Chapter 4

Orbital angular momentum and the

hydrogen atom

If I have understood correctly your point of view then you

would gladly sacrifice the simplicity [of quantum mechan-
ics] to the principle of causality. Perhaps we could comfort
ourselves that the dear Lord could go beyond [quantum me-
chanics] and maintain causality.
-Werner Heisenberg responds to Einstein

In quantum mechanics degenerations of energy eigenvalues typically are due to symmetries.

The symmetries, in turn, can be used to simplify the Schrödinger equation, for example, by a
separation ansatz in appropriate coordinates. In the present chapter we will study rotationally
symmetric potentials und use the angular momentum operator to compute the energy spectrum
of hydrogen-like atoms.

4.1 The orbital angular momentum

According to Emmy Noether’s first theorem continuous symmetries of dynamical systems im-
ply conservation laws. In turn, the conserved quantities (called charges in general, or energy
and momentum for time and space translations, respectively) can be shown to generate the
respective symmetry transformations via the Poisson brackets. These properties are inherited
by quantum mechanics, where Poisson brackets of phase space functions are replaced by com-
mutators. According to the Schrödinger equation i~∂t ψ = Hψ, for example, time evolution is
generated by the Hamiltonian. Similarly, the momentum operator P~ = ~ ∇
~ generates (spatial)
i
translations. A (Hermitian) charge operator Q is conserved if it commutes with the Hamil-
tonian [H, Q] = 0. This equation can also be interpreted as invariance of the Hamiltonian

77
CHAPTER 4. ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE HYDROGEN ATOM 78

H = Uλ−1 HUλ under the unitary 1-parameter transformation group of finite transformations
Uλ = exp(iλQ) that is generated by the infinitesimal transformation Q.

The constant of motion of classical mechanics that corresponds to rotations about the origin
is the (orbital) angular momentum L ~ = ~x × p~. The corresponding operator L ~ in quantum
mechanics is  
∂ ∂
y ∂z − z ∂y
 
~=X
L ~ = ~  z ∂ − x ∂ ,
~ × P~ = ~ (~x × ∇) (4.1)
i i  ∂x ∂z 
∂ ∂
x ∂y − y ∂x
or
~ ∂
Li = ǫijk Xj Pk =
ǫijk xj . (4.2)
i ∂xk
There is no ordering ambiguity because Xj and Pk commute for j 6= k. In addition to the
~ which is familiar from classical mechanics, quantum mechanical
orbital angular momentum L,
~ which will be the subject
point particles can have an intrinsic angular momentum, the spin S,
of the next chapter. The sum of all spins and orbital angular momenta of a system will be
called the total angular momentum J~ .

4.1.1 Commutation relations

The canonical commutation relation [Xi , Pj ] = i~δij implies

[Li , Xj ] = ǫikl [Xk Pl , Xj ] = i~ǫijk Xk (4.3)

and
[Li , Pj ] = ǫikl [Xk Pl , Pj ]. = i~ǫijk Pk (4.4)

The form of these results suggests that all vector operators Vj (i.e. operators with a vector
index) should transform in the same way. Indeed, we will find that the (axial) vector Lj
transforms as
[Li , Lj ] = i~ǫijk Lk . (4.5)

To show this we use the identity

εikl εimn = δkm δln − δkn δlm , (4.6)

i.e. the sum over a common index i of a product of ε tensors is ±1 if the free index pairs kl
and mn take the same values, with the sign depending on the cyclic ordering, and vanishes
otherwise. We thus find

[Li , Lj ] = εjlm [Li , Xl Pm ] = i~εjlm (εilk Xk Pm + εimk Xl Pk ) (4.7)

= i~ ((δji δmk − δjk δim )Xk Pm + (δjk δli − δji δlk )Xl Pk ) . (4.8)
CHAPTER 4. ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE HYDROGEN ATOM 79

Since the terms with δji cancel this agrees with

i~εijk Lk = i~εijk εklm Xl Pm = i~(δil δjm − δim δjl )Xl Pm , (4.9)

which completes the proof of (4.5).

Since angular momenta in different directions do not commute they cannot be diagonalized
simultaneously. If we choose Lz as our first observable we expect that the combination L2x + L2y ,
which is classically invariant under rotations about the z-axis, commutes with Lz . This is
indeed true, but it is more useful to use the completely rotation invariant L2 = L2x + L2y + L2z as
the second generator of a maximal set of commuting operators. L2 is obviously Hermitian and

[Li , L2 ] = [Li , Lk ]Lk + Lk [Li , Lk ] = i~ǫikr (Lr Lk + Lk Lr ) = 0. (4.10)

A similar calculation shows that [Li , P 2 ] = [Li , X 2 ] = 0, so that the kinetic energy commutes
with Li (and hence also with L2 ).

Angular momentum conservation [Li , H] for rotationally symmetric Hamiltonians H =

P2
p
2m
+ V (r) with r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 now already follows from the commutation of Li with any
function of X 2 , but let us check this explicitly in configuration space,
~ ∂ ~ xl ∂
[Lj , H] = [Lj , V (r)] = εjkl xk V (r) = εjkl xk V (r) = 0, (4.11)
i ∂xl i r ∂r
∂r
where we used the chain rule for V (r(x)) with ∂x l
= xrl and the operator rule
 
∂ ∂   ∂ ∂
[ , A(x)] ψ(x) = A(x)ψ(x) − A ψ(x) = A(x) ψ(x), (4.12)
∂xl ∂xl ∂xl ∂xl
or [∂xi , A(x)] = ∂xi A(x) + A(x)∂xi − A(x)∂xi = ∂xi A(x), i.e. commutation of ∂xi with an
operator yields the partial derivative of that operator.

4.1.2 Angular momentum and spherical harmonics

We will first derive the relation

1 ∂2 1 L2
∆= r − (4.13)
r ∂r2 r 2 ~2
between L2 and the Laplacian, which will help us reduce the Schrödinger equation to an ordinary
radial differential equation after separation of the angular coordinates. Hence we first evaluate
L2 in configuration space,

L2 = Li Li = −~2 ǫijk xj ∂k ǫilm xl ∂m =

= −~2 (δjl δkm − δjm δkl )xj ∂k xl ∂m =
= −~2 (xj ∂k xj ∂k − xj ∂k xk ∂j ) =
= −~2 (xj ∂j + xj xj ∂k ∂k − 3xj ∂j − xj xk ∂k ∂j ) =
= −~2 (xj xj ∂k ∂k − 2xj ∂j − xj xk ∂k ∂j ). (4.14)
CHAPTER 4. ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE HYDROGEN ATOM 80

Next we transform to spherical coordinates ~x = (r sin θ cos ϕ, r sin θ sin ϕ, r cos θ), hence
p
p x2 + y 2 y
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , θ = arctan , ϕ = arctan . (4.15)
z x
In particular
xi (r) ∂
= ei , xj xj = r 2 , x j ∂j = r , (4.16)
r ∂r
so that we obtain
∂ ∂2
L2 = −~2 (r2 ∆ − 2r − r2 2 ), (4.17)
∂r ∂r
or
2 1 L2 1 1 L2
∆ = ∂r2 + ∂r − 2 2 = ∂r2 r − 2 2 , (4.18)
r r ~ r r ~
which establishes (4.13).

Recalling the formula for the Laplace operator in spherical coordinates

 
1 ∂2 1 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂2
∆= r+ 2 (sin θ ) + (4.19)
r ∂r2 r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂ϕ2
from Mathematical Methods in Theoretical Physics [Dirschmid,Kummer,Schweda] we conclude
 
2 2 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂2
L = −~ (sin θ ) + . (4.20)
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂ϕ2
Using the chain rule
∂ ∂ ∂
∂i = (∂i r) + (∂i θ) + (∂i ϕ) (4.21)
∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ
∂
for Lz = ~i (x ∂y − y ∂∂x ) one can check that
~ ∂
Lz = . (4.22)
i ∂ϕ
The common eigenfunctions for the angle-dependent part −L2 /~2 of the Laplace operator and
for iLz /~ = ∂/∂ϕ are again known from the Mathematical Methods in Theoretical Physics.
They are the spherical harmonics [German: Kugelflächenfunktionen]
s
2l + 1 (l − m)! (m)
Ylm (θ, ϕ) = (−1)m P (cos θ) eimϕ = (−1)m Yl,−m
∗
(θ, ϕ) (4.23)
4π (l + m)! l

with the associated Legendre functions

(m) 1 2 m dl+m 2 l m (l + m)! (−m)

Pl (ξ) = (1 − ξ ) 2 (ξ − 1) = (−1) P (ξ) (4.24)
2l l! dξ l+m (l − m)! l
(0)
For m = 0 they reduce to the Legendre polynomials Pl (ξ) = Pl (ξ). These results are obtained
by a the separation ansatz Ylm = Θ(θ)Φ(ϕ). The eigenvalues for the angular momenta become

L2 Ylm = ~2 l(l + 1) Ylm , L3 Ylm = ~m Ylm , (4.25)

CHAPTER 4. ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE HYDROGEN ATOM 81

with l a nonnegative integer and m ∈ Z obeying −l ≤ m ≤ l. The quantization conditions and

the ranges of the eigenvalues follow from termination conditions for the power series ansatz and
from single-valuedness at ξ = cos θ = ±1.

Figure 4.1: The eigenvalue ~2 l(l + 1) of L2 is (2l + 1)–fold degenerate

Figure 4.2: Polar plots of |Ylm | versus Θ in any plane through the z -axis for l = 0, 1, 2.
Note the equality |Ylm | = |Yl−m |, which follows from Yl,m
∗
= (−1)m Yl,−m .
CHAPTER 4. ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE HYDROGEN ATOM 82

The completeness of the spherical harmonics enables us to solve the stationary Schrödinger
equation for rotation invariant potentials by a separation ansatz u(~x) = Rλ (r)Ylm (θ, ϕ) with

~2 1 2 ~2 l(l + 1)
Hl Rλ (r) = λ Rλ (r), with Hl = − ∂r r + + V (r). (4.26)
2m r 2mr2
The energy eigenvalues λ are (2l+1)-fold degenerate due to the magnetic quantum number m.
Note that we need the two observables L2 and Lz to characterize the wave function dependence
on the two angle coordinates θ and ϕ.

4.2 The hydrogen atom

4.2.1 The two particle problem

Consider a system of two particles of the masses m1 and m2 and positions ~x1 and ~x2 , respectively.
If there are no forces from outside translation invariance implies that the potential energy
V (~x1 , ~x2 ) only depends on the difference vector ~x = ~x1 − ~x2 . In classical mechanics this system
is hence described by the Lagrangian
1
L(~x1 , ~x˙ 1 ; ~x2 , ~x˙ 2 ) = T − V = (m1~x˙ 21 + m2~x˙ 22 ) − V (~x1 − ~x2 ). (4.27)
2
The description can be simplified by using the relative coordinates

~x = ~x1 − ~x2 (4.28)

and the center of mass coordinates

m1~x1 + m2~x2
~xg = (4.29)
m1 + m2
m2 m1
as new variables, so that ~x1 = ~xg + m1 +m2
~x and ~x2 = ~xg − m1 +m2
~x. In terms of the total mass
M and the reduced mass µ,
m1 m2
M = m1 + m2 , µ= , (4.30)
m1 + m2
the total momentum p~g and the relative momentum p~ are

p~g = M ~x˙ g = m1~x˙ 1 + m2~x˙ 2 = p~1 + p~2 (4.31)

m2 p~1 − m1 p~2
p~ = µ~x˙ = (4.32)
m1 + m2
and the Hamiltonian becomes
p~2g p~2
H(~xg , p~g ; ~x, p~) = Hg (~xg , p~g ) + Hr (~x, p~) = + + V (~x). (4.33)
2M 2µ
CHAPTER 4. ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE HYDROGEN ATOM 83

~2g
p
Hg = 2M
describes the uniform free motion p~˙g = M ~x¨g = 0 of the center of mass, while the
reduced Hamiltonian
p~2
Hr = + V (~x) (4.34)
2µ
described the dynamics p~˙ = µ~x¨ = −∇V
~ (~x).

(1) (1) (2) (2)

In quantum mechanics the canonical commutation relations [Xi , Pj ] = [Xi , Pj ] = i~δij
(1) (2) (2) (1)
and [Xi , Pj ] = [Xi , Pj ] = 0 are, as expected, equivalent to

(g) (g) (g) (g)

[Xi , Pj ] = [Xi , Pj ] = i~δij , [Xi , Pj ] = [Xi , Pj ] = 0 (4.35)

(i.e. the change of variables amounts to a canonical transformation). Hence Hg and Hr commute
and can be diagonalized simultaneously with a separation ansatz u(~x1 , ~x2 ) = ug (~xg )ur (~x) and
the total energy becomes E = Eg + Er . After the separation of the center of mass motion
m1 m2
the dynamics is hence described by a one-particle problem with effective mass µ = m1 +m2
and
potential V (~x).

4.2.2 The hydrogen atom

In this section we consider a simplified hydrogen-like atom (or ion) with a nucleus of atomic
number Z and a single electron, where we neglect the spin and relativistic correction terms in
the Hamiltonian, as well as the structure of the nucleus whose role is restricted to a massive
point-like source for the Coulomb potential. It consists of protons with the mass mp and
elementary charge q,

mp = 1, 7 · 10−27 kg, q = 1, 6 · 10−19 Coulomb, (4.36)

and a number of neutrons, and the electron has charge −q and mass

me = 0, 91 · 10−30 kg. (4.37)

The electrostatic interaction potential between the electron and the point-like nucleus thus is

q2 Z Ze2
V (r) = − =− , (4.38)
4πǫ0 r r
p
where r = (~xe − ~xnucleus )2 denotes the distance between the electron and the nucleus and

q2
e2 = . (4.39)
4πǫ0
For the hydrogen atom Z = 1, while Z = 2, 3, . . . for the ions He+ , Li++ . . . .
CHAPTER 4. ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE HYDROGEN ATOM 84

The quantum mechanics of this system is described by the Hamiltonian

p~2 p~2 Ze2

H(~x, p~) = + V (r) = − , (4.40)
2µ 2µ r
where the reduced mass
 
me mnucleus me
µ= ≈ me 1 − (4.41)
me + mnucleus mnucleus

is very close to me since mnucleus ≫ me .

Now we recall the Laplace operator in spherical coordinates (4.19), which has a radial and
a tangential part,
1 ∂2 1 L2
∆= 2
r − 2 2
. (4.42)
r ∂r
| {z } |r {z~ }
radial component tangential component

The reduced Hamiltonian of a hydrogen-like atom thus becomes

 
~2 Ze2 ~2 1 ∂ 2 1 L2 Ze2
H =− ∆− =− r − − (4.43)
2µ r 2µ r ∂r2 r 2 ~2 r
or
p2r L2 ~1 ∂
H= + + V (r), p r = r. (4.44)
2µ 2µr2 i r ∂r
For bound states we expect negative energy eigenvalues E < 0 with
 2 
pr L2 Ze2
+ − u(~x) = E u(~x). (4.45)
2µ 2µr2 r

With the separation ansatz u(~x) = R(r)Ylm (θ, ϕ) we obtain the radial eigenvalue equation
 2  
~ 1 ∂2 ~2 l(l + 1) Ze2
Hl R(r) = − r + − R(r) = E R(r) (4.46)
2µ r ∂r2 2µr2 r

with a Hamiltonian Hl depending on an integer parameter l. For large angular momentum l the
radial Hamiltonian Hl thus has an effective repulsive contribution proportional to 1/r2 , which
is called centrifugal barrier (it stabilizes excited energy levels at high values of l). For fixed l
(and m) we introduce a label, the principal quantum number n, for the different eigenvalues
En,l of Hl and we set
1
R(r) = un,l (r). (4.47)
r
2rµ
Multiplication with ~2 yields the differential equation
 
∂2 l(l + 1) 2µ Ze2 2µEn,l
− 2+ − 2 − un,l = 0 (4.48)
∂r r2 ~ r ~2

We first consider the asymptotics of its solutions un,l for r → 0 and for r → ∞.
CHAPTER 4. ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE HYDROGEN ATOM 85

ˆ For r → ∞ this equation reduces to

√
−2µE
(−∂r2 2
+ κ ) un,l = 0 with κ= (4.49)
~
whose solution is

un,l ∼ Ae−ρ + Beρ with ρ = κr (4.50)

un,l has to vanish at infinity, hence only e−ρ is acceptable for r → ∞.

ˆ For r → 0 the radial equation becomes

 
2 l(l + 1)
−∂r + un,l = 0 . (4.51)
r2

The ansatz un,l ∼ rq yields l(l + 1) − q(q − 1) = 0, hence

un,l ∼ Ar−l + Brl+1 . (4.52)

Normalizability requires un,l to vanish at the origin so that un,l ∼ rl+1 for r → 0.

Introducing the Bohr radius a0

~2
a0 = 2
= 0.529 · 10−10 m, (4.53)
µe

equation (4.48) takes the form

 
2 l(l + 1) 2Z 1 2
∂r − + − κ un,l (r) = 0, (4.54)
r2 a0 r

or, in terms of dimensionless variables ρ = κr and n,

  
2 l(l + 1) 2n Z
∂ρ − + −1 un,l = 0, n= , (4.55)
ρ2 ρ κa0

where the principal quantum number n parametrizes the energy eigenvalue E = −R Z 2 /n2 with
R = ~2 /(2µa20 ) = µe4 /(2~2 ) = 2.18 · 10−18 J = 13.6 eV = 1 Rydberg.

In order to account for the asymptotics of the solutions we write

un,l (ρ) = e−ρ ρl+1 F (ρ), (4.56)

where F (ρ) should be nonzero at the origin and should not grow faster than polynomial at ∞.
l(l+1)
Since ∂ρ2 u = e−ρ ρl+1 (F ′′ + 2( l+1
ρ
− 1)F ′ + (1 − 2 l+1
ρ
+ ρ2
)F ) we obtain
 
∂2 ∂
ρ 2 + 2(l + 1 − ρ) + 2(n − l − 1) Fn,l (ρ) = 0. (4.57)
∂ρ ∂ρ
CHAPTER 4. ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE HYDROGEN ATOM 86

P∞
Expanding F (ρ) into a power series j=0 aj ρj the l.h.s. of (4.57) becomes a sum of three terms:
∞
X
′′
ρF = ρj (j(j + 1)aj+1 ), (4.58)
j=1
X∞
2(l + 1 − ρ)F ′ = ρj (2(l + 1)(j + 1)aj+1 − 2jaj ), (4.59)
j=0
∞
X
2(n − l − 1)F = ρj 2(n − l − 1)aj . (4.60)
j=0

The vanishing of the coefficient of ρj implies the recursion relation

(j + 1)(j + 2l + 2)aj+1 = 2(l + j + 1 − n)aj . (4.61)

For large j the ratio aj+1 /aj is approximately 2/j, which is the same as in the Taylor series of
e2ρ . The asymptotic behavior of the resulting solution would effectively invert the exponential
damping in our ansatz (4.56). Normalizability therefore requires that the series terminates,
which implies l + j + 1 − n = 0 for some nonnegative integer j, i.e. the principal quantum
number n has to be a positive integer

n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 0≤l<n (4.62)

and the energy eigenvalues are

 2
Z 2R 1 Z~
En = − 2 = − . (4.63)
n 2µ a0 n

Somewhat surprisingly, the energy levels do not depend on the orbital quantum number l. For
fixed principal quantum number n we therefore have an degeneracy of
n−1
X
(2l + 1) = n2 , (4.64)
l=0

which is larger than what is implied by angular momentum conservation. The energy degener-
acy for different values of l is a special property of the pure Coulomb interaction. It is lifted in
nature by additional interaction terms that lead to the fine structure and hyperfine structure of
the spectral lines. Note, however, that the degeneracy due to angular momentum conservation
cannot be lifted by any corrections except in the presence of external forces, like an external
magnetic field, which would break the rotation symmetry of the complete system (i.e. the atom
plus its interaction with the environment). For a proper discussion of these effects we need to
consider the spin of the electron. This will be the subject of the next section.
CHAPTER 4. ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE HYDROGEN ATOM 87

Figure 4.3: Term diagram for the hydrogen atom illustrating all n2 degenerate states
corresponding to the principal quantum number n.

The non-uniqueness of common eigenfunctions of H, L2 and Lz for the Coulomb potential

implies the existence of an independent conserved quantity that lifts this degeneracy. An
appropriate observable can be constructed in terms of the Runge–Lenz vector,

~ = 1 (P~ × L
M ~ × P~ ) − α ~x
~−L for
α
V (r) = − , (4.65)
2m r r
which is well-known in the classical mechanics of planetary motion. It is straightforward to
~ ] = 0. Evaluation of the classical version p~ × L/m
check its conservation [H, M ~ − α~x/r at the
perihelion shows that this vector points along the direction of the principal axis of the Kepler
ellipse, which is a constant of non-relativistic motion in a pure 1/r potential. The quantum
operator (4.65) is obtained by Weyl symmetrization, which is necessary for self-adjointness.1
~
xj xi xj
1
With [P~ , 1r ] = i~ r~x3 , [Pi , r ] = ~
ir (δij − r 2 ),
~ × (B
A ~ × C)
~ = Aj BC
~ j − Aj Bj C
~ and (~x × L)
~ † = −L
~ × ~x
we can verify
 
~ ~ ~ ~ 2
~ ] = [− α , P ×L−L×P ] + [ P , −α ~x ] = ~−L
~×
[H, M r 2m 2m r
i~α
2m
~
x
r3 ×L ~
x
r3 + P~ 1r − (P~ ~x) r~x3 + 1r P~ − ~
x
xP~ )
r 3 (~ = 0 (4.66)

The Lenz vector, of course, does not commute with Lz but rather transforms as a vector, [Li , Mj ] = i~εijk Mk .
Since M ~ ·L
~=L ~·M ~ = 0 and (after a tedious calculation) M 2 = 2H (L2 + ~2 ) + λ2 is a function of H and L2 ,
m
only Mz qualifies for the additional commuting operator that lifts the degeneracy. The algebra is completed
(after further tedious calculations) by
2H
[Mi , Mj ] = i~ εijk Lk . (4.67)
m
q
−m
For fixed energy Hψ = Eψ the six conserved charges Li and Mj = 2E Mj form an angular momentum
algebra SO(4) in 4 dimensions, or, equivalently, two independent angular momentum algebras SO(3) generated
by 12 (Li ± Mi ). The properties of abstract angular momentum algebras, which will be derived in the next
section, can then be used for a complete algebraic computation of the energy levels of the hydrogen atom. For
more details see http://hbar.physik.uni-oldenburg.de/vlqm/VLqm/node72.html or [Hannabuss].
CHAPTER 4. ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND THE HYDROGEN ATOM 88

4.3 Summary
2
ˆ For a Hamiltonian of the form H = 2m P
− V (r), which is symmetric under rotations, the
angular momentum L = X ~ × P~ is conserved [H, Li ] = 0 and the algebra [Li , Lj ] = i~εijk Lk
leads to the following three commuting operators

[H, Lz ] = [H, L2 ] = [Lz , L2 ] = 0. (4.68)

ˆ The common eigenfunctions of L2 and Lz are the spherical harmonics with eigenvalues

L2 Ylm = ~2 l(l + 1)Ylm (4.69)

and
Lz Ylm = ~mYlm (4.70)

with l and |m| ≤ l integer. The eigenvalue of L2 is (2l + 1) fold degenerate.

ˆ The Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom can be solved by reducing the non-
relativistic two-body problem to the one-body problem with reduced mass µ = m1 m2 /M
and a free center of mass motion with total mass M = m1 + m2 .
With the formula for the Laplace operator
1 ∂2 1 L2
∆= r − (4.71)
r ∂r2 r 2 ~2
and a separation ansatz in spherical coordinates the energy eigenvalues
 2
Z 2R Z~
En = − 2 = −2µ , (4.72)
n a0 n
are determined by the termination condition of the power series solution to the radial
equation (4.57), which is related to the differential equation

xL′′ (x) + (2l + 2 − x)L′ (x) − (l + 1 − n)L(x) = 0 (4.73)

for the associated Laguerre polynomials

Lsr (x) = ∂xs Lr (x) = ∂xs ex ∂xr e−x xr , with r = n + l, s = 2l + 1 (4.74)

q
by x = 2ρ = 2κr with κ = −2µE ~2
n
= naZ0 . The normalized wave functions are
s
(n − l − 1)!(2κ3 )
unlm = 3
(2κr)l e−κr L2l+1
n+l (2κr) Ylm (θ, ϕ) (4.75)
2n((n + 1)!)
where n ∈ N is the principal quantum number, l < n the orbital quantum number and m
the magnetic quantum number. Due to the approximation of a pure Coulomb interaction
and electrons without spin En is n2 -fold degenerate.