JABATAN KEJ.

BAHAN, PEMBUATAN & INDUSTRI

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN MEKANIKAL

MANUFACTURING ASPECTS
PROF. Dr. MOHD HASBULLAH IDRIS
Materials, Manufacturing & Industrial
Eng. Programme
 JABATAN KEJ. BAHAN, PEMBUATAN & INDUSTRI
FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN MEKANIKAL

1. Specification and standardization for production

i. Introduction
ii. Specification
iii. Standardization
2. Manufacturing of mating parts
i. Making to suit
ii. Selective assembly
iii. Interchangeable manufacture
3. Tolerancing
4. Limits and fits
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1. SPECIFICATION AND
STANDARDIZATION FOR PRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
§ The objective of manufacturing is to produce saleable goods.
To make it saleable the products must function satisfactorily,
and this is primarily the concern of the designer. They must
further satisfy purchasers by giving value for money.
§ The manufacturing aspects that need to be taken into
considerations are:
§ Specification
§ Standardization
§ Quality control and assurance
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1.2 SPECIFICATION

Example of
Production
Drawing

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• Manufacturing is based on production drawings and
specified details .
• The problem is generally solved by reference to published
standards .
• For British industry the standard most widely used are those
provided by British Standard Industry (BSI) and identified by
BS number. Besides that due to metrication, ISO standard
has become the major reference in product development.

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Production
Drawing Using
CAD Software
1.3 STANDARDIZATION

i. Standardisation
The condition in which a standard has been successfully
established;
Example: Standardization of nuts and bolts had saved industry
millions of dollars.
It is based on reference standard

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 2. MANUFACTURING OF MATING PARTS

• Most products consist of a few or many components assembled

of fixed together.
• Solutions:
i. Making to suit
ii. Selective assembly
iii. Using a system of limits and fits – enabling interchangeable
manufacture

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 Example of an assembly
consisting of three mating parts

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 2.1 MAKING TO SUIT
§ One part is made as close to the designed size as possible with the
equipment available, measured and then using a combination of
machining, measuring and trying to fit the two together.
§ This method suffers limitations as far as economic of high
production is concerned;
§ Requiring skilled craftsmen to obtain the desired fit
§ Parts cannot be manufactured in bulk and selected at random for assembly
§ Parts must be produced one at a time and production is slow and costly
§ Quality of fits produced varies by unknown amounts
§ Replacement spares cannot be made in advance and stored.

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2.2 SELECTIVE ASSEMBLY

§ An approach to cater for large size variations due to manufacturing limitation

or for close fits (in case of interchangeable manufacture),
§ Avoiding rejects due to out of tolerance
§ Reducing high manufacturing cost
§ Can be done manually or computer controlled
§ All parts are inspected and classified into several grades according to actual
sizes, so that small shafts can be matched with small holes, medium with
medium and large with large, respectively
§ In this way, very satisfactory fits may be obtained at much less expense than
by machining all mating parts to very accurate dimensions

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• Take the example of three part assembly above.
• We have 5 grades of shaft and 5 grades of hole, the
grades being numbered.
• If a grade 5 shaft is assembled into a grade 5 hole the
assembly will function correctly.

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2.2 SELECTIVE ASSEMBLY

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2.2 SELECTIVE ASSEMBLY

§ Colour code can also be used, indicating the a particular grade.

Select the parts (hole – shaft) with the same colour during
assembly.
§ Selective assembly approach is generally used where two
conditions prevail;
§ The part cannot be made economically to the required
accuracy but can readily be measured and graded
§ The assembly is replaced as a complete unit when
necessary, not repaired by replacing individual parts.

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2.3 INTERCHANGABLE MANUFACTURE

§ Ideally a method of production is required in which:

§ The most economic methods of manufacturing parts
§ All parts are completely interchangeable,
§ All assemblies produced will be uniformly acceptable. There
will be some variation in the fits produced but the amount
of variation will have been predetermined by the designer
so that the assembly will function correctly throughout its
design life.

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§ It is not even necessary to measure the parts. Limit gauges
can be used to ensure that the parts are within the size
limits fixed by the designer.
§ Skilled workers is not required, semi skilled operators can do
the job. Part can be assembled instead of fitted, i.e they will
not need final adjustments of a skilled worker in order to
produce satisfactory assemblies.

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§ Before a system of interchangeable assembly can be
operated, certain fundamental conditions must be met
§ The permissible variation (tolerance) of each dimension
must be fixed.
§ The mating condition (clearance, transition, interference)
of each pair of parts assembled must be decided.
§ These conditions are generally satisfied by use of a system of
limits and fits.

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3. TOLERANCING
Relationship between Manufacturing Cost and Work Tolerance

Tolerance is a trade of between

the economical production and
Manufacturing cost

the accuracy required for proper

functioning of the product

Work tolerance
• In order to ensure that assemblies function properly their
component parts must FIT TOGETHER in a particular way.
• 2 types of standardization related to tolerance and limits:
– BS4500; 1929 (ISO limits and fits in metric units)
– Newell limit system
• No component can be manufactured to an exact size (called
the nominal or basic size), so the designer has to decide on
appropriate upper and lower limits for each dimension (Refer
Fig 2.2)
.

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20
 Shaft

Bush

Housing
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 DEFINITION:
§ The basic size or nominal size is the size of shaft or hole that
the designer specifies before applying the limits to it. The
basic size is the same for both members of a fit.
§ The upper limit is the largest size allowed
§ The lower limit is the smallest size allowed
§ The tolerance is the difference between the upper and lower
limit

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§ Where variation either size of the nominal
dimension can occur, the tolerance is called
bilateral. Where one tolerance is zero the tolerance
is said to be unilateral.
§ Deviation is the algebraic difference between a size
and the corresponding basic or nominal size.
DEFINITION

§ Upper deviation - difference between the maximum limit of

size and the corresponding basic size. This is designated ‘ES'
for a hole and 'es' for a shaft.
§ Lower deviation- difference between the minimum limit of
size and the corresponding basic size. This is designated ‘EI'
for a hole and 'ei' for a shaft.
§ Grade of Tolerance - Group of tolerances with the same level
of accuracy for all basic sizes.

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 Bi-lateral Tolerance: Express tolerance by using both
minus and plus variations from a given size. Example;

20 ± 0.02 25.02
24.98
Unilateral tolerance: Dimensions of a part is allowed to vary
only on one side of basic size, either below or above the basic
size. Example;

20 +-- 0.02
0.00
In unilateral tolerance, dimensions of a part is allowed to vary
only on one side of basic size, either below or above the basic
size.

Unilateral system is preferred, especially when precision fits are

required , because it is easy and simpler to determine
deviations. Further, GO gauge ends can be standardized as the
holes of different tolerance grades have the same lower limit
and all the shafts have same upper limit.
It can be comparable to bi-lateral method of specifying
tolerance. An example for above may be 20+0.01/-0.01 mm.
Here also tolerance is also same, i.e. 0.02.

In the first case, dimension is varying between 20.02 and 20.00

whereas in the second case dimension is varying between
20.01 to 19.99.

But, tolerance remains same for both the cases, even if there is
difference in dimensional limits.
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29
BILATERAL TOLERANCE

§ The tolerance is split above and below the basic size

Hole Ø 30 + 0.006 +
Shaft Ø 30 0.013
− 0.015 − 0.008

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UNILATERAL TOLERANCE

§ The upper and lower deviations are all positive or all negative.
Hole Ø 30 + 0.033
0.00
Shaft Ø 30 − 0.040
− 0.092

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 4. LIMITS AND FITS
§ Fit describes the working condition between a mating
shaft and hole.
§ Clearance – shaft always smaller than hole –allows
movement
§ Transition – may provide either clearance or
interference, e.g. key and keyway
§ Interference – shaft always bigger than the hole –
provide fixing

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Source: Prof. Ahmed Kovacevic, City University, London
Source: Prof. Ahmed Kovacevic, City University, London
§ International tolerance grade (IT) are numbers which for a
particular IT number have the same relative level of accuracy
but vary depending upon the nominal or basic size
§ Hole basis is a system of fits relating to a basic or nominal
hole size, i.e. starts with the basic hole size and adjusts shaft
size to fit.
§ Shaft basis is a system of fits relating to a basic or nominal
shaft size, i.e. starts with the basic shaft size and adjust hole
size to fit
To obtain a given type of fit between two mating components
such as a shaft and a bearing two systems can be employed.

Hole Basis System:-where the hole/bearing size remains

constant and the shaft size changes to achieve the desired fit.
Shaft Basis System:-Where the shaft size remains constant and
the hole/bearing size changes to achieve the desired fit. The

Hole Basis System is commonly used as it is easier to

maintain a standard size of hole with the use of drills and
reamers, whilst the shaft size can easily be changed during
the turning and grinding process
HOLE BASIS SYSTEM
SHAFT BASIS SYSTEM
The Principle of Fits
The figure shows the condition where the basic size of the hole
remains constant, and the basic size of the shaft is varied to
achieve the desired fit condition. This is the most commonly
used condition for fits, termed BASIC HOLE SYSTEM. With the
basic hole system, the minimum hole is taken as the basic size,
an offset from this is assigned, and tolerances are applied on
both sides of, and away from, this offset.
The standard that is mostly used in Europe is the ISO
metric one, which is fully defined in BS4500:1969
and its later European equivalent BS EN
20286:1993 ‘ISO Limits & Fits.’
 4. LIMITS AND FITS
GRADES OF TOLERANCES

§ There are 18 grades of tolerances IT01, IT0, and IT1 to IT16. (IT -
ISO series Tolerances)
§ IT01 and IT0 are very fine grades
§ IT16 is the most coarse grade reflecting the precision of the
process.
§ The degree of error increases with:
§ the precision of the process (IT grade), and
§ the size of the component.

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 4. LIMITS AND FITS
GRADES OF TOLERANCES

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LIMITS AND FITS DESIGNATION

§ A hole tolerance with deviation 'H' and tolerance grade IT7 is

designated 'H7'.
§ A shaft tolerance with deviation 'p' and tolerance grade IT6 is
designated 'p6'.
§ Appropriate tolerance designation for a feature of 45 mm,
e.g. 45H7 or 45p6.
§ A fit combines the basic size of both features and their
designations. The designation of hole limits should always be
quoted first. E.g. 45H7-p6 or 45H7/p6.

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EXAMPLE: CLEARANCE FIT

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EXAMPLE: TRANSITION FIT

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EXAMPLE: INTERFERENCE FIT

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 4. LIMITS AND FITS
EXAMPLE: DRAWING

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LIMITS AND FITS

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RECOMMENDED FITS FOR SOME APPLICATIONS
Clearance Fits
ISO Symbol Description Applications
H11/a11, H11/c11, H11/c9, Pivots, latches, fits of parts exposed to corrosive
Fits with great clearances with parts having great
H11/d11, A11/h11, C11/h11, effects, contamination with dust and thermal or
tolerances.
D11/h11 mechanical deformations.
H9/C9, H9/d10, H9/d9,
Running fits with greater clearances without any Multiple fits of shafts of production and piston
H8/d9, H8/d8, D10/h9,D9/h9,
special requirements for accuracy of guiding shafts. machines, parts rotating very rarely or only swinging.
D9/h8

H9/e9, H8/e8, H7/e7, E9/h9, Running fits with greater clearances without any Fits of long shafts, e.g. in agricultural machines,
E8/h8, E8/h7 special requirements for fit accuracy. bearings of pumps, fans and piston machines.
H9/f8, Main fits of machine tools. General fits of shafts,
Running fits with smaller clearances with general
H8/f8, H8/f7, H7/f7,F8/h7, F8/ regulator bearings, machine tool spindles, sliding
requirements for fit accuracy.
h6 rods.
Running fits with very small clearances for accurate Parts of machine tools, sliding gears and clutch disks,
H8/g7, H7/g6, G7/h6 guiding of shafts. Without any noticeable clearance crankshaft journals, pistons of hydraulic machines,
after assembly. rods sliding in bearings, grinding machine spindles.
Easily demountable parts, distance rings, parts of
Slipping fits of parts with great tolerances. The parts
H11/h11, H11/h9 machines fixed to shafts using pins, bolts, rivets or
can easily be slid one into the other and turn.
welds.
Sliding fits with very small clearances for precise
guiding and centering of parts. Mounting by sliding Precise guiding of machines and preparations,
H8/h9, H8/h8, H8/h7, H7/h6
on without use of any great force, after lubrication exchangeable wheels, roller guides.
the parts can be turned and slid by hand.

SOURCE: mec-engineering-spreadsheets.com
RECOMMENDED FITS FOR SOME APPLICATIONS
Transition Fits
ISO Symbol Description Applications
Tight fits with small clearances or Easily dismountable fits of hubs of
H8/j7, H7/js6, H7/j6, negligible interference. The parts can gears, pulleys and bushings, retaining
J7/h6 be assembled or disassembled rings, frequently removed bearing
manually. bushings.
Similar fits with small clearances or
Demountable fits of hubs of gears and
H8/k7, H7/k6, small interferences. The parts can be
pulleys, manual wheels, clutches, brake
K8/h7, K7/h6 assembled or disassembled without
disks.
great force using a rubber mallet.
H8/p7, H8/m7,
H8/n7,
H7/m6, H7/n6, Fixed fits with negligible clearances Fixed plugs, driven bushings,
M8/h6, or small interferences. Mounting of armatures of electric motors on shafts,
N8/h7, N7/h6 fits using pressing and light force. gear rims, flushed bolts.

SOURCE: mec-engineering-spreadsheets.com
RECOMMENDED FITS FOR SOME APPLICATIONS
Interference Fits

ISO Symbol Description Applications

Pressed fits with guaranteed
H8/r7, H7/p6, H7/r6, P7/h6, interference. Assembly of the parts Hubs of clutch disks, bearing
R7/h6 can be carried out using cold bushings.
pressing.
Pressed fits with medium interference.
H8/s7, H8/t7, H7/s6, Assembly of parts using hot pressing. Permanent coupling of gears with
H7/t6, S7/h6, T7/h6 Assembly using cold pressing only shafts, bearing bushings.
with use of large forces.
Pressed fits with big interferences.
H8/u8, H8/u7,
Assembly using pressing and great Permanent couplings of gears with
H8/x8, H7/u6,
forces under different temperatures of shafts, flanges.
U8/h7, U7/h6
the parts.

SOURCE: mec-engineering-spreadsheets.com
HOLE BASIS SYSTEM
Type of fit Fits Assembling Applications

For components that must be disassembled very free respect to one another with abundant
Clearance Fits H11 - a11 by hand
mechanical play: operating temperature much higher than the one at mounting.

For components that must be disassembled very free respect to one another with abundant
Clearance Fits H10 - d8 by hand
mechanical play: operating temperature much higher than the one at mounting.

For general rotating couplings, with low loads and without needs of fine centering.
Clearance Fits H8 - f8 by hand
Ex .: Shaft and transmission bushes with a manual drive, without great importance.

For general rotating couplings, with low loads and without needs of fine centering.
Clearance Fits H7 - f6 by hand
Ex .: Shaft and transmission bushes with a manual drive, without great importance. Idle pulleys.

Rotating parts with high precision, with low and heavy loads, lubricated rationally, with correct
Clearance Fits H6 - g5 by hand hydrodynamic sustenance.
Ex .: Rotating steel shafts, hardened and ground bushings.

For components that must be disassembled very free respect to one another with abundant
Clearance Fits H11 - b11 by hand
mechanical play: operating temperature much higher than the one at mounting.

For components that must move relative to one another with abundant mechanical play,
Clearance Fits H8 - e7 by hand
generally with a rotary motion.

For general rotating couplings, with low loads and without needs of fine centering.
Clearance Fits H8 - f7 by hand
Ex .: Shaft and transmission bushes with a manual drive, without great importance.

Clearance Fits H7 - g7 by hand For components which must move relative to one another, but without excessive play.

SOURCE: mec-engineering-spreadsheets.com
HOLE BASIS SYSTEM
Type of fit Fits Assembling Applications
For components which in all cases must be able to be assembled or disassembled by
Clearance Fits H13 - h11 by hand hand and for which, in spite of the large working tolerances, it is requested a possibly
minimum play.
Couplings sliding axially lubricated, with no need of precision, with long seat or with
low loads.
Clearance Fits H8 - h8 by hand
Ex .: Drawers and hydraulic taps. Shafts and transmission bushes rotating at low speed
and subject to efforts of a limited entity.
For components of high precision which can move respect to one another with slow
Clearance Fits H6 - h6 by hand
motion.
For components that must be disassembled very free respect to one another with
Clearance Fits H11 - c11 by hand abundant mechanical play: operating temperature much higher than the one at
mounting.
Clearance Fits H9 - f8 by hand For components which must move relative to one another.
For very fast rotating components, even with imperfect centering and sustenance not
perfectly hydrodynamics and good mechanical play.
Clearance Fits H7 - f7 by hand
Ex .: High speed shafts, in general in its bushings. Positioning pins with medium
accuracy.
Rotating couplings with average peripheral speed (2-4 m/s), with need of limited plays.
Clearance Fits H7 - g6 by hand
Ex .: Shafts and bushes in general. Ball bearings not very fast and not very loaded.
Couplings sliding axially, without needs of pecision.
Clearance Fits H11 - h11 by hand Ex .: Holes of hinges or pins for command by pin hand commands, bushings and
sliding components without importance.
Clearance Fits H7 - h7 by hand For components that can move if lubricated respect to one another, with slow motion.
For components with high precision sliding axially, or equipped with rotary slow or
oscillatory motion, with internal lubrication.
Clearance Fits H6 - h5 by hand
Ex .: Oscillating levers moved by cams in bushing. Command pivots and positioning
pins with high precision.
SOURCE: mec-engineering-spreadsheets.com
HOLE BASIS SYSTEM
Transition fits
Type of fit Fits Assembling Applications
Couplings with discrete accuracy, with seat generally long, of mutually fixed parts,
Transition Fits H7 - j6 by light taps of mallet
extractable by hand.
Couplings secured against mutual rotation by keyways, pins, etc., easily removable.
Transition Fits H7 - k6 by mallet
Ex .: keying of ball bearings and roller bearings. Keyways. Fixing joints in general.
For couplings slightly blocked, easily removable by hand, preferably for long seats to
Mallet, press or be secured against mutual rotation.
Transition Fits H7 - n6
temperature difference Ex .: Fixed forced gears, mounted with keyways or on splined shafts, to dismantle very
rarely.
Precision couplings, with seat generally short, of parts mutually fixed, extractable by
Transition Fits H6 - j6 by light taps of mallet hand.
Ex .: Spare wheels mounted with keyways or splined shafts.
by hand with a lead
Transition Fits H6 - k6 Couplings secured against mutual rotation. Couplings by keyways for high torques.
hammer
For components fixed respect to one another, which can be mounted only by strong
Mallet, press or
Transition Fits H6 - n6* pressure; normally the two parts must be secured against rotation and sliding.
temperature difference
Ex.: Couplings without keyways to transmit low torques.
Precision couplings, with seat generally short, of parts mutually fixed, extractable by
Transition Fits H6 - j5 by light taps of mallet hand.
Ex .: Spare wheels mounted with keyways or splined shafts.
Precision couplings, with seat generally short, of parts mutually fixed, extractable by
Transition Fits H6 - j5 by light taps of mallet hand.
Ex .: Spare wheels mounted with keyways or splined shafts.
For components mutually fixed, assembled and demontable by hand or with little
Mallet, press or
Transition Fits H7 - m6 effort; fixed centering seats with good precision. Parts to be secured against rotation
temperature difference
and sliding.
(*) This coupling is classified by all the texts as transition fit, Blocked
although there iscouplings,
never playnot disassembled
in any byofhand,
combination to between
values be secured
theagainst mutual
shaft and rotation.
the hole.
Mallet, press or
Transition Fits H6 - n5* Ex .: Fixed forced gears, mounted with keyways or on splined shafts, to dismantle very
SOURCE: mec-engineering-spreadsheets.com temperature difference rarely.
HOLE BASIS SYSTEM
Type of fit Fits Assembling Applications

Mallet, press and/or

Interference Fits H7 - p7 temperature Components fixed respect to each other.
difference

Blocked couplings not removable or demountable with hot press. For the coupled
Mallet, press and
parts that must behave as a single piece, suitable to transmit axial loads and torques
Interference Fits H7 - s6 temperature
without the use of keys or similar systems.
difference
Ex .: Bushes in their external seat, to be never dismounted.

Blocked couplings not removable or demountable with hot press. For the coupled
Mallet, press and/or
parts that must behave as a single piece, suitable to transmit high axial loads and
Interference Fits H6 - p5 temperature
torques.
difference
Ex .: Bushes in their external seat, to be never dismounted.

For components with very strong blocking, with disassembly practicable only by
Press and temperature
Interference Fits H7 - u7 substitution of one of the components.
difference
Ex .: Steel and bronze bushings in their seats and pins with organs of motion.

Blocked couplings not removable or demountable with hot press. For the coupled
Mallet, press and
parts that must behave as a single piece, suitable to transmit axial loads and torques
Interference Fits H7 - r6 temperature
without the use of keys or similar systems.
difference
Ex .: Bushes in their external seat, to be never dismounted.

For components with very strong blocking, with disassembly practicable only by
Press and temperature
Interference Fits H7 - u6 substitution of one of the components.
difference
Ex .: Steel and bronze bushings in their seats and pins with organs of motion.

SOURCE: mec-engineering-spreadsheets.com
EXAMPLE

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THANK YOU!!

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