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Semi-Centrifugal Casting: An Extensive Analysis

Technical Report · May 2020

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22232.32000

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 Semi-Centrifugal Casting
Himanshu Ranjan (11211622)1, Nitesh Kumar Sharma (112116041)1, Rishabh Bharti (112116046)1, Shubham
Gupta (112116051)1 , Suryakant Gond (112116057)1
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, NIT Trichy
Abstract:

Semi-centrifugal casting is a technique of the casting process that involves introduction of molten metal into a
mold which is rotated during solidification. The centrifugal casting of railroad car wheels was one of the first
applications involving controlled variations in chemical composition from the outside periphery of the car wheel.
This report summarises the information of semi-centrifugal casting with its process description. Different
applications of this process are elaborately discussed here. The process parameters like speed of rotation, pouring
temperature, pouring speed, mold temperature, centrifugal rate and cooling rate have been also briefly discussed
to study their structure- property correlation in this technique. Both ferrous and nonferrous materials are readily
cast by the centrifugal process. Along with this, advantages and limitations are also broadly discussed. Finally,
prospects for future are considered.
Keywords: Semi-centrifugal casting, rotation, centrifugal force, solidification, mold

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1. Introduction of ferromanganese was introduced with the first
metal to enter the mold. This formed a high
The concept of centrifugal casting is one of the old
manganese wear‐resistant tread and car wheel flange,
process technically developed., it is by no means a
as compared to the softer second portion of the
modern process. The semi-centrifugal casting
molten metal.
technique was used by Benvenuto Cellini and others
in the founding arts during the 16th century. The
mention of actual centrifugal casting machines is
first recorded when a British inventor, A.G.
Eckhardt, issued a patent in the year 1807. He
utilized this method by placing the molds in an
upright position on pivots or revolving bases
(sometimes referred to today as a "vertical"
centrifugal casting machine). In 1857 a U.S. patent
described wheel molds which presumably were used
for the centrifugal casting of railroad car wheels.
Semi-centrifugal casting is the introduction of
molten metal into a mold which is rotated during
solidification. The centrifugal force is relied for
shaping and feeding the molten metal by the force of
gravity into the designed crevices and detail of the
mold. The centrifugal casting of railroad car wheels
was one of the first applications involving controlled
variations in chemical composition from the outside The effectiveness of centrifugal force in promoting a
periphery of the car wheel as compared to the balance high standard of soundness and metallurgical quality
of the casting. As the casting was poured, a quantity depends on achieving a controlled pattern of
solidification, this being governed by the process casting high shrinkage alloys. Semi-centrifugal
used and by the shape and dimensions of the casting. casting as in other centrifugal setups, allows
High feeding pressure is no substitute for directional lightweight non-metallic inclusions and trapped gas
freezing, which remains a primary aim of casting toward the center and into the feeder for elimination.
technique.
Considering first the casting of a plain cylinder,
conditions can be seen to be highly favourable to
directional solidification owing to the marked radial
temperature gradient extending from the mold wall.
Under these conditions, the central mass of liquid
metal, under high pressure, has ready access to the
zone of crystallization and fulfils the function of the
feeder head used in static casting. The steepest
gradients and the best conditions of all occur in the
outermost zone of the casting, especially when a
metal mold is employed.

Semi-centrifugal casting allows centrifugal forces

200G in some cases, most practice is empirically
based within the range 10-150G, the highest values
being used for open bore cylindrical components of
small diameter and the lowest for semi-centrifugal
and pressure castings. Speeds generating forces of
60-80G are most quoted for true centrifugal castings.
Since the exactness of the science of centrifugal
casting and the selection of mold speeds has been so
well developed, it is suggested that the various
manufacturers of centrifugal casting machines be
consulted for copies of their charts and data.
In the production of pressure pipe, it is a highly
developed process and has completely dominated
this important industry. The use of this process for a
Semi-centrifugal casting does not allow mold to be wide variety of other end products has grown at a
rotated as fast as in the case of a true centrifugal rapid rate. Except in iron, metal thicknesses vary
casting. Here only enough force is required to cause from one‐quarter of an inch and up. As metal sections
the metal to first flow to the outer rim. As the wheel increase, lengths and diameter may also be increased.
rotates around its hub core, the mold cavity is filled The only limitation on the maximum size that can be
from rim‐to‐hub, not from bottom‐to‐top as is the cast is the economic demand for the product. Rough
case of common gravity pouring. This action casting weights up to 100,000 lb have been poured.
promotes the direction of solidification from rim‐to‐ In this process, the mold is rotated around its
hub and provides the required feeding by using only symmetry axis. The molds are either permanent or
one central reservoir. Pouring and feeding on the expandable. It may have cores also. The shape of the
centre hub increases the yield, especially when rotating mold gives the shape of the casting. The
centrifugal force is put to good use for the processes
of slag separation, melt refilling and increasing the
filling power to cast components with thin sections.
However, this process can suffer from inclusion
defects as well as porosity. Thus, suitable only for
parts where this can be machined away.

Process Description

In semi-centrifugal casting, a permanent mold may

be employed. However, often industrial
manufacturing processes will utilize an expendable The centripetal forces acting on the casting's material
sand mold. This enables the casting of parts from during the manufacturing process of semi-centrifugal
high temperature materials. casting, play a large part in determining the
properties of the final cast part. Forces acting in the
true centrifugal process are like those that influence
the material of a metal casting being manufactured
by semi-centrifugal casting.

The molten material for the metal casting is poured

into a pouring basin and is distributed through a
central sprue to the areas of the mold. The forces
generated by the rotation of the mold ensure the
distribution of molten material to all regions of the
casting.
When manufacturing by semi-centrifugal casting, the
centripetal acceleration generated on the mass of
molten metal by a rotating mold is the force that acts
to fill the casting with this molten metal. This is also
the force that continues to act on the material as the
casting solidifies. The main thing to remember about
centripetal forces is that the force will push in a
direction that is directly away from the centre of the
axis of rotation.

The process would not be competitive with off‐the‐

shelf wrought material. In many instances the high
integrity is required in such applications as nuclear
and aircraft parts lends itself to centrifugal
As the metal casting solidifies in a rotating mold, the production. Centrifugally produced castings offer
centripetal forces constantly push material out from
better quality assurance than static castings and are
the central sprue/riser. This material acts to fill
vacancies as they form, thus avoiding shrinkage more economical than the competitive forged part.
areas.
 Fig : Effect of mold rotation speed on the content of
the white phase

With the increase of mould rotation speed the

contents of the white phase and Cu increase.

Fig : Effects of mould rotation speed on

segregation

With the increase of the centrifugal radius and the

2. Process variables, Effect and
mould rotation speed, on the one hand, the
Optimization Techniques
segregation worsens, resulting in a higher amount of
Speed of Rotation white phase and Cu.
The semi-centrifugal casting requires retention of Pouring Temperature
bore shape against gravity while avoiding
longitudinal tearing and stresses during the Pouring temperature exerts a major influence on the
accelerated solidification of the molten metal against mode of solidification. Low temperatures are
the mold face. Rotational speed affect grain associated with maximum grain refinement and with
refinement and exerts marked influence upon the equiaxed structures, while higher temperatures
metal structure. Using highest speed of rotation promote columnar growth in many alloys. The
without encountering hot tearing is one of the best pouring temperature must be sufficiently high to
possible option However, turbulence induced by ensure satisfactory metal flow and freedom from
instability of the liquid mass at very low speeds can cold laps while still avoiding coarse structures and
be also carried out. The shape of the rotating mold the increased risk of hot tearing due to excessive
gives the shape of the casting. The centrifugal force superheat.
is put to good use for the processes of slag separation,
melt refilling and increasing the filling power to cast Raising the pouring temperature causes grain size
components with thin sections. and DAS to increase and segregation to intensify.
These microstructures show that phases formed at
pouring temperature 1040°C are finer than those
For example, consider Al-Cu alloy for an explanation formed at 1230°C. This is due to a decrease in
of the effect of peed of rotation. nucleation and solidification rates.
 6.19 sec and 26.42 sec, whereas for Tmold = 650°C, it
varies between 42.28 sec and 52.67 sec, at 469 rpm.

Fig : Microstructure of C92200 alloy at different

pouring temperatures: (A) 1040°C, (B) 1080°C, (C)
1150°C and (D) 1230°C

Pouring Speed

Pouring Speed is primarily governed by the

characteristics of the metal being poured and the
need to finish the delivery of the molten metal before
the metal becomes sluggish. Although too high rate
of pouring can cause excessive turbulence as well as
"raining" and a potentially scrapped casting. In Figure : Impact of Tmold at 469 rpm (a) on
practice, slow pouring offers several advantages. solidification time (b) on shrinkage porosity.
Directional solidification and feeding are promoted
while the slow development of full centrifugal Therefore, differences in microstructure of the parts
pressure on the outer solidified skin of metal reduces are potentially expected. Actually, the maximum
the risk of hot tearing. porosity that appeared in the part for Tmold = 450°C
was 0.294%, whereas for Tmold = 650°C it was
Mold Temperature 0.124%. The porosity traced was macroporosity.
Thus, higher mold temperature results in a smaller
Moulds for semi-centrifugal casting should be value of porosity. The distance between the curve of
maintained in the operating range of 500‐550F (260‐ maximum solidification time and the curve of
288°C). Preheating of the mold to this approximate minimum solidification time is a hint to uniformity
temperature range will also facilitate the application of the solidification of the part. In Figure it is noted
of the refractory mold coating. The principal that higher mold temperatures result in more
significance of maintaining the mold (die) at a homogenous solidification of the part.
uniform operating temperature will also serve to
ensure uniformity of the cyclic pouring operation as Centrifugal Rate
well as casting quality.
It can be seen in Fig that the difference in grain size
For example, a melt temperature (Tmetal = 940°C) five between position 1 and position 2 at 300 rpm is
different mold temperatures (450, 500, 550, 600, smaller than that at 600 rpm. This is because of the
650°C) are shown in Figure. Solidification time is the centrifugal force and the turbulence significantly
time from the beginning until the end of affects the number of fragments so as to increase the
solidification throughout the part volume. difference of solidification sites.
Solidification time for Tmold = 450°C varies between
 Semi-centrifugal casting does not allow mold to be
rotated as fast as in the case of a true centrifugal
casting. Here only enough force is required to cause
the metal to first flow to the outer rim. As the wheel
rotates around its hub core, the mold cavity is filled
from rim‐to‐hub, not from bottom‐to‐top as is the
case of common gravity pouring. This action
promotes the direction of solidification from rim‐to‐
Fig : Effects of the centrifugal radius on the grain hub and provides the required feeding by using only
size of centrifugal-cast Al-Cu alloy for various one central reservoir. Pouring and feeding on the
mould rotation speeds centre hub increases the yield, especially when
casting high shrinkage alloys. Semi-centrifugal
Cooling Rate
casting as in other centrifugal setups, allows help
It is observed that increasing the mould cooling rate force lightweight non-metallic inclusions and
through increasing the cooling water flow from 0 to trapped gas toward the center and into the feeder for
120 cc/s, the differences of lead and tin (taken to elimination.
explain) content between external and internal
casting walls are diminished. In true or open bore casting, circumferential velocity
is imparted from mold to metal by frictional forces at
This is because, when the water flow increases, the the mold surface and within the liquid. In horizontal
thermal gradient on solidification front increases. As axis casting, the metal entering the mold must rapidly
the mould cooling rate directly affects the acquire sufficient velocity to prevent instability and
solidification rate, it affects the grain size. The final
"raining" as it passes over the upper half of its
microstructure of bushings includes alpha dendrites
full of arms, interdendritic delta phase and lead circular path, because of slip, the generation of the
particles. necessary minimum force of 1G in the metal requires
a much greater peripheral mold velocity than would
be the case if metal and mold were moving together
Semi-centrifugal casting is a variant of centrifugal
casting. The main difference being that the mold is
completely filled during the process through the use
of a central sprue. If a central bore is required in the
casting, a dry sand core is best suited.[8] This process
can be completed using either permanent or, the
more popular, sand molds. The rotational symmetry
produced by this process make it ideal for objects
such rail car wheels and pulleys.
4. Advantages and Limitations
Advantages
Fig : Tin per cent vs. distance from casting internal
wall at different mould cooling water flow rates • This method is cost-effective.
• Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be
3. Importance of process and difference used.
from other technique • The equipment can be used for multiple types
of metals without sacrificing quality.
 • Impurities are pulled toward the inside second metal forming the inside is then poured.
surface and can be easily machined. While it is usually desirable that the first metal
• Castings with good dimensional accuracy poured have the higher melting point, this is not
and quality are produced. necessary.
• Can produce castings with up to 10 feet in
diameter and 50 feet in length. Semi centrifugal casting process is used to produce
• High rate of productivity. solid castings and hence, requires a core to produce
hollow cavities. Semi centrifugal casting process is
used only for symmetrically shaped objects and the
Limitations axis of rotation of the mould is always vertical. Other
• The mold is rotated around its symmetry axis. typical applications of semi-centrifugal casting
• The molds are either permanent or include rolls with stainless steel outside and cast-iron
expandable. It may have cores also. centres. Such rolls find application in the printing and
• This process can suffer from inclusion process industries where a stainless outside surface is
defects as well as porosity. required for its corrosion‐resistant properties and the
• Cannot produce complex geometric shapes. cast iron furnishes the needed mass on the inside at a
• Raining: the mold rotating too slowly or the much-reduced material cost.
pouring rate too fast can result in the metal
falling down from the top of the rotation onto
the bottom.
• Vibration defects due to improper mounting
and faulty equipment.
• Cannot produce complex geometric shapes.
• Segregation and Banding: "zones of
segregated low melting point constituents
such as eutectic phases and sulphide and
oxide inclusions".[14]
• Raining: the mold rotating too slowly or the
pouring rate too fast can result in the metal
falling down from the top of the rotation onto
the bottom [15]
• Vibration defects due to improper mounting Similarly, very abrasive‐resistant material may be
and faulty equipment. cast on either the outside or the inside of the part.
Since most highly abrasive‐resistant materials do not
5. Applications have good impact properties, it is desirable to back
these up with materials being of the desired
The applications of semi-centrifugal casting
toughness. A typical application involves dual‐metal
commonly include items such as wheels and pulleys.
pipe cast with a carbon or low alloy steel on the
This process is used for making nozzles and similar
outside and a hard (HC250) 27% Cr, 2.5% C
parts. Simple shapes may be cast centrifugally out of
material on the inside.
most metals. There are also several highly
specialized applications that are worthy of note. Dual Grinding rolls made with very hard materials such as
metal castings are produced by pouring two different HC200 have been cast with softer materials on the
metals into the same mold in the following manner. inside in order to facilitate the machining and
The metal that is to form the outside is poured first. mounting of the roll on the shaft. Similarly, it is
This can cool until the inside surface is at the correct possible to cast hard‐surfaced rolls for many
temperature to form a metallurgical bond with the applications.
second metal. When this temperature is reached, the
 4. Flywheels
5. Rollers
6. Sheaves
7. Gear blanks
8. Turbocharger and Supercharger
9. Diaphragm disk
10. Steel railroad wheels

As previously emphasized, however, the optimum

value of centrifugal force diminishes with increasing
diameter.
6. References
Pipe in nonstandard sizes can be produced in less
time and at lower cost than the comparable wrought [1]efunda.com, processes, metal, processing,
centricasting
product. Both ferrous and nonferrous materials are
readily cast by the centrifugal process. Any air‐ [2] Design and fabrication of a Centrifugal casting
melted material is readily castable by this method. machine, Adedipe oyewole, Department of
Super‐alloys that must be melted and poured in a mechanical engineering, federal university of
vacuum are also cast centrifugally. technology,Nigeria.

Some applications of Semi Centrifugal Casting [3] C.H. Schilling, in Encyclopedia of Materials:
are following: Science and Technology, 2001
1. Wheels
[4] M. Jolly, in Comprehensive Structural Integrity,
2. Rings
3. Pulleys 2003

PS: Word Count = 2300 words excluding the word count of references given in each graphs, images and last
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