Thematic Apperception Test % MANUAL € Henry A. Murray, M.D. and the Staff of the Harvard Psychological Clinic HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS Snihaias © Seige es Cambridge, Massachusetts London, EnglandThematic Apperception Test* MANUAL urrose. The Thematic Apperception Test, familiarly known as the TAT, is a method of revealing to the trained interpreter some of the dominant drives, emotions, sentiments, complexes and conflicts of a personality. Special value resides in its power to expose the underlying inhibited tendencies which the subject, or patient, is noc willing to admit, or can not admit because he is unconscious of them. Utility. The TAT will be found useful in any comprehensive study of personality, and in the interpretation of behavior disorders, psychosomatic illnesses, neuro- ses, and psychoses. As now constituted ir is not suitable for children under four years of age. The technique is especially recommended as a preface to a series of psychotherapeutic interviews or to a short psychoanalysis. Since the TAT and the Rorschach yield complementary information, the combination of these two tests, as Harrison and others have pointed out, is peculiarly effective, Rationale. The procedure is merely that of presenting a series of pictures to a subject and encouraging him to tell stories about them, invented on the spur of the moment. The fact that stories collected in this way often reveal sig- nificant components of personality is dependent on the prevalence of two psychological tendencies: the tendency of people to interpret an am human situation in conformity with their past experiences and present wants, and the tendency of those who write stories to do likewise: draw on the fund of their experiences and express their sentiments and needs, whether conscious of unconscious. If the pictures are presented as a test of imagination, the subject's interest, together with his need for approval, can be so involved in the task that he forgets his sensitive self and the necessity of defending it against the probings of the examiner, and, before he knows it, he has said things about an invented character that apply to himself, things which he would have been reluctant to confess in response to a direct question. As a rule the subject leaves the test * Copyright 1943 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. © Copyright 1971 by Henry Alexander Murtay. Printed in the United States of America.happily unaware that he has presented the psychologist with whar amounts to an X-Ray picture of his inner self. Test Material. The material consists of nineteen pictures printed on white bristol board and one blank card, calling for a total of 20 stories. Although it is, of course, possible to get along without any pictures by simply directing the subject to “make up a story,” it has been found (1) that pictures are effective in stirring the imagination; (2) that they serve to force the subject to desl, in his own way, with certain classical human situations; and finally (3) chac the advantages of using standard stimuli are here, as in other tests, considerable. The present, and we hope almost final, series of pictures, selected on prag- matic grounds, is the third revision of the original set distributed by the Harvard Psychological Clinic in 1936. In estimating the effectiveness of a picture we waited in each case until the personality of the subject taking the test had, with the help of other methods, been thoroughly studied and understood; and then we rated the picture ac- cording to the amount of information contributed to the final diagnosis by the story it had evoked. The average of such ratings was accepted as a measure of the stimulating power of the picture. This is the most dependable method of judging the efficacy of any non-specific diagnostic procedure. In selecting the present series we also relied on the considerable experience and sound advice of Drs. Rapaport, Sanford, Shakow, and others. Experience has shown that in the long run the stories obtained are more revealing and the validity of the interpretations is increased if most of the pictures include a person who is of the same sex as the subject. This does nor mean that it is necessary to have two completely different sets of pictures, since some pictures of proved value contain no human figures; others portray an individual of each sex, and in others the sex of the one figure shown is questionable. In fact, eleven of our pictures (including che blank card) have been found suitable for both sexes. Our experience has been limited almost entirely co testing subjects between fourteen and forty years of age, and the present set of pictures reflects this limitation, most of them conforming to the principle that one figure in the picture should be, not only of the same sex as the subject bur not much older, not old enough, say, to be a contemporary of his (or her) parents. We have been informed by Dr. R. Nevite Sanford, however, that in testing children this principle is not of critical importance, and that most of the present loc of pictures, with a few necessary substitutions, is appropriate for ages seven co fourteen. Other workers have obrained satisfactory results with still younger boys and girls, Each set is divided into two series of ten pictures cach, the pictures of the asecond series being purposely more unusual, dramatic and bi of the first. One full hour is devoted to by a day or more. arre than those a series, the two sessions being separated ADMINISTRATION Preparation of the Subjec tion beyond that of being gi those who are peculiarly dull-witeed, unresponsive, re have never taken an educational or psychological test, had better be given a less imposing task (a test of intelligence, mechanical aptitude, Rorschach, etc) before being introduced to the TAT. Children usually do better aft sessions spent in making up spoken fantasies with clay or toys. Atmosphere of the Testing Situation. The air of friendliness (imparted by the secretary and other members of the staff), the aesthetic tone of the office and its furnishings, as well as the sex, age, manner and personality of the examiner are all capable of affecting the freedom, vigor and direction of the subject’ imagination. Since the examiner's goal is to obtain the greatest amount of material of the highest quality possible under the circumstances, and since this attainment depends entirely on the willingness and the momentary creativity of the subject, and since creativity is a delicate, largely voluntary process that can not be forced to flourish in a stiff, frigid, intellectually superior, or other- wise uncongenial atmosphere, it is important that the subject have good reason to feel the environment as sympathetic and co anticipate receptivity, goodwill and appreciation from the examiner. By adopting encouragement and appreciation as. the best routine attitude, one will diminish the frequency of the kind of story that is sometimes evoked by an examiner who is coolly indifferent or aggressively critical toward his subject’s compositions; one will sacrifice the illumination gained from such responses for a greater over-all value: the standardization of an attitude that in the long run will prove most conducive to the best functioning of the creative process. Procedure, Instructions. \. First Session. The subject is seated in a comfortable chair or stretched out on a couch, preferably (except in the case of a child or psychotic patient) with his back to the experimenter, and the instructions, in one of the two following forms, are slowly read to him. Most subjects (patients) do not need any prepara- ven some acceptable reason for taking the test. But istant or suspicious, who T several Form A (suitable for adolescents and for adults of average intelligence and sophisti- cation). “This is a test of imagination, one form of intelligence. Iam going to show you some pictures, one at a time; and your task will be to make up as dramatic a story Tell what has led up co the event shown in the picture, describe as you can for eacwhae is happening at the moment, what che characters are feeling and thinking; and then give the outcome. Speak your thoughts as they come to your mind, De understand? Since you have fifty minutes for cen pictures, you can devote about fra mnintvesio each seoryaFicre ts Helse ptctired Form B (suitable for children, for adults of lle education or intelligence, and for psychotics). “This is a story-telling test. I have some pictures here that I am going to show you, and for each picture I want you to make up a story. Tell whac has happened before and wvhat is happening now. Say what the people are feling and thinking and how it will come out. You can make up any kind of story you please. Do you understand? Well, chen, here is che first picture, You have five minutes to make up a story. See how well youscan dom i The exact words of chese instructions may be altered to suit che age, intelligence, personality, and circumstance of the subject. Bue itis better not to say at the start This is an opportunity for free imagination,” as an instruction of this sort sometimes evokes the suspicion in the subject that the examiner is intending to interpret the content of his free associations (as in a psychoanalysis). Such a suspicion may severely check the spontaneity of his thought. He should believe that the examiner is solely interested in his literary or creative ability. After finishing the first story the subject is commended (if there is any ground for it), and then reminded of the instructions (unless he has obeyed them faithfully). For example, the examiner might say: “That was certainly an interesting story, but you forgot to say how the boy behaved when his mother criticized him and you left the narrative hanging in the air. There was no real outcome. You spent three and a half minutes on that story. Your others can be a little longer. Now see how well you can do with the second picture” Asa rule it is better for the examiner to say nothing for the rest of the hour except (1) to inform the subject whenever he is much ahead or behind schedule, as it is important that he finish all ten stories and that he devote about the same amount of time to each; (2) to encourage him with a little praise from time to time, as there is no better stimulant co the imagination; and (3) if the subject omits some crucial detail, the antecedent circumstances or the outcome, to prompt him with some brief remark such as, “What led up to this situation?” On no account should the examiner allow himself to get involved in a discussion with the subject. ‘The examiner may cut off a story that has become too fong and rambling by asking, “How does it turn oue” and he may tell che subject that what is wanted is a plot and not too much detail. Subjects who become too minutely involved with a literal description of the pictures should be tactfully reminded that this is a test of imagina- tion. Ifa subject inquires about a detail which is nor clear, the examiner should reply, “You may make it anything you please.” The subject should net be allowed ro tell several short stories for a single picture. IF he is disposed to attempt this he should be told to concentrate his energies on one long story. Young children, people of other cultures, and psychotics often need a good deal of encouragement before they will speak freely. In administering the test to extremely 6reticent children ie is permissible to offer rewards, a present if you tell me some nice long stories today”; of “IF you do cl now I'll tell Jou a very exciting story when you're through": on tells the best stories, The examiner may say, “I'll give you xCit There's a prize for the one who One criterion by which the examiner function is the length of the stories which his subjects invent for him. Three hundred words is the standard average length for stories fom sul alge one hundred and Fifty words for stories from ten-year-old children, Most examiners, lacking an assistant, muse try, as best they ne down the exact words of the subject, using some regular or irregular shorthand method. But only an expert can record in this way everything that is said, A beter technique is to have a stenographer sitting in another roam, with specch transmitted by means of a concealed microphone, Or. the be seated nearby behind a thin partition ot sereea, phone record of the stories can be made In making the appointment for the second session the subject should not be told or led to believe that he will agnin be asked to make up stories, because if he has this expectation in mind he is likely to prepare himself by recalling the plots of books he has read or movies he has seen, and so return armed wiet more impersonal material than he could have marshalled had it b for him to concoct stories on the spur of the moment IL Second Session. At least one day should intervene between the first and second sessions. The procedure in the latter is similar to that followed in the former, except in one particular: an instructio freedom of the imagination, ‘an measure his bility to perform his n, tO write stenographer may Or, a permanent gramo- n neces: ry emphasis upon complete Form A, “The procedure today is the same as before, only this time you can freer rein to your imagination. Your first en stories were excellent, but you confined Yourself pretty much to the facts of everyday life. Now I would like t0 see what you can do when you disregard the commonplace realities and let your imagination have its way, as in a myth, fairy story, or allegory. Here is Picture No. 1.” Form B. “Today Tam going to show you some more pictures. It will be easier for you this time because the pictures I have here are much better, more interesting. You told me some fine stories the other day. Now I want to see whether you can make up an—like a few more. Make them even more exciting than you did last time if you dream or fairy tale, Here is the first picture Blank Card. Card No. 6 is accompanied by a special instruction. ‘The examiner say ‘See what you can see on this blank card. Imagine some picture there and describe it to me in detail.” If the subject does not succeed in doing this, the examiner says, “Close your eyes and picture something.” After the subject has given a full description of his imagery, the examiner says, “Now tell me a story about it.” 7Subsequent Interview. In interpreting the material it is often helpful to know the sources of the various stories. Depending on circumstances, this inquiry can be made at once or postponed for a few days. The examiner may justify his questions by explaining that he is studying the factors which operate in the construction of literary plots, or he may make up some other plausible state- ment to secure a codperative attitude. Ac all events the subject is urged to try to remember the sources of his ideas, whether in each case the theme was derived from his own private experience, from the experience of friends or relatives, or from books or movies. He is then reminded of the plot of each significant story in turn and encouraged to speak freely and openly. TAT stories provide numerous provocative starting points for free associations. Training of the Interpreter. A layman with refined intraceptive intuitions and beginner's luck can often, without any experience in testing, make valid and importane inferences by feeling his way into the mental environment of the author of a set of TAT stories; and even an old hand at the game must rely on the same process—empathic intuition first and last, disentangled as far as possible from personal elements. No true scientist will scorn the use of a function which when properly disciplined is capable of yielding precise and pertinent information. Of course intuition alone is highly unreliable; what is required is a rigorously trained critical intuition. Besides a certain flair for the task, an interpreter of the TAT should have a background of clinical experience, observing, interviewing and testing patients of all sorts; and, if he is to get much below the surface, knowledge of psychoanalysis and some practice in translating the imagery of dreams and ordinary speech into elementary psychological components. In addition he should have had months of training in the use of this specific test, much practice in analyzing stories when it is possible to check each conclusion against the known facts of thoroughly studied personalities. Interpretations in vacuo often do more harm than good, since the apparent plausibility of clever interpretations creates convictions which merely serve to confirm the interpreter in the error of his ways. TAT stories offer boundless opportunities for the projection of one’s own complexes or one’s pet theories, and the amateur psychoanalyst who is disre- spectful of solid facts is only too apt to make a fool of himself if, in interpret- ing the TAT, he gives free rein to his imagination. The future of the TAT hangs on the possibility of perfecting the interpreter (psychology’s forgotten instru- ment) more than it does on perfecting the material. Necessary Basic Data, Before starting to interpret a set of stories the psycholo- gist should know the following basic facts: the sex and age of the subject, whether his parents are dead or separated, the ages and sexes of his siblings, hisvocation and his marital status. Without these easily obtained public facts (which the TAT was not designed co reveal) the interpreter may have difficulty orienting himself as he reads. A blind analysis is a stunt which may or may not be successful; it has no place in clinical practice, hd Modes of Content Analysis. In dealing with the content of stori which we recommend is that of analyzing each succe force or forces emanating from the the method ive event into (a) the : hero, and (b) the force or forces emanating from the environment. An environmental force is called a press (plural pres), i. The hero. The first step in analyzing a story is to distinguish the character with whom the subject has identified himself: (1) the character in whom the story-teller was apparently most interested, whose point of view was adopted, whose feelings and motives have been most intimately portrayed. He (or she) is usually (2) the one who most resembles the subject, an individual of the same sex, of about the same age, status or role, who shares some of the subject’ sentiments and aims. This character, called hero (whether it be male or female) is usually (3) the person (or one of the persons) depicted in the picture, and (4) the person who plays the leading role in the drama (hero in the literary sense), who appears at the beginning and is most vitally involved in the outcome. Although most stories have but one hero (readily distinguishable by these criteria), the interpreter should be prepared to deal with certain common complications: (1) the identification of subject with character sometimes shifis during the course of the story; there is a sequence of heroes (First, second, third, etc.). (2) Two forces of the subject's personality may be represented by two different characters, for example, an antisocial drive by a criminal and con- science by a law-enforcing agent. Here we would speak of an endopsychic thema (internal dramatic situation) with two component heroes. (3) The subject may tell a story that contains a story, such as one in which the hero observes or hears about events in which another character (for whom he feels some sym- pathy) is leadingly involved. Here we would speak of a primary and a secondary hero. Then (4), the subject may identify with a character of the opposite sex and express a part of his personality just as well in this fashion. (In a man this is commonly a sign of a high feminine component and in a woman of a high masculine component.) Finally, there may be no discernible single hero; either (5) heroship is divided among a number of equally significant, equally differ- entiated partial heroes (e.g, a group of people); or (6) the chief character (hero in the literary sense) obviously belongs to the object side of the subject-object siuation; he is not a component of the story-teller’s personality but an element of his environment. The subject, in other words, has not identified with theshe would a |. The subject himself is hot represented, or is represented by a minor character (hero in our sense); Characterization of the heroes by the interpreter should include the follow- ing: superiority (power, ability), inferiority, criminality, mental abnormality, solitariness, belongingness, leadership, and quarrelsomeness (the degree to which he becomes involved in interpersonal conflicts). ii. Motives, trends, and feelings of the heroes. The interpreter's next task is to observe in great detail everything that each of the twenty or more heroes feels, thinks, or does, noting evidences of type of personality or of mental illness as well as everything that is unusual: uncommon ot unique: or common but unusually high or low in intensity or frequency. (To be able to discriminate what is unusual the interpreter must have had a good deal of experience with this test, must haye studied at least 50 or more sets of stories, since no satisfactory standards or tables of frequency are as yet available.) In describing or formulating the reactions of the heroes the interpreter is free to use any set of variables he chooses. He may analyze the behavior in accordance with a comprchensive conceptual scheme which gives every psycho- logically significant variable its due place or he may confine himself to the observation of a few traits. It all depends on what he wants to know about his subject. He may be interested in evidences of extraversion-introversion, of masculinity-femininity, of ascendance-submission; or he may be looking for signs of anxiety, guile or inferiority; or he may want to trace certain deep-rooted sentiments to their source; of, again, he may wish to include all of these and more in his plan of study. Our practice is to use a comprehensi principal character to the slightest extent, but has observed him a stranger or disliked person with whom he had to d ¢ list of 28 needs (or drives) classified according to the direction or immediate personal goal (motive) of the activity. A need may express itself subjectively as an impulse, a wish or an intention or objectively as a trend of overt behavior. Needs may be fused so that one action satisfies two or more at once; or one need may function merely as an instru- mental force, subsidiary to the satisfaction of another dominating need. Besides the needs, our list of variables belonging to the hero includes a few inner states and emotions. The strength of each variety of need and of each variety of emotion mani- fested by the hero is rated on a1 (one) to 5 (five) scale, 5 being the highest possible mark for any variable on a single story. The criteria of strength are intensity, duration, frequency and importance in the plot. The slightest suggestion of a variable (c.g, a lash of irritability) is given a mark of 1, whereas an intense form (c.g. violent anger) or the continued or repeated occurrence of a milder form (e.g, constant quarreling) is scored 5. Marks of 2, 3, and 4 are given for 10intermediate intensities of expression. After the twenty stories have been scored in this way, the total for cach variable is compared to the standard score (if there is one available) for subjects of the given age and sex, and the variables which are either well above or well below the standard are listed and scrutinized in relation to each other, There is not space in this manual for a complete account of the variables used. The short list that follows must suffice. After the name of each variable there is printed (within parentheses) the corrected average (Ay,) total score, and the range (R) of scores, for male college students. The figure in each case is for twenty stories averaging 300 words in length.* Ie might be said here that a psychologist can use these variables without subscribing to any particular theory of drives. He may, if he chooses, call them attitudes or traits. n Abasement (AV. 16 R. 6-27). To submit to coercion or restraint in order to avoid blame, punishment, pain or death, To suffer a disagreeable press (insult, injury, defeat) without opposition. To confess, apologize, promise co do better, atone, reform. To resign himself passively to scarcely bearable conditions. Masochism. n Achievement (Av, 26 R. 11-51). To work at something important with energy and persistence, To strive to accomplish something creditable. ‘To get ahead in business, to persuade or lead a group, to create something. Ambition manifested in action. n Aggression (Total Av. 36 R. 8-52). a. Emotional and Verbal (Av. 14 R. 2-29). To hate (whether or not the feeling is expressed in words). To get angry. To engage in a verbal quarrel; to curse, criticize, *A correction must be made whenever the average length of a sct of stories diverges very much from the standard (300 words per story), because, as one might expect, sets of short stories yield relatively low marks on almost all variables, and sets of long stories relatively high marks; and therefore, if the examiner fails to make the proper correction the subject’s relative position on a variable will depend more on the length than on the content of his stories. After estimating the average length of the stories in a set, our practice is to multiply the toral score of every variable by the factor that corrects for the given variation in length. The following table gives the factor to be used in connection with each lengch range, length being expressed as average number of words per story. The figures indicating range are inclusi Average Length Factor Average Length Factor Under 140 words 19 196-215 13 140-146. 8 216-242 12 147-155» 17 243-276 uu 156-166. 16 277-329 » 1.0 167-179. bs 330-400 « 9 4 Over 400 words 8 180-195 Stories from a sane adult averaging less chan 140 words per story usually indicate lack of rapport and codperation, lack of selé-involvement. As a rule they are not worth scoring.belt, reprove, blame, ridicule. To excite aggression against another person by public ‘iticism. wry Physical, Social (Av. 8 R. 0-16). To ight or killin self-defense or in defense of a loved object. ‘To avenge an unprovoked insult. To fight for his country or fora good cause, To punish an offense. To pursue, catch or imprison a criminal or enemy, c. Ppscal, Ascial (Av. 9 Rs 0-17). To hold-up, atack, injure or killa human being unlawfully. To initiate a fight without due cause. To avenge an injury with excessive brutaliry. To fight against legally constituted authorities. To fight against his owe country. Sadism. d. Destruction (Av. 4 R. 0-15). To attack or kill an animal. To break, smash, burn or destroy a physical object. n Dominance (Av. 17 R. 2-36). To try to influence the behavior, sentiments, or ideas of others. To work for an executive position. To lead, manage, govern. To coerce, restrain, imprison. n Intraggression (Av. 10 R. 2-25). To blame, criticize, reprove or belittle himself for wrongdoing, stupidity or failure. ‘To suffer feclings of inferiority, guile, remorse, To punish himself physically. To commit suicide. n Nurturance (Av. 14 R. 4-34). To express sympathy in action. To be kind and considerate of the feelings of others, to encourage, pity, and console. To aid, protect, defend or rescue an object. n Passivity (Av. 18 R. 3-52). To enjoy quietude, relaxation, sleep. To feel tired or lazy after very little effort. To enjoy passive contemplation or the reception of sensuous impressions. To yield to others out of apathy and inertia. n Sex (Av. 12 R. 0-24). To seek and enjoy the company of the opposite sex. To have sexual relations. To fall in love, to get married. 1n Suceorance (Av. 10 R, 2-20). To seek aid or consolation. To ask, or depend on someone else for, encouragement, forgiveness, support, protection, care. To enjoy receiving sympathy, nourishment or useful gifts. To feel lonely in solitude, homesick in a strange place, helpless in a cri Under this heading is included /ntranurrurance: to comfort himself, self-pity. To get some enjoyment out of his own grief. To seek consolation in liquor or drugs. Other needs are Acquisition, Affiliation, Autonomy, Blamavoidance, Cognizance, Creation, Deference, Excitance, Exposition, Harmavoidance and so forth. From the list of inner states and emotions we select the following: Conflict (Av. 14 R. 4-29). A state of uncertainty, indecision, or perplexity. A momentary or enduring opposition between impulses, needs, desires, aims. Moral conflict. Paralys- ing inhibitions. Emotional Change (Av. 18 R. 0-31). To experience a marked change of feeling toward someone. To be fitful, inconsistent or unstable in his affections. To exhibit fluctuations 12of mood or temper; the occurrence of exaltation and depression in one story. To be intolerant of sameness and constancy. ‘To seek new people, new interests, a new vocation. Dejection (Av, 23 R. 0-42). The experiencing of a feeling of disappointment, disillu- sionment, depression, sorrow, grief, unhappiness, melancholy, despair. Other inner states are Anxiety, Exaltation, Distrust, Jealousy. Besides these needs and emotions, the following very inaportant variables are scored on a —3 (minus three) to +3 (plus three) scale: Superego, Pride, Ego Structuration. Here, in each case, the scoring is done on the basis of several operational criteria, i. Forces of the hero's environment. The interpreter should observe the details as well as the general nature of the situations, especially the human situations, which confront the heroes. Here again he should be set to underscore wnique- ness, intensity and frequency, and to record the significant absence of certain common elements, Special note should be taken of physical objects and human objects (other characters) which are not shown in the pictures but invented by the imagination of the story-teller. Mark the traits which recur among the people with whom the hero deals. Are they, for the most part, friendly or unfriendly? Are the women more friendly or less friendly than the men? What are the characteristic traits of the older women (mother figures) in the stories? of the older men (father figures)? Our practice is to use a comprehensive list of press (kinds of environmental ‘forces or situations) classified according to the effect that they have (or that they promise or threaten to have) upon the hero. In our list more than half the press directed toward the hero are trends of activity originating in other characters; that is to say, they are needs of the persons with whom the hero deals. This being understood, it is not hard to see that the concept of press can be extended to include the absence of required beneficial press (lack, deprivation, loss, dispossession) and also to include bodily disturbances to which the personality must adjust (physical pain, injury, disfigurement, disease). Here again, the strength of each press chat occurs in the story is rated on a 1 to § scale, 5 being the highest possible mark for any press on a single story. As usual, the criteria of strength are intensity, duration, frequency and general significance in the plot. After rating the twenty storics, the total score for cach press is compared to the standard score for subjects of given age and sex, and the press which are conspicuously high or low are recorded and examined in relation to each other. There is no room here for more than the briefest mention of a few of the thirty or more press which constitute this part of our conceptual scheme. As in the list of needs and emotions, the numbers in parentheses refer to the average (Av.) total score and the range (R) of scores (corrected for average length of stories) for male college students. 3al Av. 29 R. 17-35). (Av. 14 R. 4-24). The is a member of a congenial group. (Av. 15 R. 9-22). A person (parent, relative, lover) is affectionately hero has a love affair (mutual) or gets married. p Affiliation (Tot a. Associative companions. He b. Emotional devored to the hero. The 1p Aggression (Total Av. 35 R. 6-62). +. Emotional and Verbal (Av. 10 R. 0-21). Someone hates the hero or gets angry with him. He is criticized, reprimanded, belittled, ridiculed, cursed, threatened. A person slanders him behind his back. Verbal quarrel. b. Physical, Social (Av. 11 R. 0-21). The hero is in the wrong (he is an aggressor or criminal) and someone defends himself, attacks back, pursues, imprisons or kills the hero. Some legitimate authority (parent, police) punishes the hero. . Physical, Asocial (Av. 12 R. 5-23). A criminal or a gang assaults, injures, or kills the hero. A person starts a fight and the hero defends himself. d. Destruction of Property (Av. 2 R. 0-8). A person damages or destroys the hero's possessions. hero has one or more friends or sociable p Dominance (Total Av. 37 R. 16-60). a. Coercion (Av. 10 R. 0-22). Someone tries to force the hero to do something. He is exposed to commands, orders or forceful arguments. b. Restraint (Av. 18 R. 7-34). A person tries to prevent the hero from doing something. He is restrained or imprisoned. ¢. Inducement, Seduction (Av. 9 R. 4-20). A person tries to influence the hero (to do something or not to do something) by gentle persuasion, encouragement, clever strategy or seduction. p Nurturance (Av. 15 R. 6-23). A person nourishes, protects, aids, encourages, consoles or forgives the hero. 1p Rejection (Av. 14 R. 1-28). A person rejects, scorns, repudiates, refuses to help, leaves, or is indifferent ro the hero. A loved object is unfaithful. The hero is unpopular or not accepted for a position. He is fired from his job. p Lack, Loss (Total Av. 25 R. 9-48). a. Lack (Av, 11 R. 2-27). The hero lacks what he needs to live, to succeed or to be happy. He is poor, family is destitute; he lacks status, influence, friends. There are no opportunities for pleasure or advancement. ; b. Loss (Av. 14 R. 4-24). Same as p Lack except here the hero loses something or someone (death of loved object) in the course of the story. p Physical Danger (Toral Av. 16 R. 4~34)- a. Active (AV. 10 R. 4-20). The hero is exposed to active physical dangers from non-human forces: savage animal, collision of train, lightning, storm at sea (including bombardment). b. Insupport (Av. 6 R. 0-16). The hero is exposed to the danger of falling or drowning. His car overturns; his ship is wrecked; his airplane is injured; he is on the edge of a precipice. 14p Physical Injury (Av. 5 R. 0-12). ‘he hero is hurt by a person (p Aggression) or by an animal or accident (p Physical Danger). His body is muti It should be understood that a single en of avo or more different press. red or disfigured. a fusion onment force often consists o| in Outcomes. The next important matter to which the interpreter should attend is the comparative strength of the forces emanating from the hero and the forces emanating from the environment. How much force (energy, deter- mination, enduring effort, competence) does the hero manifest? What is the strength of the facilitating or beneficial forces of the environment as compared to the opposing or harmful forces? Is the hero's path of achievement difficult or easy? In the face of opposition does he strive with renewed vigor (counter- action) or does he collapse? Does the hero make things happen or do thir happen to him? To what extent does he manipulate or overcome the oppo forces and to what extent is he mar coercing or coerce ng ipulated or overcome by them? Is he mostly active or mostly passive? Under what conditions does he succeed, when others help him or when he strives alone? Under what conditions does he fail? After committing an offense or crime does the hero get properly punished? does he feel guilty, confess, atone and reform? or is the misdemeanor treated asa matter of no moral significance and the hero allowed to “get away with it” without punishment or fateful consequence? How much energy does the hero direct against himsel? Viewing each event, each interaction of press and need, from the point of view of the hero, the interpreter must estimate the amount of hardship and frustration experienced, the relative degree of success and failure. What is che ratio of happy and unhappy endings? 1 Themas. The interaction of a hero's need (or fusion of needs) and an environmental press (or fusion of press) together with the outcome (success or failure of the hero) constitutes a simple thema. Combinations of simple themas, interlocked or forming a sequence, are called complex themas. When used precisely the term designates che abstract dynamical structure of an episode, when used loosely it means piot, motif, theme, principal dramatic feature of the story. To take up the hero and the environment separately, as we have just outlined, involves the dislocation of the two fundamental elements of each concrete event. This is useful, since it is enlightening co know that a given subject's heroes manifest, let us say, an unusual amount of anxiety, passivity and abase- ment, or that their environments are peopled with many threatening domineer- ing figures. Buc now the'interpreter has reached the point where ic is necessary to put reality together again; and he does this by taking each unusually high Assit 1sneed in turn and noting the press with which it is most commonly combined in the stories; after which he observes with which needs and emotions the unusually high press most often interact. In this way the interpreter will obtain alent themas (nced-press combinations), to which he will a list of the most prev, add any other themas, which, though nor frequent enough to result in a high c ignificane for one reason or another—uniqueness, vividness, intensity, explanatory value. It is also possible to make an over-all thematic analysis without scoring the separate variables. Here it is a matter of viewing cach story as a whole and total score for the need or press involved, seem picking out the major and sninor themas, the plot and sub-plots, The question is: what issues, coinflicts or dilemmas are of the greatest concern to the author? There are common themas, for example, centering round problems of achieve- ment, rivalry, love, deprivation, coercion and restraint, offense and punishment, conflict of desires, exploration, war and so forth. vi. Interests and sentiments. These are treated separately since the author displays his own interests and sentiments nor only by attributing them to his heroes but in his choice of topics and in his manner of dealing with these. Of particular importance is the positive or negative cathexis (value, appeal) of older women (mother figures), older men (father figures), same-sex women and same-sex men (some of whom may be sibling figures). Interpretation of Scores. A set of stories is analyzed and scored at first regardless of the probable personal significance of their content. The result is a list of unusually high and unusually low variables (needs, emotions and press), and a list of prevalent themas and outcomes, together with a host of observations too specific to be caught in the net of any conveniently brief conceptual scheme. Then two tentative assumptions are made, to be corrected later if necessary. The first is that the attributes of the heroes (needs, emotional states and sentiments) represent tendencies in the subject’s personality. These tendencies belong to his past or to his anticipated future, and hence stand presumably for potential forces which are temporarily dormant; or they are active in the present. (OF these past, present or expected tendencies, the subject may be more or less unconscious.) They represent (not literally in most cases but symboli- cally) (1) things the subject has done, or (2) things he has wanted to do or been tempted to do, o (3) elementary forces in his personality of which he has never been entirely conscious although they may have given rise to fantasies and dreams in childhood or later; and/or they represent (4) feelings and desires he is experiencing at the moment; and/or (5) anticipations of his future behavior, something he would like to do or will perhaps be forced to do, he does nor want to do but feels he might do because of some weakness in himself, or something half-recognized 16The second assumption is that the press variables represent forces in the subject's apperceived environment, past, present or future. They refer, literally or symbolically, co (1) situations he has actually encountered, or (2) situation which in reveries or dreams he has imagined encountering, out of hope or fear; or (3) the momentary situation (press of the examiner and the task) as he apperceives it; and/or (4) situations he expects to encounter, would like to encounter, or dreads encountering. Roughly the press may be interpreted as the subject’s view of his world, the impressions he is likely to project into his interpretations of an existing situation and into his anticipations of future situations. Some knowledge of the subject's past history and present circumstance plus a little intuition is required to decide whether a given element belongs to the subject’s past, present or anticipated future. As it happens the discrimination of the temporal reference is not a matter of critical importance. To guide the intuitions of the interpreter from this point all that can be offered in this short manual are a few guiding principles coming out of several years of practical experience. The testing of these and other suggestions consti- tutes a program for the future. In any event the conclusions that are reached by an analysis of TAT stories must be regarded as good “leads” or working hypotheses 10 be verified by other methods, rather than as proved facts. In arriving at his final conclusions the interpreter should take account of the following points: (i) If the test has been unskillfully administered, if the subject has not been involved in the task, if the stories are short and sketchy, the content may be psychologically irrelevant, composed, for the most part, of impersonal elements: (1) elements given in the picture, (2) parts of events witnessed by the subject, (3) fragments from books he has read or movies he has seen, or (4) inventions of the moment—none of these being representative of a determining tendency in his personality. (ii) Under average conditions about 30 per cent of the stories (six out of twenty) will fall in the impersonal category, although even from these a few items of significance can usually be extracted. (iii) One muse not lean too heavily on the subjec’s judgment in deciding whether a given item is personal or impersonal. According to our findings more than half of the content which subjects trace to newspapers, magazines, books and movies are objective equivalents of unconscious memories or complexes in their own personalities. Some internal selective factor has operated to determine cach subjects attention to, registration and eventual recall of just these, rather than countless other, elements of his experience. ; (iv) The TAT draws forth no more than twenty small samples of the subject’ 17To suppose that these will invariably provide a skeleton of the total thought, t ide a skeleron unduly optimistic. Just as in a series of interviews or in a personality f s there are some totally unproductive hours, so there are sets of psychoanalys t FAT scories composed of impersonal or superficially personal elements from which ic is impossible to infer the underlying determinants of character, (v) Ie is convenient to distinguish two levels of functioning: first level func- tioning—physical and verbal behavior (actual overt deeds); and second level functioning—ideas, plans, fantasies and dreams about behavior, The conduct of the subject in relation co the examiner and to the task belongs to the first level, but the content of his stories belongs to the second level. Since individuals vary greatly in ideo-motor conductance (extent to which ideas and fantasies become objectified in action), the interpreter must be prepared to find subjects with low conductance whose stories are indicative of their mental preoccupations but not of their overt behavior, actual or potential. (vi) It is also convenient to distinguish three, if not more, ayers in normal socialized personalities: the inner layer is composed of repressed unconscious tendencies which in their crude form are never, or very rarely, expressed in thought (second level) and never, ot very rarely, objectified in action (first level). he middle layer is composed of tendencies which appear in thought (second level) in undisguised form, and which may perhaps be confessed to one or more suitable individuals, and may also perhaps be objectified in action (first level) privately and secretly. The outer layer is composed of tendencies which are publicly asserted or acknowledged (second level) and/or openly manifested in behavior (first level). It is for the interpreter to determine, if he can, to which of these three layers each conspicuous variable (noted in the TAT stories) belongs. (vii) It may be stated, as a rough generalization, that the content of a set of TAT stories represents second level, covert (i.c., inner and middle layer) per- sonality, nor first level, overt or public (ie., outer layer) personality. There are plenty of ways of discovering che most typical overt trends; the TAT is one of the few methods available today for the disclosure of covert tendencies, ‘The best understanding of the total structure of personality is obtained when the Psychologist considers the characteristics of manifest behavior in conjunction with the TAT. finding: (viii) Hal-unmindful of the fact that they are dealing with imaginal produc- tions, rather than records of actual behavior, some interpreters are inclined to assume that variables which are unusually strong and variables which are unusually weak in the TAT stories will be unusually strong and unusually weak respectively in the subject's manifest personality. There is some pragmatic basis, to be sure, for this expectation inasmuch as sta tical studies have shown that 18with most variables there is a positive correlation between the strength of their imaginal (TAT) expressions and the strength of their behavioral expressions. We can not lean very heavily on this over-all finding, however, since not only do we find numerous individual exceptions, but in the case of certain other important drives and emotions, especially those which are customarily re- pressed, the exact opposite is generally true. Here one is reminded of the principle that currents of thought are more rigidly influenced by strong needs which have been inhibited or rested for a long time than by needs which have recently been fully satisfied or fatigued by overt action. What is revealed by the TAT is often the very opposite of what the subject consciously and voluntarily does and says in his daily life. Thus the picture that emerges from this test may be unrecognizable by the individual's casual, or even intimate, acquaintances. (ix) Although the TAT was not designed to reveal first level, outer layer personality (public behavior) the interpreter can often guess some of its char- acteristic features by taking note of the following points: (a) The stories composed in the first session (in response to the first ren pictures) are more closely related to the outer layer of personality, as a rule, than those composed in the second session, many of which express inner layer tendencies and complexes symbolically. (b) Tendencies which are not restricted by cultural sanctions are likely to be as strong in their overt as in their covert manifestations. In college men, for example, there is a positive correlation (over .40) between the TAT and the behavioral manifestations of the following variables: n Abasement, n Creation, n Dominance, n Exposition, n Nurturance, n Passivity, n Rejection and De- jection. On the other hand, according to our findings, n Sex in the TAT and in Sex in overt behavior correlates between —.33 and —.74 depending on the type of activity that is being considered. Statistically there is no correlation at all between the intensity of covert second level manifestations and overt first level manifestations of n Aggression and n Achievement (due possibly to variations in the fatigue factor). (©) Knowing a few facts about the subject, the interpreter, feeling his way into the atmosphere of the stories and noting repetitions and elements congru- ent with these, can usually without much difficulty distinguish the portions (about 15 per cent of the stories) which are almost literally and consciously personal. Out of this nucleus of impressions a portrait of the middle and outer layer personality will usually emerge. Portions requiring depth interpretation are usually derived from the inner layer. (x) Experiments have shown that the sex of the examiner must be taken into account, This is especially true when analyzing the stories of a subject who entertains an unusual amount of hostility cowards members of the sex to which 19the examiner belongs. The prestige and attitude of the examiner can also affect to some extent the course of some of the stories. One might predict that standard scores will not be exactly the same for all examiners, that some, for example, will, in the long run, instigate more affiliation and less aggression than will others, (xi) Still more importane as determinants are the life situation and the momentary emotional state of the subject. The average college man about to enter the armed forces will introduce the theme of war into at least two of his twenty stories, Marital conflicts will be prominent in the stories of a woman contemplating divorce. A young man who has just been refused by his giel will receive an uncommonly high mark on the variable Dejection, and so forth. Depth Interpretation, Being informed that the chief value of the TAT resides 1 to evoke fantasies which are susceptible of translation into uncon- ed tendencies, one might expect to find this manual largely aA in its pov scious repr devoted to the technique of such translations. But the necessary limitation of space forbids so ambitious an endeavor. To summarize in a few paragraphs the theories and practices of psychoanalysis, a knowledge of which is necessary for depth interpretation, would be both presumptuous and misleading, since a litle information might influence some amateurs to believe that they were Magi of the unconscious. Depth interpretation requires the examiner to orient himself so that he views each story and parts of cach story, as if the teller were a child trying with imagery co objectify his own body, or certain functions or organs of his body (of person, or as if the teller were trying to depict in a disguised form a certain encounter with one of his parents or siblings, or to suggest some traumatic event experienced in childhood. Inferences of this sort can be validated only by data derived from some kind of psychoanalysis, and it would be better if pert workers submitted their depth interpretations only co those analysts and others, who have the ability and the opportunity to verify them. Formal Analysis, Under this heading we include the discrimination of a variety of attribures descriptive of the topic, structure, style, mood, degree of realism and power of the plot and of the language of the stories. It is among these attributes that we look for evidences of temperament, observationa a psychosomatic symptom), or to represent the body of another emotional maturity, ability, intellectuality, aesthetic imagination, literary ability, verbal facility, psychological insight, reality sense, intraception-extraception, integrity (normality) of cognition and so forth. Obsessional, manic and depressive trends are not difficule to recognize. Disjunctivity of theme and language and the occurrence in the narrative of incongruities of feeling and action and of bizarre clements—these bespeak mental disorientation. The first valuable contribution in this area of research was made by Masserman and Balkan. Much work remains to be done. 20Reliability. Seeing that the TAT respons as the present life situation of the subjecr, reliability of the test to be high, even thou tendencies and traits that are relatively constant. Data on this point ar Description of Pictures, Below is a list of the and second series of the four sets (B for young by males over 14 years; F for females over 14 yes by any letter (B, G, M or F) designates a picture which is suitable for boa sexes and all ages (Nos. 1, 25 4, 5, 10, 1, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20). “BM” means thar the picture is suitable for boys and older males; “GE” tha i is suitable for wil and older females. “B” means that the piccure is for young boys only, “Gi fon young girls only; “BG” for boys and girls; “M” for males ever foure for females over fourteen; and “ME” for ms setial number is printed on the back of each picture) teHlece the fleeting mood as well we should not expect the repeat igh the bulk of the content objectifies : lacking, pictures constituting the first ys: G for young girls; M for 5). A number that is noc followed les and females over fourt Pictures of First Series 1. A young boy is contemplating a violin which rests on a table in front of him. (Drawing by Christiana D. Morgan.) 2. Country scene: in the foreground is a young woman with books in her hand; in the background a man is working in the fields and an older woman is looking on. (Mural by Leon Kroll, reproduced by special permission of the U.S. Department of Justice.) 3 BM. On the floor against a couch is the huddled form of a boy with his head bowed on his right arm. Beside him on the floor is a revolver. (Drawing by Christiana D. Morgan.) 3GE. A young woman is standing with downcast head, her face covered with her right hand. Her left arm is stretched forward a Samuel Thal.) nse a wooden door, (Drawing by 4 A woman is clutching the shoulders of a man whose face and body are averted as if he were trying to pull away from her. (Illustration by C. C. Beall, reproduced by special permission of Collier, copyright 1940, by the Crowell-Coltier Publishing Company.) 5. A middle-aged woman is standing on the threshold of a half-opened door looking into a room. (Drawing by Samuel Thal.) * OF these pictures, Nos. 12 BG, 13 G, and 20 were suggested by Dr. R. N. Sanford; Nos. 4, 6 GE, 8 BM, 9 GF, and 19 by Dr. E Wyatt; and No ind 8 GF by Dr. J. Ruesch. We are indebted to Mr. Samuel Thal for drawing ten pictures according to our specifications (Nos. 3 GE, 5, 7 BM, $ BM, 9 BM, 10, 12 M, 13 ME, 17 BM, and 18 GF); and as ever we are indebted to Mrs, C. D. Morgan for having drawn the old standbys, Nos. 1, 3 BM, 6 BM, 12 B 14, 18 BM. 21BM. A short elderly woman stands with her back turned to a tall young man. The latter is looking downward with a perplexed expression, (Drawing by Christiana D. Morgan.) 6GE. A young woman sitting on the edge of a sofa looks back over her shoulder at ‘an older man with a pipe in his mouth who seems to be addressing her. (Part of an illustration by H. Rubin, reproduced by special permission of The Saturday Feening Post, copytight 1941, by The Curtis Publishing Company.) BM. A gray-haired man is looking at a younger man who is sullenly staring into muel Thal.) space. (Drawing by : An older woman is sitting on a sofa close beside a girl, speaking or reading to her. The girl, who holds a doll in her lap, is looking away. (Fairy Tiles by Shulkin, reproduced by special permission of The Metropolitan Muscum of Art, New York.) $BM, An adolescent boy looks straight out of the picture. The barrel of a rifle is ble at one side, and in the background is the dim scene of a surgical operation, like a reverie-image. (Drawing by Samuel Thal, after an illustration by Carl Mueller. Use of the latter permitted by Collier}, copyright 1939, by The Crowell- Collier Publishing Company.) 8GE_ A young woman sits with her chin in her hand looking off into space. (Lili by Taubes, reproduced by special permission of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.) 9 BM. Four men in overalls are lying on the grass taking it easy. (Drawing by Samuel Thal after a photograph, Siesta, by Ulric Meisel. Use of the latter permitted by Monkmeyer Press Photo Service.) 9 GE. A young woman with a magazine and a purse in her hand looks from behind a tree at another young woman in a party dress running along a beach. (Illustration by H. M. Meyers, reproduced by special permission of Collier’, copyright 1940, by The Crowell-Collier Publishing Company.) 10. A young woman's head against a man’s shoulder, (Drawing by Samuel Thal.) Pictures of Second Series 1, A road skirting a deep chasm beewcen high cliffs. On the road in the distance are obscure figures. Protruding from the rocky wall on one side is the long head and neck of a dragon. (Die Feb-Schluche by Boecklin in the Schack Gallery, Munich.) 12M. A young man is lying on a couch with his eyes closed. Leaning over him is the gaunt form of an elderly man, his hand stretched out above the face of the reclining figure. (Drawing by Samuel Thal.) 12 E. The portrait of a young woman. A weird old woman with a shawl over her head is grimacing in the background. (Drawing by Christiana D, Morgan after a painting by Augustus John.) 12 BG. A rowboat is drawn up on the bank of a woodland stream, There are no human 22figures in the picture. (Photograph by H. by special permission of Gamene Craft.) 15 ME A young man is standing with downeast head buried in his arm. Behind him is the figure of a woman lying in bed. (Drawing by Samuel ‘Thal,) 15 B. A litle boy is sitting on the doorstep ofa log cabin. (Mn Abe Lincoln, Jr, Farm Security Administration photograph by Nancy Post Wright.) BG. A lice giel is climbing a winding fight of stairs. (To Roof Garden, photograph by Histo E. Kimura, in American Photography. 1934, Photographic Publishing Company.) ainger, copyright 1937, reproduced by the courtesy of American 4. The silhouette of a man (or woman) against a bright window. picture is torally black. (Drawing by Christiana D. Morgan.) 15, A gaunt man with clenched hands is standing among gravestones. (Woodcut by tynd Ward in Madman Drum, New York, 1938, Jonathan Cape and Harrison Smith, Inc. Reproduced by courtesy of the artist.) 16. Blank card. 17 BM. A naked man is clinging to a rope. He is in the act of climbing up or down. (Drawing by Samuel Thal after an unfinished sketch by Daumicr.) 17 GE. A bridge over water. A female figure leans over the railing, In the background are tall buildings and small figures of men. (Woodcur by Lynd Ward in Madman’ Drum, New York, 1938, Jonathan Cape and Harrison Smith, Inc. Reproduced by courtesy of the artist.) 18BM. A man is clutched from behind by three hands. The figures of his antagonists are invisible. (Drawing by Christiana D. Morgan.) 18 GE_A woman has her hands squeezed around the throat of another woman whom she appears to be pushing backwards across the banister of a stairway. (Drawing by Samuel Thal.) 19. A weird picture of cloud formations overhanging a snow-covered cabin in the country. (The Night Wind by Burchfield, reproduced by courtesy of the owner, Mr. A. Conger Goodyear.) 20. The dimly illumined figure of a man (or woman) in the dead of night against a lamp post." The rest of the ing, * Many hours have been spent searching through periodicals and books to find the original of which this is a reproduction. In using it for scientific purposes without the express consent of the artist or publisher we are trusting co their generosity and goodwill, none of our requests for permission to use a picture having been refused by anyone co date. Any information leading to the discovery of the original of Picture 20 will be gratefully received. 23