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Final Immigration Research Paper
Final Immigration Research Paper
Amanda Gehringer
Professor Lasley
27 April 2022
Overall, it is crucial to magnify the personal anecdotes that draw attention to the violence
and stressors of marginalized Black and Latinx immigrant women. It is also imperative to
institute lasting policy changes that dismantle language barriers and ensure cultural competency
in the healthcare system. The increased awareness of individual experiences facilitates forensic
evaluators and scientific experts to analyze symptoms and diagnose mental illnesses.
women traveling through Mexico to the United States are additionally burdened with social and
While these women are emigrating from these countries due to violence and overall
highly unsafe conditions for themselves and their children, they are forced to immigrate to a
country where they experience similar and new forms of social and gender violence. Some push
factors for emigration include gender-based violence in the workplace, as well as the presence of
organized crime or violent male partners, threatening the livelihoods of these women’s children.
Once a woman has determined that she must emigrate from her home country, she must
decide how to best care for her children, including questioning if they will migrate with her.
Migration is relatively more difficult for women and children due to the “increased danger of
suffering sexual and other forms of violence”, “which impact[s] [the women’s] strategies for the
social reproduction and care provision” (Willers). In addition to this, unaccompanied minor
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migrants are increasingly accounting for the exodus of people traversing through Mexico to the
United States. Without the presence of an adult, they are at an even greater risk of exploitation
and violence. On the other hand, there is little known about the livelihoods of women who
remain in their home country to care for their children. Traditionally, women migrate with their
children due to the social context in their original country, as they are told to provide economic
support to improve the well-being of their children. In a study of women who have emigrated
from their country of origin, however, it was observed that several children remained in their
original country. While the women were of different ages and possessed distinct countries of
origin, “[n]early all of the women interviewed (except two) were mothers (34), and most of them
were single mothers” (Willers). It is necessary to push for further research on this specific
aspects such as state policies and different forms of violence in transit regions [that] negatively
impact [the] migrant's mobility and resources for migration” (Willers). Non-governmental and
governmental organizations advocating for human rights “have documented the massive
violations of human rights of undocumented migrants in transit, the incidence of sexual violence
against women, and human trafficking of women and children” (Willers). Government
authorities have been linked to organized crime groups responsible for the human trafficking of
migrants. While gender-based violence provides a disincentive to migrating via transit, due to
economic insecurity, migrants are often unable to afford transit and are forced to take more
situations for these women, as well as compile these accounts to determine and bring attention to
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shared experiences. These women may be exposed to kidnapping by gang members, in which
relatives are often forced to pay ransom money through bank transfers. One woman shared her
horrific experience in which she was raped and her son was stolen from her. “[A]ssaults and
extortions of crime groups” instill further stress in migrants, as they are concerned for the
well-being of themselves, as well as their children (Willers). When these women are left without
financial support, it is increasingly difficult for them to reunite with their children and other
Arguably, undocumented Latinx women constitute one of the most marginalized groups
in the United States, as they are burdened with the fear of sexual and physical violence, the
possibility of deportation, economic struggles, and other issues that take an immense toll on their
mental health. In general, there has been little research conducted on the hardships of this group,
however, there is even less investigation regarding the detrimental psychological effects on this
deportation, greatly diminish the mental health of undocumented Latinx women in the United
States. Despite limited previous research, Ramos-Sánchez provides information on the “mental
health implications, and recommendations for practice, resources, and advocacy for
For several decades, the fear of deportation has been a primary stressor in the lives of
members of this specific group, as deportation rates and immigration policy have fluctuated
policy have brought daily “stress, anxiety (Joseph, 2011), fear of deportation, day-to-day
uncertainty (Fernández-Esquer, Agoff, & Leal, 2017), withdrawal of kids from school (Hagan et
al., 2010), and underutilization of health care services (Cavazos-Rehg, Zayas, & Spitznagel,
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specifically from Latin American countries. However, after the terrorist attacks of September 11,
2001, President George W. Bush instituted the United States of America Patriot Act, shifting the
focus from those on the border to interior immigrants. This directly led to the expansion of
deportation categories, as lesser offenses were encompassed under aggravated offenses, so theft
became considered a felony. In turn, the person who committed the crime would be deported for
theft, even if they had already served their time in prison, further fostering and multiplying stress
within this marginalized group. After the enactment of the U.S.A. Patriot Act, these people were
seen and identified as criminals, unjustly assumed to be threats to national security. In reality,
Beyond this, children sent to detention centers have died due to inhumane treatment and
poor living conditions, as a result of “inadequate medical care, inadequate nutrition, poor
hygiene, and poor sanitation” (Ramos-Sánchez). These centers have been declared comparable to
prisons. On the other hand, detention and denial of medical care are additional stressors for
undocumented Latinx women, particularly for those who are pregnant. Sexual violence is
prevalent in these detention centers, as there have been “many reports of unjustified ‘pat downs’
or sexual assault” (Ramos-Sánchez). Largely, these allegations have unjustifiably been found
unsubstantiated or blatantly ignored. Primarily due to their documentation status, sexual assault
While little research is conducted on the mental health of Latinx women immigrants, to
hone in on a precise group, there is even less information regarding the stressors of Latinx
women in farmworker families in the southern United States. Between interpersonal “(family
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conflict, family’s outward orientation, and perceived discrimination)” and social correlations
“(residential mobility and economic insecurity)”, Latinx women in farmworker families are
familiar with a multitude of debilitating depressive symptoms, resulting from the accumulation
women and children in farmworker families residing in North Carolina. Due to the previously
mentioned interpersonal and social phenomena, they fall within a threshold of potentially
clinically significant depressive symptoms. Through further research, the study concluded that
“policies that lessen the discrimination of farmworkers and their families and reduce economic
insecurity, as well as interventions that support positive family functioning might be beneficial
for the mental health of Latinx women in farmworker families living in new immigrant
destinations” (Zapata Roblyer). With greater access to family counseling and the institution of
lasting protective and inclusive policy, the depressive symptoms of Latinx women in farmworker
Additionally, “the majority of U.S. farmworkers are Latino (71%) and Mexican-born
(68%)”, and in general, “studies have suggested that elevated depressive symptoms are prevalent
among farmworkers” (Zapata Roblyer). However, this data is highly centered around men, rather
than women who are either farmworkers or exist in farmworker families. It is necessary to
conduct more research on these two groups, as “both groups are likely to face similar risk factors
for poor health outcomes” (Zapata Roblyer). For immigrants in recent arrival communities, it is
crucial to note that they “may be exposed to additional risks of poor mental health, largely due to
discrimination and the dearth of support services designed to facilitate their integration into the
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larger community”, as they are suddenly forced into the process of acculturation that directly
To continue, two notable models of depression that depict the results of this study include
“the interpersonal model of depression and the social stress paradigm” (Zapata Roblyer). The
interpersonal model determines that external relationships either facilitate or impede the
mental health of Latinx women, as their cultures often emphasize interpersonal relationships. In
the immigration process, immediate and extended family members frequently offer “instrumental
and emotional support to each other during migration and post-migration settlement”, but may
“also be a source of distress, because migration and rapid change in marital and parent-child
relationships can generate conflict within families” (Zapata Roblyer). Transitioning to the social
stress paradigm, this model suggests that depressive symptoms frequently stem “from the
socioeconomic structure that creates structural disadvantages for some groups” (Zapata Roblyer).
This concept is extremely relevant to this demographic, as “women in these families are situated
at the bottom of several social strata according to gender, ethnicity, citizenship, and
socioeconomic status” (Zapata Roblyer). These models illustrate that the interpersonal and social
stressors of marginalized groups are further hampered by the process of acculturation that
conflict, as well as domestic violence, are the leading pre-migration stress factors for African
women immigrating to the United States, the primary sources of post-migration stress and health
threats include sustained partner violence and cultural challenges. It should be noted that these
women frequently turn to religious faith to obtain and maintain resilience amongst instability.
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immigrant women. These stressors are synonymous with push factors, or factors influencing
migration, which include “political disturbances in [their] home country, exposures to war or
political violence, gender-based discrimination, and extreme poverty” (Corley and Sabri). In a
survey analyzing the differences between the pre-migration and post-migration stressors, we hear
from African refugees who have been coerced into fleeing their country due to political or
natural unrest and turmoil. On the side of post-migration stressors, African immigrant women are
often plagued with healthcare limitations and unfulfilled needs, particularly resulting from
“community stigma; language barriers; low health-care professional cultural competency; high
healthcare costs; and a mistrust in healthcare institutions” (Corley and Sabri). Due to their
increased mental and physical health risks, many of these women identified their coping
strategies as “active problem solving, spirituality, and social support” (Corley and Sabri). It is
crucial that scholars eagerly investigate the effect of stressors on African immigrant women
pre-migration, during migration, and post-migration, to determine how these factors are
detrimental to the health of these women, as well as pinpoint their common coping strategies.
immigrant women. It is essential to identify socio-ecological factors that lead to health issues in
these women, notably “[their] lack of social support, social isolation, socio-economic status, and
exposures to racism and discrimination in the community” (Corley and Sabri). Communication
and economic barriers, cultural identities, and the surveyed women’s “perceptions and
with health providers” alter women’s responses and access to healthcare (Corley and Sabri).
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Alongside this, toxic stress encompasses severe health vulnerabilities, involving the threat or
action of intimate partner violence. Since repeated and excessive levels of violence are present in
the pre-migration and post-migration stages of these women’s lives, this accumulation of toxic
stress exceptionally threatens their health and well-being. In general, there is little research that
has been conducted on this specific immigrant group, as well as limited research on the health
effects that result from the accumulation of pre-migration and post-migration stress.
Although little is known about the mental health implications for undocumented Latinx
immigrant women in the United States, even less literature depicts the mental challenges of
African migrant women. First, we must assess these implications, as well as the existing stressors
in their lives, so that we may determine the mental health needs of this specific group of women.
for structural policy change, to develop an accepting safe place for these migrants.
Initially, the innumerable stressors of immigrant Black African women originate with
“specific risk factors”, including “pre-migration traumatization and violence” due to “conflict,
political instability, persecution and/or economic insecurity” (Olukotun). Beyond these initial
push factors that influence the need to emigrate from a country, these women are further
bombarded with the weight of “economic difficulties, separation from family, fear of deportation
and detection, exploitation, vulnerability, fewer familial networks, and language barriers”
(Olukotun). It is necessary to subdivide female American immigrants into those who are
undocumented versus those who are documented, as their primary stressors vary. For
undocumented migrants, anxiety, depression, and a lingering sense of hopelessness are widely
attributed to “the constant fear of deportation”, whereas documented women are generally
consumed by “the welfare of their family living in the U.S.” (Olukotun). Unsurprisingly, the
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overall physical and psychological detriment of migrant women is elevated for those who
possess an undocumented status. Undocumented African women are at a greater risk for
“depressive symptoms, post-traumatic stress disorder, [and] anxiety”, and often experience
“weight gain/loss, insomnia, anxiety, depression, substance abuse and fear” (Olukotun). These
psychological implications are largely due to discrimination, as these women “often leave their
racially homogenous birth countries to [enter] a racialized society where racial and ethnic
women are much less likely to seek out mental health care, as they are in constant fear of
deportation. They are also less likely to utilize this care due to “beliefs about mental illness,
distrust of providers, cost of care, language barrier and other health demands” (Olukotun).
After interviewing twenty-four undocumented African women who had migrated to the
United States, it was identified that unique stressors for these migrants included “economic
vulnerability, uncertainty and isolation” (Olukotun). It was also reported that they “turned to
their social networks and religion to cope” (Olukotun). In regards to economic vulnerability,
these women largely communicated that they were severely impaired by uncertainty surrounding
their employment in low-income jobs. Their employers often treated them as disposable, and
overall, these women lacked job security and opportunity. Another sub-category of their
identified stressors was “feeling stuck,” as overwhelming uncertainty regarding their futures and
the future of their families, as well as ever-changing policy, damaged their mental health. Lastly,
their sense of isolation particularly stems from their identities as undocumented African women.
They often reported feeling alone in spaces in the United States, especially because they fall
behaviors of Black women with communal origins in the United States and non-English
speaking Latinx women immigrants, both groups exhibited depressive symptoms, with Latinx
women possessing scores in the severe range. These increased levels of depression were
determined by the fact that the “CES-D Scale alpha coefficients were 0.81 and 0.93 for the Black
Due to welfare reform in the late 1990s, the Aid to Families with Dependent Children
(AFDC) Program has been substituted with the stricter, welfare-to-work Temporary Assistance
for Needy Families (TANF) Program, which fatefully neglects the recipients’ barriers. Amongst
violence, lack of childcare, legal issues, and so forth”, which are prone to disproportionately
affect “welfare-reliant women of color” (Bowie). These women face extensive and complex
household, it is possible to bring attention to the “metastressors” that coincide with their layers of
hardship. Certainly, these women ”are often exacerbated by financial, physical health,
relationship, and other issues” that the TANF program fails to alleviate with their insufficient
assistance (Bowie).
Since current welfare policy emphasizes a “work first” mindset with “a five-year lifetime
time limit with which to achieve financial independence before losing their eligibility for public
assistance”, this research seeks to highlight the necessity for true welfare reform to address and
combat the severe levels of depression of these female heads of household (Bowie). There is a
direct correlation between the stressors of poor and welfare-reliant women and their recorded
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depressive symptomology and chronic depression. Beyond this, women of lower socioeconomic
status are less likely to obtain treatment for depressive disorders. These women are often
burdened by “consumer and/or provider mistrust, lack of access to available treatment, inability
to speak English well, gendered racism, sexism, and discrimination” (Bowie). On top of this,
there is the lingering stigma around mental health treatment, which is often present at a higher
rate among women of color. For instance, “Latina women experience disproportionate levels of
stigma, including self-stigma” (Bowie). To combat this stigma, it is crucial to alter treatment
protocols relative to uncontrollable factors and ensure sensitivity and cultural awareness amongst
healthcare providers.
Additionally, the systemic oppression of women provides the theoretical framework for
the intersectionality of Black and Latinx immigrant women who are excessively impacted by
mental health struggles. By analyzing the intersection between “race, class, ability, and gender”,
it is possible to highlight “a complex reality that inhibits…the ability for an individual to achieve
financial independence” (Bowie). The feminist theory of Liberationist Feminism relates welfare
and legislative policy and multiracial feminism, determining the culpability of social welfare
As undocumented migrant women encounter emotional battles due to their lack of ability
to produce nuanced communication within the cultural boundaries of unfamiliar territories, they
must be heard. Forensic evaluators and other scientific experts must improve cultural
While the primary reason for women immigrating to the United States has shifted from
family reunification to economic opportunities, many women are forced to migrate to escape
warfare and domestic violence. Due to the sexual assault that women often endure on transit,
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“many…women are advised to take contraceptives prior to their trips to avoid pregnancy due to
sexual assault” (Fuentes). Within ICE facilities, it has been recorded that “9% of detainees are
women who may also be mothers, pregnant or nursing, and/or victims of violence” (Fuentes).
Their children are often placed in the foster care system, and these women are often unable to
attend court hearings regarding their placement. The forced separation of women and their
children frequently comes with debilitating and lasting psychological and physical conditions.
There is little research regarding the effects of separation on mothers, women who are pregnant,
and those who have experienced sexual violence. Partially, this is because these women struggle
to communicate the depth of their thoughts, as “they may lack verbal, nonverbal, and culturally
nuanced communication and relational skills needed to effectively maneuver in their new
communities and they suffer psychologically as a result” (Fuentes). This leads to emotional
frustration and a lack of diagnoses of mental illnesses, as these women wrestle with severe grief
For forensic evaluators to practice ethically, they must possess multi-cultural competence
by displaying “awareness, sensitivity, and empathy for the evaluatee as an individual, and
member of a family and community” (Fuentes). Alongside this, self-awareness within the expert
individuals have the potential to limit this bias, it will always exist in some capacity. Due to this,
forensic evaluators must follow guidelines within a code of conduct to minimize unconscious
cultural bias. These experts must respect and understand sociocultural identities through acquired
knowledge of beliefs and customs. Forensic evaluators must ensure that they are “well versed in
historical and contemporary relations between the specific cultural groups they represent”
(Fuentes). However, the ethical obligations of these experts are rare, as they exist within the
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“intersection of psychology and law” (Fuentes). So, these scholars must possess professionalism,
acknowledging their respective roles and responsibilities. Beyond this, professionals are
attempting to standardize assessment instruments that are valid and reliable across cultures. If
one forensic evaluator does not possess cultural competency surrounding a specific group, it may
be necessary for the expert to refer them to another evaluator. Once the immigrant has found the
proper evaluator, the expert must contact their lawyer to “ascertain the exact psycho-legal
women experience unique challenges that may be compiled to identify stressors that lead to
detrimental mental health implications. It is essential to amplify the voices of Black and Latinx
immigrant women, as their anecdotes provide insight into pre-migration and post-migration
stressors and horrors. Beyond this, it is crucial to institute policies that require mental health
professionals to overcome language barriers and be culturally competent, so that they can
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