This course material is designed and developed by Indira Gandhi National

Open University (IGNOU), New Delhi, Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open
University (KKHSOU), Guwahati and Vidya Mitra(MHRD).
BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONOURS) IN
HISTORY (BAHI)

BHI-09
History of India V (c.1526-1750)

BLOCK – 1

ESTABLISHMENT OF MUGHAL
RULE
UNIT-1 INDIA ON THE EVE OF THE ADVENT OF THE
MUGHALS

UNIT-2 MILITARY TECHNOLOGY : FIRE ARMS

UNIT-3 SHER SHAH : ADMINISTRATIVE AND REVENUE

REFORMS
UNIT 1 : INDIA ON THE EVE OF THE ADVENT OF
THE MUGHALS
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Political Scenario on the eve of Babur's Invasion
1.3 Central Asia and Babur
1.4 The Lodi Empire
1.4.1 Sikandar Lodi
1.4.2 Ibrahim Lodi
1.5 Establishment of the Mughal Power
1.6 The Second Afghan Empire
1.7 Administrative Structure
1.7.1 Nature of Kingship
1.7.2 General Administration
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Key Words
1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.11 Exercises

1.0 OBJECTIVES
This Unit will tell you about:

 the political situation of India on the eve of Babur's invasion,

 Babur's successful campaigns against the Lodis,
 the conquests and conflicts of the Mughals with the local ruling powers,
specially their clashes with the Afghans and the Rajputs,
 the emergence and consolidation of Sher Shah, and
 the circumstances and factors that led to the revival of Mughals in India
under Humayun.

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
The scope of the present Unit confines itself to the process of the establishment of
Mughal rule in India under Babur and Humayun. Afghans' bid to challenge and
overthrow Mughal authority is also discussed. A brief survey of the Afghan rule has
also been attempted. The Unit deals mainly with the territorial expansion under
Babur and Humayun.

1.2 POLITICAL SCENARIO ON THE EVE OF BABUR'S

INVASION
The first half of the fifteenth century witnessed political instability with the
disintegration of the Tughluq dynasty. Both the Saiyyad (1414-1451) and the Lodi
(1451-1526) rulers failed to cope with 'the disruptive forces . The nobles resented
and rebelled at the earliest opportunity. The political chaos in the North-West
provinces had weakened the centre. Now let us examine what was happening in
other parts of India.
In Central India there were three kingdoms: Gujarat, Malwa and Mewar. The power
of Sultan Mahmud Khalji II of Malwa was, however, on the decline. Gujarat was
ruled by Muzaffar Shah II, while Mewar under the leadership of Sisodia ruler Rana
Sanga was the most powerful kingdom. Rulers of Malwa were under constant
pressure of the Lodis, Mewar and Gujarat. This was because it was not only the most
fertile region and an important source for elephant supply but it also provided an
important trade route to Gujarat sea-ports. Hence, it was an important region for the
Lodis. Besides, for both Gujarat and Mewar it could serve as a buffer against the
Lodis. The Sultan of Malwa was an incompetent ruler, and his prime minister
Medini Rai could hardly hold the kingdom intact for long in the wake of internal
strifes. Finally, Rana Sanga, succeeded in extending his influence over Malwa and
Gujarat. By the close of the 15th century, Rana Sanga's sway over Rajputana became
almost complete with the occupation of Ranthambhor and Chanderi. Further south,
there were powerful Vijaynagar and Bahmani kingdoms
Towards the east, Nusrat Shah ruled Bengal. Towards the closing years of Ibrahim
Lodi's reign, Afghan chieftains Nasir Khan Lohani, Ma'ruf Farmuli, etc. succeeded
in carving out separate kingdom of Jaunpur under Sultan Muhammad Shah. Besides
these major powers, there were numerous Afghan chieftaincies around Agra - the
most powerful ones being those of Hasan Khan in Mewat, Nizam Khan in Bayana,
Muhammad Zaitun in Dholpur, Tatar Khan Sarang Khani in Gwaliar, Husain Khan
Lohani in Rapri. Qutub Khan in Etawa, Alam Khan in Kalpi, and Qasim Sambhali in
Sambhal, etc .

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While analysing the political set-up on the eve of Babur's invasion it is generally said
(Rushbrooke William) that there was confederacy of Rajput principalities which was
ready to seize the control of Hindustan. It is held that had Babur not intervened, the
Rajputs led by their illustrious leader Rana Sanga would have captured power in
northern India. It is argued that the political division of the regional states was
religious in nature and that Rajput confederacy under Rana Sanga fired by religious
zeal wanted to establish a Hindu Empire. This assumption is based on the famous
passage of Baburnama where Babur says that Hindustan was governed by 'five
Musalman rulers': the Lodis (at the centre), Gujarat, Malwa,'Bahmani, and Bengal,
and two 'pagans' (Rana Sanga of Mewar and Vijaynagar). Besides, the fathnama .
issued after the battle of Khanwa suggests that Rajput confederacy under Rana was
inspired by religous zeal and organised with the intention to overthrow the "Islamic
power".

However, such observations have been questioned by historians. Babur has nowhere
suggested that these powers were antagonistic against each other on religious
grounds. Instead, Babur himself admits that many rais and ranas were obedient to
Islam. Moreover, if we see the composition of the confederacy, there were many
Muslim chieftains like Hasan Khan Mewati, Mahumud Khan Lodi, etc. who side
with Rana Sanga against Babur. Rather Waqi'at-i Mushtaqi (1560) blames Hasan
Khan Mewati for creating the confederacy to overthrow the Mughal power in India.
In fact, it was not Rana Sanga, but Sultan Mahmud who proclaimed himself the king
of Delhi. Though, the power of Rana was unquestionable, Babur was more anxious
of Afghan menace: thus the theory of religious consideration does not seem to hold
ground.

1.3 CENTRAL ASIA AND BABUR

We have already discussed political formations in Central Asia and Persia during the
16th century in . By the close of the 15th century, the power of the Timurids was on
the decline. By this time the Uzbegs succeeded in establishing strong footholds in
Transoxiana under Shaibani Khan. Around the same time, the Safavis rose into
prominence under Shah Ismail in Iran; while further west the Ottoman Turks
dominated the scene. We have already discussed how Shaibani Khan overran almost
whole of Transmiaha and Khorasan. However, finally in 1510 Shah Ismail of Iran
defeated Shaibani Khan. In a short while (1512) the Ottoman Sultan defeated Shah
Ismail, thus leaving the stage again to the Uzbegs to become the master of the whole
Transoxiana.

Babur ascended the throne at Farghana (a small principality in Transoxiana) in 1494

at the tender age of twelve. However, it was not a smooth succession for Babur. Both
the Mongol Khans as well as the Timurid princes, specially Sultan Ahmad Mina of

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Samarqand, an uncle of Babur, had interests in Farghana. Besides, Babur had to face
the discontented nobility. Against all odds Babur struggled to strengthen his foothold
. in Central Asia and did succeed in taking Samarqand twice (1497,1500). But he
could hardly hold that for long. With Shaibani Khan's success over Khorasan (1507)
four Timurid centres of power finally sealed Babur's fate in Central Asia and he was
left with no option but to look towards Kabul where the conditions were most
favourable. Its ruler Ulugh Beg Mina had already died (1501). Babur occupied Kabul
in 1504. Yet Babur could not completely leave the dream to rule over Central Asia.
With the help of Shah Ismail Safavi, he was able to control over Samarqand (1511)
but Shah Ismail's defeat in 1512 and the resurgence of the Uzbegs left Babur with no
alternative but to consolidate himself at Kabul.

Thus, it was the Central Asian situation which pressed and convinced (after 1512)
Babur to abandon the hopes of creating an Empire in Central Asia and look towards
India. The rich resources of India and the meagre income of Afghanistan, as Abul
Fazl comments, might have been another attraction for Babur. The unstable political
situation after Sikandar Lodi's death convinced him of political discontentment and
disorder in the Lodi Empire. Invitations from Rana Sanga and Daulat Khan Lodi, the
governor of Punjab, might have whetted Babur's ambitions. Perhaps Timur's legacy
also provided some background for his invasion. (After the siege of Bhira in 1519,
Babur asked Ibrahim Lodi to return western Punjab which belonged to his uncle
Ulugh Beg Mirza.) Thus, Babur had both reasons and opportunity to look towards
India.

Check Your Progress 1

1) Discuss the political condition of India on the eve of Babur's invasion.
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2) "It was Central Asian situation that forced Babur to look towards India".
Comment.
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The first half of the 16th century in North India was a period of political turmoil and
instability. This period witnessed frequent changes of ruling dynasties and
emergence of diverse ruling groups. The most significant event was the Mughal
conquest of India. This influenced in a major way the Indian polity, economy and

4
society of coming 200 years. In this Unit we focus our attention mainly on the first
half of the 16th century. Our aim here is to familiarise you with the political and
economic background in which the powerful Mughal Empire established itself in
India.
At first we discuss the political developments during this period. Our discussion
stands with the Lodi dynasty of the Afghans. After that we see how the Mughals
defeated the Afghans and established their own political power. Next, we discuss the
overthrow of the Mughals by the Afghans. The Unit ends with the account of the
reestablishment of Mughal power under Humayun: In the sphere of economy, the
major developments taking place during this period under the Afghans have been
discussed .

1.4 THE LODI EMPIRE

By the end of 15th century Bahlal Lodi firmly established the Lodi dynasty at Delhi.
He succeeded in bringing large area of North India under his control. After his death,
his son Sikandar Lodi succeeded him to the throne.

1.4.1 Sikandar Lodi

In the sixteenth century the Lodi Empire, under Sulta'n Sikandar Lodi, in North India
reached its zenith. In 1496, Sultan Hussain Sharqi, the ex-ruler of Jaunpur was
driven away from south Bihar and the Rajput chieftains in alliance with him were
either forced into submission, or uprooted. Their zamindaris were brought under the
control of the Sultan or reduced to the status of vassal principalities. Likewise, the
power of those Afghan and non-Afghan nobles, reluctant to acquire to the Sultan's
authority, was eliminated in the area around Delhi. In the first decade of the sixteenth
century, the annexation of Dholpur paved the way for the expansion of the Afghan
rule in the regions of Rajputana and Malwa. The forts of Narwar and Chanderi were
annexed while the Khanzada of Nagaur acknowledged the suzerainty of the Lodi
Sultan in 1510-11. In short, the whole of North India; from Punjab in the north-west
to Saran and Champaran in north Bihar in the east, and Chanderi to the south of
Delhi were brought under the Lodi rule.

1.4.2 Ibrahim Lodi

Unlike his father, Sultan lbrahim Lodi (1517-1526) had to face the hostility of the
Afghan nobility soon after his accession to the throne in 1517. He found himself
surrounded by powerful nobles bent upon weakening the centre.to gain an upper
hand for themselves. His father had to fight against his brother; and relatives and was
supported by the nobles who wanted to replace the princes in the resourceful
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provinces. Upon the death of Sultan Sikandar, the nobles decided to divide the
Empire between Sultan lbrahim Lodi and his younger brother Prince Jalal Khan
Lodi, the governor of Kalpi.

Sultan lbrahim was forced by them to accept the division which naturally weakend
the centre. Some time later, some of the senior nobles, like Khan Khanan Nuhani,
who came from their provinces to do obeisance to the new Sultan, criticised the
supporters of division, calling their action detrimental to the Empire. They also
persuaded the Sultan to rescind the agreement. On their advice, Sultan lbrahim sent
high nobles to Prince Jalal Khan. Their mission was to persuade him to withdraw his
claim and acknowledge his elder brother as the Sultan. The efforts went in vain and
this created a succession crisis.

At this juncture Sultan lbrahim appeared more powerful than his rival .brother.
Hence, the old nobles rallied round him. However, there were few exceptions like
'Azam Humayun Sarwani, the governor of Kara and his son Fath Khan Sarwani.
They stood by Jalal Khan but for some time only. When Sultan lbrahim marched in
person, even these two deserted Jalal Khan and joined the-sultan.

The Sultan deputed Azam Humayun Sarwani against Raja Bikrarnajit of Gwaliar.
This was done so because Prince Jalal Khan had taken shelter there. From Gwaliar,
Jalal Khan fled towards Malwa but was captured by the Gonds and sent as prisoner
to the Sultan in Agra. However, his escape from Gwalior made the Sultan suspicious
of the loyalty of the old nobles to him. Azam Humayun was recalled and thrown into
prison. The Raja of Gwalior surrendered to the nobles and agreed to join the service
of the Sultan. He was given the territory of Shamsabad (Farrukhabad district) in iqta.
It was about this time that the celebrated wazir Mian Bhua also lost royal confidence
and was put under arrest. The imprisonment of the old nobles sparked off wide-
spread rebellion in the eastern region.

The Sultan raised his favourites to key positions at the court and sent others to the
provinces as governors. As a result, the old nobles became apprehensive of their
future and began to build up their power in the provinces. Darya Khan Nuhani, a
powerful governor of Rihar, became a rallying point for the dissatisfied nobles in the
the east.

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About the same time, Babur occupied the sarkar of Bhera and Daulat Khan Lodi, the
supreme governor of the trans-Sutlej Punjab, failed to liberate it.When summonedto
the court, Daulat Khan did not come and revolted against the Sultan also invited the
uncle of Sultan Ibrahim. 'Alam Khan Lodi (son of in Bahlul Lodi), and declared him
as the new Sultan under the title of Sultan Alauddin. Both formed an alliance with
Babur. the ruler of Kabul, against Sultan lbrahim . Rana Sangram Singh and Babur
also seems to have reached to an understanding against lbmhim Lodi .

1.5 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MUGHAL POWER

Babur, who had invaded with some success the border areas of the north-west 9
frontier, launched a well planned attack' with the help of his political allies in India.
In 1526, Babur and his Indian allies fought against Sultah Ibrahim at Panipat. The
artillery used by Babur for the first time in north India helped him achieve easy
victory. lbrahim Lodi was killed in the battle and the road to Delhi and Agra was
cleared for Babur.

When Babur supplanted the Lodi rule by his own his Indian allies were
disappointed. The dissatisfied Afghan and non-Afghan nobles accepted Prince

7
Mahmud lodi as their Sultan and decided to carry an armed struggle against the
Mughals. The fifteen years of combined rules Babur and Humayun rule is to be
treated as an interregnum between the fall of the Lodis and the foundation of Sher
Shah Sur's Empire.

Babur (d. 1530) and Humayun adopted the same state system in India that they
found existing under the Lodi Sultans. For example, the policy they followed
towards the zamindars was the age-old tradition set by the Delhi Sultans. Babur
mentions that the rais and rajas were found on all sides and quarters of Hindustan,
obedient as well as disobedient to the Muslim ruler. In fact, he was satisfied when
the rajas paid nominal allegiance to him as they did in the past. The Baburnama
clearly shows that Babur assigned the charge of territories to the nobles, granting
them the right to collect land revenue and carry on the government there on his
behalf as was the prevelent system. The shiqqdars were posted in the parganas under
khallsa. In short, Babur or Humayun do not seem to have made any important
change in the political system in North India.

The Afghan and non-Afghan nobles who fought against Babur and Humayun under
the nominal leadership of Sultan Mahmud Lodi, failed to achieve success. This was
primarily due to rivalry and dissensions among themselves. Their defeat in 1531 by
Humayun finally sealed the fate of the old Afghan nobility. Thereafter the leadership
of the anti-Mughal Afghans was taken over by Sher Khan Sur who, by now, had
established his control over the fort of Chunar and the region of south War. The old
Afghan nobles fled to Gujarat. This they did to join the service of Sultan Bahadur
Shah who wanted to capture Delhi.

Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was financially as well as militarily the most
powerful of the lndian rulers. Some of the coastal towns in Gujarat had already
emerged as emporium of international trade. These port-towns were visited by
merchants from different foreign countries. Thus, this trade yielded huge revenue to
the state exchequer through customs dues. He also possessed a strong artillery.

In 1531, Sultan Bahadur Shah started on an expansionist career. He conquered

Malwa and annexed it to his Sultanate. In 1533, he laid siege to Chittor and
conquered it. Thereafter, he decided to march to Gwaliar against the Mughals. About
this time, Rumi Khan, the commander of the Gujarat artillery, secretly entered into
alliance with Humayun and assured him of his help. The Gujarat army was
completely demoralised by the treachery of Rumi Khan. Finally, Bahadur Shah took
shelter in the island of Diu and the whole of Malwa and Gujarat was occupied by
Humayun. But this Mughal conquest was short-lived. Soon after his victory in

8
Gujarat, Humayun received the alarming news of the rebellion of Sher Khan Sur
who had declared himself as Sher Shah Sur. He seized vast land from the Sultan of
Bengal and raided the eastern territories held by the Mughals. Humayun left his
brother Askari along with other Mughal nobles in Gujarat and retreated to Agra. On
Humayun's departure, Gujarat rose in revolt against the Mughals. Bahadur Shah
came back from Diu and chased the Mughals out from Gujarat and Malwa.
Meanwhile, Humayun made war preparation in a haste and started towards Chunar, a
stronghold of Sher Shah. About this time Sher Shah took the impregnable fort of
Rohtas from its Raja. Humayun conquered the Chunar fort, and entered Bengal
without meeting any serious resistance put by the Afghans. In Gaur (Bengal) there
was a period of inactivity on the part of Humayun. Sher Shah took full advantage of
the situation. He closed the line of communication between Agra and Gaur and
attacked the Mughal forces in the eastern territories upto Benaras. lnformed about
the deterioriating circumstances, Humayun started on the journey back to Agra. He
met the Afghan army near Chausa in 1539 and was defeated with heavy losses. In
1540 Humayun met the Afghan forces under Sher Shah at the battle of Qannauj. He
was defeated and fled to Kabul.

1.6 THE SECOND AFGHAN EMPIRE

Finally, after expelling Humayun, Sher Shah became the Emperor of North India
from the lndus to the Bay of Bengal in the east and from Himalaya in the north to
Malwa in the south. The Biloch chiefs of Multan and upper Sind and Maldeo in
western Rajputana and Bhaiya Puran Mal of Raisin were defeated. A centralised
political system was again revived by Sher Shah Sur.

With Sher Shah Sur, a new era began in the history of North India, Certain important
changes took place in the realm of ideas and institutions.

In 1545 he did in a mine blast. His son and successor lslam Shah (1 545-1 553) not
.only retained his system but also took steps towards its improvement whenever
necessary 'Indeed, theirs was a personal government that derived its strength and
glory from their personal vigour.

Check Your Progress

1) Discuss the extent of Sikandar Lodi's Empire.

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2) Match the following: I) Azam Humayun A)Governor of Bihar

2) Bahadur Shah B)Governor of Punjab

3) Darya Khan Nuhani C)Ruler of Gujarat
4) Jalal Khan Lodi D)Governor of Kara
5) Daulat Khan Lodi E) Governor of Kalpi

3) Under what circumstances Babur invaded India?

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1.7 ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE

A number of new administrative measures were taken during this period. Afghan
kingship also shows marked departure from the Turkish concepts. This change can
well be seen in the formulation of almost all administrative policies.

1.7.1 Nature of Kingship

The kingship under the Turkish Sultans was highly centralized . The Sultan's powers
were absolute. However, with the rise of the Afghan power, there also followed
distinct changes in the monarchy. Afghan monarchy was primarily tribal in nature.
For them. king was 'first among equals'. In fact, political expediency also played its
own role. Bahlul. being Afghan. could not look towards Turks for support. He had to
virtually accept the terms of his fellow Afghans. The Afghan nobles must have
enjoyed complete local autonomy. The only bond between them and the Sultan was
to render military service when the need arose or required to do so. Such was the
position under Bahlul that he neither ever sat on the throne in front of his fellow
Afghan nobles. nor did he organised an open darbar. He used to call his Afghan
nobles masnad i ali.

However, a distinct change came with Sultan Sikandnr Lcdi who clearly saw them
of.an unrestrained nobility. He is credited with having introduced such important
changes into the political system of the Empire that transformed it into a highly
centralised political entity.

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Unlike Sultan Bahlul Lodi (his father), Sultan Sikandar Lodi demanded obedience
from nobles. His military success made the nobility completely loyal and subservient
to him. It also suppressed its sentiments of equality with the Sultan. He is reported to
have sat on the throne regularly in an open darbar where the nobles were required to
stand. showing due respect to the Sultan like servants. Even in his absence, his
farmans were received by high nobles with respect. The noble to whom the farman
was sent had to come forward six miles to receive it. A terrace 'was prepared upon
which the courier stood and placed the farman on the head of the noble who had to
stand below. Then all those concerned had to listen to it standing. The nobles who
failed to retain the confidence of the Sultan fell into disgrace. according to a
contemporary writer, 'any one who turned from the path of obedience, he (the
Sultan) either got his head severed off the body or banished him from the Empire.

" Though, in general the Sultan did not tamper with their autonomy at local level, at
times the nobles were transferred and sometimes even dismissed. The Sultan
expelled Sultan Ashraf. son of Ahmad Khan Jilawani, who had declared his
independence in Bayana after Sultan Bahlul Lodi's death. He also exiled the twenty-
two high Afghan and non-Afghan nobles for their involvement in a conspiracy
against him in 1500. Jalal Khan Lodi. who succeeded his father as the governor of
Kalpi in 1506. incurred the displeasure of the Sultan by not properly conducting the
siege operations against the fort of Nanvar in 1508, for which he was thrown into
prison.

The nobles were also put to more closer scrutiny of their iqtas. But, in spite of these
changes, the Afghan kingship basically remained unchanged. Some of the offices
were made hereditary. The Afghans continued to assume high titles, Khan-i Jahan,
Khan-i Khanan, Azam Humayun, Khan-i Azam, etc. They also enjoyed freedom to
maintain informal relations with the Sultan on playground, marches, hunting etc.
Thus, monarchy under Sikandar was more of a compromise between the Turkish and
tribal organisations.

The process of centralization accelerated under Ibrahim. He believed that "kingship

knows no kinship". Under him, the prestige of the Sultan went so high that even the
royal tent was considered worthy of respect. However, Ibrahim's policy had severe
consequences and proved ruinous to the interests of the Afghan kingdom. The
Afghan nobles were not prepared for the master-servant relationship. This led to
dissatisfaction and rebellions to the extent that some of them even collaborated with
Babur to depose the Sultan. When the second Afghan Empire was established in
India (Surs), they had learnt the lesson well for they never attempted to establish
tribal monarchy. Instead, Sher Shah Sur succeeded in establishing a highly

11
centralized autocratic monarchy. With the coming bf the Mughals on the scene, one
finds the opening up of another chapter - the Mughals who were influenced by both,
the Turkish and the Mongol traditions.

1.7.2 General Administration

Sultan Sikandar Lodi is also praised for introducing a sound administrative
machinery. He introduced the practice of audit in order to check, the accounts of
Pollty in North lndia .

muqtas and walis (governors). Mubarak Khan Lodi ,(Tuji Khail), the governor of
Jaunpur, was the first noble whose accounts came under scrutiny in He was found
guilty of embezzlement and, therefore, dismissed. Similarly, Khwaja Asghar, a non-
Afghan officer-in-charge of Delhi, was thrown into prison for corruption. The Sultan
also reorganised the intelligence system in order to keep himself well informed about
the conditions in the Empire. As a result, the nobles feared to discuss the political
matters among themselves, lest the Sultan be displeased.

Interested in the well-being of the general public, the Sultan had charity houses
opened in the capital as well as in the provinces for the benefit of destitute and
handicapped people. The deserving persons got financial aid from these charity
houses. Scholars and poets were patronised and educational institutions were granted
financial aid throughout the Empire. He imposed a ban on the use of any language
other than Persian in the government offices. This led many Hindus to learn Persian
and they acquired proficiency in Persian within a short time. Consequently, they
began to look after and supervise the revenue administration. When Babur came to
India, he was astonished to see that the revenue department was completely manned
by the Hindus.

Likewise, the serious interest taken by Sultan Sikandar Lodi in ensurirg impartial
justice to all and sundry in his Empire brought peace and prosperity.

Sher Shah seems to have been inspired by the history of Sultan Alauddin Khalji's
(1296-1316) reign. He adopted most of the rules and regulations introduced by the
Khalji Sultan. However, like Khalji he was not harsh in their implementation. In the
doab region, the sarkar (the successor of shiqq under the Khaljis) was the
administrative cum-fiscal unit; while willayat, comprising a number of sarkars in the
outlying regions, such as Bengal, Malwa, Rajputana and Sind and Multan were
retained for the convenience of defence. The sarkar comprised a number of parganas,
each pargana consisting of a number of villages. The village was the primary fiscal
unit.

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The noble posted as incharge of sarkar or wilayat was not given unlimited powers.
He was regularly directed through royal farman to implement new rules and
regulations. The spies informed the king about the conduct of the officers. Anyone
who was found failing in his work was punished, Khizr Turk, the governor of
Bengal, was dismissed and 'thrown into prison because he married the daughter of
the ex-Sultan of Bengal without Sher Shah's permission and acted independently.

Similarly, Sher Shah's policy with regard to the planting of Afghan colonies in the
territories known for recalcitrant inhabitants also demonstrates the nature of kingship
under him, for example, Gwalior was one of the places colonised by the Afghans
during Sher Shah's reign. In short, Sher shah was an absolute monarch for all
practical purposes. In organizing his nobility, Sher Shah took people belonging to
different ethnic groups in such a way that his dynastic interest could be safeguarded.
No group was strong enough to assume the shape of a pressure group. We find the
non-Afghan nobles, Khawwas Khan, Haji Khan and Habib Khan Sultani holding the
charge of important provinces with large iqtas. This shows that the establishment of
a pure Afghan nobility was never a consideration with Sher Shah.

On Sher Shah's death, his second son Prince Jalal Khan ascended the throne under
the title of Islam Shah. He overpowered and eliminated many senior and experienced
nobles who supported his elder brother Adil Khan. After their elimination, Islam
Shah was free to translate his political ideas into practice. He shifted his capital from
Agra to Gwalior and also brought his father's treasures from Chunar. Thus Gwalior
became the centre of Indo-Muslim Delhi culture.

It is also worth mentioning that Islam Shah went a step further from Sher Shah in
centralizing the polity of the Empire. He took away the iqtas of the nobles and
brought the whole Empire under khalisa. The officers were paid in cash instead of '
iqtas. The nobility and army were reorganized into new grades. Officers were
appointed from among them to look after and inspect the proper maintenance of
soldiers and necessary army equipment by the nobles. The nobles were also denied
the possession of war elephants: it was a king's prerogative.

Islam Shah was very harsh in dealing with the nobility but he was benevolent',
towards the public. He provided people with the security of life and property by
holding the officer in charge of a territorial unit responsible for the loss of property
and life in his jurisdiction. Consequently, the officer in whose territory any crime
was committed, went out of his way to arrest the culprit. Like his father ,Islam Shah
also ensured the administration of impartial justice in the Empire.

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Check Your Progress 2
1) In what way did the Afghan polity differ from the Turkish polity?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
2) Discuss the measures taken by the Surs to curb the power of the nobles.
……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………..……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

1.8 LET US SUM UP

Polity in the first half of the 16th century was mainly dominated by the Afghans the
Lodis. The Mughals also emerged on the scene, but they were still struggling to
dominate the Afghan polity. This, in fact, was more a period of instability. The
Afghan nobility was not prepared to accept the autonomy of the Sultan. It played a
crucial role in determining the political events of the period. As political expediency
demanded, Bahlul was virtually dictated by Afghan nobility. Sikandar, who
succeeded in exerting his power, did attempt for a compromise. But, Ibrahim and
later the Sur established an autocratic centralized monarchy, and made the nobility
totally subservient to the Sultan.

In spite of political instability, people enjoyed prosperity and economic stability;

prices were low, burden of taxation was reduced by eliminating various cesses.
However, under Lodi Sultans iqtas became hereditary. Another characteristic of the
period was the growth of urbanisation. A number of cities sprang up during this
period including the famous city of Agra which was to acquire pivotal role under the
Mughals.

1.9 KEY WORDS

Amin : revenue assessor

Baburnama : memoir written by Babur(also know n as Tuzuk I

Baburi)
Iqta : revenue assighnments in lieau of salary
Kankut : method of revenue assessment in which area was
measured and the revenue realized was assessed
in grain/ kind .

14
 Karkhanas ; during this period karkhanas were the places where
articles were manufactured for Sultan's and
noble's household. Royal store houses were also
called karkhanas
Pargana : an administrative unit comprising a number of villages
Sarkar : territorial division consisted of a number of parganas.
Between parganas and sarkars were the shiqqs but
from Akbar's reign onwards shiqq was not
commonly used
Shiqq : an administrative unit comprising a number of parganas
Supra : see the preceding tex
Wali/Muqta : provincial governors/iqta holders
Wazir : prime minister
Wihyat : : province. Provinces in this period are not well defined
administrative units. The well defined piovinces
(subas) emerged for the first time during Akbar's reign
in 1580

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress 1

1) See Sub-sec. 2.2.1. 2) Governor of kara, ruler of Gujarat, Governor of Bihar,

Governor of Kalpi, Governor of Punjab.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Discuss the salient features of Afghan tribal polity; how it was based on
decentralization; and compare it with the Turkish polity which was basically a
centralized one (see Subsec. 2.5.1).

15
UNIT 2 : MILITARY TECHNOLOGY : FIRE ARMS
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Overview Of Mughal Empire
2.3 The Mughal Military Structure
2.3.1 Short arms ranged into five classes

2.4 Let Us Sum Up

2.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson you will be able to:

 describe the dynamics of Mughal Empire in India and

 explain the Mughal military structure

2.1 INTRODUCTION
As you have learnt in the previous lesson the Muslim rulers of Delhi who called
themselves the 'Sultans' acknowledged the authority of the 'Caliph'. However, when
the Mughal rulers came to power, they repudiated the authority of Caliph and called
themselves as 'Padshah'.
Another remarkable development during this period was that the European Trading
Companies started establishing themselves in India. The Portuguese followed by the
Dutch, the Danish, the English and the French-all came to India but they were not
able to make much headway up to the time of Aurangzeb. However, as you will see
later the throne became virtually vacant after the death of Aurangzeb. For all these
factors it is said that with the arrival of Mughals, a new age started in the history of
India.

2.2 OVERVIEW OF MUGHAL EMPIRE

Mughals from Central Asia ruled India for more than three hundred years - from
1526 up until 1857 - when the last Mughal ruler was overthrown and British
established their control. During these three hundred years of Mughal period the
military underwent many changes. We can learn all this from the recorded history of

16
the battles that they had fought. Who established the Mughal Empire? How did they
come to India? And who were the prominent rulers? Here are the answers to these
questions

The Mughal Empire in India was founded by Babur. He established himself in Kabul
and then invaded India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass.

It was in a battle at Panipat, which is now located in Haryana that Babur defeated the
numerically superior forces of the last of Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Lodi. With the defeat
of the last Delhi sultan ruler, Babur fought with the Rajputs under Rana Sanga of
Mewar, and by 1529 he dismantled the Afghans of Gangetic Plains. On his death in
1530, he left behind a new Empire which encompassed all of northern India from the
Indus River on the West to Bihar on the East, and from the Himalayas in the North to
Gwalior in South.

After Babur's rule his son, Humayun took over power and assumed the throne in
1530, but in a short period of 10 years he was driven out of India into Persia by the
Afghan rebels. However, Humayun made a triumphant return from Persia to India
again in 1555.

The other prominent ruler that the Mughal dynasty saw was Humayun's son Akbar,
who established the throne under the administration of Bairam Khan in 1556. It was
during Akbar's rule, ‘Mughal influence' through out the country reached its political

17
height. Akbar left behind an internally stable state with reliable political,
administrative and military structures.

Akbar's son Jahangir inherited both his father's administrative system and his tolerant
policy toward subjects but he neglected the affairs of the state and came under the
influence of rival courtiers. His rule did not continue for long and it passed on to his
son Shah Jahan who took over power in 1628. However, his rule also saw financial
problems. The country witnessed maintenance of the court costing more than the
revenue. Later in 1658, as a result of Shah Jahan's illness his eldest son, the liberal
Dara Shikoh assumed the role of administrator. But, Shah Jahan's younger son,
Aurangzeb took over power as the sixth Mughal emperor by executing Dara Shikoh.
Although Aurangzeb succeeded in expanding the empire to its greatest extent, his
political and religious intolerance proved fatal to the stability of Mughal society.
The last emperor, "Kaiser-i-Hind" Bahadur Shah II was exiled by the British, after
his involvement with the Great Uprising of 1857 .

Check Your Progress 1

1. Who were the Mughal kings after Babur ? Name any three kings.
2. When was the first battle of Panipat fought?
3. What was the reason for weakening of Aurangzeb's empire?

2.3 THE MUGHAL MILITARY STRUCTURE

As the Mughals came from Central Asia they brought the Central Asian military
tradition along with them. A new style of combat was adopted due to the arrival of
gunpowder and with that a new kind of tactics was also employed. Earlier, this was
not the case since fighting predominantly revolved round the use of horses and
elephants with weapons like bows, arrows, swords and shields. But from now on a
new phase of military combat was adopted that focussed on the use of artillery and
the use of muskets, bombs, etc. This does not mean that the older weapons were
completely replaced. In fact, they were complemented with new ones particularly the
artillery.

This contributed to the change in battlefield tactics about the deployment of the units
in the battle, the positions of the infantry, cavalry and artillery in battlefield and how
they had to be employed. And not only were there changes in the adoption of
military tactics but also corresponding changes in the manner in which these
different military units were to be maintained. New organisations were created with
civilian administrative institutions.

18
As far as the structure is concerned, the Mughal Army consisted of cavalry, infantry,
and artillery. Among these, artillery held a subordinate position compared to that of
the infantry and cavalry. Besides, elephants were also used. Under the Mughals, the
emphasis on the numbers and quality of the horse in an army. However, it was the
artillery that was used extensively to break through the enemy forces and defeat
them. Even during the first battle of Panipat, the artillery played an important role in
defeating Ibrahim Lodhi's forces.

a) Artillery: The general name given to this branch was Top-khanah.

Babur's artillery was of two kinds, the heavy and the light, or "as they call the
latter, the artillery of the stirrup. The heavy artillery was called the 'Kazan' or
heavy canon . which was able to fire balls of about 20-25 pounds in weight
while the lighter canon was called 'zarb-zan' which was mobile and could be
moved in different places and was able to fire 3 to 4 pound weight of
projectile. The Kazan were big guns and were used against forts and fortified
positions. Since these canons were heavy it was difficult for the army to
move or maneuver them effectively during battles. In such cases, it was the
lighter canons the Zarb-Zan which was effective as it was quite mobile.
Besides, there was also a third kind called 'firingi' or Frankish canon, which
was much smaller than the zarbzan. The last kind of Babur's artillery
consisted of a heavy siege gun which fired projectiles of about 100 pounds or
more.

b) Elephants: Long before the Mughal Empire fell into decay, elephants had
become principally beasts of burden or means of display, and their role in the
battle reduced significant. Yet, Akbar made much use of elephants by
bringing them into the field in great numbers. Under Akbar the elephants
ridden by the emperor were called khasah (special), and all others were
arranged in groups of ten, twenty or thirty, called halqah. The Elephants were
aggregated as groups and formed a single division.

c) Discipline in the military was extremely lax, if not entirely absent. Once
thrown into confusion, it was impossible to restore a Mughal army's
discipline. During the march they moved without order, with the irregularity
of a herd of animals. The Mughal military had an elaborate system of
arrangement to take care of invasions. There was a person called Mir Tuzak
(literally, Lords of Arrangement) whose responsibility was to identify the
route, decide on the marches and proceed ahead, select a place for
encampment and lay out the site of the various camps and the lines of shops.
When carrying out these duties, the first Mir Tuzak was more commonly
known as Mir Manzil, Lord of the Stages.

19
 d) Camps: Each soldier had a tent as shelter. Outside the gate of the
enclosure were the elephants and horses with their establishments on one
side; and the records, the carts and litters, the general of artillery, and the
hunting leopards on the other. The heavy artillery was ranged at a distance
and defended the approaches.

e) On the March: The heavy artillery went first, followed by the units of the
infantry called the advance guards. The baggage followed the combat unit. In
the baggage first came the camels carrying the imperial treasure. Immediately
behind these came the imperial kitchen. The army came after the baggage.

f) Equipments: During battles, the Mughals used a wide variety of weapons.

The generic name for arms and armour was silah (plural aslah). Broadly, they
can be classified into short arms and weapons for distant attacks.

2.3.1 Short arms ranged into five classes. They were:

1) swords and shields,
2) maces,
3) battle axes,
4) spears and,
5) daggers.

Besides the above, the Mughals also used weapons for more distant attacks. They
were of three different types:
1) the bow (Kaman) and arrow (Tir),
2) the matchlock (banduq or tufang) and
3) the pistol (tamanchah).

Of these three, the Tir-Kaman was the most popular. In fact, it served as the primary
weapon of the cavalry, and the Mughal horsemen were famed for their archery. "The
sword was better than the dagger, the spear better than the sword, the bow and arrow
better than the spear."

The generic name of a sword was tegh (Arabic), shamsher (Persian) or talwar
(Hindi). The Arabic word saif was also used occasionally. One kind of short-sword
was called the nimchah-shamsher. Apart from these there were many other kinds of
weapons that were used. They are as follows:

20
DHUP (asa-shamsher, i.e. staff-sword): a straight sword, adopted from the Dakhin.
It had a broad blade, four feet long and a cross hilt. It was considered as an emblem
of sovereignty and high dignity and was therefore displayed on state occasions.

SIROHI: "Whoever was struck on the head by these Indian blades was cleft to the
waist, or if the cut were on the body, he was divided into two parts."

PATTA: a narrow-bladed, straight rapier.

GUPTI: a straight sword having a walking stick as its sheath. Along with the sword
naturally comes the shield; then known as chirwah & tilwah. The mace (gurz)
usually formed part of the equipments of a Mughal warrior. The battle-axe (tabar)
was a triangular blade with one broad cutting edge. The usual generic name used for
spears of all kinds was the Arabic word sinan. The head or point was called sunain,
and the butt was the bunain. Besides these, there were also other varieties of daggers
that were in use. To name some of them: Jamdhar, khanjar, katta and peshqabz.

Check Your Progress 2

1. Name the different branches of Mughal military.
2. What were the different kinds of artillery used by Mughals called?
3. How did the Mughals organize themselves during invasions?
4. List some of the weapons used by the Mughals.

2.4 LET US SUM UP

 The Mughals hailed from Central Asia;

 Their military traditions were superior to those of the Delhi Sultanates who
were not administered properly;
 The Mughal army was well organized and reached its zenith during the rule
of Akbar
 Cavalry was the main arm as it provided greater mobility;
 The artillery was the supporting arms of the Mughals;
 The technological and tactical surprise that the artillery contributed was
unparalleled;
 Various kinds of weapons were used and discipline was ensured

Check Your Progress 3

1. Who were the prominent rulers under Mughal dynasty?

21
2. How was the Mughal military system organized?
3. Give an account of the weapons used by Mughals.

2.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress 1
1. Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan and Anuragzeb etc. (Any Three)
2. April, 1526 A.D.
3. Policy of political and religious intolerance.

Check Your Progress 2

1. Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery and Elephants.
2. Heavy and light artillery.

3. Heavy artillery first followed by the infantry called as the advance guards and then
logistics units comprising of the camels bearing the imperial treasure. The treasure
was succeeded by the hunting establishment, which was followed immediately by
the imperial kitchen. The entire army came after the baggage.
4. Swords, battle-axes, spears, daggers and maces.

22
UNIT 3 : SHER SHAH : ADMINISTRATIVE AND
REVENUE REFORMS
Structure
3.1 Learning Objectives

3.2 Introduction

3.3 Sher Shah Suri and his expansionist policy

3.4 Sher Shahs Administrative Reforms

3.5 Significance of his rule

3.6 Revenue Reforms

3.7 Let Us Sum Up

3.8 Further Reading

3.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.10 Model Questions

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to:

 explain the political turmoil that occurred after the defeat of Humayun in the
hands of Sher Shah,
 discuss the rise of Sher Shah and his glorious rule in India,
 describe the administrative measures initiated by Sher Shah, and
 discuss the impact of the Second Afghan rule under Sher Shah in India

3.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit, we have discussed the foundation of theMughal Empire by
Babur and his incessant battles to carve out a kingdom. He was successful in
bringing the rebellious chiefs under his control. Humayun failed to consolidate his
position and this paved the way for Sher Shah.

23
In this Unit, we will discuss the rise and fall of Sher Shah and his brilliant career.
The victory of Babur at Panipath and Ghagra did not result in complete submission
of the Afghan chiefs. They were seething with discontent against the newly founded
Mughal rule and needed only a strong leadership to unite their isolated efforts into an
organized national resistance against it. This was provided by Sher Khan Sur who
effected the revival of the Afghan power and established a glorious though short-
lived regime in the form of Second Afghan Empire in India by ousting the newly
established Mughal authority.

3.3 SHER SHAH SURI AND HIS EXPANSIONIST POLICY

 Background
From an obscure Sur family of Rahori in Afghanistan, Sher Shah Suri rose to
prominence by dint of his personal merit. His original name was Farid. With the
administration of his father's jagir at Sasaram, Sher Shah began his career.

For twenty one years (1497-1518) Sher Shah successfully managed the jagir, but was
treacherously removed from his post by his step mother and half-brothers. Sher Shah
left Bihar and entered into the services of Daulat Khan Lodi. Through his new
master, Sher Shah requested Ibrahim Lodi to bestow on him the jagir of his father
which was however rejected by the Sultan. But on the death of his father Hassan
Ibrahim Lodi conferred on Sher Shah the jagir of his father. Still, because of strong
opposition of his half-brothers, Sher Shah could not take full possession of his
father's jagir.

Sher Shah then entered into the services of Bahar Khan Lohani, the Afghan governor
of South Bihar. After the defeat of Ibrahim Lodi at Panipath, Bahar Khan Lohani
declared himself an independent ruler of South Bihar and made Sher Shah his deputy
governor and the tutor of his minor son Jalal Khan. But as Bahar Khan Lohani was
instigated against Sher Shah, the latter had to enter the Mughal services where he
remained for a very short time, from 1527 to 1528.
Sher Shah helped Babur in his campaign against Chanderi for which he got back his
paternal jagir as a reward from the Mughal emperor. Again, Bahar Khan Lohani
reappointed Sher Shah to his earlier position as the deputy governor and tutor of his
minor son Jalal Khan. But in October, 1528 Bahar Khan Lohani died and his widow
Dudu Bibi too followed him. Now, Sher Shah became the guardian and regent of the
minor Jalal Khan who remained only as the nominal ruler. Slowly Sher Shah started
grabbing all the powers of the kingdom. He virtually became the independent ruler
of South Bihar and styled himself as Hazrat-i-Ala. Bahar Khan Lodhi gave the title
of 'Sher Khan' to Sher Shah for killing a tiger single handedly.

24
The first great achievement of Sher Shah was the acquisition of the fort of Chunar as
a consequence of his marriage with Lad Malika, widow of Taj Khan, governor of
Chunar. Then in 1533, Sher Shah defeated the combined forces of the Lohani chiefs
of Bihar and Mohammad Shah of Bengal at Surajgarh. By this victory he brought the
whole of Bihar under his control. He defeated Mohammad Shah of Bengal thrice in
1536, 1537 and1538 securing large wealth of Bengal and even occupied the capital
city of Gaud for a short period. All these victories enhanced the power and prestige
of SherShah who tactfully kept Humayun busy in Gaud and cut off all lines of
communication between Bihar and Delhi. On the return journey of Humayun from
Bengal to Agra, Sher Shah effectively blockaded his way and inflicted a crushing
defeat on the Mughal army in the battle of Chausa on June 26, 1539. Humayun
somehow managed to save his life.
Emboldened by this victory, Sher Shah retrieved his authority in Bengal and
crowned himself at Gaud as Sher Shah ‘Sultan-i-Adil’. The very next year in 1540
Sher Shah again defeated Humayun in the battle of Kannauj or Bilgram and
occupied the throne of Delhi. Sher Shah re-established the Afghan Empire which he
ruled for five years, from 1540-1545.

During this short period Sher Shah proved himself to be a conqueror. He sent an
expedition against Malwa and with the submission of the governor of the fort of
Gwalior, Malwa was conquered in 1542. The fort of Raisin was captured by Sher
Shah after a desperate struggle offered by Pooran Mal. Multan, Punjab, and Sindh
were occupied in 1543. Jodhpur under Maldeo had become powerful and Humayun
was offered shelter by its ruler. This infuriated Sher Shah who took it up as a pretext
to raid Jodhpur. Maldeo was defeated and Marwar was conquered in 1544. His last
expedition was against the Raja of Kalinjar and it was during the raid on the fort at
Kalinjar that Sher Shah lost his life due to a grievous injury caused by a blast to blow
off the walls of the fort. Kalinjar was won in 1545.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Answer the following questions:
1. What was the original name of Sher Shah?
________________________________________________
2. Who was Lad Malika?
________________________________________________
3. Who offered shelter to Humuyan?
________________________________________________

25
3.4 SHER SHAH'S ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS
The success of Sher Shah lies in his administrative reforms that have served as an
inspiration for his successors. The important officials at the court were- Diwan-i
Wizarat, Diwan-i Ariz, Diwan-i Rasalat, Diwan-i Insha. The Diwan-iWizarat
handled the income and expenses of the state and also supervised the other ministers.
Diwan-i- Ariz looked after the administration of the military affairs. The Diwan-i
Risalat was in charge of diplomatic correspondence through a network of
ambassadors and envoys. The Diwan-i Insha drew the royal proclamations and was
in charge of maintaining the Government reports. The Diwan-i Qazi and Diwan-i-
Barid were related to the department of justice and intelligence respectively.

Sher Shah provided an administrative framework. The whole Empire was divided
into forty seven units called sarkars. Munsif-i-Munsifan was in charge of trying civil
cases in the sarkars and supervised the works of the Amirs. The Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran
was in charge of maintaining law and order and was to oversee the work of shiqdars.
Each sarkarwas sub-divided into several parganas. Every pargana had some
important officials like Shiqdar, Amin, Munsif, a clerk and middlemen like
Chaudhari, Patwari and Muqaddam. Fotahdar was given the charge of handling the
treasury of a pargana. The clerks were known as Karkuns. The Amins and Shiqdars
were transferred every two years to curb the possibilities of an internal revolt.

He introduced a fine revenue administrative system which served as a rolemodel for

future agrarian reform. Land was divided into three types, measured by the officials
against every cultivator and the cultivators were supposed to pay one-third of their
produce. The revenue collection for the village was the duty of the village Headman
who charged 5 per cent for his labour. Revenues were remitted in case, crops were
destroyed and loans were granted to the cultivators which gave impetus for more
land to come under cultivation. Patwaris were appointed for the purpose of
maintaining records of the accounts for more than one village. Leniency was shown
to the cultivators and the rights and obligations of the cultivators were defined
through Patta and Qabuliyat. Thus, Sher Shah was able to avoid corruption in the
revenue department. The Amir headed the revenue department and the shiqdar was
responsible to collect the revenues and send the same to the treasury.

Sher Shah has been praised for his efficient police system. Local responsibility was
enforced to maintain law and order. In a sarkar, the duty to watch over the criminal
activities was set upon Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran and for the pargana it was the shiqdar. In
the deliverance of justice, Sher Shah ensured that no criminal was set free. The Qazi
and Mir Adi were in charge of trying the civil cases. Criminal law was subject to the
state law and severe punishments were meted out to the guilty.

26
In matters of trade, various duties imposed on goods were abolished under his reign.
Internal customs too were abolished so as to facilitate trade and the free flow of
goods. Prior to Sher Shah, the currency system provided no hope for the people. He
introduced a new coin Dam and abolished old currency made of mixed metal.

LET US KNOW
Sher Shah introduced a regular postage system. The Sarais built along the roads
served as dak-chowkis of the postal department. Two horsemen were always kept at
every sarai or dak-chowki to receive the dak or mail from the previous chowki and
deliver it to the next one

Sher Shah instructed for the building of roads. Four roads were constructed covering
a long distance. Trees were planted and Sarais were built for the travellers. As a
result towns grew near these Sarais and trade improved. The Sarak-i-Azam or the
Grand Trunk Road from Sonargaon to Indus was one of his greatest achievements.

Sher Shah could not give much time to architecture, but the Purana Qila located at
New Delhi, Rohtasgarh on the banks of Jhelum and such meritorious buildings were
constructed during his reign. His mausoleum at Sahasram is unequalled in its beauty
and grandeur.

 Successors of Sher Shah Suri

The Second Afghan Empire or the Sur Empire founded by Sher Shah Suri did not
last long as his successors were inefficient. Sher Shah was succeeded by his second
son Jalal Khan under the title of Islam Shah or Salim Shah who ruled from 1545
to1553. Islam Shah was very suspicious in nature and hastened the process of
liquidation of the Empire. After his death, Nizam ascended the throne under the title
of Muhammad Adil Shah. He ruled for only for four years from 1553 to1557.
Although Muhammad Adil Shah ruled for four years, he lost his throne of Delhi to a
usurper named Ibrahim Khan Sur, a nephew of Sher Shah. He ruled Delhi from
Chunar where he made his new headquarters. Another nephew of Sher Shah,
Sikandar Shah occupied Punjab. An administrative chaos prevailed in the Empire.
Muhammad Adil Shah made Hemu his Chief Minister entrusting him with all the
administrative responsibilities. This was resented by the Afghan nobles. A serious
scramble for power started among the Afghan nobles with the prominent ones
declaring themselves as independent. A civil war also started among Muhammad
Adil Shah, Ibrahim Khan Sur and Sikandar Shah.

Taking advantage of this, Humayun made an attempt to recapture his lost Empire.
He defeated the Afghan army under Sikandar Shah at Machhiwara on the bank of the
river Sutlej. Punjab was occupied and Akbar, son of Humayun, was made its

27
governor. Then a conflict took place near Sirhind on June 22, 1555. Humayun
entered Delhi on July 23, 1555 and became the emperor of India once again after an
interval of fifteen years. The Sur Empire or the Second Afghan Empire came to an
end and the Mughal rule was restored. But Humayun did not live long. He died
following an accident on January 26, 1556. He nominated his son Akbar as his
successor before his death.

3.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF HIS RULE

During the short period of his rule, Sher Shah's achievement was impressive.
According to Dr. R. P. Tripathy, "Had Sher Shah lived longer he might have taken
the wind out of the Akbar's sails."

Sher Shah has often been called a precursor of Akbar due to his administrative
measures. As an administrator, Sher Shah laid the foundation of the administrative
structure which was later on followed and improvised by Akbar. His reforms in the
police system, the judiciary, the revenue and tariff, communication and transport etc,
revealed his indefatigable spirit in the service of the state. He embodied in himself
the spirit of an enlightened despot by following a liberal policy towards his people.

Smith had made an observation which rightly sums up the greatness of Sher Shah.
He marks "If Sher Shah had been spared, the 'Great Mughals' would not have
appeared on the stage of history."

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:
4. Where is the Mausoleum of Sher Shah located?
________________________________________________
5. What was the duty of shiqdar?
________________________________________________
6. Who was in charge of trying the civil cases?
________________________________________________

3.6 REVENUE REFORMS

Land Revenue system of Sher Shah has immortalized his name in the history of
Medieval Age. Sher Shah was a benevolent despot so he treated his subjects very
kindly and won their love and gratitude. At the very beginning of his career while he
was working as in charge of his father’s Jagir, he gathered a lot of experience and

28
knowledge of land revenue problems, hence he used to believe in the welfare of
cultivators. His revenue administration can be described as under.

There were two chief resources for the income of the empire : (i) Central Revenue
(ii) Local revenue. The local revenue was realized through various taxes which were
known as Abwabs. The taxes were mostly imposed on production and consumption
and the traders were required to pay the same. Among the resources of central
revenue unclaimed property, trade, mint, gifts, salt, Octroi, Jaziya, Khams and land
revenue were prominent. The government also realized import and export tax on raw
material as well as on manufactured gods. The royal mint was also a great source of
income of the kingdom. In case of the death of a trader, all his property was
confiscated by the State if he had no successor. All the subordinate kings,
government officials, nobles and foreign travelers had to offer presents to the
Emperor. These precious gifts were also a significant source of income of the State.
Jaziya which was imposed on Hindus, and Khams, the booty, were also a means to
enrich the royal treasury, but the chief source of the income of the empire was land
revenue.

As Land Revenue was the primary source of income of the empire, Sher Shah paid
due attention towards the welfare of the peasants. He used to say, “The cultivation
depends on the humble peasants, for if they be ill-treated they will produce nothing.
But if prosperous, they will produce much.” With this end in view he set upon their
job of land revenue reforms in the following manner:

1. He paid great attention towards the increase in agriculture produce and also
made some improvements in living conditions of the peasants.
2. The huge produce fetched greater revenue tax and enriched the treasury.

Prior to the accession of Sher Shah there was no definite rule regarding the
measurement and classification of land. Royal share was quite high in the total
produce, government officials, Muslim soldiers and Hindu Muqaddams, all exploited
the helpless peasants. She Shah endeavored his best to abolish all these malpractices.
His land revenue system was based on the following principles:
1. The welfare of the people should never be forgotten
2. Liberal attitude should be taken in fixing the taxes but they should be realized
with all dexterity and sternness.
3. There must be proper average between the produce and the tax.
4. The peasants should get the ownership of the land which they used to cultivate.

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In order to achieve the above objectives he took the following significant steps:

1. Sher Shah restarted the system of measuring the land in his empire. The land was
measured on a uniform policy and in every village account was maintained of
cultivable land. He made use of Gaz sikandari and a Zarib of rope for
measurement. In order to ensure the accuracy of measurement and honesty of
collection, he fixed the salaries of the persons who were employed in the work of
measurement so that they could perform their duties with honesty and peasants
might not be subjected to any exploitation.
2. Sher Shah after getting the entire land surveyed by Ahmad Khan, an intimate
friend and trusted officer of his empire, decided the revenue to be paid by the
cultivator. He divided the land into three categories : (i) Good, (ii) Medium, (iii)
Bad. As historians are divided in their opinions nothing can be said definitely
about the rate of land revenue; yet keeping aside the examples of his
predecessors, he ordered that 1/3 of the total produce should be realized as
revenue tax. Besides land revenue the peasants were required to pay Jaribana (the
fees of the surveyor) and Mahasilana (the fee of the tax collection). Tese taxes
were realized from 2.5% to 5% of the total produce.
3. The cultivators had to pay land revenue in cash but facility was granted to apy the
same in the form of grain. The amount was settled in cash at the prevalent market
rate of the crop.
4. The central and provincial governments used to help the peasants at the time of
famine. For the good of the peasants, the government officials were directed to be
liberal at the time of fixing the revenue but no concession was granted to anybody
at the time of collection of revenue.
5. The soldiers were ordered not to harm the corps at the time of expeditions. If
anybody violated this rule, he was liable to be punished, but if some of the crop
was spoiled due to some unavoidable circumstances, the loss of the peasant was
made good form the royal treasury.
6. The cultivators were given two documents, viz, Pattas (title deeds) and Qabuliat
(deeds of agreement). The Patta specified the revenue which its owner had to pay
and through Qabuliat the cultivators promised to pay the specified amount of land
revenue.
7. The peasants were encouraged to deposit their revenue direct in the royal treasury
so that the importance of Muqaddams and headmen might be minimized and a
direct relation could be established between the government officials and the
peasants. The practice came to be known as Rayatwari system but the Emperor
failed to enforce the same revenue system in the Iqtas of Multan, Malwa and
Rajputana.
8. The cultivators were allowed to pay their revenue in two installments in a year in
accordance with the crop season and facility of advancing Taqawi loans was

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 granted to the peasants at the time of famine or drought. Sher Shah also
introduced Schemes of canal irrigation and digging of wells for the good of the
peasants.

Result of Revenue Policy

As a result of uniform revenue policy of Sher Shah the public was freed from the
burden of some illegitimate taxes. The former could plough his field without any
tension and passed his days happily. The stated was also benefited as the revenue
was fixed once for all and it could be realized very easily. Sher Shah removed the
intermediaries and thus relieved the cultivators of their exploitation. His revenue
policy encouraged the settlement and Rayatwari system but he could not remove the
system of jagirdari as the Afghans liked this practice very much.

Defects of the Revenue Policy

No doubt, the revenue settlement of Sher Shah was praised from all quarters and it
provided a solid base to Todar Mal’s Bandobust but there were some defects in it:

 The peasants, who were in possession of medium and bad lands, had to pay
more in the form of revenue that those who possessed good lands, but
Moreland opines that “inequality might have adjusted itself by variation in
the crops grown.”
 The procedure of making payment of land revenue in cash required a long
time due to red tapism of the administrative machinery, so it affected the
efficiency of the local collectors and harassed the people.
 Although the practice of making transfers o f revenue officials was
introduced but it did not check corruption.
 The practice of annual measurement not only created problem for the
cultivators but it also affected the royal treasury otherwise. Besides this it
encouraged bribery and harassed the peasants.
 The Jagirdari system remained in vague and Jagirdars went on creating
problems.
 Sher shah has also been condemned for introducing the practice of rigorous
collection of land revenue but it is not justified because Sher Shah was the
first ruler who laid stress on the welfare of the people. He helped the peasants
at the time of famine and warned his shoulders not to destroy the crops even
at the time of expeditions.

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3.7 LET US SUM UP
After going through this Unit, you have learnt that:–

 Sher Shah could rule for a short time during which he extended the territory
of his Empire and provided a good administrative system.
 The successors of Sher Shah were inefficient and they quarreled among
themselves. Taking advantage of this, Humayun defeated
 the successor of Sher Shah Suri and re-established the Mughal Empire by
overthrowing the Afghan rule. Thus the Second Afghan Empire or Sur
Empire came to an end.

3.8 FURTHER READING

1) Chandra, Satish. (Reprint 2008): Medieval India: From Sultanateto the Mughals,
Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) Part one. New Delhi, India: Har-Anand Publications
Pvt. Ltd

2) Majumdar, RC., Raychaudhuri, HC. and Datta, K. (2007). An Advanced History of

India. Delhi, India: Macmillan.

3) Prasad, Ishwari. (1965). A Short History of Muslim Rule in India. Allahabad,

India, The Indian Press.

4) Maiti, Provatansu and KumarSaha, Prabhat. (2000). Medieval India (1206 A.D.-
1707 A.D.). Calcutta, India: Sreedhar Publishers.

3.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Q. No. 1: Farid
Answers to Q. No. 2: Widow of Taj Khan
Answers to Q. No. 3: Maldeo, ruler of Jodhpur
Answers to Q. No. 4: Sahasram
Answers to Q. No. 5: To maintain peace and order in the pargana
Answers to Q. No. 6: Qazi and Mir Adl

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3.10 MODEL QUESTIONS
(A) Very Short Questions (answer each within 50 words):
Q.1. How much did the Headman charge for his labour of collecting taxes?
Q.2. What is Patta?
Q.3. Why did the Second Afghan rule not last after the death of Sher Shah?

(B) Short Questions (asnwer each within 150 words):

Q.1. What was the role of Patwari in land revenue system?
Q.2. How did Sher Shah check the anomalies in the revenue department?
Q.3. What is the significance of the battle of Kanauj?

(C) Long Questions (answer each within 300-500 words):

Q.1. Discuss the career and military feats of Sher Shah Suri as an Empire builder.
Q.2. Analyse the achievement of Sher Shah as the precursor of Akbar.

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