience
during an assessment may be expected to be cooperative during succeeding
assessments. On the other hand, if the experience with a prior assessment has been a
traumatic one, it can take longer before rapport is established between the assessor
and the student. This can have an effect on how much relevant data is gathered as
useful evidence for arriving at a strengths-based assessment.
A thorough understanding of "normal" child development is necessary to gauge
whether development is "atypical" or can still be explained by the complexities of child
development that account for individual differences among children. There are, however,
instances when development grossly deviates from the norm and these disparities should
be understood in the light of existing disability categories. In such instances, a disability
perspective can provide useful information with regard to establishing prognosis and
recommending evidence-based interventions as an outcome of authentic assessment.

The Whole Child Perspective as a Function of Development and Disability

The child with special needs is first and foremost a child. He/She may be developing
in a way that differs from most other children his/her age, but he/she is definitely a unique
individual who can be appreciated most when his/her strengths are recognized. The Whole
Child Perspective emphasizes the developmental potential of the child, while acknowledging
inherent limitations as a result of an underlying disability.
In Chapter 2, the purposes of assessment have been outlined depending on the
child's phase of development and learning (early intervention, K-12 years, and transition
phase to adulthood). One of these purposes is special education eligibility. In the United
States of America, the Americans with Disabilities Act, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act
of 1973, and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, provide for the
classification of students into disability categories (Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt, 2013). Such
classification entitles students to benefit from free special education and related services.
This is the main reason why such disability categories exist. They are, however, not meant
to stereotype students and promote unnecessary labeling beyond fulfilling the purpose o
classification for special education eligibility.
Based on the 2000 census, there are 942,098 Filipinos with disabilities, comprising
1.23% of the population (Philippine Coalition on the UN-CRPD, 2013). This is way below the
universal estimate of disability equivalent to 10-13% of any population and is an under

41
representation of the actual national statistics.
rephe following impairment categories: (1) visual; (2) hearing; (3) sp
he census classified persons with disabilities
tellectual; (6) psychosoclal; (/) extensive; and (8) various low-incidence impai
On the other nand, Republic Act 7277 or the Magna Carta
(NCDA 2008), acknowledges the special educational needs of persons with tne at
arta for Persons with Disabilities
ilities: (1) Visual impairment; (2) hearing impairment; (3) orthopedic handicap
disabilities: (1) visual persons with the following
mental retardation (now referred to as intellectual disability);: (5) behavior probien
(4 ment; (3) orthopedic handicaps;
ncluding Autism, (o) edrning aisabilities; and (7) multiple handicaps.The gifted and talented
are also included in this classirication-the subject of much debate and discussion in
special education circies wnerein the disparity in funding for the education of students witn
spe
disabilities as opposed to the gifted and talented, is being questioned. Inciong et al. (2007)
included speech and language disorders or communication disorders in the categories or
exceptionalities recognized by the Special E nication disorders in the categories of
exceptionalities recognized by the Special Education Division of the Philippine Department
of Education, Bureau of Elementary Education. A review of these classifications would show
that the categorization of disability used by the Philippine government is still not alignea
with the current framework of understanding disability needs from a global perspective.
The International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) is the
global standard used to measure health and disability as recommended by the World
Health Organization since 2001 (WHO, 2014). Unlike traditional classifications of disability,
the ICF includes a list of environmental factors that can contribute to a person's disability.
This modern view of disability looks beyond the medical or biological conceptualization of
dysfunction, and takes into account other contextual factors that can have an impact on the
functioning of the individual. In other words, it is consistent with the sociocultural view of
disability that acknowledges the complex, dynamic interactions of the person given his/her
general health (structure and body function), his/her participation in specific activities or
tasks, and environmental factors which can hinder his/her functioning. The ICF is a unifying
framework for classifying the consequences of a health condition.
Adapted from Effgen (2013), Figure 3.2 illustrates the interactions between the
components of ICF using the example of a preschool-aged child with Spastic Diplegia
Cerebral Palsy.
HEALTH CONDITION
[Spastic Diplegia Cerebral Palsy

BODY FUNCTIONSs ACTIVITIES PARTICIPATION

AND STRUCTURES [Limitations in Walking [Restrictions in Participation
[Limited Mobility of Joints on Different Surfaces] in Preschool Education]
in Lower Half of Body]

ENVIRONMENTAL PERSONAL FACTORS

FACTORS [Healthy Lifestyle and Age-
[immediate and Extended Appropriate Behavior]
Family Very Supportive]
Adapted from: Effgen (2013) and WHO (2014)
Figure 3.2. Sample ICF Components in a Preschool-Aged Child with Cerebral Palsy

The ICF focuses on determining how children with health conditions can still live
productively and participate maximally in their chosen activities given their individual
circumstances related to both environmental and personal factors. Development and
disability should be viewed holistically throughout the process of authentic assessment,

42
Disability is only viewed as a limiting factor when the assessment environment fails to
differentiate procedures, structures, and tools to accommodate for the diversity of student
needs.
Knowledge of the limitations imposed by a specific disability can be useful in planning
necessary accommodations and modifications. Assessment should be designed with the
purpose of accessing learning and discovering potential in the child with special needs.
Table 3.3 summarizes expected delays in development or atypical development in children
(ages 0-7) belonging to different disability categories, the purpose of which is to serve as
a guide in planning and administering differentiated assessment, as will be discussed in
Chapter 4. These expected delays, however, do not apply to all since many factors
contribute
to individual differences. Some disabilities co-exist such as Autism and intellectual disability,
or AD/HD and a specific learning disability. These complicate differentiation and would
require further specialization in assessment

Table 3.3. Relationship between Developmental Delay/ Atypical Development and

Disability (for children ages 0-7 years old)
Disability Categories GM FM COG RLELSE/PS SH
Blind
Deaf
Orthopedically Handicapped X
Cerebral Palsy
Intellectual Disability
Autism X
AD/HD
Communication Disorders X
Specific Learning Disability X X

Legend: - Expected Developmental Delay or Atypical Development

X - Normal/Typical Development

GM Gross Motor EL Expressive Language

FM Fine Motor SE/PS Socio-emotional/Psychosocial
COG Cognitive SH Self-Help
RL Receptive Language

Development is interrelated. A delay in one domain usually affects development in

another domain. For instance, in children who are blind, since they lack vision that accountS
for much of learning during the early years, they tend to exhibit some delays, as well in
developing motor and language skills. Even if they are physically capable of moving about,
children who are blind are limited in their ability to explore their environment during the
sensorimotor years, consistent with Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Ihis arfects
learning coursed through the sense of sight. They become apprehensive in explorin9
by crawling or walking; thus, limiting learning basic concepts that sighted children
spontaneously learn (e.g, common objects, food, places, familiar people). Without early
intervention, a visual impairment can have an adverse effect on cognitive, language, ana
social development (D'Allura, 2002).
On the other hand, deaf children exhibit delays in cognitive development primarily
related to literacy skills development. Since phonemic awareness is necessary for children
to learn how to read, not being able to demonstrate this pre-requisite skill causes delays
in being able to access reading material. Children with a specific learning disability such as
Dyslexia, likewise lack phonemic awareness. Aside from this, they also encounter difficulties
with processing information from their other senses (problems with visual-motor processing
and eye-hand coordination) causing handwriting issues. These may all contribute to lowering
the child's self-esteem, as commonly observed in children with learning disabilities (www.

43
dyslexia-research.com).
Around 25% of children with AD/HD have a co-morbid learning disability (www.
dyslexia-reading-well.com). Inattention and impulsivity, two of the hallmark signs of AD/HD,
further affect the child's ability to follow instructions, engage in mental processes necessary
for learning, and complete academic requirements in order to succeed in school. In spite of
having average to above-average intelligence, the child with AD/HD still fails due to test-
taking difficulties and accompanying behavioral issues.
Children with intellectual disability, on the other hand) would exhibit delays in all
domains of development, thus, being referred to as having Global Developmental Delay.
This is true for children with Down Syndrome; all of whom have intellectual disability of
varying severity. Sub-average functioning is evident throughout the developmental years.
An intellectual disability can co-exist with Autism and Cerebral Palsy. Half of children
belonging to the population of children in the Autism spectrum would have an intellectual
disability with an IQ below 50 (www.intellectualdisability.info/diagnosis/autistic-spectrum-
disorders). Once Autism co-exists with intellectual disability, all domains of development
are affected, with more significant delays in socio-emotional and communication skills as
compared to those with average to above-average intelligence.
Cerebral Palsy is defined as a neuromuscular disorder caused by a non-progressive
lesion to the immature brain (Effgen, 2013). Al children with Cerebral Palsy would
demonstrate delays in both gross- and fine-motor skills due to abnormalities in tone, either
being spastic (hypertonic) or flaccid thypotonic), some also having tone that fluctuates
between these two extremes. This aftects their mobility significantly and their capacity
to perform self-help skills such as feeding, dressing, toileting, and transferring from their
wheelchair to the bed and vice-versa, independently. Depending on the extent of damage
to the developing brain, manifestations of Cerebral Palsy can range from mild (hemiplegic,
ambulatory, normal intelligence) to severe (quadriplegiC, wheelchair-bound, profound
intellectual disability, deaf-blind).

Development and disability are therefore two perspectives that have to be balanced in
order to understand the child holistically and arrive at assumptions that are fair to the
child with special needs. The whole child perspective will pave the way for a more accurate
assessment of abilities, strengths, and needs in the individual child whose potential to learn
is dependent on an understanding of what he/she is truly capable of becoming.

SUMMARY
Shifting paradigms from a physiological, deficits perspective to a sociocultural,
strengths-based perspective allows for a thorough understanding of the child with special
needs. Due respect is given to his/her basic rights, particularly to an impartial assessment
that recognizes his/her individuality and his/her potential to become optimally functional
and productive. Personal, environmental, and contextual factors that may either support
or limit learning and development are aptly considered. The International Classification
of Functioning (ICF) provides a framework for understanding disability supportive of the
sociocultural framework. Atypical development can be caused by an existing disability.
Delays may be inherent due to biological factors, or may be due to a lack of practice
opportunity for development to be facilitated. All domains of development are also
interrelated. The whole child perspective, one that balances both developmental principles
and knowledge of disabilities with their accompanying difficulties in learning skills and
attaining developmental milestones, ensures that assessment would be more authentic.

CHAPTER 4
Differentiated Assessment Strategies and the Use of Alternative Assessments

Most children with special needs require differentiated and alternative assessments tor
their abilities and needs to be accurately measured. Failure to modify assessment strategies
and procedures according to the child's special needs would render the assessment invalid.

44
Formative assessments are usually preferred since these progressively measure learning
over time. As for summative assessments, content modification and accommodations in the
format of the evaluation tool, testing time, length of test, and mode of test delivery may D
necessary, depending on the inherent limitations posed by different disabilities. Criterion-
referenced assessments are typically used over norm-referenced assessments because
they qualitatively measure the complex range of abilities scattered across developmental
domains. Alternative assessment procedures such as curriculum-based, play-based,
dynamic, project and portfolio assessment should be closely matched to curriculum goals
and linked to educational practice.
mww.wm wwww.w
wewwmaneAewww.waMaAmAMBwnmaamAMA
Promoting Assessment Accessibility Through the Universal Design for Learning
(UDL)
Summative and Norm-Referenced Assessments vs. Formative and Criterion
Referenced Assessments
Using Alternative Assessments to Influence Learning
************w******w*n wwewwwwwweeor
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you are expected to:
1. justify the use of differentiated assessment anchored to Universal Design for
Learning (UDL) to promote greater assessment accessibility:
2. compare and contrast the value of formative and criterion-referenced
assessments against summative and norm-referenced assessments, specifically
to authentically assess learners with special needs; and
3. describe alternative assessment procedures that can provide rich and valuable
data on the child with special needs.

KEY TERMS
Basal Level Ceiling Level
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Culture-Free Accommodations and Modifications
Norm-Referenced Assessment Summative Assessment
Criterion-Referenced Assessment Formative Assessment
Contextual Paradigm Personalized Paradigm

43

Promoting Assessment Accessibility Through the Universal Design for

Learning (UDL)
Children with special needs are entitled to valid assessments that would authentically
measure their abilities, needs, and potentials. Considering the limitations brought about by
disability, they are often excluded from fair assessment procedures, may it be for admission
and eligibility purposes, or for progress monitoring, promotion, and educational placement
purposes. As a result, they are denied admission to schools or promotion tO the next
grade level. These students would have had a greater chance of succeeding academically,
if only assessment accommodations have been provided to therm. Some students are
recommended to inappropriate educational placements as a conseguence of the use of
traditional assessment procedures that may be biased against learners with special needs.
Article 24 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(UN-CRPD) of which the Philippines is a signatory, stipulates that "State Parties shall ensure
that reasonable accommodation is provided to persons with disabilities." Reasonable
accommodation has been defined in Article 2 as the"necessary and appropriate modification
and adjustments not imposing a disproportionate or undue burden, where needed in a
particular case, to ensure to persons with disabilities the enjoyment or exercise on an equal
basis with others of all human rights and fundamental freedoms. (www.ncda.gov.ph)

45
The reality of student diversity necessitates authentic assessment wherein learners are
given ample opportunities to demonstrate their knowledge and skills. Kritikos et al. (2012)
emphasized that for assessment protocols to be effective, they should not only be sensitive
to the age of the child in order to ensure developmental appropriateness, but also consider
to a significant extent, the nature of the child's disability or delay. A child with AD/HD would
be extremely challenged to sit through a four-hour standardized IQ test. His/Her scores
would most likely not reflect his/her true abilities given that he/she has difficulty sustaining
attention on mental tasks. He/She is impulsive in following written instructions, tends to
miss important test details, and is generally restless. The use of alternative assessment
strategies, however, can allow him/her to demonstrate his/her real abilities, thus, providing
a greater appreciation of his/her strengths and potentials.
According to Salvia, Ysseldyke, and Bolt (2013), there are six factors that can impede
getting an accurate picture of a student's actual abilities, knowledge, and competencies.
These are the following:
1. ability to understand assessment stimuli
1.
2 ability to respond to assessment stimuli
3. nature of the norm group
A. appropriateness of the basal and ceiling levels of the test items
student's exposure to the curriculum and lack of learning opportunity
5.
6. nature of the testing environment
6.

Ability to Understand Assessment Stimuli

A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) conducted on a group of deaf individuals, many o
whom failed the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET), revealed that they had a dificuie

time unaderstanaing instructions even if an internreter was provided to them. Lai juage
barriers inherent in translation of verbal directions to sign language, coupie limited
English vOcabulary, prevented them from comprehending what was being exp ted
of them. Ihe same Is true for students with intellectual disabilities who find it difricuit
comprehend complex instructions requiring the use of higher-order thinking skIllS. R
example vWould be test accessibility for blind students, Unless the test is converted to Braie
format or an oral test is given, blind students may not be able to access the test.
Ability to Respond to Assessment Stimuli
Children with Cerebral Palsy (CP) have limitations in executing movements, Depena
on the severity and type of CP, they may not be able to respond to assessment stimu
requiring a written response. A student with CP, spastic type, quadriplegia (both upper and
lower extremities have excess muscle tone) may not have enough fine-motor strength or
control and postural stability to answera pen-and-paper test. Likewise, a blind student can
only respond orally and through Braille or the use of digital accessibility software made
specihcally tor blind students. For non-verbal students, other ways by which knowledge and
skill can be demonstrated should be explored
Nature of the Norm Group and Appropriateness of the Basal and Ceiling Levels of the
Test Items
A norm-referenced test, as the term implies, is standardized on the typical population
otherwise known as the "norm/This represents the capacity and knowledge of the average
individual, with an expected range of functioning. The basal level represents the startin9
point of testing, below which it is assumed that the student has mastered the test items.
On the other hand, the ceiling level represents the ending point of testing, beyond which
it is assumed that the student would incorrectly answer all other test items. Children with
special needs often have a scattering of skills across developmental domains. They are
precisely considered as having "special needs"because they manifest atypical development;
thus, the applicability of norm-referenced tests and the basal and ceiling levels have little

46
value in determining their actual potential.
Student's Exposure to the Curriculum and Lack of Learning Opportunity
In the FGD consisting of deaf teachers who repeatedly failed the LET, it was revealed
that they had the most difficulty in the part wherein their knowledge of Filipino was tested.
Their academic exposure to the subject was very elementary, as opposed to the expected
Content in the LET consisting of tertiary-level knowledge of the Filipino language. Their
language deficit, evident in low reading comprehension ability as compared to same
age peers, predisposes them to perform poorly in tests of comprehension beyond literal
comprehension tasks. On the other hand, students with visual impairment may fail in test
items that include content that is visually perceived, such as that of cólor and distance.
Nature of the Testing Environment
The setting wherein assessment would take place is crucial, particularly for students
With sensory issues and those with rigid preferences. Both of these concerns are usuallu
present in children with Autism, preventing them from pertorming optimally during clinical
A. Difforentiotocd Accocemant Steatenice

assessments. An unfamiliar testing environment may trigger a temper tantrum resulting in

a discontinuation of the scheduled assessment or an inaccurate and limited outcome data.
Noise and bright lighting can be overwhelming for a child with sensory-processing issues
and results in overstimulation. He/She will have difficulty concentrating on responding to
the test. For a student with AD/HD, a disorderly testing room with a multitude of visual and
auditory distractors can increase distractibility. Instead of answering the test, he/she may
get out of his/her seat, roam around, and talk excessively, thus, preventing him/her from
being able to finish the test on time.
Clearly, the developmental impact of a disability has an effect on assessment
accessibility. One useful framework that can be applied in authentic assessment is the
principle of Universal Design. The National Center for Universal Design for Learning (www.
udlcenter.org) explains the framework of UDL as.one that provides a blueprint for creating
assessments that work for the broadest range of students, utilizing flexible approaches
adjusted to individual needs.
When designing assessment protocols, the UDL framework can be used as a guide,
acknowledging the three primary brain networks corresponding to the "what" (recognition
network), the "how" (strategic network), and the"why" (affective network) of learning. Figure
4.1 illustrates the application of UDL to differentiated assessment.

Recognition Differentiating CONTENT

Networks: What are developmentally appropriate expectations?
The What of What is contextually relevant?
Learning What would be sufficient given present limitations?

Strategic Differentiating PROCESS

Ne two How should the assessment be conducted (oral vs. written)?
The How of How should instructions be given and responses evaluated?
Learming How should the test be formatted?

Affective Differentiating PURPOSE

Networks: Why should the assessment be done at this time?
The Why of Why is it necessary to give accommodations and modifications?
Learning Why would the outcomes of assessment be important?

Source: www.cast.org: Universal Design for Learning Guidelines

Figure 4.1. Applying UDL to Differentiated Assessment

Differentiating Content
It is important to design assessment content based on the child's actual abilities

47
and limitations. Consistent with Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD),
scafolding of content will ensure that the child is tested within his/her ability range
Testing the child way beyond his/her capacity can lead to learned helplessness wherein
the child can eventually refuse to even attempt to perform an assessment task. Knowing
that he/she would fail in performing the task at hand, he/she might lose the motivation to

even try. Asking a 12- year-old child with a mental capacity of a 5-year-old to solve complex
mathematical word problems involving multi-step operations up to three digits is like
setting him/her up to fail. It would not be developmentally appropriate. On the other hand,
testing him/her way below his/her actual capacity can result in boredom, demotivation, and
non-compliance. Asking him/her to repeat a simple task that he/she can obviously already
do would most likely demotivate the child. Using the same example, making the 12-year
old child rote count from one to five is developmentally inappropriate.
The content of assessment should also be contextually relevant. Otherwise, it will not
be meaningful to the child and would have no practical significance. Some standardized
assessments are not culture-free, meaning, the items are bound by cultural nuances.
Particular items on standardized tests using norms for American children may include stoCK
knowledge of their currency (e.g, quarter, nickel, dime) and vocabulary that is speciic to
their climate and culture. Asking a Filipino child what a "sled" is and expecting him/her too
know such concept is irrelevant. The Philippines is a tropical country. Ask him/her though
what a "tabo" is (a dipper to scoop water from a pail), and he/she will most likely describe
it to you in detail. There has been a reliance on foreign-made tests because of the lack of
validated appraisal measures made for Filipino children (Dizon, 1983).
Most children with special needs have limited attention spans. It is important to
differentiate content by determining which is the most relevant in order to maximize thee
child's ability to respond to assessment stimuli. Children with health conditions and those
prescribed with medications that cause them to be drowsy (e.g., seizure medications) can
only tolerate assessments fora short span of time. Those with intellectual disabilities and
attention-deficits likewise get easily distracted with environmental stimuli. Choosing the
most relevant and appropriate content is crucial to the successful gathering of data to
produce the most useful outcomes.
Differentiating Process
The manner by which the assessment is conducted spells a big difference in being able
to properly evaluate the child, given his/her inherent limitations. A perfect example would
be a child with AD/HD. Most teachers would dismiss the child with AD/HD as one who
does not seem to listen during discussions, stands up and roams, and often fails in written
exams. His/Her inattention and hyperactivity prevent him/her from adequate learning, as
traditional learners are expected to demonstrate. Try assessing him/her either orally, using
a creative output such as a culminating project, or through digital media, and you will be
surprised by the depth of knowledge that he/she is actually capable of generating.
Alternative assessment measures can more fairly evaluate the skills, competencies,
and strengths of children with special needs. Oral exams can be more practical than long
pen-and-paper tests consisting of composing narratives and essays, unless the objective
of the assessment is specifically to write essays. Pertormance-based assessments can keep
students more engaged throughout the assessment process. A student who is deaf needs
an interpreter in either ASL (American Sign Language) or FSL (Filipino Sign Language),
whichever he/she is most comfortable in. Instructions may have to be broken down into
simpler steps and explained further to guarantee comprehension. Other adaptations include
reducing test items to make the test shorter, giving extra time to finish the test, formatting
the worksheet using bigger font for students with visual impairment, and the use of adaptive
writing implements to enable the student to grasp the pen better. Functional assessment
Chanter 4. Differentiated An

tasks can also replace traditional methods of evaluating knowledge and skill in a particular
area. The use of calculators for computation and actual money instead of numerical

48
representations of currency are accommodations inherent in functional academics.

Differentiating Purpose
Engaging the child in the assessment process may be the greatest challenge for
most professionals involved in assessment. Winning the cooperation of the rest of the
interdisciplinary team may also be one of the hardest pursuits for the assessor attempting
to do an authentic assessment. The interdisciplinary team should never lose sight of why the
assessment is being conducted in the first place. To what end does the assessment desire
to serve? What is the main purpose of assessment at this time and how would it benefit the
child in the future?
If the assessment is for eligibility and placement purposes, an authentic assessment
should also include an evaluation of the existing services and educational supports
available.
Moreover, it would be necessary to review family resources consisting of financial capability,
logistical requirements, and the resource of time.
Differentiating content and process is often justified when grounded in the purpose of
assessment. Accommodations and modifications to assessment are readily provided once
the purpose of assessment is clear to all concerned. Evaluating a deaf student teacher's
readiness to teach may not be fairly measured through a pen-and-paper test consisting of
open-ended questions, to which lengthy answers with correct grammatical structure are
expected. Deaf students have dificulty with prose as a result of the difference in language
structure of commonly used sign language (ASL/FSL), as opposed to spoken or written
English. Asking the deaf student teacher, however, to come up with an actual teaching
demonstration for a class of deaf students given a specifc content area and grade level may
more accurately measure his/her readiness to teach.
Assessment accessibility for students with special needs is possible through the use of
differentiated assessment in delivering content, mapping out the process, and establishing
the purpose of assessment and learning. The UDL framework allows for assessment to be
customized to the strengths and limitations of children with special needs, giving them the
opportunity to optimally demonstrate knowledge, skill, and potential.

Summative and Norm-Referenced Assessments vs. Formative and Criterion

Referenced Assessments
The complex nature of assessment involving children with special needs necessitates
non-traditional assessment paradigms. Traditionaly, summative and norm-referenced
assessments are emphasized over formative and

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