POLIMI Course < Architectural and Town in China>

THE SYMMETRICAL APPROACH IN ARCHITECTURE

Abstract

Symmetry, being a remarkable characteristic in architecture which can highly affect the
building’s balance, unity and the ordering composition that can be analysed in various
scales. It is also an essential principle in architecture once a traditional principle pursued
by architects. It is one of the most prominent features of traditional Chinese
architecture. From the traditional residential buildings to the imperial palace group and
then to the city planning, all emphasize the middle axis symmetry, and use this to
emphasize the hierarchy, so that the architecture is in sequence, show the imperial
authority and the ethical order, and reflect the Confucian thought of ritual. Similarly, in
the West, ancient Greece, and Rome, as well as the Renaissance, often used symmetry
to create a popular aesthetic, and we can see its importance in the Vitruvian Man.
Although in the period of modernism, some architects opposed the tradition and
criticized the classical principle of central plane and symmetric classical architecture, but
later the pioneers of modernism also realized the im- portance of symmetry and began
to re-appreciate symmetry.

In this paper, starting from analysing the symmetry in architecture, and then classify
symmetry into different typologies, explore symmetry un- der different cultural
background of different values, and finally study the role of symmetry in modern
architecture, summarizes the regularity of the phenomenon, and generalize the use of
symmetric form in modern architecture.

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Index

1.Symmetry in architecture

1.1 Symmetry in Eastern Architecture

1.2 Symmetry in Western Architecture

2.The Approach of Symmetry

2.1Rotation and reflection

2.2Bilateral symmetry

2.3 Chiral symmetry

2.4 Similarity symmetry

2.5 Helical symmetry

3.The Different Values of Symmetry in Eastern and Western Architecture

3.1 Cultural value

3.2 Aesthetic value

4. The Application and Significance of Symmetry in Contemporary Architecture

Design

4.1 To create the spatial axis of the building and express the rigorous architectural space
form

4.2 To achieve the stability of structural design and visual effect and pursue the
aesthetic feeling of geometry

4.3 To accentuate the design theme in combination with asymmetry

5. Conclusion

6. Figures

7. Reference

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 POLIMI Course < Architectural and Town in China>

1. SYMMETRY IN ARCHITECTURE

Symmetry in architecture is the reflection of shared forms, shapes, or angles across a

central line or point called the axis. In architectural conception, symmetry occurs when
there is congruence in dimensions, due proportions, and arrangement, which provides a
sense of harmony and balance, and contributes to link various elements of a structure to
construct a unified whole.

Symmetry can be observed in many scales initially from the relationship between single
details, to the layout of the complete structure and even further in the symmetrical grid
of urban planning.

1.1 Symmetry in Eastern Architecture

Symmetry in Eastern Architecture finds its ways into architecture at every scale, from
the overall external views of buildings such as through the layout of the individual floor
plans, and down to the design of individual building elements such as tile mosaics. For
instance; Islamic buildings such as the Taj Mahal and the Lotfollah Mosque make
elaborate use of symmetry both in their structure and in their ornamentation. Moorish
buildings like the Alhambra are ornamented with complex patterns made using
translational and reflection symmetries as well as rotations. In summary, the essence of
Islamic architecture for symmetry is to achieve delicate balance between functional and
spiritual elements. Harmony is created through the point of intersection where the
stability of the soul is achieved which is beneficial to one.

Figure 2. Shah mosque

sfahan

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Figure 1. Taj Mahal Figure 3. Alhambra Mosque tiles
A very important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on articulation and
bilateral symmetry, which signifies balance which is a fundamental idea in Chinese
culture. Bilateral symmetry and the articulation of buildings are found everywhere in
Chinese architecture, from palace complexes to humble farmhouses. Plans for renovation
and extension of a house will often try to maintain this symmetry. Secondary elements
are positioned on either side of the main structures as two wings to maintain overall
bilateral symmetry. The buildings are typically planned to contain an even number of
columns in a structure to produce an odd number of bays. With the inclusion of the main
door to a building in the centre bay, symmetry is maintained. The layout of Forbidden
City is symmetrical along a central north-south axis, which is also the axis of the old
Beijing City. Hence, the emphasis stands on the organization of the elements that
creates a symmetrical sense.

1.2 Symmetry in Western Architecture

“Symmetry” originated from the Greek philosophy which indicates the strong relationship
between symmetry and beauty. As the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius states,
architecture depends on order, arrangement, symmetry, propriety and economy, which
derived from the perfect proportional relationship of the human body (such as the
Golden Section). Beauty has been defined as a correspondence and cohesion of parts
according to a specific number, proportionality and order. The accounts of symmetry
have become the aesthetic bible for architecture for centuries, which have also
influenced the modern and contemporary Western architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright,
Robert Venturi, Le Corbusier, Mies Vander Rohe whose successful works exhibit a
relentless pursuit of symmetrical beauty that is one of the main elements for the
impressive quality of the buildings.

Figure 4. Plan of the Forbidden CityFigure 5. Plan of The Unity Temple,

Frank Llyod Wright

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 POLIMI Course < Architectural and Town in China>

2. THE APPROACH OF SYMMETRY

In this chapter, it is tried to classify

forms and characters of the symmetrical
architecture. There are many ways to
classify symmetry and is summarized the
most usual methods which is based on
the different forms of symmetry.

2.1. Bilateral symmetry Figure 6. Duomo di Milano

Bilateral symmetry is considered to be

the most common form of symmetry in
architecture. It exists in all cultures and
times. With bilateral symmetry, the
composition mirrors one another. The
facade of the Parthenon in Rome is a
famous example of bilateral symmetry.

2.2 Rotation and reflection

Rotation and reflection are another style

of symmetry. It contributes to the
Figure 7. Dome of Santa Maria del Fiore
movement and rhythm of the building
elements and emphasizes the central
point of the building space. Most domes,
including the hemispherical rotunda found
in the Pantheon and the octagonal dome
in Florence's Duomo also constructed with
the form of rotation and reflection.

2.3 Similarity symmetry

Similarity symmetry occurs when the

proportion of repeating elements changes
without changing shape. It can be seen in Figure 8. Collonades of St. Peter’s Square
the shells of the Sydney Opera House
designed by Joern Utzon in 1959.
Although the shape of the shells remains

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the same, the shells differ in size and inclination, forming part of a sphere. Similarity
symmetry can also be applied in less obvious situations. American architect Frank Lloyd
Wright borrowed this method when designing the Palmer House in Ann Arbor, Michigan
during the early 1950s. In his design, the equilateral triangle is the basic module,
replicated in different sizes and levels throughout the house.

2.4 Helical symmetry

Helical symmetry is a unique form of similarity symmetry. It is often used to convey

continuity in architecture. This is reflected in the spiral staircase, and the whole form
expresses the sense of spatial flow from one floor to another. Frank Lloyd Wright used
helical symmetry in his 1946 design for the Guggenheim Museum in New York. The
exterior of the building takes on the form the giant helical ramp found in the interior.

Figure 9. Sydney Opera House Figure 10. Guggenheim Museum

3.The Different Values of Symmetry in

Eastern and Western Architecture

Symmetrical architecture not only has a strong cultural origin and meaning, but also can
express a cultural implication. Moreover, the symmetrical form has an aesthetic root.
From the point of view of the western classical architecture, the symmetrical form comes
from people's worship and compliance to the strict geometric beauty rules. However,
Chinese classical architecture is different, because it is not highlighting a single building,
but more to emphasize the overall magnificence of group building. This section will
mainly compare the differences in symmetry between east and West from the
perspective of cultural value and aesthetic value.

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 POLIMI Course < Architectural and Town in China>

3.1 Culture Value

Architecture is the carrier of human culture. With the development of human society and
culture, people express their understanding of the relationship between man and nature
through architectural forms, and further standardize the ethical interactions and order
relations between people through architectural forms. The space created by people
should not only exist naturally and harmoniously between the universe, but also reflect
people's cognition and understanding of the whole world at a higher level.

In the understanding of the social relationship between people, the ritual system in
Chinese classical culture plays a dominant role. The core of the ritual system emphasizes
order. Therefore, people found the architectural form of symmetry to reflect people's
demand and hint of ritual.

The symmetrical form is characterized by rigorous space and strong sense of order. It is
easy to form a series of organized and orderly space sequences, and it can create a
central axis, and produce the climax of the whole space sequence on it.

This series of characteristics are associated with the ritual system and are strictly used in
the ritual architecture. In addition, ancient Chinese culture expresses the concept of
harmony between man and nature. In architecture, the roof is the nature that
communicates directly with the sky. Therefore, the form of symmetrical large roof is
further strengthened and becomes the most prominent part of architectural modelling.
As early as the Shang and Zhou dynasties, people compared the roof to the wings of
birds, the unique "cornices" of this kind of Traditional Chinese architecture have a
romantic aesthetics. In short, the ubiquitous communication between the communicator
and the sky.

Figure 12. The façade of the Sun

Figure 11. Symmetrical Analysis of
Yat-sen Memorial Hall
Parthenon
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In the process of long-term exploration and practice, Chinese people have learned to
skilfully use symmetrical forms and symmetrical spatial sequences to express the
requirements of ritual system. Comparing the classical architecture of China and the
West, western classical architecture is characterized by single building, while Chinese
classical architecture is more distinguished by group combination to create space. This
symmetrical combination of group architecture is exactly the form that can best meet
the requirements of the ritual system and express the sense of order of the ritual
system. The essence of etiquette is to emphasize order. Specifically, in architecture, it is
symmetrical in the central axis, with rigorous space. The building develops vertically
along the central axis and has distinct master and subordinate. This is true not only in
royal palaces but also in the homes of ordinary people. For example, in the SIHEYUAN in
Beijing, the elders live in the square and the juniors live in the side rooms. The front and
back auxiliary rooms are the residence of the household slaves. The spatial layout of the
SIHEYUAN symbolizes the ethical relationship between people within the family.

Figure 13. Jinci Temple

Figure 14. The painting of RUIHETU Figure 15. Siheyuan Plan

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 POLIMI Course < Architectural and Town in China>

For western architecture, symmetry is more emphasized in the form of single building.
Western classical architecture is mainly composed of geometric figures such as circles
and triangles, and buildings like pyramids and pantheon. To be closer to God, people
also pursue perfect proportion order in architecture, just like the painting Vitruvian Man
by Leonardo Da Vinci, which is the perfect proportion that people have been following.

The influence of culture on architectural

form is important. As a part of human
civilization, architectural culture reflects
human's view of nature, world, and
society. People construct and influence
architecture through their own
understanding of culture, and at the same
time create architectural culture, which in
turn affects other aspects of human life. Figure 16. Confucius statue in Confucian
Temple
3.2 Aesthetic Value

The aesthetic value of Chinese traditional

architecture is closely related to the
traditional psychological characteristics. As
the main part of Chinese traditional Figure 17. Chinese composition system
national psychology, Confucian culture of cities
deeply restricts the development process of
Chinese society. At the same time, it also
deeply limits the characteristics of Chinese
traditional culture. On this basis, Chinese
classical architectural forms must express
and pursue harmony, stability, and balance.
Therefore, people naturally use symmetrical
forms to create axes, and in the spatial
sequence from the transfer, correlation, and
echo, in general achieve a unified and
harmonious effect. Compared with the West,
if western classical architecture emphasizes the greatness of individual buildings,
Chinese classical architecture emphasizes the Figure 18. Ancient Chinese city layout
spatial order of architectural groups.

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The scale and layout of ancient Chinese cities, as well as the volume and form of all
kinds of buildings, were mostly square and uniform, with distinct principal and
subordinate parts, symmetrical in whole or in part, with axes connected and hierarchies
in well-organized order. Moreover, from south to north, they maintained a unified style
for thousands of years, and the basic form did not change too much. This is a rare
phenomenon in the history of world architecture. This phenomenon profoundly reflects
the basic characteristics of China's feudal society, which is the unification of the country,
the supremacy of imperial power, strict hierarchy, complete laws and regulations, small
range of changes in production and life, and strong tradition of ideology. On the views of
ancient Chinese craftsmen, the stable and balanced beauty produced by symmetrical
forms became the natural choice.

Traditional aesthetics also demanded that architecture be rich in character. Palaces,

altars, and temples are places of etiquette. Therefore, the architecture should be
symmetrical, not only the pattern, the style of the house, but also the furniture, and

Figure 19. Zhengyang Gate

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 POLIMI Course < Architectural and Town in China>

even the name should be symmetrical. Only then can we have character and beauty. For
example, the Forbidden City in Beijing, from Zhengyang Gate to Jingshan Mountain,
through a series of different length and width, high and low orderly space processing, in
fact, constitutes an image concept of imperial power. Another example is the
symmetrical layout of the SIHEYUAN, with the middle high and the two sides low, and
the inner court large and the outer court small. This can remind people of the so-called
ethical order of the feudal society, which is orderly between the old and the young, with
the difference between the inside and the outside, and the hierarchy. In this way,
symmetrical form is not only a way to express ethics, but also an integral part of
architectural aesthetics.

Western rational understanding of formal beauty emphasizes that the aesthetic value of
architecture lies in its ethical value. The aesthetic feeling of architecture does not lie in
the beauty or ugliness of architecture itself, but in whether its image perfectly reflects
some material or spiritual content, that is, the ethical value of real life. This point is very
similar to the ethical function of Chinese classical architecture. For example, in the
totalitarian era of French imperial power, French classical architecture also used many
symmetrical spatial patterns to symbolize the social ethical order.

Figure 20. Palace of Versailles plan Figure 21. Drawings of Aesthetic principles
of form, Frank L. Wright

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Due to its inherent stability and rigor, symmetry is easier to be explained by the
principles of geometric aesthetics, which is widely used in architecture that emphasizes
order and rationality and is considered to be beautiful. Because many rigorous geometric
beauties are naturally symmetrical, a large number of symmetrical classical architecture
emerged. Geometric rigor comes first, and symmetry is a natural by-product.
Symmetrical form becomes the best choice for building to create a sense of order and
sequence. And symmetry of the architectural form is not only a form of social ethics, and
integrated into the construction of aesthetic psychology, using symmetrical axis space
create sequence, and then in the climax of axis set up one after another, so that people
feel the rhythm and in construction of space sequence, become an important part of the
architectural aesthetics. Symmetrical architecture is to express a rigorous rational
artificial beauty.

4. The Application and Significance of Symmetry in Contemporary Architecture

Design

In many architectural design practices today, symmetrical forms are still widely used and
constantly displayed by people through various means. However, unlike classical
architecture, compared with the ancients, today's architects have unprecedented
freedom in both technology and design theory, as well as social and cultural
requirements. Moreover, people are exploring the relationship between architectural
form and architectural function more and more deeply.

As a basic architectural form, symmetry, like square and circle, has been repeatedly
used in a large number of architectural designs until today. When architects use
symmetrical forms, on the one hand, they are subconsciously influenced by the classical

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Figure 22. Visual Balance of the Villa Savoye
 POLIMI Course < Architectural and Town in China>

architectural design tradition and continue the implication and meaning of classical
architectural forms; on the other hand, they are constantly innovating and exploring to
seek and pursue new formal languages. In the design of contemporary architecture,
symmetry mainly has the following applications and meanings.

4.1 To create the spatial axis of the

building and express the rigorous
architectural space form

This is the most common purpose. The

spatial axis of the building was
deliberately designed to create new
spatial directions and sequences within
the building to meet the overall spatial
needs of the building. Moreover, this
Figure 23. WTC Transportation Hub by Santiago
spatial axis usually has a clear
Calatrava
direction and guidance, thus creating
the trend of architectural space. The
axis of space is an ancient design
technique, but today's architects use
the axis of space more widely and
more freely. When architects want to
create some ritualized spiritual space,
such as the administrative building
space in China and the church in the
West, or when architects want to
create connections or sequences
Figure 24. Qin Group Offices Floor Plan
between some Spaces, they will
intentionally use axes to guide the space. When architects with the purpose of the
traditional classical architecture using symmetric form, is to create some sort of ritual,
the rigorous architectural space, mostly in order to satisfy people's spiritual requirement
and deliberately to pursue symmetry is rigorous, such as monuments and certain
architectural space which is the symbol of national spirit, or is the symbol of the regime
construction. At this time, the form of architecture becomes a symbol, symmetry is for
some kind of symbol or some kind of spiritual rational needs, and the material function
of architecture degrades or completely disappears.

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One typical example is the church of
Santa Maria degli Angeli on the mountain
Tamaro which is designed by Mario Botta.
This project consists of a cylindrical
volume, a long bridge and a smaller
stepped bridge that runs perpendicular to
the main axis. These three elements are
interconnected in a fairly straightforward
way under strict rules of symmetry. It is
an infinite path for meditation and Figure 25. The Church of Santa Maria degli
thought. There are different readings to Angeli
these routes of circulation, from the most
evident following the long bridge from the
ground up to the edge of the cliff and the
unlimited view from the roof of the chapel
to others more circular and
obscure. When people in this building,
what they can feel is the tranquillity from
the whole atmosphere the architect want
to express with symmetry form.

4.2 To achieve the stability of

structural design and visual effect and
Figure 26. Santa Maria degli Angeli
pursue the aesthetic feeling of
Church Location
geometry Plan and Longtidunal Section

There are always some structural designs

of different shapes in the architectural
space. Due to the irregular shape, it is
easy to cause the imbalance of structure
and vision. Although it forms a visual
impact, it is not good for the stability of
the structure. The gravity distribution of
the symmetrical structure is more
balanced than that of the asymmetric
structure. So if the internal force
distribution is symmetrical, it is beneficial Figure 27. The National Pavilion of China

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 POLIMI Course < Architectural and Town in China>

to achieve the balance of force and ensure the stability of the structure. Visual symmetry
reflects the image of seriousness, calmness, decency, majesty and other features of the
majestic. If the symmetrical image is used in architecture, it will naturally have such
characteristics. For example, the National Pavilion of China in the 2010 World Expo
adopts the geometric shape of middle axis symmetry, such as the ancient crown, which
is stable, peaceful and dignified. The upper end is superimposed by dougong with regular
order. The building is supported by four square columns at the bottom. Both ends of the
pavilion are balanced to support the entire building. This is the embodiment of the
stabilizing effect of symmetry in both structural design and vision.

4.3 To accentuate the design theme in combination with asymmetry

Asymmetry is a unique design that breaks free and moves freely, but it is also built on
symmetry. Just as black and white, light and dark, they require opposites to become a
perceived attribute. Asymmetry cannot be separated from symmetry, but we should
seek change from symmetry. In many modern architectural space designs, in addition to
using the combination of symmetry and asymmetry to form a harmonious shape, we
also can let symmetry foil asymmetry to create a unique design aesthetic feeling,
highlighting the intention of the designer. It can be conveyed in the Barcelona Pavilion
designed by Mies van der Rohe.

15
From the masterplan, it can be found that the building itself has a very obvious

Figure 28. Masterplan of Barcelona Pavilion

asymmetry, which can be understood as a response to the site. In fact, the site has an
axis and a symmetric relationship, and it is located at the end of a long square. As a
terminal of axis, Barcelona Pavilion should have adopted a monumental classical
symmetry, which Mies had deliberately eliminated.

Mies took a conflicted approach,

preferring to use asymmetrical forms.
Symmetry usually implies a strong sense
of commemoration, authoritarianism and
authority. This is incompatible with the
social ideals of the new century.
Asymmetries, on the other hand, give the
building a quiet and sensible atmosphere. Figure 29. Picture of Barcelona Pavilion
If we look at the drawing, we see that the
horizontal plane looks as if it extends
indefinitely, while the vertical plane looks
compressed. But vision is not so much
restricted as blocked. The dark glass of the
pavilion makes it difficult to see clearly.
The flat floor and ceiling leave the view
with only a horizontal space in the middle,

Figure 30. Picture of Barcelona Pavilion16

 POLIMI Course < Architectural and Town in China>

sandwiched between two panels. In other words, in order to see the distance, Mies
created a unique horizontal section, limiting the upper and the lower. This is his common
practice, so there is always this sense of being able to see a great distance in his
architecture.

However, if you were to turn some interior photos upside down, it would be hard to
decide which side was up and which side was down. This was the foreshadowing of Mies.
To our surprise, Mies, who had worked so hard to eliminate symmetry, designed another
form of symmetry: horizontal symmetry. This is unacceptable in classical architecture.
He completely broke this rule.

Figure 31. Picture of Barcelona Pavilion

5. Conclusion

Architectural symmetry is a special grammar in architectural formal language,

expressing a special semantics, which has its cultural and aesthetic significance and
origin. This means that architecture can be symmetrical for the sake of symmetry. The
symmetrical form of architecture is not only the technique of architecture but also the
purpose of architecture. And is not only the means of expressing social ethics, but also a
part of the formal beauty of architecture itself.

Today, when people continue to use symmetry as an architectural form, it is necessary

to understand the source and meaning of architectural symmetry. Only when architects
master the implication and meaning of symmetry, a special architectural grammar, can
architects better and more accurately use it, to inherit the classical essence and
constantly seek new breakthroughs.

Figures

Figure 1. Taj Mahal

https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0577/1601/5298/ files/symmetry-of-taj-mahal-
reflecions_1024x1024. jpg?v=1623888194

Figure 2. Shah mosque of Isfahan

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com-mons/1/16/Shah_mosque_of_isfahan.jpg

17
Figure 3. Alhambra Mosque tiles

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/1a/0a/88/1a0a-880f701acc1587ccc226cc3552c8.jpg

Figure 4. Plan of The Forbidden City

https://www.pngkey.com/png/full/744-7442753_for- bidden-city-map-wp-0.png

Figure 5. Plan of The Unity Temple, Frank Llyod Wright

https://virginiaduran.files.wordpress.com/2013/11/vir- ginia-duran-blog-chicago-best-
buildings-for-architects- unity-temple-by-frank-lloyd-wright-plan.jpg?w=584

Figure 6. Duomo di Milano

https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/wp-con- tent/uploads/2020/12/A2514-
Monumentali-ty-Then-and-Now-Image-2.jpg

Figure 7. Dome of Santa Maria del Fiore Cathedral

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Dome_of_Cattedrale_di_
Santa_Maria_del_ Fiore_%28Florence%29.jpg/2560px-Dome_of_Catte-
drale_di_Santa_Maria_del_Fiore_%28Florence%29.jpg

Figure 8. Collonades of St. Peter’s Square

https://pbs.twimg.com/media/Eum-sqPXYAY6TN3.jpg

Figure 9. Sydney Opera House https://hips.hearstapps.com/edc.h-cdn.co/as-

sets/16/34/1471892768-gettyimages-586234262.jpg

Figure 10. Guggenheim Museum https://pbs.twimg.com/media/FJQLFr5X0AEDgEo.jpg

Figure 11. Symmetrical Analysis of Parthenon

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/mi.sanu.ac.rs/vismath/denespat/parth.jpg

Figure 12. The golden section of the facade of the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Symmet- rical-Beauty-and-Its-Cultural-
Connotation-Chen-Zuo/ fe345a0416cde19cb30f6973e7e9d30a18c60003

Figure 13. Jinci Temple as an example of ritual archi- tecture

https://images.evendo.com/cdn-cgi/image/ f=auto,width=555,quality=75/images/5b0c-
c386e3aa4a909bfbf67b6131afa4.png

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 POLIMI Course < Architectural and Town in China>

Figure 14. The painting of RUIHETU

https://pic1.zhimg.com/80/v2-609a1cd23cc2ffa- daded98607d4f3004_1440w.jpg

Figure 15. Siheyuan Plan https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269966756/

figure/fig15/AS:391430754324503@1470335772965/Siheyuan-plan-and-section-15.png

Figure 16. Confucius statue in Confucian Temple

https://nb.bbend.net/media/news/2017/12/18/846023/ main/iapppp.jpg

Figure 17. Chinese composition system of cities (mac- ro-micro), following cosmological
principles in order to achieve harmony between man and nature.

https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tb-
n:ANd9GcRJyTm2BFj9KppVGuqnJ_pm6niTlPkp28Ylm-
dyZsikmg4XXK7oG8wdjL9vbht9FPgCN8A&usqp=CAU

Figure 18. Ancient Chinese city layout

https://i.pinimg.com/origi- nals/86/95/07/8695073b76651a2b5e- d1aa05e475640c.png

Figure 19. Zhengyang Gate

https://www.uniradioserver.com/media/news_
thumbs/201906/20190621134427_17.jpg

Figure 20. Palace of Versailles Plan

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/8a/9a/06/8a9a06f- b08e6fa647d84f377872b1a96.jpg

Figure 21. Drawings of Frank L. Wright’s aesthetic prin- ciples of form

https://cdn.ca.emap.com/wpcontent/uploads/sites/
12/1968/02/144145copy_660_272050853.jpeg

Figure 22. Visual Balance of the Villa Savoye

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/68/8c/9c/688c9c0f8d- d940a22c5a31c4f5af1074.jpg

Figure 23. WTC Transportation Hub by Santiago Cala- trava

https://i.pinimg.com/origi- nals/88/2d/16/882d169a722b02ffccd49d743ab1bae6. jpg

Figure 24. Qin Group Offices Floor Plan.

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https://i.pinimg.com/originals/20/be/09/ 20be0931c9fbfaf8bd88af23dea8852b.jpg

Figure 25. Santa Maria degli Angeli Church on the Ta- maro mountain
https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/9Amk0vysDzNpr_37fiFCpiVfCOxFkqx7qsE7Wlc80VmY
ufPPo2CO- P7F0yatT2VkBEuPQq9U=s128

Figure 26. Santa Maria degli Angeli Church Location Plan and Longtidunal Section
https://i.pinimg.com/originals/8e/30/1f/8e301f21b9c- 20dada1a6b2d44b2f12ff.jpg

Figure 27. The National Pavilion of China, Expo 2010

https://uploadimg.shdatastone.cn/theme_up- load/20210220/16138031328779.jpg

Figure 28. Masterplan of Barcelona Pavilion

https://senacatal.files.wordpress.com/2017/11/arch- 481-sena-merve-melis-02.jpg

Figure 29. Floor plan of Barcelona Pavilion

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/f6/43/3c/f6433cee0fd- 3c02ff87f8feed0d60fce.jpg

Figure 30. Barcelona Pavilion perspective interpreta- tion

https://i0.hdslb.com/bfs/article/085a85aab- 52f38a53ff3fda41ae810d83b4da820.jp-
g@942w_623h_progressive.webp

Figure 31. Symmetrical approach in Barcelona Pavillion

http://www.evasopeoglou.com/portfolio/symme-tries-barcelona-pavilion/

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[4] XiangGuo Group, Differences between Chinese and Western Architectural Cultures,
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[5] Li Yunhe. Huaxiayijiang. Guangjiao,1992.

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 POLIMI Course < Architectural and Town in China>

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