Hist395 Final Essay
Hist395 Final Essay
Hist395 Final Essay
16 December 2021
The Bulletin of the History of Medicine, published by the Johns Hopkins University
Press, is a long running historical journal dedicated to analyzing the social and cultural impacts
of medicine as well as the development and invention of key medical achievements. From 1939
to the present, it has published articles on a wide variety of regions, time periods, and disciplines
within the medical field. This report will analyze the Bulletin over the span of eighty years at an
interval of twenty years - 1940, 1960, 1980, 2000, and 2020 - pulling from the summer issues of
each year.1 I chose summer at random before looking at the journal in order to minimize bias
based on my personal interest in any particular issue’s topics. Overall, I took four articles from
each of the five years (twenty in total) as samples to represent the journal’s progression as a
whole. In order to conduct this historiographical report, I will focus on several categories
demonstrating either continuity or change over time from 1940 to 2020. First, I will analyze
content, where I will examine the scope of the articles, the diversity of their contents, and
specificity of the topics. I will then address the source material and use of evidence, followed by
the use of language both in terms of writing style and use of medical terminology. Finally, I will
address the demographics of the authors to see how their background has shaped their articles.
The Bulletin of the History of Medicine represents history with a consistent emphasis on
medicine in culture and how it relates to other disciplines. However, the study of these concepts
over time evolves drastically from broad to specific. There is a generally upward sloping trend in
1 Due to length constraints, three articles were taken from either fall or spring of the same year. These articles are
D.C. Epler, Jr.’s Fall 1980 article “Bloodletting in Early Chinese Medicine and its Relation to the Origin of
Acupuncture”, Alexandra Bamji’s Spring 2020 article "Blowing Smoke Up Your Arse: Drowning, Resuscitation,
and Public Health in Eighteenth-Century Venice", and Nadja Durbach’s Spring 2020 article "Dead or Alive?
Stillbirth Registration, Premature Babies, and the Definition of Life in England and Wales, 1836–1960."
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the sheer number of sources, the variety of sources used, and the creativity in which the evidence
is used. The increased professionalism in language and growing diversity of the articles’ scope
contributed positively to the arguments of the Bulletin’s articles, as did the increased general
Before deconstructing the articles and their content, I will address the variety of questions
asked from 1940 to 2020. 1940 was a unique year for the Bulletin compared to future volumes
due to the broad research goals - none of the four articles discussed a specific region, country, or
time period, and all read like a textbook or encyclopedia entry. In his 1940 article “Did Dentistry
Evolve From the Barbers, Blacksmiths, or From Medicine?”, Bernhard Weinberger states “In the
short time at my disposal, naturally only a brief and disjointed account is possible, to cover the
four thousand years since our first record of early dental operations. Long gaps between
important periods must be made, and only certain phases will be considered which I am certain
will help to give a clearer concept of how dentistry reached its present position.”2 This trend of
very general topics that span wide time frames and geographic regions continues well into the
1980s, where progression remains the primary focus of the articles rather than a more thorough
Medical Schools” (1980) exemplify more recent articles emphasizing progression in medicine,
shown through chronological organization. These articles sought to consolidate and verify
By contrast, the articles of the 2000s zeroed in on extremely specific topics. For example,
Alexandra Bamji’s 2020 article “Blowing Smoke Up Your Arse: Drowning, Resuscitation, and
2 Bernhard Wolf Weinberger. “Did Dentistry Evolve From the Barbers, Blacksmiths or From Medicine?” Bulletin
of the History of Medicine 8, no. 7 (1940): 965–966. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44440553.
2
Public Health in Eighteenth-Century Venice" chose a singular topic, century, and city, compared
to Jean Captain Sabine’s 1940 article on the classification of blood which spanned over two
thousand years of medical theory. Similarly, Nadja Durbach’s article "Dead or Alive? Stillbirth
Registration, Premature Babies, and the Definition of Life in England and Wales, 1836–1960",
also from 2020, is a painstakingly detailed account of the scientific, legal, and philosophical
implications of stillbirth registration, another very specific topic in a very specific location and
period. The narrowed scope of the twenty-first century articles allowed the authors to create a
more nuanced and comprehensive view of their subject, contrary to the simplified “overview''
However, the differences in the scope of the articles did not change the journal’s
emphasis on the progression of medical history. Each author took great care in creating a detailed
timeline indicating the lead-up to the paper’s topic and the effects of the period or topic in
question. They were careful to explain why each scientific belief was held in the first place, why
the belief was questioned, and how scientists or physicians went about changing the belief if it
was initially wrong. In addition, every article was consistent in its attempt to represent medical
history as a part of the culture it derived from, rather than writing about it in a vacuum. For
example, Nadja Durbach made clear in her introduction that “[Stillbirth registration’s] primary
significance lies in its relationship to the history of the modern state's biopolitical role in
regulating and thus defining life itself, which has had implications for abortion, reproductive
technologies, cloning, stem cell research, genetic engineering, and fetal homicide laws among
other wide-reaching and highly controversial bodily issues.”3 This emphasis on culture and
politics set the Bulletin apart from other medical history journals and scientific writing.
3 Nadja Durbach. "Dead or Alive? Stillbirth Registration, Premature Babies, and the Definition of Life in England
and Wales, 1836–1960." Bulletin of the History of Medicine 94, no. 1 (2020): 66. Accessed December 13, 2021,
doi:10.1353/bhm.2020.0002.
3
Despite the wide range of topics and medical disciplines addressed throughout the
journal, there was not a lot of geographic diversity. Fourteen of the twenty articles were centered
around Europe, and four of those articles focused solely on Britain or British scholars. Of the
remaining six articles, three were based on American medical history, leaving only three that
went outside the realm of European and American topics. There was no clear trend in geographic
diversity over time, as these three articles were spread over multiple decades (one in 1940, one in
1980, and one in 2000). Within this narrow global view, however, many unique topics were
explored throughout the twenty sampled papers. The history of disease was the most prominent
focus, with papers focusing on conditions like tuberculosis, cholera, skin disease, gas gangrene,
and deficiency diseases. Multiple papers also focused on the development of medicine through
specific disciplines, such as the evolution of dentistry or veterinary medicine. Finally, several
papers dedicated their research to the history of the practice of medicine, such as the
development of attendant nursing, the rise of polyclinic medical schools, and the shift from folk
medicine to modern medicine. Therefore, in content, the treatment of history remained consistent
throughout the Bulletin and the geographic scope remained consistently narrow, despite the
Beyond content, the most obvious change I observed throughout the Bulletin’s
publication was the sheer amount of sources used in every article between 1940 and 2020. For
example, Robert S. Drews’ 1940 article “The Rôle of the Physician in the Development of Social
Thought” contained just 32 footnotes in its 36 single-spaced pages, a fraction of the 126
footnotes found in Alexandra Bamji’s 2020 article of the same length. This lack of sources was
not unique to Drews - “The Decline of Tuberculosis, with Special Reference to its Generalized
Form” by Esmond R. Long contained 26 footnotes in its 25 pages, and “A History of the
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Classification of Human Blood Corpuscles (Part I)” by Jean Captain Sabine contained only six!
With the exception of one 1980 article (Steven Feierman’s “Explanation and Uncertainty in the
Medical World of Ghaambo”), the articles after 1940 became more saturated with sources, most
boasting upwards of 100 footnote citations and external references. Beyond showing how
expectations of proper citation have changed over time, this detail emphasizes how much past
The variety of sources has also become more distinct since 1940. T. D. Davidson, in his
1960 article “A Survey of Some British Veterinary Folklore,” provides a perfunctory list of his
sources in the second paragraph of his essay - “The sources of our present knowledge of early
folklore and veterinary data consist of chronicles, histories, court and manor rolls, records of
trade guilds, Anglo-Saxon magical and medical texts, including herbal and animal medicines,
and a wide variety of collectanea comprising diaries, stillroom and everyday books.”4 Most
articles did not list out their sources as conveniently, but made use of just as many types of
sources - “Electroconvulsive Therapy in the Shadow of the Gas Chambers”, by multiple authors
in 2020, makes specific reference only to “the help of primary sources and eyewitness accounts,”
but pulls from sources as varied as psychiatric academic journals, oral testimonies from victims
of ECT, laboratory records, and blood samples of victims.5 This diversity is in stark contrast to
all of the 1940 articles. Due to their content being reconstructive rather than original history, the
1940 authors relied overwhelmingly on previous scholarship to supplement their work. In one
amusing 1940 example, Jean Captain Sabine described one of his sources as “a very dull treatise
4 T. D. Davidson. “A Survey of Some British Veterinary Folklore.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 34, no. 3
(1960): 199. Accessed December 13, 2021, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44450064.
5 Herwig Czech, Gabor S. Ungvari, Kamila Uzarczyk, Paul Weindling, and Gábor Gazdag. "Electroconvulsive
Therapy in the Shadow of the Gas Chambers: Medical Innovation and Human Experimentation in Auschwitz."
Bulletin of the History of Medicine 94, no. 2 (2020): 245. Accessed December 13, 2021,
doi:10.1353/bhm.2020.0036.
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of the textbook type.”6 Textbooks, earlier academic journals, and the writings of previous
historians featured far more than first-hand accounts and primary sources. Therefore, the amount
and variety of sources between 1940 and 1960 underwent a drastic change, but has remained
The use of quantitative evidence also increased drastically at the beginning of the 21st
century. Despite medicine being a very scientific discipline, there is a surprising lack of
quantitative evidence such as lab reports, statistics, and government records pre-2000. Out of the
twenty articles, Alexandra Bamji in “Blowing Smoke Up Your Arse: Drowning, Resuscitation,
and Public Health in Eighteenth-Century Venice” does the best job of analyzing statistical
evidence due to the paper’s tight focus. She attributes her sources in precise detail, such as this
passage - “Drownings were recorded in Venice’s comprehensive civic death registers that were
compiled by clerks employed by the Health Magistracy.”7 Compared to earlier papers, the
narrow scope of Bamji’s topic allows her to use statistics like the aforementioned death records
to great effect. Before 2000, the only paper to use significant quantitative evidence was Esmond
Long’s analysis of the decline of tuberculosis, which cited mortality rate figures to prove that
tuberculosis did have a significant pattern of decline worth studying.8 The timespan of other
early articles did not allow for in-depth statistical evidence in the same way the narrow scope of
the 21st century articles did, because the subject matter was too generalized to introduce
individual statistics.
6 Richard H. Follis. “Cellular Pathology and the Development of the Deficiency Disease
Concept.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 34, no. 4 (1960): 292. Accessed December 13, 2021,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/44449715.
7 Carlo Ginzberg. The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller. (Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 2013).
8 Bamji, Alexandra. "Blowing Smoke Up Your Arse: Drowning, Resuscitation, and Public Health in Eighteenth-
Century Venice." Bulletin of the History of Medicine 94, no. 1 (2020): 34. Accessed December 13, 2021,
doi:10.1353/bhm.2020.0001.
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Besides the amount and types of sources used, the use of available evidence in the articles
also changed significantly over time. As a history of medicine, the Bulletin has the unique
bloodletting in early Chinese medicine demonstrated new applications for ancient texts; “when
these ancient texts [on acupuncture techniques] are approached as historical documents, rather
than as source books that can be continually reinterpreted for medical practitioners, then they
indicate vast differences between the early use of needles and the present form of acupuncture.”9
Conversely, several articles that focus on folklore and the impact of religion on medicine change
the interpretation of texts from historical to medical. For example, in “Explanation and
Uncertainty in the Medical World of Ghaambo,” Steven Feierman explains the religious aspect
God"), and duazi as a consequence of sorcery ("of medicine-making"), but to the patient who is
suffering from a cough, the diagnosis is not immediately clear.”10 Without the introduction of
sources based in religion and related texts, it would be impossible to accurately study medicine
In addition, several authors throughout the years made use of case studies to optimize
their evidence. Richard H. Follis’ 1960 article “Cellular Pathology and the Development of the
Deficiency Disease Concept” is an example of a case study done on pathologist Rudolf Virchow.
Follis states at the beginning of his article, “To cite all of the sources available to Virchow is not
necessary. We need only mention two standard treatises with which we know he was familiar.”11
9 Esmond R. Long. “The Decline of Tuberculosis, with Special Reference to its Generalized Form.” Bulletin of the
History of Medicine 8, no. 6 (1940): 819–43. Accessed December 13, 2021, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44440541.
10 John Spears. “Folk Medicine and Popular Attitudes Toward Disease in the High Alps, 1780-1870.” Bulletin of
the History of Medicine 54, no. 3 (1980): 304. Accessed December 13, 2021, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44441268.
11 Robert S. Drews. “The Rôle of the Physician in the Development of Social Thought.” Bulletin of the History of
Medicine 8, no. 7 (1940): 874. Accessed December 13, 2021, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44440548.
7
The rest of this article picks apart the available sources of the time in a very similar way to Carlo
Ginzberg’s The Cheese and the Worms, a famous microhistory that pieces together the
read.12 Follis likewise used sources such as popular medical texts, treatises, and lecture notes to
analyze what Virchow would have known and what he couldn’t have known about cellular
pathology based on his own writings and the writings available to him. From there, he was able
to draw conclusions about why cellular pathology developed on the timeline it did. Case studies
also featured heavily in articles like Hannah Murphy’s "Skin and Disease in Early Modern
Medicine: Jan Jessen's De cute, et cutaneis affectibus (1601)" from 2020 and William D.
Sharpe’s “Thomas Linacre, 1460-1524: An English Physician Scholar of the Renaissance” from
1960, both of which focused on specific people in order to make wider assumptions about skin
disease and Renaissance influence on English medicine, respectively. Especially when compared
to the wide-reaching conclusions of the 1940 articles, case studies contribute to the Bulletin’s
increasing emphasis on producing original, creative histories, rather than confirming the
The quality of the writing from 1940 to 2020 has also undergone significant changes.
From 1940 to 1980, the writing style is often reminiscent of creative writing pieces, using fluid
and artistic language to describe people, events, and setting. After 1980, the language became
noticeably more clinical and professional. John Spears’ 1980 article “Folk Medicine and Popular
Attitudes Toward Disease in the High Alps, 1780-1870” in particular showcases the earlier
writing style perfectly. Putting the audience into the mindset of a 19th century peasant, he writes
“At every moment, before him and behind him rose the entrancing spectacle of the southern Alps
12 Hannah Murphy. "Skin and Disease in Early Modern Medicine: Jan Jessen's De cute, et cutaneis affectibus
(1601)." Bulletin of the History of Medicine 94, no. 2 (2020): 183. Accessed December 13, 2021,
doi:10.1353/bhm.2020.0034.
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- immense mountains in the crystal air, radiant sunlight, a fierce blue sky. The ever-blowing
wind mixed odors of growing crops with a cool breath from the empty regions above.”13
Although many of the 21st century articles begin with a quippy anecdote related to the topic,
introductions do not exceed a paragraph, and John Spears’ artistic descriptions of the Alps would
seem wildly out of place. By 2020, the language is stripped down significantly to contain only
The consolidation of language over time is also plainly evident in each author’s
presentation of their thesis. The 1940 article “The Rôle of the Physician in the Development of
Social Thought” by Robert S. Drews has a thesis as vague as its title; “The rôle of the physician
in the development of social thought encompasses the historical migration of the medical
intellect from the sphere of orthodox medicine to the realm of social philosophy.”14 By
comparison, Hannah Murphy’s 2020 article on the study of skin diseases states very plainly:
“This article makes three related arguments.”15 Murphy dedicates the entire page following that
statement to breaking down each of her three arguments and how they intersect. In some articles,
like Charles Rosenberg’s report on the cause of cholera in 1960, it was difficult to find a clear
thesis at all. The introduction of Rosenberg’s article explains different public opinions about
surrounding the classification of cholera.16 While the full title may reveal the intentions of his
research, he fails to explain his argument for the real cause of cholera until the very end of the
13 Charles Rosenberg. “The Cause of Cholera: Aspects of Etiological Thought in Nineteenth Century America.”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine 34, no. 4 (1960): 331–33. Accessed December 13, 2021,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/44449717.
14 Derek S. Linton. “The Obscure Object of Knowledge: German Military Medicine Confronts Gas Gangrene
during World War I.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 74, no. 2 (2000): 291–316. Accessed December 13, 2021,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/44445448.
15 T. D. Davidson (1960) and D. C. Epler (1980) did not publish their full names, and I could not find any further
information on them to determine their gender. These articles have been omitted from these numbers.
16 Jean Captain Sabine. “A History of the Classification of Human Blood Corpuscles (Part I).” Bulletin of the
History of Medicine 8, no. 5 (1940): 700. Accessed December 13, 2021, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44442737.
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paper. Overall, the clarity of the articles’ theses contributes directly to the reader’s understanding
of the Bulletin as a whole, and there has been a marked improvement over time in the
The use of medical terminology in the Bulletin has also grown exponentially since 1940 -
as the scope narrowed, the medical jargon increased. Derek Linton’s 2000 article about gas
gangrene research in World War I, for example, takes the reader through the research process in-
depth. He explains the causes of wound infection diseases and the effects of anaerobic bacteria
on the body in addition to describing the methodology and timeline of those concepts being
discovered.17 In addition to this article, many of the sampled articles require some prior
knowledge of basic anatomy, biology, and chemistry. This change marks a clear difference in the
way the Bulletin treats its audience, but for the most part they are aware that their base audience
or the targeted audience of the journal becoming more specialized, there are higher expectations
of prior knowledge in the 21st century than there were in the 20th. Until the 21st century articles,
there are very few barriers to understanding the medical language of the Bulletin, and in all of the
sampled papers I have come across simplified explanations of medical terms that fill the gaps.
Regardless of its audience, the demographics of the authors in the Bulletin have clearly
experienced change since 1940. Out of the 20 sampled articles, only five were written by women
compared to the thirteen written by men.18 All five of the articles written by women were
published in 2000 or 2020, making the journal exclusively male-dominated in the decades
before. There is not enough data on the authors to infer meaningful conclusions over time about
the authors’ races or ethnicities. Overall, however, the lack of geographic diversity in the
17 D. C. Epler. “Bloodletting in Early Chinese Medicine and its Relation to the Origin of Acupuncture.” Bulletin of
the History of Medicine 54, no. 3 (1980): 337. Accessed December 13, 2021, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44441269.
18 Feierman, Steven. “Explanation and Uncertainty in the Medical World of Ghaambo.” Bulletin of the History of
Medicine 74, no. 2 (2000): 320-21. Accessed December 13, 2021, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44445449.
10
subjects of the Bulletin and the lack of female authors until the 21st century suggest slow
The Bulletin of the History of Medicine has demonstrated significant growth within the
eighty year period I conducted this report. In the content and emphasis on progression through
history, it has consistently maintained its strengths. Otherwise, it has improved on its
shortcomings, such as the amount and variety of sources used, as well as the professionalism of
its language. There have been minimal but important improvements in terms of diversity in
authors and geographic concentrations. These changes and continuities are all interconnected -
for example, the trend of broad to specific topics has definitely been affected by historians’
ability to write about new scientific developments. As the more clinical style of writing emerged
and medical terminology became more commonplace, authors could forgo the more basic
questions of 1940 and interact with more complex scientific concepts. Likewise, the narrowed
scope of the articles allowed the authors to engage with more diverse sources within a single
period, rather than taking more general sources from a wide timeframe.
The Bulletin’s emphasis on placing medicine within a wider context has absolutely been
fulfilled throughout the course of its publication up to the present. I chose this journal rather than
similar publications specifically because of this emphasis, and I was impressed by its consistency
on this front. Whether it was connecting the use of herbal poultices in the alps to French
economics or resuscitation techniques in Venice to politics, the journal produced a true history of
medicine.
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References
Bamji, Alexandra. "Blowing Smoke Up Your Arse: Drowning, Resuscitation, and Public Health
created around it, and the impact of drownings on social, religious, and cultural
approaches to death.
Blackwell, Marilyn Schultz. “Keeping the ‘Household Machine’ Running: Attendant Nursing
and Social Reform in the Progressive Era.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 74, no. 2
conjunction with the increasing desire to use nurses to improve conditions for poor
women. Discusses how attendant nursing demonstrated and contributed to class and
gender divides by examining the role of nurses at home and in the workplace.
Czech, Herwig, Gabor S. Ungvari, Kamila Uzarczyk, Paul Weindling, and Gábor Gazdag.
"Electroconvulsive Therapy in the Shadow of the Gas Chambers: Medical Innovation and
background on the early history of ECT, with emphasis on the cruel and deadly ways it
modern medicine, which consisted of folklore and magical elements. It goes through
multiple groups of charm and amuletic cures for animals, explaining treatments through a
Drews, Robert S. “The Rôle of the Physician in the Development of Social Thought.” Bulletin of
the History of Medicine 8, no. 7 (1940): 874–908. Accessed December 13, 2021,
gone from “socio-centric” in Ancient Greece and Rome to physio- , bio- , and psycho-
centric thinking which has led to a different understanding of the body in modern times in
Durbach, Nadja. "Dead or Alive? Stillbirth Registration, Premature Babies, and the Definition of
Life in England and Wales, 1836–1960." Bulletin of the History of Medicine 94, no. 1
how the introduction of the stillbirth registration sparked the need for new definitions of
living and dead, and how that impacted obstetrics and premature care up until the 20th
century. Emphasizes that the state’s definition of life is constantly changing and affects
Epler, D. C. “Bloodletting in Early Chinese Medicine and its Relation to the Origin of
Acupuncture.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 54, no. 3 (1980): 337–67. Accessed
textbooks, this article analyzes first the understanding of blood and circulation, followed
timeline.
Feierman, Steven. “Explanation and Uncertainty in the Medical World of Ghaambo.” Bulletin of
13
the History of Medicine 74, no. 2 (2000): 317–44. Accessed December 13, 2021,
traditional healing with science-based medicine in history and analyze the differences
between different schools of medical thought with respect to social custom in Ghaambo.
Follis, Richard H. “Cellular Pathology and the Development of the Deficiency Disease
Concept.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 34, no. 4 (1960): 291–317. Accessed
thinking which changed from purely biology and thinking that disease could only be a
surplus of bad things rather than an absence of good things, hence “deficiency”, which
Ginzburg, Carlo. The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013. Studies the life of Menocchio, a 16th
century peasant at the height of the Inquisition. Analyzes popular and elite culture
through a deep case study that exemplifies the importance of oral and written culture in
history.
Hardy, Anne. “‘Straight Back to Barbarism’: Antityphoid Inoculation and the Great War, 1914.”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine 74, no. 2 (2000): 265–90. Accessed December 13,
immunization the British army against typhoid based on arguments between medical
professionals advocating for it and the government wavering between the rights and
Linton, Derek S. “The Obscure Object of Knowledge: German Military Medicine Confronts Gas
14
Gangrene during World War I.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 74, no. 2 (2000):
Long, Esmond R. “The Decline of Tuberculosis, with Special Reference to its Generalized
Form.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 8, no. 6 (1940): 819–43. Accessed December
how significant the decline of tuberculosis was as a medical achievement and a shift in
Murphy, Hannah. "Skin and Disease in Early Modern Medicine: Jan Jessen's De cute, et cutaneis
affectibus (1601)." Bulletin of the History of Medicine 94, no. 2 (2020): 179-214.
arguments: skin disease was a common issue in the 16th century, the concerns were
treated through surgery and disease analysis rather than anatomy and physiology, and Jan
Jessen should be used as a representative of his time, not the only voice of the period.
the History of Medicine 54, no. 2 (1980): 166–87. Accessed December 13, 2021,
polyclinic schools and the social climate in which the “polyclinic phenomenon” began.
Century America.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 34, no. 4 (1960): 331–54.
various theories proposed in the 19th century about the causes of cholera and why those
Sabine, Jean Captain. “A History of the Classification of Human Blood Corpuscles (Part I).”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine 8, no. 5 (1940): 696–720. Accessed December 13,
Renaissance.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 34, no. 3 (1960): 233–56. Accessed
Linacre, examining his medical achievements and social impact based on relationships
Spears, John. “Folk Medicine and Popular Attitudes Toward Disease in the High Alps,
1780-1870.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 54, no. 3 (1980): 303–36. Accessed
practices from 1780 - 1870 by analyzing social trends, cultural influence of doctors and
medical practitioners, and how peasants in the high Alps dealt with disease as a whole.
Warner, John Harley. “Physiological Theory and Therapeutic Explanation in the 1860s: The
British Debate on the Medical Use of Alcohol.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 54,
therapeutic tool compared with the temperance movement of the 1860s through scientific
Weinberger, Bernhard Wolf. “Did Dentistry Evolve From the Barbers, Blacksmiths or From
theories and describing, in detail, dentistry as it evolved all the way from Ancient Egypt.