Communication Excellence Self-Paced (CXS)

➢ Learn how the course works:

1. Click on each item that you see below starting from "Announcement."
2. As you click on each item, you will see the it will automatically tick the box across
each item.
3. You will not be able to randomly choose an item to read as each section is
arranged in chronology. You need to complete each item first before you can
proceed to the next.

➢ Lesson Proper:

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2. Once you are done reading the content of the discussion, you need to place a
1 check mark on the activity completion box found on the right.
3. After reading each discussion, this will then make the quiz available. Take the quiz.
4. A minimum of 80% score is required to move to the next discussion, lesson,
activity, or quiz. If you did not pass, do not worry. You can take it again. This ensures
that you are really learning the lessons. The highest mark is considered.
5. Once you are done with the quiz, the next lesson or discussion will be available.

➢ LECTURE NETIQUTTE

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 1.1.1 Understand the Principles of Creating Sentences 1.1.2 Know your Subject and your Predicate
1. Understand the Principles of Creating Sentences
A sentence is a word or a group of expressing a thorough idea by giving a statement,
1. Know your Subject and your Predicate
asking a question, or exclaiming a complete thought.
The Subject and the Predicate

It is also the largest unit of any language. In written English, it begins with a capital Knowing what your subject and your predicate is essential to writing good
letter and ends with a full stop, or a question mark, or an exclamation mark. sentences. The subject tells us who or what the sentence is about, while
the predicate tells us about the subject.
Examples:
For example: (subject in bold, predicate underlined)
The applicant arrived at the interview on time. (declarative sentence)
The executive assistant arranges her manager's' meetings.
Is he very responsible? (interrogative sentence)
1. Know your Subject and your Predicate
3 She is the best! (exclamatory sentence)
1.1. The Subject
You need to focus. (imperative sentence) The subject is often described as the doer of the action. It is usually a person or a
thing the sentence is about. It is also, but not always, the first part of the
It is also important to know that a sentence requires one subject and one verb, sentence.
ideally. Although the subject of a sentence can be hidden sometimes, the verb must
How do you find the subject in a sentence? You may find it by asking who or
be visible and present in the sentence. The verb is referred to as the heart of a
what.
sentence.
For example:
From the same sentences above, underline the subject in each sentence. Highlight
the verb in each sentence. The hardworking employees of the advertising agency work together in
producing a great campaign.

Who work together? The employees.

Dedication and perseverance are needed to succeed in any career.

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 What are needed to succeed in any career? Dedication and perseverance. o 1.9. Types of Pronouns: Demonstrative
o 1.10. Verbs
o 1.11. Modal Verbs
The subject(s) of a sentence will answer the questions, "who or what."
o 1.12. Modal Verbs Chart
o 1.13. Adjectives
1.2. The Predicate
o 1.14. Types of Adjectives
The part of the sentence that tells us what the subject does or did is called a
o 1.15. Order of Adjectives
predicate. It also always includes the verb and the words which come after the
o 1.16. Adverbs
verb.
o 1.17. Position of Adverbs
o 1.18. Prepositions
For example:
o 1.19. Conjunctions
• Michael Phelps won a lot of Olympic medals. o 1.20. Interjections
o "Michael Phelps" is the subject; "won a lot of Olympic medals" is
the predicate.

4 • I want to improve my speaking and writing skills.

1. Review on 8 Parts of Speech
o "I" is the subject; "want to improve my speaking and writing skills"
is the predicate.
The part of speech indicates how a word functions within a sentence in terms of
grammar and meaning. An individual word can function in more than one part of
1.1.3 Review on 8 Parts of Speech speech if used in varying circumstances. Understanding the parts of speech is
essential for determining correct definition of a particular word when using the
Table of contents dictionary.

• 1. Review on 8 Parts of Speech There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb,
o 1.1. Overview of the 8 Parts of Speech adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. You can easily
o 1.2. Nouns remember them using the acronym PAPA V INC.
o 1.3. Nouns: Characteristics
o 1.4. Pronouns
o 1.5. Types of Pronouns: Personal
o 1.6. Types of Pronouns: Possessive
o 1.7. Types of Pronouns: Reflexive
o 1.8. Types of Pronouns: Relative
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 Look at the sentence below; identify what part speech does each word belongs Nouns are names of things.  They denote a person, place, thing, or idea.  They
to. Write it in your notebook. function as subject or object of a sentence. There are two kinds of nouns,
common noun and proper noun. Nouns are also classified either as
Take a look at the answer on the next page.
Example Sentence Noun Kind Classification Function
1. Review on 8 Parts of Speech Andrew
proper noun
subject
Andrew is my brother.   common
brother object
noun
1.1. Overview of the 8 Parts of Speech
Play Video proper noun subject
Manila common object
Manila is a city in the
city noun
Philippines.  
Philippines object of
proper noun preposition
common subject
coffee
The coffee is from noun
Batangas. object of
5 Batangas
proper noun preposition

2. PRONOUN Pronouns are words used as substitutes for a noun.

Examples: He is my brother.

• “He” is a pronoun. It is a personal pronoun because it substitutes for the

name of a person, Andrew, from the previous example, and it is in
the subjective case because “he” is the subject of the sentence.
PARTS OF SPEECH
Some are missing.
All the words of the English language can be categorized as one of the eight
parts of speech.  Those eight parts of speech are: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, • “Some” is an indefinite pronoun because the noun it substitutes is not
adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. specific.

1. NOUN The baby can’t feed herself.

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 • “Herself” is a reflexive pronoun because it refers to the same person as He is lazy.
the subject.
• “Lazy” is again the adjective here. It modifies the subject “he”, and is
3. VERB stated in the SUBJECT + “BE” VERB + ADJECTIVE sentence pattern.

Who clogged the toilet?

Verbs are words that tell the action or state of a subject.

• “The” is a kind of adjective called an article.

Examples:

MacArthur liberated the Philippines. 5. ADVERB

• "Liberated” is a verb. It is an action verb. Adverbs modify or describe a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

The puppy is hungry. Examples:

• “Is” is a verb. It is a form of the verb "be." I am extremely disappointed with this restaurant.
6
Have you ever traveled to Eritrea? • “Extremely” is an adverb modifying the adjective “disappointed.”

• “Have travelled” is a verb phrase. “Have” is an auxiliary verb, and My Japanese student always arrives punctually.
“traveled” is a past participle.
• “Always” and “punctually” are adverbs. “Always” is an adverb of
4. ADJECTIVE frequency, and “punctually” is an adverb modifying the verb “arrives.”

I’ll do it tomorrow.
Adjectives modify or describe a noun or pronoun.

• “Tomorrow” is an adverb of time.

Examples:

My lazy brother needs to get a job.

• “My” and “lazy” are adjectives because they modify “brother”. “My” is
a possessive adjective, and “lazy” is a descriptive adjective.

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 6. PREPOSITION • “And” is a conjunction connecting two adjectives.

My brother doesn’t have a job because he is lazy.

Prepositions are words that indicate relationships of a subject, verb, or adjective
to something else.
• “Because” is a subordinating conjunction connecting two clauses.
Examples:
8. INTERJECTION
Where is the entrance of the mall?
Interjections are words that communicate spontaneous or immediate thought or
• “Of” is a preposition. emotion.  

I’ll be there in seven minutes. Examples:

• “In” is a preposition. Oh, I didn’t even see you. Sorry.

Have you ever been to Kuala Lumpur? • “Oh” and “sorry” are interjections.
7
• “To” is a preposition. En garde, d’Artagnan!

• “En garde” is an interjection.

Hey, how was your holiday?

7. CONJUNCTION
• “Hey” is an interjection.
Conjunctions are words that connect words and clauses.

Examples:

Gabriel and Jonathan are my coworkers.

• “And” is a conjunction connecting two subjects.

My brother is lazy and fat.

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 -hood > childhood
1. Review on 8 Parts of Speech •

But this is not true for the word endings of all nouns. For example, the noun
1.2. Nouns "spoonful" ends in -ful, but the adjective "careful" also ends in -ful.

The first words you have most likely used as a baby are mom, dad, or milk. Most
kids begin building vocabularies with nouns. A noun is the name of something: a
2. Position in a Sentence
person, a place, a thing, or an idea. Other parts of our language either tell us
We can often recognize a noun by its position in the sentence.
what the noun is doing, take the place of a noun or describe noun.
Nouns often come after a determiner (a determiner is a word like a, an, the, this,
Here are some examples:
my, such):
• person: man, woman, doctor, James, Nancy
• a relief
• place: home, city, town, Asia, Philippines
• an afternoon
• thing: chair, pen, watermelon, money, music, love, dog, elephant
• the doctor
this word
8 The problem with this definition is that it does not explain why "love" and •
• my house
“hate” are nouns but can also be verbs. That is the reason why consulting the
dictionary is important when using words, most especially when we are using • such stupidity
vocabulary we are unfamiliar with. This way we can accurately use the intended
Nouns often come after one or more adjectives:
target language when we write.

• a great relief
Another (more complicated) way for us to recognize a noun is by
• a peaceful afternoon
its ending, position, and function.
• the tall, Indian doctor
• this difficult word
1. Noun Ending • my brown and white house
• such crass stupidity
There are certain word endings that show that a word is a noun. For example:

• -ity > nationality

• -ment > appointment
• -ness > happiness
• -ation > relation
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 3. Function in a Sentence Proper noun Common
(capitalized) noun
The Catcher in the Rye is my favorite book of all time. book
Nouns have certain functions (jobs) in a sentence, for example:
The Chicago Bulls won several NBA playoffs in the 90's. team
The Knott's Berry
• subject of verb: Doctors work hard. is a popular theme park in the California. park
Farm
• object of verb: He likes coffee. is a popular tourist destination in the
• subject and object of verb: Teachers teach students. Boracay
Philippines.
place

But the subject or object of a sentence is not always a noun. It could be a

pronoun or a phrase. In the sentence "My doctor works hard", the noun is
"doctor" but the full subject is "My doctor".
A noun is either abstract or concrete
Ex: Perseverance, determination, and passion are keys to succeed in any career.
1.3. Nouns: Characteristics
Now that we know a little bit more of nouns in the previous slides, let us also get Nouns like perseverance, determination, passion, and career are abstract
to know characteristics of nouns: nouns. Abstract nouns are things that are not physical. We cannot see, touch, or
9 detect them through our senses.
• They are proper or common.
• They are abstract or concrete. Types of abstract nouns Examples
• Most are singular or plural, but Feelings anxiety, confusion, fear, pain, pleasure, satisfaction
• Some are collective States chaos, freedom, liberty, luxury, misery, nervousness
Emotions anger, despair, happiness, hate, joy, grief
Let us understand the characteristics of nouns a lot more. Qualities beauty, brilliance, courage, dedication, determination
Concepts charity, comfort, culture, deceit, energy, failure
A noun is either a proper or common
A proper noun allows us to name a particular person, place animal, thing, or Concrete nouns, on the other hand, are names of persons, animals, places, or
idea -- Mickey Mouse, for example. When we write a proper noun, we things we can see, touch, or otherwise detect through our senses.
usually capitalize the first letter of its name. As for common nouns, we don't
Person(s) Cousin, Michael, father, policeman, nurse
apply capitalization when we refer to a particular person or thing.
Animal Panther, cat, dog, spider, ant
Place Manila, Philippines, Spain, Mount Everest, Ibiza
things Food, brocoli, beer, smoke, smoke, fire

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 A noun is either singular or plural Fish Fish

Deer Deer
For the most part, nouns can be made plural by adding an -s, an -es or removing
the -y and replacing it with an -ies. Thus a mother becomes mothers, a bus Moose Moose
becomes buses, and a fly becomes flies . Some nouns are exempted from the
rules, but not many -- one of these is a moose, but also moose when you refer to Swine Swine
several of them.
Buffalo Buffalo
Below are examples of nouns that do not support the previous rules.
Shrimp Shrimp
Nouns that… Singular Plural
Foot Feet Trout Trout
Focus Foci/focuses
Tooth Teeth
Radius Radii/radiuses
1. Change Vowels
Goose Geese
10 Fungus Fungi
Man Men
Nucleus Nuclei
1. Have Latin and Greek origin
Woman Women
Mouse Mice Cactus Cacti

Die Dice Alumnus Alumni*

Ox Oxen Octopus Octopi/octopuses

1. Change substantially
Child Children Hippopotamus Hippopotami
Axis Axes
Person People
1. Have irregular formation Analysis Analyses
Penny Pence (in British) ending in -is
1. Do not change at all Crisis Crises
Sheep Sheep
Thesis Theses

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 1. Have irregular formation Phenomenon Phenomena A group of canine animals such as wolves or dogs; also used to describe
Pack
ending in -on playing cards and packages containing multiple objects
Criterion Criteria A group of birds; also used to discuss small hooved animals such as
Flock
Datum Data sheep or goats
Swarm A group of insects
Memorandum Memoranda Shoal of
1. Have irregular formation A group of fish
School
ending in -um Bacterium Bacteria Group A very general term used to describe people, places, things, and animals
Crowd Usually used to describe a group of people
Stratum Strata Usually used to describe a group of criminals; also used to describe a
Gang
group of workers, particularly sailors or dock workers
Curriculum Curricula/curriculums Normally used to describe an angry or unruly group of people; also used
Index Mob
Indices/indexes to describe a group of kangaroos
Staff A group of people who work together
1. Have irregular formation Appendices Usually used to denote a group of workers; also used to describe aircraft
Appendices/appendixes Crew
ending in -ix and ships personnel
(medical)
11 Vortices/vortexes
Choir A large, organized group of singers
Orchestra A large, organized group of instrumentalists, led by a conductor
vortex Panel A group of experts
Unfortunately, there is no way or technique available to learn these things as Board A group of people, usually professionals, who take on an advisory role
they need to be memorized. Troupe A group of actors or acrobats; also used to describe a group of monkeys
Usually a group of small objects such as grapes, flowers, keys, or
A noun can also be collective
Bunch
bananas
Pile An untidy collection of items such as rubbish
A collective noun names a group of things that is usually taken as one, and is Heap A mounded collection of items; used interchangeably with “pile”
usually singular in form. We think of them as singular because its members act in Set
A tidy group of matched objects such as dishes; also used to describe
one accord: rules or a social group of people
Stack A group of items neatly laid one on top of another; i.e., a stack of books
The army is withdrawing from the medical frontlines because the doctors are Used to discuss movies, books, or events that follow one after another,
Series
i.e. Star Trek or Harry Potter
taking over. (The group of military people is acting as one)
Usually used to describe rain, although it can be used to describe gifts
Shower
or compliments
Below is a list of common collective nouns.
Reference from: https://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-
rules/nouns/collective-nouns/
Herd A group of herbivore animals
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 Since nouns refer to specific persons, places, or things, personal pronouns then
1.4. Pronouns refer to the same specific persons, places, or things. Pronouns have characteristics
Can you imagine not having any pronouns? called number, person, and case.

Pronouns replace nouns. Not using pronouns means language would be very When you talk about number, there are specific pronouns used for singular and
lengthy, repetitious, and weird. for plural.

Example: I like Micah. I like her. Singular

I like Micah and Markus. I like them. Plural
Juan Dela Cruz had severe back pain, and although Juan Dela Cruz lifted the box
properly by bending his knees and not curving his back, Juan Dela Cruz did have a
sore back. One time, Juan Dela Cruz got sick for more than three weeks because of Person is a little abstract.
Juan Dela Cruz's sore lower back.
Refers to the person speaking.
Now, let's try to apply pronouns, and as you read the paragraph, you will feel that
First Person I, we
it becomes more natural than the previous one. Example: "I intend to enroll in my graduate studies
12 immediately after college."
Juan Dela Cruz had severe back pain, and although he lifted the box properly by Refers to the person or people you are talking to
bending his knees and not curving his back, he did have a sore back. One time, he Second
you
got sick for more than three weeks because of his sore lower back. Person Example: "You may not be able to enroll in your graduate
studies sooner!"
When pronouns replace nouns, they usually replace the antecedent nouns, such Refers to an individual, a thing, or a group of people you
as the case of Juan Dela Cruz in our example. are talking about
He, she, it,
Third Person
they
Examples: "He may need to work for two years before
There are different kinds of pronouns: personal, indefinite, possessive, reflexive,
enrolling in his graduate studies."
relative, and demonstrative.

1.5. Types of Pronouns: Personal Case refers to a job or a function that a pronoun performs in a sentence. There
Personal Pronouns are pronouns that are used as a subjective case and should not be replaced with
an objective case.

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 For example, we say, "I expect to finish first in class," but we cannot say 1.7. Types of Pronouns: Reflexive
"Me expect to finish first in class." The objective case is used as the object of the
verb. Reflexive Pronouns
Subjective Case Objective Case Reflexive pronouns put an emphasis. When using these pronouns in that
First person I, we me, us manner, they always follow a noun or a personal pronoun and do not appear by
Second Person You You themselves in a sentence.
Third Person He, she, it, they Him, her, it, them
Examples:

*When subject pronouns refer back to the subject, it can be used after a linking "The president of the company himself selected all qualified candidates for the
verbs: "The moderator of the meeting was he." position."

"He himself made the very intricate looking cake."

1.6. Types of Pronouns: Possessive
Possessive Pronouns These examples show that the action was done independently and was done by
13 no one else but the doer.
Possessive pronouns take the place of possessive nouns. Thus, "Mark's business
becomes his business." Reflexive pronouns also show an action done to himself or herself. "She
bought herself a cake for a job a well done."
There are two types of possessive pronouns, one set accompanies the noun,
such as the example above; possessive pronoun + noun = his business. The first Reflexive Pronouns
row of possessive nouns on the table follows this form.
Myself Yourself Himself, herself, itself,
My Our Your His, her Its Their
Mine Ours Yours His, hers Theirs ourselves yourselves themselves

The pronouns in the second row, on the other hand, stand alone. It replaces the
possessive pronoun + noun entirely. Such that "Mark's business has become
successful" becomes "His has become successful."

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 1.8. Types of Pronouns: Relative 1.9. Types of Pronouns: Demonstrative
Relative Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are used to indicate further or related information about a Demonstrative pronouns refer to specific persons, places, or things.
specific subject. Depending on the subject being talked about, there are several
relative pronouns you can use. Singular Plural
Near This These
That Who Whoever Whose Far That Those
Which Whom Whomever What

When you use the relative pronoun who, it is the beginning of a clause that Examples:
refers to people. For example, "Chistopher is the language specialist at AIEP who
is requested by most corporate clients." That actor is a good friend of mine.

14 "That" is used for either a person or a thing. For example, "The trainer that does This actor (pointing at a photo) is a friend of mine.
the corporate training frequently is Michelle. "The corporate trainings provided
by our company that everyone is attending is affordable." This is my favorite music. (Favorite music is pointed out.)

"Which" starts with a clause referring to things and is used for non-essential That bag belongs to me. (A specific bag is pointed out.)
information. "The computer, which the company has lent me, has been with me
for over three years now." These houses are for sale. (Specific houses are pointed out.)

"Who" is used as a subject of a sentence: "Who was at your party?" Those are the dresses I am looking for. (Specific dresses are pointed out.)

"Whom" is an object pronoun and cannot be the subject of a sentence: "Do tell This (singular) and these (plural) are used to refer to the person or thing present,
me whom this is for?" nearby, or just mentioned.

That and those refer to the person or thing farther removed, or less obvious.

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 1.10. Verbs Linking verbs
If nouns were the first words you have spoken, then verbs probably followed that,
like "Give Mommy a kiss." Linking verbs are inactive verbs. It is usually used to express a state of being.
Hence, all to be verbs are linking verbs.
In creating sentences, the verb expresses what action is being done by the
subject, like "I prepared a presentation for my boss." The verb also Example:
expresses what state of being the subject has, like "The actor is confident
about performing today." • I am apprehensive about going.
• She was appreciative of the help given to her.
All verbs are one of three types:
Below are the set of linking verbs we use.
• Action verbs
• Linking verbs 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
• Helping verbs
(I, we) (you) (he, she, it, they)
Present
15 Action Verbs Am, are Are Is, are

We use an action verb to tell us what the subject does. This expresses a physical Past Was, were Were Was, were
or mental actions such as create, repeat, dance, think, or furnish. (have) been, (have) been, (has/have) been,
Participle
Here are some examples: (had) been (had) been (had) been

• The supervisor created tools used in performance metric evaluations.

• She thinks of her grandmother very often. Aside from the table above, we also have linking verbs that pertain to the five
• I furnished a copy of the lease contract of our building for the stakeholder. senses-- seeing, tasting, touching, hearing, and smelling. Some of these linking
verbs are: appear, look, seem, taste, feel, sound, and smell.
The tricky part about action verbs used in the present tense is that subject-verb
agreement must be followed. Opposite the plural noun, the singular verbs must Examples:
have -s, -es, or -ies when it follows a singular subject. (Detailed information of
subject verb agreement will be available later on in the course.) • The car seems new.
• The customer service representative sounded irate on that call.
• Your voice sounds hoarse.

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 Helping verbs Modal Helping Verbs (10 verbs)
In this section, we will be discussing helping verbs. These verbs help fine-tune the We use modal helping verbs to "modify" the meaning of the main verb in some
meaning of a main verb. Helping verbs have no meaning on their own. They are way. A modal helping verb expresses necessity or possibility, and changes the
necessary for the grammatical structure of a sentence, but they do not tell us very main verb in that sense. These are the modal verbs:
much alone. Helping verbs are also called auxiliary verbs.
• can, could
There are only about 15 helping verbs in English, and we divide them into two • may, might
basic groups: primary helping verbs and modal helping verbs. • will, would,
• shall, should
Primary Helping Verbs (3 verbs) • must
• ought to
These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three verbs as
helping verbs or as main verbs. On this page, we talk about them as helping Here are examples using modal verbs:
verbs. We use them in the following cases:
16 be
•
•
I can't speak Chinese.
John may arrive late.
• Would you like a cup of coffee?
• to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.) • You should see a doctor.
• to make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.) • I really must go now.

have

• to make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework.)

do

• to make negatives (I do not like you.)

• to ask questions (Do you want some coffee?)
• to show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.)
• to stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks faster than she
does.)

16
 What shall we do now? We're clearly not going to get there by nightfall.
1.11. Modal Verbs •

Modal Verbs However, when we want to express a strong intention to do something, we

use will or 'll in the first person singular and plural:
Would, Will, Shall, and Should
• Is that somebody at the door? I'll just go and see who it is.
1. There is no semantic difference when shall and will are used to refer to the • We'll get the cakes for the coffee morning tomorrow, Jane.
simple future. Will can be used in all persons. In informal spoken English, • No, no. I will. I'm the host, after all.
remember that the affirmative contraction is 'll and the negative contraction
is won't. There is no contracted form in the interrogative. 2. There are three uses of should and would. Referring to the present or
future, should is often used as an alternative to shall in connection
Examples of usage might be: with requests for advice or instruction:

• The government will consider lowering the age of consent from 16 to 15. • What do you think I should do now? Should I write him a letter, send him
(formal) an e-mail, or should I try to phone him up?
• I don't know if I can come, but I'll let you know by Thursday. (informal)
17 • Where will you be on Thursday? Will you be at home? (informal) Should is often used to talk about obligation and duty as an alternative to 'ought
to':
Shall is also sometimes used in the first person when it has the same meaning
as will. In informal spoken English, the affirmative contraction is again 'll and the • If you are still infectious, you should stay at home. You shouldn't be out
negative contracted form is shan't. and about, infecting everybody you meet.
• You really should open a bank account. You shouldn't keep so much
• I shall never finish this essay—I've still got 2,000 words to write! money in the house.
• I'll never finish this homework—I'm tired and I want to go to bed!' • People with fierce dogs should keep them on a leash at all times.
• I shan't ever be good enough to go to university—I just haven't got the
brains! (Note: No one really uses this anymore in modern conversational Should is used after the word if when a slight possibility is suggested.
English.)
• If you should see her at the anniversary concert, do give her my best
Shall is often used in questions in the first person singular and plural when regards.
making suggestions, making an offer, or asking for advice: • If I should bump into Tony, do you want me to remind him that he still
owes you one hundred pounds?
• Shall we go out for dinner tonight?
• Shall I get more tomato juice when I'm at the supermarket?
17
 3. Would (or the contracted form 'd) is sometimes used as an alternative to 'used
to' when discussing past habits:
Can
Can is one of the most commonly used modal verbs in English. It can be used
• When we were young, we would spend (we'd spend) every summer
to express ability or opportunity, to request or offer permission, and to show
holiday at the seaside.
possibility or impossibility.
• You would find him (you'd find him) sitting at the bar every time after
Examples:
work , drinking that strong black beer, until one day he was there no
longer.
• I can drive a car. (ability)
• We can stay with my sister when we are in Manila. (opportunity)
Would is also used to make polite requests:
• He cannot stay out past midnight. (permission)
• Would you be prepared to do all this work by yourself without any
• Can you pass me the salt? (request)
assistance?
• Any child can grow up to be anything he wants. (possibility)
• Would you (be so kind as to) pick Jennifer up from school on Monday?

18 Could
Would (or its contracted form 'd in conversational English) is also associated with Could is used to express possibility or past ability as well as to make suggestions
the conditional in its simple, progressive, perfect and passive aspects: and requests. Could is also commonly used in conditional sentences as the
conditional form of can.
• There's no doubt about it. I would definitely (I'd definitely) travel
to California with you, if I could afford it. Examples:
• You would still be (you'd still be) working for the school if you had not
caused all that trouble. • Extreme weather could cause the city to shut down. (possibility)
• I would have told you (I'd have told you) all about it, if you had called me
earlier. • Albert could skateboard like a pro by the age of 8. (past ability)
• You could see the show or go to the park. (suggestion)
• If you wore smarter clothes, you would be invited (you'd be invited) to all • Could I use your laptop to finish my project? (request)
the events. • We could go to the party if I didn't have to work tomorrow. (conditional)

18
 MODAL VERBS CHART (Past form of) May
They said they might bring
food.
The use of modal verbs can be a bit complicated for some because they can be Possibility Your plan might work.
MIGHT
used in many ways. The best way to master these modal verbs is to first My classmates aren’t here yet.
Possibility (Weaker than
memorize them and their functions. After that, use them as often as possible. It They might not make it on
“may”)
would be awesome if you can have a teacher give you feedback as well. time.
-May I borrow your pen,
MODAL VERB USAGE / SITUATIONS EXAMPLE please?
Ask/Give Permission
She’s able to write three essays (formal)
BE ABLE (TO) Ability -You may start your speech
in an hour.
Ability I can speak English well. MAY now.
Possibility Dreams can come true. The airfare may increase by
Possibility
tomorrow.
She can be difficult
General Possibility
sometimes. Possibility (Stronger than It’s starting to rain again; it
CAN “might”) may rain all night.
Informal Requests Can you be here by 1pm?
Essential/Highly You must quit drinking too
19 Suggestion
They can stay here for the
meantime.
Recommended much liquor.
They started the test 30
Permission She can stay here with us. Logical Conclusions
minutes ago, so they should be
That can’t be true, I read about MUST (Stronger than “should”)
CAN’T Impossible Certainty done soon.
it.
You must complete your
Polite Requests Could you come over, please? Full Obligation online assignments to claim
She could speak English very your certificate.
(Past form of) Can well ever since she was eight MUSTN’T/ MUST You mustn’t use your
years old. Absolute Prohibition
NOT cellphone in class!
It could be achieved easily for You need to speak English in
Possibility
COULD someone else. NEED TO Obligation and out of class to improve
They could be lying, but the faster.
Possibility (Weaker than
truth will always come out NEEDN’T You needn’t buy a new dress.
“may”/”might”) Lack of obligation
anyway.
Suggestions (for “I” & Let’s get back to class now,
You could take the bus or “we”)/Questions shall we?
Suggestion SHALL
train.
I shall attend every day starting
You don’t have to finish it all (Future for “I” and “we”)
DON’T HAVE (TO) Lack of obligation today.
right now.
19
 The meeting should start at You ought to know how to plot
Partial/Less Common
9AM. OUGHT TO your attendance online by
Logical Conclusions (weaker Obligation
now.
than “must”)
They should be starting by
now.
He should tell his parents what
SHOULD Right thing to do
happened. 1.13. Adjectives
What should I say to him? Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns by providing specific or descriptive
Advice/Opinion
detail. Adjective(s) usually go before the noun they modify. Adjectives do not
He should know me by now.
have to agree in number or gender with the nouns they describe.
You should try your best to
Partial Obligation
pass the test.
Adjectives answer the following questions:
No problem. I will update you
Intentions/Promises
asap.
1. What kind? Shiela bought a used hair-blower. (Used describes WHAT
Future states/action (not
This class will end at 8PM. KIND of hair-blower Shiela bought.)
WILL plans)
20 Future
It’s your first day today. The
specialist will give you a
actions/states/intentions
speech assessment in class.
2. How many? Cathy baked 15 fruit pies for the school fun
(Past form of) will She said would be a bit late.
fair. (Fifteen specifies HOW MANY pies Cathy baked.)
*Would you please double-
check your work?

*Would you like some more

Polite requests/offers/
cake? 3. Which one? Simon climbed that mountain. (That tells WHICH mountain
invitations Simon climbed.)
WOULD
*We are all going to attend the
party tomorrow, would you
like to join us?
*We would like to request a
To say what you want to song.
have/do 4. Whose? That is Peter’s blue bag. (Peter’s shows who owns the blue bag.)
*I would like a cup of coffee.

20
 Example: William is attending a nineteenth-century history class. (The
1.14. Types of Adjectives •
adjective nineteenth-century precedes the noun history class so a hyphen
TYPES OF ADJECTIVES: is used.)
1. Descriptive Adjectives – A descriptive adjective names a quality of the noun • Example: William is studying history from the nineteenth century. (The
or pronoun that it modifies. adjective nineteenth century comes after the noun history so a hyphen is
not used.)
• Example: fluffy dog, nice house, pink flamingo
6. Determiners as Adjectives – Determiners, such as articles, pronouns, and
Proper Adjectives – A proper adjective is derived from a proper noun. numbers, can function as adjectives. Adjectives are words that modify or describe
another person or thing in the sentence. The ARTICLES (a, an, and the) are
• Example: Math class, American culture, Filipino food adjectives.

2. Limiting Adjectives – A limiting adjective restricts the meaning of the word it • the tall tree, the luxurious car, the rich guy
modifies. • an empty promise, an awkward moment, an 8-year-old kid
• a lucky girl, a crazy day, a wonderful year, a big house
Example: this place, the class, that house
21 •
Remember that adjectives answer the following questions:
3. Interrogative Adjectives – An interrogative adjective is used to ask
WHAT KIND?
questions.
HOW MANY?
• Example: Whose pen is this? How is my new dish?
WHICH ONE(S)?
4. Coordinate Adjectives – A coordinate adjective consists of two or
more adjectives separated by a comma instead of a coordinating conjunction. WHOSE?

• Shiela bought a used hair-blower. (used describes WHAT KIND of hair-

• Example: a fun, crazy weekend; a new, luxury car blower Shiela bought.
• Cathy baked 15 fruit pies for the school fun fair. (Fifteen specifies HOW
5. Compound Adjectives – Compound Adjectives consist of two or more words MANY pies Cathy baked.)
that function as a unit. (When a compound adjective comes before the noun it • Simon climbed that mountain. (that tells WHICH mountain Simon
modifies, use a hyphen to join the adjectives. When a compound adjective follows climbed.)
the noun it modifies, do not use a hyphen to join the adjectives.)
21
 "a big brick house" (article, size, and material)
1.15. Order of Adjectives
Placement and Order of Adjectives "these old brown cardboard boxes" (demonstrative, age, color, material)
A single noun can be described with a list of adjectives. When more than
one adjective is used to modify a noun, it is important to consider the order in "a beautiful young Italian woman" (article, personal opinion, age,
nationality)
which the adjectives appear. Generally, the adjectives most important in
completing the meaning of the noun are placed closest to the noun. Here are the
ORDER OF ADJECTIVES
usual order of adjectives in a series:

1. Determiners: articles (a, an, the), demonstratives (this, that, those), and Determiner Observatio Size Color Material Qualifier
Shape Age Origin Noun
n
possessives (his, her, our, Jane’s, everyone’s), amounts (one, ten, several),
antique Filipino
order (first, next, last) a beautiful coffee table

2. Coordinate adjectives (subjective evaluations or personal opinions): cool, bracelet

an expensive French golden
fun, reserved, painful
long-
22 3. Physical (Size): big, huge, puny, small
four sexy legged young ladies

4. Physical (Shape): long, short, round, square

5. Physical (Age): young, old, modern, ancient

1.16. Adverbs
6. Physical (Color): blue, green, red, white Adverbs modify or describe a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

7. Origin: Filipino, Italian, French, American Examples:

I am extremely disappointed with this restaurant.
8. Architectural Style and Religion: Christian, Greek, Gothic, Catholic, • “Extremely” is an adverb modifying the adjective “disappointed”.
Jewish, Muslim My Japanese student always arrives punctually.
• “Always” and “punctually” are adverbs. “Always” is an adverb of
9. Material: cardboard, plastic, silver, gold, wooden, cotton frequency, and “punctually” is an adverb modifying the verb “arrives”.
I’ll do it tomorrow.
10. Qualifier (nouns functioning as • "Tomorrow” is an adverb of time.
adjectives): soccer ball, cardboard box, history class
22
 1.17. Position of Adverbs Here/There goes our
Here and there can be used in initial position followed prime suspect.
Position of Adverbs by be/come/go + noun subject or by a pronominal subject
+ be/come/go. BUT: Here he comes.
Adverbs of manner There she goes.
Off takes the rocket.
(foolishly, hard, kindly, nice, stupidly)
Down moves the
Down, away, up, over, out, off, round can be followed by
elevator.
Follow the verb. He spoke clearly. verb of motion + subject
Follow the object if there is one. He pulled the gun unexpectedly. Round and round
Tips: ran the children.

• The adverb cannot be put between the verb and the object. Adverbs of Time
• If the object contains many words, the adverb should be put before the (afterwards, before, ever, lately, never, soon, tomorrow, yet)
verb.
• With prepositional objects, the adverb can be put either before the
23 preposition or after the object.
Occupy either the initial or final
position in the clause (end
Usually, the judge sentenced the accused. The
• The adverb is considered to modify the verb of the phrase/clause which it
judge sentenced the accused eventually. The
position is usually with
reading of the verdict has been
follows. imperatives and with phrases
postponed till tomorrow.
with till)
• Sometimes, the position of the adverb changes the meaning of the (Ever) since are used with perfect
He has not rested well ever since his breakup.
sentence. Example: She regretfully decided to trick her boyfriend. She tenses
decided to trick her boyfriend regretfully. Yet follows the verb / verb +
He hasn’t spoken yet. / He hasn’t said a word yet.
object
Adverbs of Place Most members of the Jackson family
are still performing.
Still follows the verb be but is put
(anywhere, away, here, there, upward) in front of other verbs
Despite the lack of evidence, the judge still found
I would go him guilty.
Follow the verb. He has just opened the door.
anywhere with you.
I will buy a Just, as an adverb of time, is used
if there is an object, then they follow the object. with compound tenses She was just picking up the phone.
house tomorrow.

23
 (It can also be used as adverb of degree) My friend had just enough
money for one meal.
He just wanted some peace.
We just had enough money
Just, as a qualifier, precedes the word(s) it refers to.
for the trip home.
Adverbs of Frequency
(always, frequently, often, usually, ever, hardly ever) They had enough money
for just one round of drinks.
Follow the verb be in simple tenses. He is always getting into trouble.
Come before simple tenses of all other
verbs.
They constantly disregard the rules. Position of Adverbs
In compound tenses, follow the first This brilliant consultant has rarely ever lost
Adverbs of manner
auxiliary verb. a client.
But in questions, follow the auxiliary Have you ever been sent to your room as a
(foolishly, hard, kindly, nice, stupidly)
verb + subject child?

24 Follow the verb. He spoke clearly.

Follow the object if there is one. He pulled the gun unexpectedly.
Adverbs of Degree
(absolutely, barely, completely, enough, quite, entirely, thoroughly) Tips:

• The adverb cannot be put between the verb and the object.
This is absolutely right.
• If the object contains many words, the adverb should be put before the
Modify adjectives or other adverbs.
She behaved quite verb.
foolishly. • With prepositional objects, the adverb can be put either before the
His answer to his question preposition or after the object.
was not good enough. • The adverb is considered to modify the verb of the phrase/clause which it
Enough follows the adjective or adverb it modifies. follows.
She didn’t respond fast
enough. • Sometimes, the position of the adverb changes the meaning of the
Some of the degree adverbs can also modify verbs sentence. Example: She regretfully decided to trick her boyfriend. She
(almost, hardly, enough, just, a little, much, They nearly won the game. decided to trick her boyfriend regretfully.
nearly, quite, rather, really, scarcely)
Adverbs of Place

24
 (anywhere, away, here, there, upward) Despite the lack of evidence, the judge still found
him guilty.
I would go He has just opened the door.
Follow the verb.
anywhere with you.
I will buy a She was just picking up the phone.
if there is an object, then they follow the object. Just, as an adverb of time, is used
house tomorrow. with compound tenses
Here/There goes our (It can also be used as adverb of degree)
Here and there can be used in initial position followed prime suspect.
by be/come/go + noun subject or by a pronominal subject He just wanted some peace.
+ be/come/go. BUT: Here he comes.
There she goes.
Off takes the rocket. Adverbs of Frequency
(always, frequently, often, usually, ever, hardly ever)
Down moves the
Down, away, up, over, out, off, round can be followed by
elevator. Follow the verb be in simple tenses. He is always getting into trouble.
verb of motion + subject
Come before simple tenses of all other
25 Round and round
ran the children.
verbs.
They constantly disregard the rules.
In compound tenses, follow the first This brilliant consultant has rarely ever lost
auxiliary verb. a client.
Adverbs of Time But in questions, follow the auxiliary Have you ever been sent to your room as a
(afterwards, before, ever, lately, never, soon, tomorrow, yet) verb + subject child?

Occupy either the initial or final

Usually, the judge sentenced the accused. The
position in the clause (end Adverbs of Degree
judge sentenced the accused eventually. The
position is usually with
reading of the verdict has been (absolutely, barely, completely, enough, quite, entirely, thoroughly)
imperatives and with phrases
postponed till tomorrow.
with till)
This is absolutely right.
(Ever) since are used with perfect
He has not rested well ever since his breakup.
tenses Modify adjectives or other adverbs.
She behaved quite
Yet follows the verb / verb + foolishly.
He hasn’t spoken yet. / He hasn’t said a word yet.
object
His answer to his question
Most members of the Jackson family Enough follows the adjective or adverb it modifies. was not good enough.
Still follows the verb be but is put
are still performing.
in front of other verbs

25
 She didn’t respond fast
enough.
Some of the degree adverbs can also modify verbs
(almost, hardly, enough, just, a little, much, They nearly won the game.
nearly, quite, rather, really, scarcely)
My friend had just enough
money for one meal.

We just had enough money

Just, as a qualifier, precedes the word(s) it refers to.
for the trip home.

They had enough money

for just one round of drinks.
.

26 1.18. Prepositions
Prepositions are words that indicate relationships of a subject, verb, or adjective
to something else.

Examples:

Where is the entrance of the mall? “Of” is a preposition.

1.19. Conjunctions
Conjunctions are used to join words or phrases. Different types of conjunctions
I’ll be there in seven minutes. indicate a different relationship between or amongst the elements joined.

• “In” is a preposition. Three Types of Conjunctions

Have you ever been to Boracay? 1. Coordinating conjunction is used to link ideas or elements of equal
value.
• “To” is a preposition. 2. Subordinating conjunction is used to connect ideas with one element
having a lesser value than the other.
3. Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs for establishing relationship on
thoughts of equal value.
26
 4. Coordinating Conjunctions Example:

• She wants to pass her exams so she studies hard.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions. An easy way to remember them is
using their initials—F A N B O Y S
5. Subordinating Conjunctions
F A N B O Y S
for and nor but or yet so A subordinating conjunction joins a dependent clause to an independent clause.
Use coordinating conjunctions to combine elements. They are placed between
words or clauses. The guests had already eaten all the by the time Alve and Jean arrived at the
food party
Examples: Independent Clause Dependent Clause
Some common subordinating conjunctions are easily remembered by their
• We had toast and dark coffee for breakfast. initials as well—A WHITE BUS:
• My best friend likes green tea, but I prefer coffee with cream.
A after, although, as, as long as, as if, as though
27 When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional: W when, where, whether, while, whenever, wherever
H how
Example: I if, in order that, if only
T though
• I bought eggs, milk, butter, and bread. E even if, even though
• I bought eggs, milk, butter and bread. B because, before, by the time
U unless, until
When combining independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, place a S since, so that
comma before the conjunction (See section IV): Example:

Example: • Vicky is anxious because her interview is tomorrow.

• She has been playing tennis since she was 15 years old.
• Vicky wants to have driver’s license, so she is taking driving classes.
• She was feeling unwell, yet she came in to work. Whenever you begin your sentence with a dependent clause, place a comma (,)
• Jon finished his tasks, and he submitted them on time. before adding the independent clause.

If the independent clauses are short, a comma is not necessary (though it is still Examples:
recommended):
27
 • Unless we act immediately, pollution will get worse. formal, written English, but are used all the time in everyday, conversational
• Before I came home, I stopped by the grocery store. English.

Here are some examples of some common interjections and what they typically
Correlative Conjunctions communicate:

Some conjunctions are always paired with another conjunction. These are • Hello – communicates greeting
called correlative conjunctions. They join sentence elements that should be • Goodbye – communicates parting
treated as grammatically parallel. • Ouch! – communicates pain
• Wow – communicates amazement
Examples: • Thanks – communicates gratitude

• Anthony led the team not only in logistics but also with his enthusiasm. • Huh? – communicates bewilderment
• My sister neither called nor sent an email. • Crap! – communicates anger or frustration
• Whether you like it or not, it is best to plan events in detail.

28 Here is a list of commonly used correlative conjunctions: Using Interjections

both… and Interjections can be used in several ways.
not only… but also
not… but Sometimes, they can be used alone in a sentence as a response to something:
either… or
neither… nor "Hey!"
whether… or
as… as Usually, they are used in the beginning of a sentence followed by a comma:
Please pay extra attention to these conjunctions as they will be heavily
discussed later in the "Types of Sentences" section of your course. "Hey, you stepped on my foot!"

Sometimes they can be used in the middle of sentence, especially between two
1.20. Interjections clauses:
Interjections are words that communicate immediate emotion of thought. They
exist in all languages and have many purposes. They are not usually used in "A grizzly bear came into our camp site and, wow, it was huge!"

Sometimes they can be used at the end of a sentence:

28
 "It always smells like piss along this sidewalk, yuck!"
1.1.4 Apply the Five Basic Sentence Patterns
Clearly identifying interjections 1. Applying the Five Basic Sentence Patterns
Sometimes the same word can be used as an interjection in one circumstance Scared to communicate because of bad grammar? Say no more! You don’t have
and another part of speech in another circumstance. to worry about being a big joke among your friends and co-workers because you,
too, can create sentences without worrying about grammar mistakes. Let’s go
Examples:
back to the basics and learn how to make smooth and accurate sentences.
• Shoot! I’ve lost my keys! (“Shoot” is an interjection here.)
First, we need to know the 2 basic parts of a sentence. No sentence can ever be a
sentence without a subject and verb. The subject is the one doing the action in a
• Where did they shoot that movie? (“Shoot” is a verb here.)
sentence. It can be anything or anyone. On the other hand, the verb is what the
• Thanks, Sara. That was a great meal! (“Thanks” is an interjection here.)
subject is doing. Words like walk, eat, run, talk, and stand are examples of verbs.
• I thank God that I’m alive after all that! (“Thank” is a verb here.)
Now that you know the parts, let’s put them together and make different
29 Interjections or Onomatopoeia? sentences. Here are the 5 basic sentence patterns we use in English:

Onomatopoeia refers to words that are pronounced to phonetically resemble the • Subject + Verb
sound that they depict. • Subject + Action Verb + Object
• Subject + Linking Verb + Adjective
Some examples of onomatopoeia in English are: • Subject + Action Verb + Adverb
• Subject + Linking Verb + Noun
• Tick-tock for the sound of a ticking clock.
• Chatter for the sound of noisy talk.
• Bang for the sound of a loud, brief noise, especially an explosion.
SUBJECT + VERB
Mark runs.
• Moo for the vocalization of a cow.
• Crash for the sound of a loud collision.
Birds fly.
It is important to know that words of onomatopoeia are not interjections,
Kids play.
although they can seem similar. Remember that onomatopoeia connotes
a sound, while interjections connote an immediate thought or emotion.
29
 All of the sentences above are considered sentences following the subject-verb They dug a deep hole.
pattern, but it doesn't mean that you only have to use two words. Below are
examples of the same arrangement: Amanda cooked a delicious meal.

The kids were playing. (The verb is in the past progressive.) Take note that there are different kinds of objects. We will talk about two of
them: the direct object and the indirect object. What’s the difference?
We all travel, dine, and party. (The sentence has several verbs.) The direct object answers the question what? or who? while the indirect
object answers the question for whom?, for what?, to whom? or to what? Take a
Wearing face masks and observing social distancing has been approved. (The look at these examples and see the difference:
sentence has two subjects: wearing face masks and observing social distancing)
• Sarah baked Becky a cake.
The guest speaker for our show tonight has arrived. (The subject speaker has a lot
of modifiers.) DIRECT OBJECT: a cake (What did Sarah bake?)

SUBJECT + ACTION VERB + OBJECT INDIRECT OBJECT: Becky (For whom did Sarah bake the cake?)

30 The next pattern is Subject + Verb + Object. This is generally done when the verb • The department give Andrew a farewell party.
is transitive and requires an object. In a sentence, if the subject does the action,
DIRECT OBJECT: a farewell party (What did the department give?)
the object receives the action. Take a look at this sentence:
INDIRECT OBJECT: Andrew (For whom did the department give the party?)
Dianne asked questions. (Subject = Dianne; Object = questions)
• Markie threw the dog a rubber bone.
Here, the verb ask is a transitive verb and must be followed with an object, which
is the word questions. You can add other words called modifiers to expand the
DIRECT OBJECT: a rubber bone (What did Markie throw?)
sentence. A modifier is any word that adds more detail to another word in the
sentence. Usually, they are adjectives or adverbs. INDIRECT OBJECT: the dog (To what did Markie throw the bone?)

e.g. Dianne asked several questions. (The word several is a modifier since it tells us
more information about the word questions.) SUBJECT + LINKING VERB + ADJECTIVE

Here are more examples: This pattern works well with linking verbs such as be verbs, especially when you
want to talk about the state of being of the subject. Here is an example:
Sharon needs your advice.
30
 He is overworked. ADVERB OF PURPOSE: You should see a professional to make sure there’s nothing
wrong.
Here, he is the subject; is is the verb; and overworked is the adjective. You can also
expand the sentence by adding other parts of speech, like the word "too." Thus, SUBJECT + LINKING VERB + NOUN
you will have He is too overworked, where too is an adverb.
In this pattern, the noun is used as a complement. It describes or completes the
Other than your be verbs, you may also use your sensory verbs for this
subject. Here is an example:
arrangement. This includes verbs like feel, seem, smell, appear,
look, and taste. Check out these examples: My best friend Dave is our class valedictorian.

The sky looks dark and ominous. In this sentence, the noun complement our class valedictorian talks about the
subject my best friend Dave. Specifically, the class valedictorian and Dave refer to
Something smells funny.
the same person. I guess you can think of it this way:
I feel awesome today!
My best friend Dave = class valedictorian
31 SUBJECT + ACTION VERB + ADVERB Here are other examples:

As we have learned from our lessons on adverbs, we know that there are several
I am a teacher.
kinds of adverbs such as time (when?), place (where?), manner (how?), frequency
(how often?), and purpose (why?). Take a look at this example: The owner of the store is my sister.

The irate customer angrily shouted at the clerk. The actor on the television was my former boss.

In the sentence above, the word angrily is an adverb of manner since it talks Don’t be afraid to add more details to the sentence. You can use adjectives to
about how the customer (subject) shouted (verb). Let’s try using other kinds of describe the nouns in this sentence pattern to make the sentence look more
adverbs specific and sound more interesting.

ADVERB OF PLACE: We will meet our client at the Ascott.

ADVERB OF FREQUENCY: I have to take my medication every 8 hours.

31
 In the example above, "staff" is the subject, and the word "lost" is the verb.
1.1.5 Know the difference between a Further, clauses can easily be distinguished as it makes complete sense. Singles

Phrase and a Clause clauses can be a complete sentence sometimes, but some sentences can have
two or more clauses just like the example below.

1. Know the difference between a phrase and a clause "I was going to talk to our manager, but he had already left, apparently."

A sentence in English can be divided into various parts with each serving a 1. Know the difference between a phrase and a clause
relative purpose and characteristics. While this may sound simple, there are
confusions between different parts of a sentence particularly the clause and the
phrase.
1.1. Types of Phrases
A phrase functions as a noun, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence,
depending on its construction. Phrases are based on the type of word that it
The Phrase A phrase is a group of words in a sentence that does not
governs or functions.
contain a subject and a verb. It is typically a component of a clause.
V I P P A N G A
32 Examples: Verb Infinitive Prepositional Participle Adjective Noun Gerund Adverb
To the bat cave

On the upper shelf Phrase Definition Examples

We are organizing the project.
Playing basketball
She has spoken to the team.
It is a combination of the
A phrase also do not make a complete sense on its own and will need other main verb and its helping
V Verb They must finish their task.
words to make a complete sentence. verbs (auxiliary verbs) in a
sentence.
I have been compiling the materials.
The Clause A clause, on the other hand, is a group words in a sentence
which contains a subject and a verb. He could have called us.
It consists of (to + infinitive
He likes to learn languages. (As
"Our maintenance staff keeps lost items in a safe place." form of the verb) and often
I Infinitive Noun/Object)
include object/s or
modifier/s. It functions as

32
 an adjective, an adverb, or a To accrue salary is important for the She is going to wear a long navy-
noun in a sentence. future. (As Noun/Subject) blue dress.
It consists a noun with
He planned to give a speech. (As words relating to it. The She is going to wear a long navy-
adverb, modifies verb) other words usually modify blue dress. (Modifies the dress)
N Noun the noun.
She started an organization to Noun + Modifier The man with brown hair left his
help the homeless. (As adjective, cellphone. (Modifies the man)
modifies noun) Modifier + Noun
It consists of a preposition Having an open communication is a key
The students along the hallway are
and the object of It consists of a gerund (- to a good relationship. (As
studying. (As adjective)
preposition (noun pronoun, ing) + modifiers. It can act Noun/Subject)
P Prepositional G Gerund
or gerund). It functions as as a noun (subject/object)
The manager is explaining in a calm
an adjective or adverb of a of a sentence. They began planning for the next
voice. (As adverb)
sentence. project. (As Noun/Object)
It consists of participle He always speaks in a polite
33 forms of the
verb + modifiers.
The computer, stolen from the
shop, was retrieved.
It consists of adverbs or
other words (preposition,
voice. (modifies speaks)

noun, verb, modifiers) to My manager works with meticulous

- present participle The notes, written on the board, are A Adverb
modify a verb, an adjective, observation. (modifies works)
illegible. or another adverb.
P Participle
- past participle Mary arrived just in time for the
The man, sitting on the bus, fell asleep. movies. (modifies arrived)
It modifies the noun
preceding it. A participle I received an email, containing an
phrase is separated by invitation to the ball.
commas.
She drove her new white SUV.

It contains adjectives, The teacher from Australia gave us

modifiers, or any word that homework.
A Adjective
modifies a noun or a
pronoun. I had to teach a class full of
foreign students.

33
 1. Know the difference between a Dependent Clause

phrase and a clause A dependent clause, also known as a subordinating clause, does not function on
its own because it leaves an idea -- the thought I sincomplete.

1.2. Types of Clauses Dependent clauses help the independent clauses complete ideas in a sentence. It
There are two types of clauses alone cannot form a complete sentence.

• Independent Clause Subordinators such as relative pronouns, subordinating conjunctions, and noun
• Dependent Clause clause markers are used to connect dependent clauses to an independent clause.

"When I was in college, I had a medical operation."

Independent Clause
"I like him on my team because he always delivers."
An independent clause can stand on its own to make a meaningful sentence and
looks much like a regular sentence. "He is a very talented player though he is out of form."
34
"He is a wise woman."

"I do like her."

"Could you do it?"

Two independent clauses can be connected with the use conjunctions such
as: and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet*.

I want to buy a new Iphone, but I don’t have enough cash for mow. (Two
independent clauses)

"Mark went to Sydney, and he visited Bondi Beach."

34
 Perfect progressive tenses start with the helping verb “have” followed by
1.2.1 Be specific with Time, Master the Verb •
“been” and ends with verb+ing.
Tenses If you remember these basic rules, you can always identify the verb tense being
used, or use the verb tense you need without needing to check a textbook or
1. Be specific with Time: the Verb Tenses table. Meanwhile, a chart like the one given here can provide a quick and easy
reference until you feel comfortable using the various verb tenses.
Verb Tenses
Also, pay attention to the time clues in the following chart. While some of them
The importance of the verb tenses is that it's all about time. The tenses allow us can be used with more than one verb tense, they do restrict the number of
to explain and clarify things that can happen now, in the future, or in the past. possibilities and help you understand which verb tense is being used or which
verb tense you should use.
The tenses simply indicate the time of an action or state of being. The verb
usually does all the work and is changed (conjugated) to show what time it is 1.1. Simple Present
referring to.
35 In English, there are 12 verb tenses in active form. The verb can take place in the Generally, the simple present tense is used to express actions that
are repeating such as habits and routines, and this tense is also used to
past, the present, or the future. There are usually word clues such as time state facts, opinions, or permanent states.
expressions that tell us when the verb occurs. Within each of these times, there
are four different situations that occur. • Jackie goes to the mall every week.
• My youngest brother is eleven years old.
• Simple tenses occur at a point in time or on a repeated or habitual • Tony and Maria do not eat seafood.
basis.
AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE
• Progressive or continuous tenses indicate the action taking place over S + V (present). S + does/do + not + V(base). Does/Do + S + V(base)?
time, and these tenses always use part of the verb “be” as the first part of I exercise. I do not exercise. Do I exercise?
the verb phrase and end with verb + ing.
You exercise. You do not exercise. Do you exercise?
•
We exercise. We do not exercise. Do we exercise?
• Perfect tenses always use “have” as the first part of the verb phrase and
They exercise. They do not exercise. Do they exercise?
end with the past participle of the main verb.
He exercises. He does not exercise. Does he exercise?
•
She exercises. She does not exercise. Does she exercise?
It exercises. It does not exercise. Does it exercise?
35
 The simple present tense can be used to express repeated action in the present.
These actions can be habits or facts.
NEGATIVE SHORT NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE
S + doesn’t/don’t + V (base form). Doesn’t/Don’t + S + V (base form)?
I don’t exercise. Don’t I exercise? Examples:
You don’t exercise. Don’t you exercise?
• I live in a small town.
We don’t exercise. Don’t we exercise?
• My parents work in Manila.
They don’t exercise. Don’t they exercise?
• His brother does not watch TV.
He doesn’t exercise. Doesn’t he exercise?
• They don’t eat a lot of pork.
She doesn’t exercise. Doesn’t she exercise? • Do you take pictures whenever you’re at a party?
It doesn’t exercise. Doesn’t it exercise?
It may be used to describe subjects or state facts as well.

DO NOT USE specific time in the past, present, or future (today, Examples:
yesterday, tomorrow, this week, last year, next month) when using the simple
36 present tense. These time expressions are meant to be used with other • Mr. Domingo is a doctor.
tenses. Time expressions that show repetition (e.g. every day, weekly, every • The paintings are beautiful.
month) must be used instead. • I am here in my office.
• Is Karen hardworking?
Wrong: I eat vegetables last week. • I’m not hungry yet.
Correct: I ate vegetables last week. (Past Simple)
Correct: I eat vegetables every week. (Present Simple) It can also be used to express how often an action is done in the present.

TIME EXPRESSIONS FOR THE SIMPLE PRESENT Examples:

every day (week, month, year, weekend) always never weekly
seldom sometimes daily monthly • Freddie writes to his parents every week.
• My friend borrows my car sometimes.
• Our car’s engine always makes weird noises.
USES OF THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE • Ariel and Elle occasionally buy things together.
• I call my parents every day.

36
 Cristina works everyday. [She works everyday.]
1.2.2 Know how many, Brush Up on Hans practices his violin every weekend. [He practices his violin every weekend]
The water has boiled. [It has boiled.]
Your Subject-Verb-Agreement
We may now look at the following 20
Subject-Verb Agreement
Rules of Subject-Verb Agreement
In a sentence or in a clause, the most important relationship is that of the
Subject and the Verb. Each part has to agree in form. This is whether you should 1. Subjects and verbs must agree in number. 
add –s or –es at the end of the verb. That is to say, if the subject is in singular
form, the verb must take on the singular form as well. This also applies if either
This is the cornerstone rule that forms the background of the concept.
part is in plural form. It is also important to note that the subject-verb agreement
is used in present tenses (See chapter on Verb Tenses) except for was and were in The dog growls when he is angry. The dogs growl when they are angry.
the past form of is, am, and are. In this chapter, we will enumerate twenty rules of
the Subject-Verb Agreement.
37 2. Don’t get confused by the words that come
Before we do, let us remember the basic principles behind the Subject Verb between the subject and verb.
agreement:
They do not affect agreement.
The verb ends with –s or –es when your subject is a singular third person. To
understand this, take a look at the chart below: The dog, who is chewing on my jeans, is usually very good.

First Person Second Person Third Person

Singular I You *He / She / It 3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and
Plural We You They verb usually do not affect agreement.
The colors of the rainbow are beautiful.
This means that any subject beginning with he, she, or it or any subject I
represents, the verb that follows ends with –s or –es.

Example:

37
 4. When sentences start with “there” or “here,” the 9. If the subjects are both singular and are connected by the
subject will always be placed after the verb, so care words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also the
verb is singular.
needs to be taken to identify it correctly.
Jessica or Christian is to blame for the accident.
There is a problem with the balance sheet. Here are the papers you requested.
10. The only time when the object of the preposition factors into the
5. Subjects don't always come before verbs in questions. Make decision of plural or singular verb forms is when noun and pronoun subjects
sure you accurately identify the subject before deciding on the like some, half, none, more, all, etc. are followed by a prepositional phrase.
proper verb form to use. In these sentences, the  object  of the preposition determines the form of the
verb.
Does  Lefty  usually  eat  grass? Where  are  the  pieces  of this puzzle.
All of the chicken is gone. All of the chickens are gone.
6. If two subjects are joined by and, they typically
11. The singular verb form is usually used for units of
38 require a plural verb form. measurement.
The cow and the pig are jumping over the moon.
Four quarts of oil was required to get the car running.

7. The verb is singular if the two subjects separated

12. If the subjects are both plural and are connected by the
by and refer to the same person or thing.
words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also, the
Red beans and rice is my mom's favorite dish. verb is plural.

Dogs and cats are both available at the pound.

8. If the words each, every, or no come before the subject, the
verb is singular. 13. If one subject is singular and one plural and the words are connected
by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also, you
No smoking and drinking is allowed. Every man and woman is required to check in.
use the verb form of the subject that is nearest the verb.

Do your sisters or your girlfriend want any pizza?

38
 14. Indefinite pronouns typically take singular verbs. 20. Final Rule – Remember, only the subject affects the verb!

Everybody wants to be loved.
1.2.3 Improve your writing, Learn the types
15. * Except for the  pronouns  (few, many, several, both) that of Sentences
always take the plural form.
Types of Sentences
Few were left alive after the flood.
To understand the types of sentences, we must first understand the kinds of
16. If two infinitives are separated by and they take the plural clauses—independent clause and dependent clause. First, a clause is made up of
form of the verb. at least one subject and at least one predicate with only one complete
thought. A sentence is made up of at least one clause. Therefore, a sentence
To walk and to chew gum require great skill. may have two or more clauses.

The independent clause (or main clause) can stand on its own as a simple
39 17. When gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence they
take the singular verb form of the verb, but when they are sentence. It is made up of a subject and a predicate.

linked by and they take the plural form. • The flight was delayed.
• Rita and Michelle work well together.
Standing in the water was a bad idea. Swimming in the ocean and playing
drums are my hobbies. • Larry trained and supervised his team

18. Collective nouns like herd, senate, class, crowd, etc. usually Two independent clauses can be joined by a semi colon or a coordinating
take a singular verb form. conjunction.

The herd is stampeding. Examples:

• I arrived at the airport early; the flight was delayed.

19. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. are treated as singular
• I arrived at the airport early, but the flight was delayed.
and take a singular verb.
• Diana goes to the gym regularly; she rarely misses a day.
The Burbs is a movie starring Tom Hanks. • Diana goes to the gym regularly, and she rarely misses a day.
39
 The dependent clause (or subordinating clause) provides additional information Examples:
to the independent clause. It cannot stand on its own; it depends on the
independent clause to complete its idea. A dependent clause begins with • Migz is taking up photography. (S + V)
a subordinating conjunction. • Dina and Joseph went to Vietnam last month. (S S + V)
• Rose managed the project and led the team. (S + V V)
Example: • Ksenia and Trisha are eating dinner and having fun ( S S + V V)

• My manager is happy with the results because the team was detail- • Tom, Katy and Josh worked together at the Hollywood boutique. (SSS + V)
oriented. • Harold came in, sat down, and watched TV. (S + VVV)

independent clause dependent clause/subordinating clause

2. Compound
• If our proposal gets rejected, we may not get a raise.
The compound sentence consists of at least two independent clauses (II+) joined
dependent clause/subordinating clause independent clause by a coordinating conjunction (See section on conjunctions). The coordinating
conjunction must always be placed in the middle of the sentence. Place
40 Now, we may discuss the four types of sentences—simple, compound, complex, a comma before the coordinating conjunction.
compound-complex.
Examples:

1. Simple Sentence • Rose’s project was successful, so she received commendation from her
supervisor.
The simple sentence consists of one independent clause (I). It may contain at • Jamie wants to learn English, but he barely studies, so his improvement is
least one subject and at least one verb and communicates only one complete quite slow.
idea. You may vary your simple sentences with the following forms: • I appreciate the hard work, and the results are apparent.

3. Complex
S + V (subject + verb)
S S + V (compound subject + verb) The complex sentence consists of one independent clause (I) and at least one
dependent clause (D+). A dependent clause begins with a subordinating
S + V V (subject + compound verb) conjunction (See section on conjunctions).
S S + V V (compound subject + compound verb)
Examples:
40
 • Linda understood the mechanics very well since she actively listened during 1. Common Filipinisms and Better Ways of Saying Them
the meeting. (ID)
I can lend you the car if you fill up the gas tank when you return it. (IDD)
•
LEVEL UP YOUR ENGLISH SKILLS
The complex sentence may also start with a dependent clause. When you begin Common Filipinisms and Better Ways of Saying Them
with a dependent clause, place a comma (,) before the independent clause.
What makes Filipinos good at speaking English? Well, aside from the fact we
Examples: teach kids English even before they can walk, the language is used everywhere in
the country! It’s no wonder the Philippines has the second highest English
• Even though it was rainy, we had a great time at the beach. (DI) proficiency index (EPI) in Asia in 2019! But this doesn’t mean all Filipinos speak
• Although Nick had warned him several times, Cody still refused to good English. Although a good number of Filipinos use English at work and in
listen since they had that terrible argument two weeks ago. (DID) the household, that doesn’t mean the English used is correct. Of course, we have
the never-ending trouble with grammar, but there are also filipinisms. These are
literal English translations of Filipino words and expressions. As much as they
4. Compound-complex bring color to the language, these filipinisms can be a major turn off at school,
work, and to your friend from the States. Here are some common filipinisms that
41 When you combine at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent
clause (II+D+), the sentence is called compound-complex. That means you use
you have probably used and better ways to say them.

both a coordinating conjunction and a subordinating conjunction in one “Come Again?”

sentence.
Taking a quick look at Cambridge Online Dictionary’s meaning of this expression,
Examples: it’s no wonder why we use this in English conversations. It’s an informal way of
asking to repeat what someone said. But take note, it’s informal and can be seen
• I enjoy eating ice cream, but I love eating cakes more because they are as rude if you are talking to a foreigner. Better play it safe by asking “Excuse me,
more indulgent. could you repeat that?” or “I beg your pardon.” You’ll sound more polite
• Although ice cream tastes good and is refreshing, one must avoid eating too and sosyal (classy) at the same time.
much of it for its high fat content, or people may replace it with frozen
yogurt. “Open the lights/TV/electric fan.”

If your lola (grandmother) or nanay (mother) asks you to do this, do not literally
unscrew that appliance, open it, and turn it inside out unless you want a flying
sandal hit you on the way out. They are just asking if you could turn on the
appliance so they or everyone else in the household can use it. You can tell them
41
 to use this instead: “Please turn on the lights/TV/electric fan.” It’s clearer and less word ref as an example. In the Philippines, this is what we call the refrigerator, but
confusing this way. native speakers use this word to refer to a game’s referee. Now, as crazy weird it
is to put cold bottle of San Miguel beer inside a man, here are some other
“He/She was salvaged.” shortcuts foreigners may find bizarre and confounding:

This expression has a dark and violent history since it talks about the summary OA
executions, or the act of killing people accused of crimes without them
undergoing a fair trial in court, during the Martial Law from 1972 - 1986. What it means: overacting
However, the dictionary meaning of the word salvage is to save something like a But actually: overreacting
ship or cargo from being destroyed, a far less gruesome definition of the word.
Better expression to use: He/She was assassinated. C.R.

“Where are you studying?” What it means: comfort room

But actually: rest room, washroom, toilet
If your titas (aunts) ask you this question, they don’t want to if you study your
lessons at home, study hall, library, or Starbucks. So what are these titas really
42 asking you? Well, they simply want to know the school you are attending. If you
were the tita, it’s better if you’d just ask “Which school do you go to?” It sounds
Aircon
more specific and less confusing for everyone.
What it means: air conditioner
“Please fill up this form.”

No, the bank teller doesn’t want you to pour water on the form to reveal secret
messages on the paper. She just wants you to give the details stated there on the
form. Instead, the expression to use is fill out, which means to add information in And those are just some of the filipinisms that have made their way in everyday
spaces on official documents. Filipino conversations. As much as they are becoming recognized in English, it
still pays to use the correct expressions since the point of communication is to
We “Luv” Shortcuts get our message across and avoid misunderstandings. Level up your English
communication skills and learn to speak correctly and confidently!
The thing is, Filipinos love convenience as much as they go crazy over their
favorite celebrity love teams. And this shows in the language as we love to cut
long words into shorter bits. However, these shortcuts are not a native English
speaker’s cup of tea since some of them can refer to something else. Take the
42
 One of the annoying mistakes we make is we mix up our English pronouns. There
1. Speaking and Writing Errors are two reasons why we do this. The first reason is we don’t have a lot of
pronouns in our mother tongue. We sometimes get confused
"WOW MALI!" with he or she especially in speech. Our brains are haywired to use siya, so we
Common Speaking and Writing Blunders and How to Correct Them don’t know to use what to use. It takes time to get used to these gender-specific
pronouns, but to avoid them, keep in mind the gender of the person you are
What embarrasses you the most? Your parents? Your siblings? Your bad haircut?
talking about.
There’s an endless list of things that embarrasses, but I bet speaking English is
one of them. We often avoid conversations involving English because we are too The second reason is more apparent in writing. In Filipino, in contrast with the
scared to be judged for using wrong grammar. But this didn’t stop Melanie English language, what sounds alike or looks alike are the same thing. Take for
Marquez. Despite her many English blunders in her answers, she still nabbed the example the pronouns their, they’re, and there. They sound the same to us but
crown for Miss International 1979 and became a prominent figure in Philippine note that they are different
show business. However, we can’t all get away with the errors we made and
become international beauty queens. But you don’t have to worry because your Their They’re There
answers have been prayered! (Relax, it’s just a quote from Melanie herself.) A third-person A substitute for a name;
A contraction
MEANING possessive
43 Check out these common mistakes we Filipinos make when it comes to writing pronoun
of they are
Location of something
and speaking in English and learn better ways to say or write them, so you don’t FILIPINO
kanila Sila ay or sila’y Mayroon/may or doon
have to “pull a Melanie Marquez“ wherever and whenever you are. TRANSLATION
This is their They’re not There is an old house on the
MORE + ADJECTIVE-ER EXAMPLE property. We home. They are hill. No one has lived there for
shouldn’t be here. still on vacation. years.
No need to overdo your comparative forms of adjectives. If the adjective already
ends with –er like “brighter” and “smarter”, there is no need to add more before How about you? What pronouns get you confused?
the adjective. However, if you have long adjectives
like beautiful and intelligent, add the word more to turn the adjective into its CONFUSING OR MISUSED WORDS
comparative form. Another thing you can do is to add the word much before
your comparative form to emphasize the different further. It’s acceptable to Like with pronouns, there are other words that confuse us because of their
say much more beautiful or much smarter. spelling. Moreover, there are words, especially prepositions that we tend to
misuse since no one has bothered correcting us when using these words. Here
THE PRONOUN DILEMMA are some examples that you need to watch out for:

Adapt vs Adopt

43
 Adapt means to adjust to a situation while adopt means to take up and practice DISCUSS ABOUT
or use. In legal terms, it means to make a child legally part of another family. It
takes time to adapt to using Standard English, but I hope you can adopt things This is a common blunder even smart people can make, so do be careful. Remove
you will learn here. Good luck! “about” since it is implied in the meaning of the word and using the preposition
will just make the word redundant.
Between vs Among
SHARE TO vs SHARE WITH
Many people believe that between refers to two things like “between you and
me” while among is used for more than two things like “among the four of us”. Don’t share to another person. Share something with him or her.
This may be true in some cases, but generally speaking there are times when
using between and among can be awkward. To make things easier for you, AGREE TO vs AGREE WITH vs AGREE ON
use between to talk about many one-to-one relationships for any number of
elements. Check out these examples: You use agree with with a person; agree on with something like an idea, opinion,
or action; and agree to when showing approval or permission to do something.
• He had to choose between a bike, watch, or new shoes for his birthday.
• Discussions between members of the council began after they heard the IN vs ON vs AT
44 news.
• The tension between the officers rose because of their opposing ideas. The key to using these 3 prepositions correctly is to understand how specific each
one is when talking about time and place. See how they are different:
On the other hand, use among to talk about elements belonging to the same
group and are not distinct from each other. You also use to talk about something In (General)
that is surrounded by another thing:
• Time: months (in June), years (in 2012), decades (in the 90s)
• Carl feels comfortable when he is among his family and peers. • Place: towns (in Lavender Town), cities (in Makati City), countries (in
• Why don’t you discuss the project among yourselves? Japan)
• I’ve always wanted to live among the Ivatan people.
On
THE PREPOSITION PROBLEM
• Time: regular days (on Monday), special days (on New Year, on my
These little words in English are troublesome since using them incorrectly can birthday)
change the meaning or intention of what we want to say or write. When it comes • Place: avenues (on Parkway Ave.), streets (on Main Street), roads (on
to using these prepositions, it’s either we use too many or incorrectly. Check out Kennon Road)
these examples below:
44
 At (Specific) generations and the majority of Americans speak in the General American
accent.
• Time: specific time (at 1 pm), at noon/midnight/night/dawn/dusk
• Place: exact address (at 4 Privet Drive, Little Whinging, Surrey) An interesting fact about the modern American accent is that it is actually older
than the British accent. The accent is so much closer to the British colonists’
As you can see, there are many errors that we make when we speak or write in accent when they first settled in the New World in 1607. From then on, the
English. But we shouldn’t be discouraged. Nobody’s perfect. Even native speakers American accent basically remained the same while the English spoken in Great
don’t always use English perfectly. What’s important is we know what to do when Britain has undergone many changes over the past two centuries.
we make these mistakes and not be affected by insults and bad criticisms.
Remember that speaking English is not a measure of intelligence or worth. We 2. Components of Accent Training
must always know how to admit our errors, learn from them, and move forward
to become better at what we do. WHAT IS ACCENT?
Accent is a combination of three main components: pronunciation, intonation,
1.3.1 Understand the Neutral American Accent and liaisons.

Pronunciation deals with the spoken sounds of vowels, consonants, and

45 1. Introduction to American Accent combinations. Intonation is the melody of language and is made up of pitches
that rise and fall. This rising and falling melody is used to communicate our
The United States continues to be a world power in the 21st century. Because of
intentions and emotions whereas liaisons are the word connections. Native
its great influence in business and media, people around the globe consider
speakers connect or “link” words together if the words are part of the same
learning English as an essential skill to connect with American businesses and
thought group.
professionals. Even in the Philippines, an American accent can be beneficial for an
individual’s employment, and the BPO industry has taken advantage of this. It is
We will discuss the technicalities of how to produce the American sounds. We will
just natural that people would prefer the American accent over other varieties of
first practice the problematic sounds in American English through drills.
English.
WARMING UP
But what is an “American accent”? The American accent doesn’t belong to any
Before you work out in the gym, you need to perform some stretching to warm
particular area of the United States. In fact, there are 160 recognized regional
up your body. It not only prevents injury, but it makes the exercises easier to
accents in the US with four distinct accents to boot. The American accent we are
execute. The same way when we are speaking with an accent we aren’t used to.
familiar with is what we call the General American Accent or Network English, the
To make the process easier, you will perform drills. These drills are designed to
variety of English spoken in American media like newscasts, radio, films, and
make sure that you will not slip in your American accent.
television. Although older generations retain their area’s accents, younger

45
 UNDERSTANDING PLACEMENT The American R
Notice how American newscasters and actors speak. You will see that they barely Many languages have what they call the “rolling r.” When Filipinos pronounce the
move their mouth. It is because the placement of resonance (or where most of letter R, the tongue touches the back of the upper teeth at the ridge of the gums.
the sound vibrates from) is not on their lips but way back in their throats. We’ll In the American accent, the R is produced deep in the throat. However, many find
call this the American resonant position. it hard to make the sound. But we have a short exercise here that you can do to
position your tongue in order to pronounce the R easily:
The British and Filipino accents have their lips as their resonant position while
other accents, like Australian, have theirs in the middle of the mouth. On the DRILL 1
other hand, the American resonant position is at the back of the throat. With For this first drill, put your hand on your chest. And say
placement, it’s very important for us to be aware of where the American resonant
position is. Ahh...Ahh...Ahh...eee... then add the American R.

Why is this important? When you want to switch to American accent from your • When you pronounce the “Ahh,” you must feel the vibration in your chest.
native accent right away, you should be aware of these positions. Now it’s hard to • For the second part, make a big smile and say “eee”. This establishes the
visualize that it’s in the throat, just think of it as speaking from the back of the middle resonant sound.
neck. Of course, it’s not literally speaking from the neck, that’s biologically • Lastly, say the “R” as in “Ahhr”.
46 impossible. But we need to think about it as if it is, and the brain automatically • As you are saying the letter R, tilt your chin back slightly so it will be
makes that connection. harder to speak from the middle of the mouth. In this case, the only place
to speak from is the back of the neck. You are basically forcing yourself to
When we’re doing the American accent, the focus is your throat. Think of your speak from the throat. Of course, you don’t have to put your neck back
throat as a vessel for sound, the same as your jaw. We’re not going to try to the whole time; it only helps us come from the back of the neck.
create sounds or words by using our lips and our jaws so much. Because if we do,
that will sound as if we are putting on an accent. Instead, we will speak from the That R should sound nice, crisp, and clear. You may want to try this drill five or six
diaphragm. times.

3. American Sounds: R, SH, CH, and STOPS After doing this, try saying the following sentence:
“Around the rough, rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran.”
Ashwin Gore, a renowned Hollywood accent coach, recommends the following
drills. These drills will help us establish not only the American resonant position DRILL 2
but also one of the distinct sounds in American accent, the American R. It's The next drill is the -ER Drill. Americans put stress on the “-er” sound at the end
probably the most American sound there is. This will be the groundwork for our of their words, and sometimes in the middle of their words. For this drill, all you
accent, so we need a nice, strong, crisp American R. have to do is repeat these sentences:

46
 "Red River" x 5 (Keep in mind to also hit that “d” sound.) • The reason why we say the “boom” sound is because it cuts off that SH
"River Red" x 5 sound so that it’s not fading out.
"Riv’rred" x 5 • Then say SH words (ship, should, shower, sheep, sheet)
"Riverrrrr" x 5 • The SH does not only apply to SH words but also words where the SH
"Er er er" x 3 sound is present, such as “location,” “action,” “politician,” “vibration,” and
“comprehension”.
(Say words ending in "er": higher, faster, stronger, bigger, brighter, harder, better,
lighter, thinner, fatter, taller, etc.) CH Words

Plosives Similar to SH, Americans also emphasize the CH sounds in their words. It will go
Plosives, or stops, are the sounds of B, D, K, P, T, and sometimes G, like this:
C, and Q (when they sound like K). Americans “pop” their plosives. By popping
your plosives, that ensures that you finish the word. Here’s how the drill will go: DRILL 5

DRILL 3 Cha cha cha x 3

47 B Words • Practice with these CH words: church, chip, choose, chest, chowder, child.

"bubbabubba...bubbabubba...bubbabubba...bah!" Then say words starting and 1. American Phonetics: Consonant Sounds
ending with B (e.g. bab, beb, Bib, Bob, Bub).
CONSONANT SOUNDS
• Repeat the above drill for the other plosives, substitute the other A consonant is a sound that is made when the airflow is blocked by either your
consonant where the B is in the drill. lips or your tongue. The different places where this block may occur is called
the point of articulation. The point of articulation is the point of contact of one
SH Words part of the mouth with another part.

The next drill is the SH drill. Americans push the SH sound in words, so that's VOICING
what we’ll do. All we have to do for this drill is to say this: One way to recognize consonants is by determining whether they
are voiceless or voiced. It is important to know the difference between these
DRILL 4 types because the length of a vowel that comes before a consonant is
determined by the voicing of the consonant. Keep in mind that all vowels are
Sh-boom Sh-boom x 3 voiced.

47
 Consonants are considered voiced if you feel vibrations in your throat when you sound of the next word, and this creates smooth, uninterrupted sounds that are
produce the sound. If you don’t feel any vibrations, it’s voiceless. As we speak, the key to natural and fluent-sounding speech. This is called liaison.
our vocal chords modulate the flow of air expelled from our lungs. Just place your
finger on your throat as you pronounce the letter and feel if there will be Liaison requires you to connect the final consonant with the next word if it
vibrations or none. begins with a vowel. In this way, the final sound, which is always more difficult to
pronounce, becomes the first sound of the word that follows it. For example, it is
The voiced consonants are B, D, G, J, L, M, N, Ng, R, Zh (as in measure), Th (as more difficult to say “burned out” than to say “burn doubt”.
in then), V, W, Y, and Z.
Instead of saying “it’s-a-cold-evening” with each word pronounced separately,
The air flows freely when voiceless consonants are produced, and it’s the tongue, say “it sa col devening” and your speech will instantly sound more "American".
teeth, or lips that help make the sounds. The voiceless consonants are Ch, F, K, P,
S, Sh, T, and Th (as in thing). In this module, you will learn the rules of liaison and practice using them in
speaking.
Consonants are similar in English and Tagalog, but there are some exceptions.
For example, Filipinos don’t pronounce the R the same way Americans do, and 1. Liaisons: Sounding Like an American Speaker
some consonants are not found in Tagalog at all, like the TH sounds. Many will
48 substitute these with their local accents (pronouncing “then” as “den”). It is 1.1. Liaison Rules
important to what out for these problematic consonants. Linking Consonants to Vowels
When a word ends in a consonant sound and the next word begins with a vowel
1.3.3 Apply Liaison or word Blending sound, connect the final consonant to the next vowel, making it sound as if the
second word starts with a consonant. Practice this using the examples below:
1. Liaisons: Sounding Like an American Speaker • Hold on = “whole Don”
• I like it = “I lie kit”
Many non-native speakers of English believe they should pronounce each word
• Deep end = “dee pend”
separately because they want to make sure their speech is clear and easily
• Get up late = “get a plate”
understood. This does help in their speech sound clear, but it also creates speech
• Picked out = “pick doubt”
that sounds a bit foreign and a bit mechanical, almost like a computer-generated
• This guy = “the sky”
speech.
Linking Vowels to Vowels
In reality, native speakers connect or link words together if the words are part of
If one word ends with a vowel and the next word begins with a vowel, they are
the same thought group. They connect the last sound of one word to the first

48
 connected with a glide between the two vowels. A glide is either a slight [w] /s/-/z/ as in "bus" and "buzz"
sound or a slight [y] sound. /ch/-/j/ as in "chug" and "jug"

What should we do if two words end and begin with minimal pairs respectively?
It's simple: you just connect them.
1. When a word ending with an open vowel sound like /a/ or /o/ is followed by
a word starting with a vowel sound, simply connect the two with a [w] sound. This Examples:
can also occur within a word. What data is missing?
My reef view isn’t clear.
The leak going through the door is getting bigger.

DZ Sound: D+U, D+Y

"Go out" sounds like “gow—wout”
When the letter D is followed by the vowel U, they usually blend to create the
"How are you?" sounds like “how—waryou”
sound /dz/ which is much like the sound of the letter J like joke.
2. If a word ending with a close vowel sound like /e/ I/ is followed by a word
gradual schedule graduation
49 beginning with another vowel sound, connect the two with a [y] sound.
education procedure individual

Similarly, a letter D followed by the letter Y usually produces the /dz/ sound.

"I am" sounds like “I-yam”. • Did you? = /di-joo?/

"They are" sounds like “they yare”. • Would you? = /wu-joo?/
• Could you? = /ku-joo?/
Linking Consonant to Consonant • Should you? = /shoo-joo?/
Remember that we have voiced and unvoiced sounds for both vowel
and consonant sounds. For consonants, the voiced and unvoiced sounds create CH Sound: T+U, T+Y
a minimal pair, sounds that are produced using the same mouth and tongue In many words, when the letter T is followed by a U, the resulting sound is /ch/
position but sound differently. Here are some typical examples: as in church.

/b/-/p/ as in "bat" and "pat" actually ritual virtual statue punctual

/t/-/d/ as in "tot" and "dot" situation adventure fortunate nature picture
/f/-/v/ as in "fat" and "vat"
/k/-/g/ as in "back" and "bag"
49
 This also happens when you have a T+Y combination within words and within
sentences. Here are some examples: S+U
usual casual leisure measure
• Can't you do it? = /Kenchoodoowit?/ treasure visual closure
• Don't you want to? = /Donchoowantoo?/
• I'll let you go. = /Aylechoo-gou/
S+I
SH Sound: S+U, S+I, S+Y vision Persia conclusion precision
In some words, when the letters S and U are right next to each other, they Asian Parisian decision amnesia
produce the /sh/ sound. Take a look at the following words:
Z+U
sugar sure pressure issue azure seizure lazurite
tissue sumac ensure insurance
G+E
This also happens with words that have an S-I combination within them. beige liege rouge gauge massage
50 collage garage collage corsage concierge
tension fusion vision decision mission
We can also hear and produce the /zh/ sound between sentences. Usually this
When it comes to sentences, the SH sound usually occurs if the first word ends involves the verb is especially when it is contracted or shortened.
with an /s/ and the next word starts with a /y/. Check out the examples below:

• How's your day going? = /hawzher deigowing?/

• Who's your teacher? = /Hoozher teech'r?/
• I miss you. = /Aimishoo/
• When's your birthday? = /Wenzher b'rthdei?/
• Bless you. = /Bleshoo/
• Pass your papers. = /Pæshur peip'rs/

ZH Sound
Just like with the /sh/ sound, the same combinations of letters can make the /zh/
sound. You might be surprised that a lot of these combinations are pronounced
as /zh/ more than /sh/. Check out the combinations below:
50
 1.3.4 Use of intonation or speech music. 2.1.1 Learn Impromptu Speaking
1. Intonation: the Musicality of Speech 1. Public Speaking: Delivery Methods

When people study English, a common mistake they make is only studying how IMPROMPTU SPEAKING
to pronounce words. Because of this, they tend to sound robotic or unnatural. The Good and the Bad about Talking on the Spot
But language is so much more than pronouncing words; language
includes tone or melody. Think of language as music. If you only pronounce Picture it. You are at your best friend’s wedding when suddenly the host hands
words, you will sound monotonous and boring, and you can even have a problem you the microphone and everyone yells “Speech, speech, speech!” In a split
in comprehension as each word just glides into the next. But add melody in your second, all eyes have turned to you. What do you do in this case?
speech, you produce somewhat of a song.
Public speaking is not everyone’s cup of tea. Whether you are a student or a
Many languages use tone and intonation differently. In a tonal language such as professional, you can never escape the inevitable that is public speaking. We do a
Chinese, each syllable has a rising or falling intonation that changes the word's range of public speaking activities throughout our lives, from show-and-tell in
meaning. You could even mistake the word for mother (ma) with the word kindergarten to wedding toasts and eulogies. This is why we should be better
51 for horse (ma). In English, we use intonation in the same words, but it changes the prepared for events where we will need to give a speech.
situation or range of meaning.
Let’s take a close look at one of the ways we can present our ideas in front of an
Intonation in American English is the rise and fall of pitch in order to convey a audience: impromptu speaking. We’ll discuss how it is different from other
range of meanings, emotions, or situations. We may know how to pronounce each manners of delivery, what its benefits and shortcomings are, and how we can
word clearly, but we need to speak in the melody of an American. improve in speaking on the spot.

Let's learn how to apply the correct intonation as well as rhythm and inflection in Four Ways to Deliver a Speech
this module to show a range of meaning and emotions in our sentences.
Different occasions require different approaches to delivering a speech. In
general, there are four ways to do it, and each of these methods has its own
advantages and disadvantages. These manners of delivery are

• Extemporaneous - delivering a well-rehearsed speech in a conversational

manner using brief notes. It takes time to rehearse both verbal and non-
verbal components of the speech before the presentation. (Think TED
Talks.)
51
 • Manuscript - reading the message word-for-word from a prepared script. and opinions. Sharing these experiences in your speech shows the audience your
Business executives, politicians, and news reporters typically use this kind vulnerable side, your human side as a speaker. Academic language and facts
of method. don’t have this kind of appeal!
• Memorized - reciting the speech that you committed to memory. Actors
generally do this when they perform in the theater, TV, or movies. Impromptu Speaking: The Bad
• Impromptu - giving a short message or presentation given only a very Delivering presentations or speeches at the spur of the moment can also have its
brief time to prepare. Introducing yourself or “saying something” about downsides. One of which is that because you haven’t thoroughly prepared, you
the person the occasion is dedicated to falls under this category. may have a disorganized speech. This can especially happen if you are not used
to doing impromptu speaking (or even public speaking). An effective speech
Impromptu Speaking: The Good needs to be organized so people can understand the flow of ideas better. It’s
Impromptu speaking is being able to share your ideas about something with little already pressuring enough to come up with what you are going to talk about,
to no preparation at all. It allows you to shake up your mind and compose a and it adds more pressure to know the best way to structure your thoughts.
responsive and meaningful speech. This may seem scary and demotivating at first
because you are not used to it, but guess what? Doing impromptu speaking is a The lack of preparation in impromptu speaking not only affects the way you
process. Consistently practicing it has its own rewards: organize your ideas, but it also affects the quality of your own content. It’s either
you missed out on key points (unless one of your audience asks), you don’t have
52 First, as you continue to do on-the-spot speeches, your mental agility and critical enough facts to support your ideas, or it’s a combination of both. Experiences
thinking skills become sharper than ever until you can give an organized allow us to relate to our audience, but facts demonstrate our credibility as a
response almost instantly. This becomes very useful in engaging others in speaker. This may not be important when it comes to social events and everyday
conversations and answering questions especially in business meetings, academic conversations, but using facts is essential in business and academic discussions.
forums, social events, and even romantic dates. Who doesn’t like a spontaneous
and sensible person? Without facts and an organized structure, your listeners will find it difficult to
follow what you are talking about.
Second, impromptu speaking doesn’t only help you exercise your mind, but it
also exercises the way you talk. Doing this kind of delivery over time helps you The Silver Lining
improve on the kind of language you use and the structure of which you organize Impromptu speaking is one of the ways you can choose to present your ideas
your thoughts into sentences and paragraphs. You’ll soon realize that you whether in school, at work, or even in casual conversations. It has its benefits and
articulate your speech coherently and eloquently. shortcomings just like the other methods of delivery, and it is the toughest way
to talk about your ideas since it requires little to no planning on your part. Check
Lastly, while impromptu speaking builds your logical skills and manner of out the next chapters to learn how you can be better at doing impromptu
articulation, it also improves your rapport-building skills. In impromptu delivery, speaking.
you rely on your own personal facts, your experiences, to support your own ideas

52
 Lastly, we focus on perfection too much. It’s not bad to aim for a smooth and
2.1.1 Learn Impromptu Speaking flawless presentation, but we must accept the fact that things can’t always go our
way. We also tend to think about how we can make the presentation, well, more
1. Public Speaking: Delivery Methods presentable instead of how we can better convey our message to our audience or
listeners.
1.1. Mastering the Art of Impromptu Speaking
SPEAKER’S BLOCK NO MORE! All in all, speaker’s block happens because we focus on the less important things,
and we give in to distractions. We must change our mindset and put all our
Have you ever experienced something called “speaker’s block”? It is something
attention to the most important thing – conveying our message.
similar to writer’s block. Think of it this way: your boss asked you to share your
opinions on the new plans laid out for this quarter. Your mind suddenly went THE G-E-T METHOD
blank. You are frozen on the spot, sweating like a pig while racking your brain on
what you are going to say! But no words would come out. This is what it feels like In order to get over and avoid speaker’s block in the future, we need to have a
to have speaker’s block, and it can happen to anyone even to the best speakers default approach to organize our thoughts more quickly for on-the-spot
out there. presentations and speeches. To organize your thoughts you only need GET.
Here’s what it means:
53 But you don’t have to worry anymore! In this article, we will try to understand
why speaker’s block happens and what we can do to avoid it moving forward. G is for GOAL

Why You Are Having Speaker's Block Identify what you exactly want to talk about given the topic, task, or occasion.
Determining your purpose for speaking sets the direction for your speech or
One of the many reasons why we go blank when we do impromptu speaking is presentation and helps you and your audience focus on one specific idea only.
because we become distracted, both mentally and physically. All eyes are on us, This way, you will not be a sloppy speaker.
and we see our audience’s faces and movements. We read into these behaviors
and reactions, triggering our imagination that maybe they are bored or E means EVIDENCE
uninterested in what we are going to say. In short, we focus too much on our
audience’s reaction rather than our goal to deliver a message. Doing so, we Concretize your ideas by showing supporting facts. Persuade your audience with
prevent ourselves from coming up with what to talk about. logic, and reinforce your logic with personal experiences. You don’t only want to
be the rational presenter; you also want to be an engaging and approachable
The next thing is we are too nervous to speak. The apprehension we feel comes speaker. Your own story makes your speech or presentation more relatable and
from our own fear of making a mistake and embarrassing ourselves in front of engaging. This is especially true if you are going to give a congratulatory speech
people. The image of embarrassing ourselves blocks us from actually thinking or toast in social events.
and preparing our mini-speech.
53
 T stands for TAKEAWAY the signals and cues around us. This is why delivery is essential for public
speakers. It’s either the deal maker or deal-breaker. How we sound and how we
Leave your audience a lasting impression by giving them a key takeaway from look leaves an impression on our audience.
your speech. Why is your speech important? What value does it have for your
audience? And what can your audience do with it? Give them a piece of advice, a Body language plays an important role in delivery. Every gesture, movement,
show of gratitude, a suggestion, or a challenge. and change in our expression communicates a different meaning to our
audience. To become remembered as an effective speaker, start building rapport
Our reaction to our surroundings and our own inner ramblings can cause us to with your audience and leave them a powerful and lasting impression using these
lose focus in our presentations especially in ones that happen in the spur of the tips in projecting a positive and confident body language.
moment. This causes us to go blank and prevent us from saying anything in a
meaningful way. That’s why it’s important to be always ready with our ideas and Eye Contact: Your First Step to an Impactful Presentation
organize them in a meaningful and coherent way. And more importantly, we Maintaining eye contact is the first and probably the most overlooked step in
should never be discouraged to try and take advantage of opportunities to speak. delivering presentations and speeches. We get it! It’s hard to look at people and
Public speaking in general is a continuous process where you get better as you see a bad reaction on their faces. But as public speakers, we can’t build trust with
do it over time. our audience if we don’t look at them.

54 Eye contact is focus and shows our willingness to pay attention to others. We
2.1.2 Demonstrate confident body language show our audience we care about them when look at them. How can we build
rapport and leave an impression if we can’t look at a person, much more a
1. Delivery: Body Language crowd?

MOVE TO IMPRESS Gestures: Think NODS

Projecting a Positive and Confident Body Language The first thing that comes into people’s minds when they hear “body language” is
gestures. It is part of the bigger picture; nonetheless, it plays an essential role in
After attending a wellness seminar, you thought that the speaker was amazing.
communication. Gestures help us convey certain emotions and even help us
What made you say that speaker was amazing? Most likely you are not going to
emphasize key ideas especially in presentations.
talk about his or her PowerPoint slides or his very detailed talk about the topic.
You are going to say “Well, he/she sounded professional” or “He/She was fun. I But the question is how do we know we are using the right gestures? Dr. Gary
wasn’t bored to death!” This goes to show that content isn’t the only thing you Genard, an expert on theater-based techniques for public speaking in the US,
need to get your message all the way through your audience. recommends NODS (neutral, open, defined, strong) as a simple formula to guide
us on the gestures we should demonstrate. At the start of our presentation, we
We, humans, are very visual creatures. We really on what we see to gather
must maintain a neutral but open position. Put your arms to the side, keeping
information, process it, and react to the things in our surroundings. We rely on
54
 you open to your audience. During your presentation, amplify your message smile or handshake, and demonstrate your credibility and power as a speaker
with defined and strong gestures. through defined and strong gestures. For sure, you and your stories will stay with
your audience for a long time.
Movements: Move to Focus
Some people pace around too much when they start to panic in the middle of
their presentations. This is a natural body response to stressors (i.e. things or
2.1.3 Practice proper delivery in public speaking
situations that cause stress), but it certainly makes them look unprofessional and
weak. Remember that this nervousness is simply excess energy. Use this energy
1. Delivery: Presentation Tips
purposefully with your body language, especially pacing, to help you focus and
MAKE IT OR BREAK IT
delivery a meaningful presentation.
Do’s and Don’ts in Delivering Your Presentation
Use pacing to help your audience to focus and remain attentive as well as help
Delivery deals with how you look and how you sound when you talk about or
you think of what to say next and lose your “nervous” energy. Walk to a different
present something in public. It is also the make-or-break element of public
side of the space you are using as you move on to a different point in your
speaking. Remember that a public speaker’s goal is to inspire his or her audience.
presentation.
Without delivery, you will not be able to build trust and connect with your
55 Facial Expressions: Add Color and Authenticity audience; leave a profound impression; and inspire them to take action.
Imagine telling your friends about your first time going on an exciting trip to an
Check out these do’s and don’ts when it comes to delivering your speech or
exotic place like South Korea. But you do it with your poker face on. Do you think
presentation for any occasion, and incorporate them when you rehearse for your
they’ll believe you actually had an awesome time? Of course, not.
next presentation.
Our facial expressions mirror our emotions. They make our message more
DELIVERY DO’S
“colorful” and relatable to our audience. Moreover, it supports and amplifies the
expressiveness we project using our voice, making us look more sincere and
Know your audience
authentic in the way we took. Can you imagine how people will react if you tell
Suffering from “me-ism”? Are you too worried about how you will look or sound?
them a happy, sad, frightening, or even disgusting story with a poker face on?
Don’t. Focus on what you want to show your audience. After all, you are giving a
presentation or speech for them, not for yourself.
THE BOTTOM LINE
Before you give your presentation, ask about your audience. Who are they? Will
Even without words, we communicate meaning to others. That’s why, as a public
most of them be males or females? What age group will mostly be attending?
speaker, it’s important to always remember that we don’t just communicate with
What do they need? These are some of the important questions you need to
our voice. We communicate with our entire body. Show your audience you as a
consider first.
public speaker with your voice and body. Establish trust with your audience with a
55
 Be the expert you won’t forget it. If you do forget, just do a quick glance and get back to your
When asked why they want to speak better English, people would say they want audience.
to sound professional and speak with flawless grammar. Sounding professional
doesn’t mean using highfalutin words just to sound smart. You can be the expert Being a “machine-gun speaker”
and inspire others by knowing more about your material and speaking Sometimes when people are too nervous or panicky, they speak too fast and
passionately about the topic. non-stop that it’s hard to understand what they are trying to say. This is what you
call “machine-gun” speaking. The speaker becomes boring and totally
Become familiar with the room “unrelatable”. How to avoid this? It’s simple. Just talk as if you are having a
Go to the venue early and rehearse your speech there. Check on the equipment conversation with someone. Apply the right tone and intonation; regulate your
you are going to be using and be familiar with the space you are going to use. pace when you talk; and don’t forget to pause to breathe.
Make sure everything will be working well. Doing this can give you a sense of
comfort and assurance, enabling you to optimize how you deliver your speech or Fidgeting
presentation. What does a nervous speaker look like? In case, he or she fidgets a lot. That is, he
or she does unnecessary movements while speaking. This person could be
Tell your story playing his fingers, swaying back and forth, or looking around aimlessly at the
Your story is the soul of your presentation. Don’t get stuck inside your audience.
56 “intellectual bubble” and simply focus on technical words and facts alone. Your
own story has the power to move your audience. Share it with them. Show them How do you deal with this? Be comfortable with your own body language
your vulnerable human side. Make your point with your own personal narratives. through practice. Check how your body moves when you deliver your speech.
Which movements come naturally to you when you talk about something?
Be yourself
Your audience is not expecting you to be the next Steve Jobs or Barack Obama Standing still
when you deliver your speech. And neither should you! Relax. Focus on your They say that the only time your brain doesn’t work is when you do public
message and not the medium, you. speaking. This sounds true especially for some people who just freeze on the spot
because they are jittery. Some just stay behind the lectern and clasp both sides as
DELIVERY DON’TS if they are transferring all that nervousness to the furniture. This doesn’t shout
confidence to your audience, so avoid standing still. Move around the stage or
Reading your notes room purposefully. Use body language that you’re comfortable using when
Maintaining eye contact is essential especially in public speaking. And reading talking about your ideas or sharing your story. Communicate with your entire
your script isn’t helping you do that. We get it. You don’t want to forget every body.
single word or point written there. But doing this can stress you out and be
distracting since you have to look down on your script and up to your audience Public speaking is not always about the content. It’s how you talk about your
several times. Visualize your message and your speech when you practice so that message that matters more. A great and effective speaker connects with his or
56
 her audience and motivates them to move. So speak with passion, talk Just a Minute
comfortably, and just be yourself when you talk. At the end of the day, you will Try this impromptu activity to help you identify and use relevant information,
have left something your audience will value for a long, long time. organize your thoughts, and deliver a coherent message. Do a speech on any
topic that interests you within a minute. It’s important that you do not prepare
2.1.4 Improve Conversation Skills through Critical for it. You’ll find that your responses will become more coherent, and you will
become more comfortable talking on the spot.
Thinking Activities
1. Conversation Fluency: Critical Thinking Photo Story
Storytelling allows us to engage and connect to our audience as well as help
TALK LIKE A PRO! them remember what you shared in your presentation. To practice, find an
5 Speaking Activities to Boost Your Critical Thinking Skills interesting photo online or use one of your own photos and tell a compelling
story about it. Who are the people in it? Where are they? What’s the back story
What is the secret to the survival of humankind? Experts reveal that the behind it?
development of our brains and intelligence is one of the key factors that allowed
us, humans, to thrive and dominate the planet. We are able to live through each
57 day because of the relationships we see between the things we perceive, Product Commercial
solutions we create for ordinary and complex problems we face, and accurate Persuasion requires critical thinking and creativity. How else do you think
judgment we give to guide our decisions. All of this is thanks to our critical marketers and salespeople hook people into buying their products? Practice the
thinking ability. art of persuasion (and sales) by making a one-minute commercial about any
ordinary item in your house. Record yourself and tell what makes the item
To be an effective public speaker, we must be able to use our critical thinking unique, how it can improve people’s lives, and why everybody needs to have it
skills to understand our audience, assess their needs, skillfully identify and draw around.
out connections among our experiences and knowledge, come up with practical
solutions, and effectively communicate these to inspire our audience. Without Hate It, Love It
critical thinking, you will never be able to express the essence of your message Here’s another activity to work on your critical thinking and persuasion skills.
even if you use advanced vocabulary and academic language in your Choose any item around you that you don’t really pay any special attention to,
presentations. Remember that your message and its delivery matter most. like a paper clip or spoon. Talk about why you love it so much and what makes it
an exciting item. Not only does it exercise your critical thinking, creativity, and
Just like public speaking, critical thinking is a skill that we can hone through time. persuasion, but it also helps you improve your delivery techniques as you talk
Check out these speaking activities to help you develop your critical thinking and about the item enthusiastically. Of course, don’t forget to record your speech to
talk like a pro in your presentations. see how you did

57
 Coffee Table Controversy is still to communicate our thoughts. Whether you simply want to send a
This is an activity you can do with your friends or coworkers. Discuss current personal letter to a loved one or compose a technical document, we must be able
trends or controversial issues, and share opinions and ideas with each other. You to send a clear message to our readers and avoid miscommunication. Therefore,
can also turn into an informal kind of debate where you rebut each other’s ideas. we must be able to weave a clear, complete, and coherent write-up in order to
Not only does this help you exercise critical thinking and argumentation skills, communicate through writing.
but it also helps you work on active listening as you process what your friends or
coworkers mean and create the best response or rebuttal for it. Before we go into the process of racking your brains for those golden ideas you
have and starting to write, let’s first try to understand basic ideas and concepts
We need critical thinking not only to go through everyday life but also to go you need to know about.
through life as a public speaker. We need to find the best way to approach our
audience, structure the way we process thoughts, support our own ideas and STYLE vs FORMAT: Which is which?
opinions, and convey our message in the most effective way. Try these activities You need to know the difference since you are going to learn about them later
out and improve your critical thinking skills. For sure, you will be talking like a pro on. In simple words, style deals with how the writer expresses his message
in no time. or conveys information. It has something to do with the content of his write-up.
This includes the writer’s voice, grammar, sentence structure, diction, and even
the kind of information he or she will use to support his idea.
58 2.2.1 Learn different writing styles, format, and
techniques On the other hand, format has something to do with structure. In academic
writing, this has something to do with citation style, that is, the way in which the
1. Writing for Professionals writer of a research paper or article credits the source of his information.
Following the citation style is essential for academic writers in order to avoid
WRITING 101 plagiarism cases. In other contexts like business writing, format will refer to
Jumpstart Your Writing Experience Now templates we follow in writing correspondence (e.g. letters, emails), memoranda,
and reports.
Speaking fluently can help you get through your life and journey as a
professional, but it’s not the only thing you should learn about. Remember that LANGUAGE: Formal or Informal?
the world communicates in many different ways, and one of those ways Just like in speaking, we also consider context when it comes to writing. Who will
is writing. Along with speaking, it remains an essential tool not only for be our readers? What’s the occasion we are writing for? Understanding the
professional but for people from all walks of life. context helps us adjust the language or style we will use. Should we
use formal or informal language?
As a professional or even as an ordinary person, we must be able to have and
demonstrate effective writing skills because, just like speaking, our main purpose

58
 Formal language is commonly used in the academic and business settings. It “I’m already worried about my English grammar skills. Now I have to worry about
tends to use jargon or technical words and an impersonal tone, meaning it words, style, and format, too?”
doesn’t focus much on who did the action but rather on what happened.
Well, to tell you the truth, that anxiety you are feeling is normal for writers. If kept
In contrast, informal language is used for personal purposes such as text under control, it can be a positive value to you. But if it becomes excessive, then
messages, emails, and letters to friends, acquaintances, and relatives. We can you will have a BIG problem. The best way to handle your anxiety is to get to
use slang or everyday words in this language style. Moreover, it focuses more on know more about formal writing and start practicing.
who did the action than what happened.
Here are some guidelines to help you when doing formal writing:
Writing plays an important role in our personal and professional lives. It’s one of
the ways we share information, thoughts, and feelings towards others. Rule #1: Consider your audience.
Understanding the concepts here should be able to help us shape our thoughts This applies to all forms of communication. Always have a “you” approach. In
and communicate them the best way possible to our target audience. formal writing, you are communicating with an audience you don’t know. Use
formal and courteous language instead of slang and everyday vocabulary.
Let’s take a look at different styles we can use to express those thoughts given
specific intentions or purposes. Check your grammar.
59 Good grammar is vital for business and your own credibility. All documents and
even social media platforms you use for business should have correct grammar.
2.2.2 Write creative, effective essays for different Having a lot of errors in your writing can make you look sloppy and unreliable.
purposes Plus, grammar errors can be a cause of miscommunication. One small mistake
can cost your company a lot of money if things get out of hand.
1. FORMAL WRITING
Proofread your work before you send them. If you are not that confident with
INTRODUCTION TO FORMAL WRITING your grammar knowledge, better ask for some assistance from someone who
Guidelines in Writing as a Professional knows about it.

Formal writing is easily distinguished from other styles of writing with its use of Write statements in positive form.
formal language, strict observation of grammar rules and mechanics, and Using “not” a lot of times to show negation can make your sentence look
organized formatting. Here, we back up our ideas and opinions with facts and noncommittal and hesitating. It can also make you sound ambiguous. Use
figures. Because of its nature, this style is best suited in formal contexts such positive one-word forms as much as you can. Instead of saying “not honest”, just
as business writing, formal letters, and academic writing. say “dishonest”.

59
 Always apply the 7Cs. That’s why, in order to become a great speaker and conversationalist, we should not
Employ the 7Cs in your writing. Remember: make sure your writing is considerate, only have superb speaking skills but also reflective listening skills.
correct, concise, clear, courteous, conversational, and complete.
In this part of the module, we will explore the following to help you improve your
Writing is a continuous process. You learn things as you go long. These
listening skills:
guidelines should be able to help you work your way and become better in
• Models of listening
formal writing, or any kind of writing you’re focusing on. Just remember to be • Essential listening skills
clear and consistent, and always think about your target readers. After all, it’s all • The listening process
for your readers. • Listening barriers
• Tips to improve your listening skills
2.3.1 Improve listening and comprehension skills
Read the next article to get started. Check out what type of listener you are.
1. Introduction to Listening
2.3.1 Improve listening and comprehension skills
Ever forgot someone’s name in a party or meeting? Maybe once. Twice. Or even
three times. Don’t worry! Everybody has gotten to a point that we couldn’t remember
60 what’s-his-face’s name. Charan Ranganath, director of the Dynamic Memory Lab at
2. Models of Listening
the University of California, Davis, and Dr. David Ludden, Ph.D., offers us these two
major reasons why we do so: WHAT KIND OF LISTENER ARE YOU?
The 3 Models of Listening
• We are not really interested.
• We lack context and shared understanding of the name. Before we try to understand the process and techniques of listening, we should
first know the kind of listener we are. Here, we will discuss three basic listening
There’s another major reason why we tend to forget people’s name, whether they be models. These are based on the following key factors:
family, friend, or acquaintance – we aren’t really listening. Listening, an essential
part of effective communication, is how we receive audio information around us, • the speaker you are listening to
actively process and understand it, and give a response. It is totally different • the content of the conversation
from hearing, which is only concerned with perceiving the sounds around us. • the listener’s overall mood
We rely on our listening skills throughout our entire lives to gather information,
Check out below which model you commonly use and which one you ought to
engage others in conversations, and build trust and connections. But it is no surprise
that it is becoming an almost forgotten, even neglected, skill today because of the use:
distractions inside and outside of our heads.

60
 COMBATIVE/COMPETITIVE LISTENING The Three A's of Active Listening
If you tend to butt in on other people during conversations and like proving
them wrong or pointing out their mistakes every time, then you are this type of You now know what listener type you are, and you are most likely thinking that
listener. This is problematic since combative listeners shut their minds from other you want to become an active listener (in case you’re not already one). The
ideas, fail to understand what other people say, and stop themselves from question now is how do you become one? We got you covered! To become
connecting with others. active listeners, all we need are the three A’s: attention, attitude, and adjustment.

PASSIVE LISTENING Attention. This is the fundamental difference between hearing and listening. And
In this type, we actually listen without interrupting, taking all that is being said. it’s only natural that we pay attention to someone speaking. Who would not want
The downside is that we don’t react at all. This is because we aren’t really the attention when they talk?
focusing at all and do not understand what the message was, like when we try to
listen to a boring lecture. However easy it may sound, paying attention can be challenging for some. If you
find it hard to focus, do activities that will help you, like playing memory or
ACTIVE LISTENING observation games, or meditating regularly.
This is the one you need. Here, you pay attention to the speaker’s message and
find the right time to interject and share your thoughts. This is also reflective Attitude. Sure, you are paying attention. But if you don’t have the right mindset,
61 listening since you formulate your ideas and ask questions based on how you it is most likely that you will choose not to listen anymore and simply shut
understood the message. different and new ideas out. It’s like when you think that a presentation will be
boring. Chances are you won’t be listening to the speaker at all, and miss out on
And those are your three models of listening. Each has its own strong and weak learning new and helpful information.
points given the situation we face. At some point in our lives, we have used one
of them. Now that we understand the kind of listener we are, it’s time we choose Deaf spots are psychological triggers that will make you lose focus or become too
the one that we need and ought to use to become an effective communicator – emotional to listen to someone. It's best to keep your cool and have an open
active listening. mind. Reserve judgment after listening to the speaker.

But is it all that we need to become great listeners? In the next article, check out Adjustment. Are you thinking that the speaker is going to be boring? Don’t,
attitudes we should possess to become better at listening. because a lot of things can still happen. Thus, you need to be flexible and just go
with the flow. Be willing to follow the speaker in his or her talk. Don’t judge a
book by its cover. Who knows? Maybe you’ll learn and enjoy it a lot more after
it’s done.

All in all, having the three A’s – attention, attitude, and adjustment – is key to
becoming a better listener as they help us set our minds to focus intently and
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 become open to possibilities as we listen to someone talk. With these in mind, we together. Without properly receiving the audio information, it’s going to be a
can keep ourselves grounded and open-minded to new and different ideas. After challenge to process things and give an accurate reaction or feedback.
all, that’s how you adapt to a world of changes.
STAGE 2: UNDERSTANDING
Take the next step in becoming an active listener and read the next article on This stage deals with trying to understand what the message means. However,
how to listen properly. this isn’t always easy. We may misunderstand what we hear because either the
speaker didn’t say it properly, or we understood the meaning of the message
4. The Listening Process differently due to our own biases and personal experiences.

THE FIVE STAGES OF LISTENING STAGE 3: REMEMBERING

This stage depends on the first two stages a lot. How can we remember
something if we didn’t hear it or understand it properly? Let’s make the
information we hear meaningful not only by saying it over and over again but
also by associating it with something we can actually easily relate to, like
associating someone's name with their body feature or character trait.

62 STAGE 4: EVALUATING
Here, we judge the message and form our own opinions about it. Our challenge
here is, again, our own beliefs and biases. We may understand a speaker’s
message differently because of our perception of the speaker’s delivery or even
Going back to the definition of listening in one of the previous articles, listening background to a point that we mistrust him or her even though the speaker is
is an active process. This simply means that we not only perceive information sharing enriching information. To become a good listener, we should restrain this
but also provide a response to what we hear. This is how we engage in fruitful kind of thinking and keep an open mind.
and even interesting conversations.
STAGE 5: RESPONDING
To get started, here are the stages to the listening process based on the work of The final stage of the listening process involves us giving a response,
author Joseph DeVito: or feedback, to the speaker. This can be in the form of a compliment to show
how impressed we are, or worst-case scenario, rushing to leave the venue
STAGE 1: RECEIVING because the presentation was boring.
This stage is when we gather data from around us. That is, we intentionally focus
on hearing what a speaker is trying to tell us. Here, we filter out noise or And those are the five stages of the listening process. It’s highly important that
irrelevant sounds to identify the message and avoid mixing these two up we understand these stages and know how to do them as each step is critical in
acquiring and processing the information we hear.
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 But it isn’t always smooth sailing. Check out the next article to see the listening SEMANTIC BARRIERS. This one has something to do with language, and the
difficulties we experience. barriers come from both the speaker and listener. In the speaker’s case, he or she
may be using too technical words or figurative language. Moreover, the speaker’s
5. Common Listening Barriers thick accent can be affecting his or her pronunciation. Or maybe he or she just
speaks in a dull and boring way.
Do you find yourself dozing off or daydreaming in the middle of a lecture or
speech presentation? Who can blame you if you said yes to this question? For the listener’s case, it can be because he or she is not a native speaker of the
language used. It really is hard to listen and pay attention to something you can’t
As easy as the listening process may seem, most of us still find it difficult to listen understand.
successfully. This is primarily because of the barriers we experience. In this article,
we will identify these listening barriers so that we may become more aware of These are some of the common barriers that we face each time we listen. It’s
them and later on overcome them to become better at listening. important that we understand them so that we can prepare ourselves and adjust
so that we can focus. Check out the next article for some tips on what we can do
These barriers can be grouped into four types: physical, psychological, to become better and more active listeners.
physiological, and semantic barriers.
6. Listening Tips
63 PHYSICAL BARRIERS. These are also called environmental barriers. The sounds
coming from our surrounding like people chatting or phones ringing are one of I’M ALL EARS!
the reasons why we stop listening to someone and lose focus. Our minds become Improving Your Listening Skills
distracted by the noises we hear and shift attention to find the source. In this
case, it’s best to be mindful of the noise we (and others) may create. We know English. Heck, we have been studying it and using it all throughout our
lives. But why do we still need subtitles when we watch most English movies?
PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS. We become distracted because of our personal Why do we shy away from talking to others in English? And did Taylor Swift really
worries, emotions, and perception (i.e. biases and opinions) towards the message sing “Starbucks lovers” in her song Blank Space?
or the speaker. This is why we don’t listen when we are too angry or upset. Our
brains can’t handle so much information and stimuli (triggers) all at the same Communication doesn’t always go smoothly especially now that everything and
time! everyone moves in fast-paced environments with a lot of distractions. This is why
listening has never been so important. As the saying goes, great speakers are also
PHYSIOLOGICAL BARRIERS. Sometimes it’s not the brain’s fault. At other times, great listeners. To help you level up your listening skills, try these simple and easy
it’s our body that works against us. Do you think it’s easy to listen to a steps:
presentation in a cold auditorium? How about in a small classroom in the middle
of the afternoon? Can you listen to your friend or co-worker talk when your 1. Listen to materials one step outside your “comfort zone”. To improve, we
stomach is growling or when your throat is dry? need to challenge ourselves and learn our progress, but we need to choose
63
 challenges that we can take. The same is true when working on our listening listening routine to help you practice. It’s always easier to learn when everything
skills. This is why we should choose materials that are just one level above our is organized.
comprehension level. That way, we can still understand the message while
challenging ourselves to understand certain vocabulary and ideas. It’s just like 7. Be patient and open-minded. Change doesn’t happen overnight. It will take
climbing a ladder. time to develop your listening skills. Stick to your listening routine, and challenge
yourself when you think things become too easy for you. Also, never be afraid to
2. Listen to what you like. Who wants to listen to something that’s not take criticism from others. Incorporate feedback to your routine so that you can
interesting? Practice your listening with audio materials that are relevant and cover what you need to improve on.
fascinating to you. That way, you already have prior knowledge about it, and it
will be easier to relate. 2.3.2 Increase comprehension through reading
3. Focus on the general idea, not the minute details. Don’t treat all bits and techniques and exercises
pieces of information you hear as equally important. You’ll just become frustrated
and tired if you do. Simply get the gist of the message. What is the speaker really 1. Why We Need to Read
talking about? You’ll more or less understand what the new word or expression
could mean as you understand the key context. “Employ your time in improving yourself by other men’s writings, so you shall come
64 easily by what others have labored for.”
4. Listen at varying speeds. Understanding the way native speakers talk is hard. -Socrates
If you want to learn their language, start listening to the language at a pace you
can appreciate. From there, kick it up a notch until you find yourself able to In the last chapter, we talked about listening and how to improve it. Listening to
understand on a native level. fluent English speakers is one of the easiest ways to learn correct English.
However, not all of us can surround ourselves with native speakers. What is the
5. Jot down notes. Reinforce your listening skills with writing. Note down next best thing? Reading English is one of the most effective ways of improving
important details like the topic, people involved, keywords and ideas, and new your command of the language.
vocabulary whenever you can. Note-taking will help you remember and review
ideas for later. This is especially helpful to help you become immersed in the What good can you gain from reading?
topic.
1. You will learn new words, idiomatic expressions, or figurative phrases.
6. Try out other options and build a routine. With all the available resources
you can easily get nowadays, you can maximize your listening practice using 2. You will acquaint yourself with how words can be grouped to form
different activities and materials. You can listen to podcasts, TED Talks, online sentences, paragraphs, and entire compositions.
lectures, and movies. Once you figure out which ones work for you best, build a

64
 3. You will broaden your horizon by the pieces of information that you obtain 2. What Is Reading Comprehension?
by reading.
2.1. Using background knowledge or previewing
You can achieve proficiency in English only if you make reading a When you pick up a book, it is good to look at the contents and subheadings.
habit. Developing reading skills will make it easier for you to learn English. In the You can find concepts that you already know. Previewing helps you prime your
following chapters, you’ll be introduced to ways in which you can improve your brain for what you will about to read. You can start to provide a framework for
reading comprehension and techniques in efficient reading. any new information.

2. What Is Reading Comprehension? One of the first things you can do before reading a text is to find the genre
(fiction or nonfiction). If you are about to read a nonfiction text, find out what you
Imagine yourself in history class, and the professor assigned you to read a already know about the subject. If you are about to read fiction, determine the
chapter for today’s quiz. You look at the paper, and your mind went blank, and characters, settings, and premise. Usually, books have a short description on the
you couldn’t remember what you’ve read all night. Sometimes, you wished you back of the covers. This can even make you have predictions about the story.
could look at the page and store it in your photographic memory. However,
that’s rarely the case. Illustrations are helpful especially for younger students, people who are
beginners in a foreign language, or anyone reading an unfamiliar topic. If there
65 Unless you have superhuman abilities, we don’t usually remember the exact are no illustrations, start previewing by looking at the title, chapter headings,
words and phrases of something we read. Instead, we build a mental image in introductory notes. For nonfiction, determine the subject matter and recall prior
our heads of what’s happening and what the text tells us. We are extracting the knowledge.
meaning from what we read; this is reading comprehension.
Previewing also helps us be aware of what we don’t know and what we can find
Reading comprehension is an exercise designed to make sure you get the most out.
information from your reading. It means understanding what you read
thoroughly. However, it is not enough that you know the meaning of individual 2. What Is Reading Comprehension?
words; by bringing the words together as he or she did, you should also know
what the writer wishes to impart. 2.2. Predicting
Avid fiction readers predict the outcome of what they are reading all the time.
Our mental image grows as we read more of the text. We add to it or change it When you’re watching a series, you might have done the same. You anticipate
as we come across new ideas and new information. The clearer the mental image, what’s to come and it makes you more interested in what you are reading or
the better our understanding of the whole text. watching.

In the next chapters, you will read some ways to improve the way we process our
mental image.
65
 Predicting as a reading strategy involves getting the meaning from a text by Effective summarizing of expository text may involve condensing the steps in a
making informed predictions. Of course, predictions can never be 100% accurate scientific process, the stages of development, or the outline of a historical event’s
but as we read and get new information that is connected to existing significant events.
information.
Effective summarizing of narrative text can involve connecting and synthesizing
events in a storyline or identifying the factors that motivate a character’s actions and
Predicting can start from the title. Nonfiction books tend to be more
behavior.
straightforward with their titles: “The Diary of Anne Frank,” “How to Win Friends
and Influence People,” or “The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People.” If you love
reading books, you might even be able to make predictions based on the author.
Steps to keep in mind when summarizing:
Predicting continues during reading. You might revise your initial predictions. The
ideas and pieces of evidence will be ingrained in your thoughts as you read. Even a. Familiarize yourself with the material. Start summarizing once you’re done
when you are wrong you will remember the events better than not predicting at reading. More extended materials, such as books or reports, can be summarized per
all. section or chapter. News reports are best summarized after being read entirely.
b. Select important pieces of information. Ask yourself which information you will
include.
66 What can you predict from these fiction titles? c. Paraphrase the information. You need to understand the message or the idea and
not the individual words. Try to write it in your own words.
• “The Little Prince” (the main character)
d. Insert links between sentences and paragraphs. An excellent way to summarize is
• “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland” (plot and setting) making it cohesive, having the whole structure sound and making sense. You can
• “The Murders in Rue Morgue” (genre, e.g. crime, mystery) start a section with “firstly,” “secondly,” “then,” “next,” and “in conclusion.”
• “Ready Player One” (tropes, theme, symbols) e. Adjust the length of the summary. The size depends on the density of the subject.
A novel can be summarized in a few pages. A technical textbook may be summarized
2. What Is Reading Comprehension? and still have a third of its original length.

2.3. Summarizing 2. What Is Reading Comprehension?

This strategy involves synthesizing or putting together the essential details of a text in
your own words. You may also need to know the author’s purpose in writing the text. 2.4. The Story Map
Summarizing is a great way to recall information.
Narratives tell a story. They can either be fictional stories such as a novel or
It is best to take notes when reading and make a short outline containing the nonfictional such as a biography. Story Mapping is a strategy that will help you
necessary information. A good summary is about a third of the original length of the understand narrative texts.
text. The size of the summary depends on the density as well. The more facts in the
text, the longer the summary might be. Story Maps
This is definitely one of the most familiar strategies for summarizing stories. Our
66
 English teachers use this to teach us the basic elements of a story. The story map 2. What Is Reading Comprehension?
includes:
2.5. The K-W-L Process
• The title. KWL, an acronym for Know, Want-to-know, and Learned is an effective way to
• The setting. When and where the story takes place. read with a purpose. KWL is easy to apply and can lead to significant
• Characters. The protagonists, antagonists, and side characters, including improvement in your ability to learn efficiently and to retain what you have
their motivations and roles to move the story forward. learned.
• Plot. This contains the conflict, the important events that took place, and
the actions the characters did to resolve the conflict. The active steps follow the acronym KWL and are generally organized in the form
• Theme or Moral of the Story. The overall lesson or main idea the author of a three-column chart:
wants to impart to the reader. This can be obvious (usually for children’s
stories) or inferred (more common).
KNOW WANT-TO-KNOW LEARNED
Example: Before reading, Set a purpose for your reading. What do After reading, reflect, note, and
assess and record you want to learn from the text? As you review what you learned from
what you know. read, maintain focus on your purpose. your reading.
67
In column 1, write down what you know about the text’s topic. What have you
read, heard, or experienced that is related to the topic? What is the context? Who
is the author? When was the text written? Who published it?

In column 2, continue your pre-reading work, noting what you want to know
after reading the text. What do you want to know? What you write in this column
could refer to your personal goals; in academic reading, however, it will more
likely have to do with what you need to learn from the reading for your class.
What does this text have to do with the learning outcomes for your class? How
does it relate to other reading assignments or material you are covering in class?
How does it reinforce or challenge what you are learning, exploring, or discussing
in class?

Preview the text, observing title, prefatory material, headings and subheadings,
and any charts, pictures, or other visuals. Compile a list of questions based on
67
 what you’ve determined you want to know to focus your reading. The purpose of a cover letter is to:

In column 3, answer and record the answers to questions you posed before you • provide additional information on your skills, talents, and
began reading. Write down the main ideas from the text, as well as what you experience that are not already included in the resume.
found surprising, controversial, or hard to understand. Compare what you’ve • include detailed information why you are the best candidate for the
written in the “learned column to what you wrote in the “want-to-know” column. job. Think "sales pitch", as you are offering your expertise to a prospective
Have you accomplished what you set out to accomplish in your reading? buyer (in this case, an employer).
Consider ways in which what you learned helps you understand ideas or concepts • make sure that the letter makes the best impression on the person
being explored in your class. reading it.

Though it was introduced as a strategy for reading comprehension, the KWL One important note about a cover letter: always include them along with your
method can be applied to any learning situation, such as taking a class, listening resume even if the job posting isn’t asking for it. According to Jodi Glickman
to a lecture, watching a documentary, participating in a classroom activity, (2011) in her book Great on the Job, “Not sending a cover letter is a sign of
attending a workshop, and so on. laziness. It’s akin to making spelling and grammar mistakes in your resume.
You just don’t do it.”

68 2. What Is Reading Comprehension? Experts agree that writing a cover letter is not an easy task. However, a bit of
2.6. Self-Questioning research can give you an edge on writing a cover letter.
Self-Questioning is the ongoing process of asking questions before, during, and
after reading that are used by a reader to understand texts. The questions posed 1. The Cover Letter
are based on clues that are found in the text and are generated to spark curiosity
that focuses the reader's attention on investigating, understanding, and 1.1. Different Types of Cover Letters
connecting to the text. A self-questioning strategy is a set of steps that a student There are different kinds of cover letter such as:
follows to generate, think about, predict, investigate, and answer questions that
satisfy curiosity about what is being read. • Application letter – This is for when you are writing to respond to a
known job opening.
• Prospecting letter – This type of letter inquires about possible positions
3.1.1 An Effective Cover Letter that may or may not be posted.
• Networking letter – This is sent out to request information and
1. The Cover Letter assistance in searching for a job.

, but most of the time, you will be writing application letters.

68
 2. Before Writing the Cover Letter

Do your research. Gallo (2014) recommends to find out more about the company
and the job specifications. Look more beyond the job description. The first step is
to look at the company’s website and social media. Knowing the company better
will help with the tone of your cover letter. It can also be beneficial once you land
a job interview.

Do remember though that when you are sending one, you have would have to
constantly change your cover letter based on the the company and the position What to leave out:
you are applying for.
1. Personal information that are not relevant. The letter is about your
3. Writing the Cover Letter qualifications, not about you.
2. Avoid trying to be humorous. You might not have the same sense of
What to include: humor with the reader.
3. When applying to multiple companies at the same time, avoid sending a
69 1. Complement the resume by interpreting the data and facts on the resume. generic cover letter. You should customize each letter for each company
2. Describe reasons for your interest in the specific company. and job description.
3. Have a strong opening statement that makes it clear why you want the job 4. Do not flatter the employer too much. Keep it professional and mature.
and why they should choose you among other candidates 5. Salary expectation, unless the company asks for your salary requirements
4. Highlight your relevant skills and experiences. Share accomplishments that
shows you can address the challenges the company faces. Remember to keep it concise. If it is too long, it may not be read.
5. Add keywords related to the job you are applying for.
6. Emphasize your personal value to the company.
7. Convey enthusiasm.

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 3. Writing the Cover Letter Your Name

3.1. Parts of a Cover Letter

Date

Hiring Manager Name (if you have it)

Title

Company

Street Address

City, Province Zip Code

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(B) Salutations – Include an appropriate greeting. If you have their name, be sure to
include it.

Examples:
Dear Hiring Manager:
(A) Contact information
Dear Mr. Jones:
Your Name

Street Address (C) Body

City, Province Zip Code Paragraph 1 – Why are you writing? (introduction, intentions, and position applying
for)
(you may include your phone number and email address here) Paragraph 2 – How are you qualified? (experiences, skills, qualifications, keywords)
Paragraph 3 – Appreciation for being considered for the position (summary,

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 acknowledgment, and expressions of gratitude)

Be specific by referencing the employer’s job requirements.

(D) Closing – Close in a professional manner.

Examples:

Best,
Best regards,
Respectfully,
Regards,
Sincerely,
Thank you,

Signature – hard copies should be signed by hand. For soft copies, you can scan your
71 signature and include it in the PDF. Emails should include a professional electronic
signature that includes your contact information.

If you are using an email app such as Gmail or Yahoo Mail, remove the “Sent from
(device)” that may be a default setting.

Your name

4. Formatting Your Letter

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 COVER LAYOUT AND FORMATTING

1. Make sure to use a professional-looking font like Times New Roman,

Arial, Calibri, Verdana, Courier New, Georgia, or Helvetica. Avoid childish
fonts such as Comic Sans or Papyrus.
2. Font size should be set at least 10-pt but no larger than 12-pt.
3. Cover letters are typically written in a formal registry. Make use of block
style and align all to the left with no indentation.
4. Make sure it is single-spaced. There should be a line space between
each section and paragraph.

5. Cover Letter Sample

Now that you have read what a cover letter is for, you are now ready to write your
own. We have attached instructions in the task after reading about writing your
resume.
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Sample Letter

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