MODULE 3

AEROBIC PROCESSES
Theory of aeration: Aeration brings water and air in close contact in order to remove dissolved
gases (such as carbon dioxide) and oxidizes dissolved metals such as iron, hydrogen sulfide, and
volatile organic chemicals (VOCs). Aeration is often the first major process at the treatment
plant. During aeration, constituents are removed or modified before they can interfere with the
treatment processes.
Aeration brings water and air in close contact by exposing drops or thin sheets of water to the air
or by introducing small bubbles of air (the smaller the bubble, the better) and letting them rise
through the water. The scrubbing process caused by the turbulence of aeration physically
removes dissolved gases from solution and allows them to escape into the surrounding air.
Aeration also helps remove dissolved metals through oxidation, the chemical combination of
oxygen from the air with certain undesirable metals in the water. Once oxidized, these chemicals
fall out of solution and become particles in the water and can be removed by filtration or
flotation.
The efficiency of aeration depends on the amount of surface contact between air and water,
which is controlled primarily by the size of the water drop or air bubble. Oxygen is added to
water through aeration and can increase the palpability of water by removing the flat taste. The
amount of oxygen the water can hold depends primarily on the temperature of the water. (The
colder the water, the more oxygen the water can hold).Water that contains excessive amounts of
oxygen can become very corrosive. Excessive oxygen can also cause problems in the treatment
plant i.e., air binding of filters.
Aeration is a gas-liquid mass transfer process in which the driving force in the liquid phase is the
concentration gradient (Cs - C) for slightly soluble gases.
Mass transfer per unit time =KL.a (Cs - C)
where, KL = Liquid film coefficient
=Diffusion coefficient of liquid (D)
Thickness of film (Y)
a = Interfacial area per unit volume
Cs =saturation concentration at the gas-liquid interface and C = some lower value in the body of
the liquid.
The value of a increases as finer and finer droplets are formed, thus increasing the gas transfer.
However, in practice, it is not possible to measure this area and hence the overall coefficient
(KL.a) per unit time, is determined by experimentation.
The oxygen transfer capacity under field conditions can be calculated from the standard oxygen
transfer capacity by the formula:

where,
N = oxygen transferred under field conditions, kg O2/h.
Ns= oxygen transfer capacity under standard conditions, kg O2/h.
Cs= DO saturation value for sewage at operating temperature.
CL= operating DO level in aeration tank usually 1 to 2 mg/L.
T = Temperature, degree C.
α = Correction factor for oxygen transfer for sewage, usually 0.8 to 0.85.
Aeration Facilities
Oxygen may be supplied either by surface aerators or diffused aerators employing fine or coarse
diffusers.
The aeration devices apart from supplying the required oxygen shall also provide adequate
mixing in order that the entire MLSS present in the aeration tank will be available for biological
activity.
Aerators are rated based on the amount of oxygen they can transfer to tap water under standard
conditions of 20°C, 760 mm Hg barometric pressure and zero DO.
TYPES OF AERATORS
Aerators fall into two categories. They either introduce air to water, or water to air. The water-in-
air method is designed to produce small drops of water that fall through the air. The air-in-water
method creates small bubbles of air that are injected into the water stream. All aerators are
designed to create a greater amount of contact between air and water to enhance the transfer of
gases and increase oxidation.
Water-Into-Air Aerators
Cascade Aerators
A cascade aerator (one of the oldest and most common aeratrors) consists of a series of steps that
the water flows over (similar to a flowing stream). In all cascade aerators, aeration is
accomplished in the splash zones. Splash zones are created by placing blocks across the incline.
(They are the oldest and most common type of aerators.) Cascade aerators can be used to oxidize
iron and to partially reduce dissolved gases.

Cone Aerators
Cone aerators are used primarily to oxidize iron and manganese from the ferrous state to the
ferric state prior to filtration. The design of the aerator is similar to the cascade type, with the
water being pumped to the top of the cones and then being allowed to cascade down through the
aerator.

Slat and Coke Aerators

Slat and coke trays are similar to the cascade and cone aerators. They usually consist of three-to-
five stacked trays, which have spaced wooden slats in them. The trays are then filled with fist-
sized pieces of coke, rock, ceramic balls, limestone, or other materials. The primary purpose of
the materials is providing additional surface contact area between the air and water.
Draft Aerators
Draft aerators are similar to other water-into-air aerators, except that the air is induced by a
blower. There are two basic type of draft aerators. One has external blowers mounted at the
bottom of the tower to induce air from the bottom of the tower. Water is pumped to the top and
allowed to cascade down through the rising air. The other, an induced-draft aerator, has a top-
mounted blower forcing air from bottom vents up through the unit to the top. Both types are
effective in oxidizing iron and manganese before filtration.

Spray Aerators
Spray aerators have one or more spray nozzles connected to a pipe manifold. Water moves
through the pipe under pressure, and leaves each nozzle in a fine spray and falls through the
surrounding air, creating a fountain affect. Spray aeration is successful in oxidizing iron and
manganese and increases the dissolved oxygen in the water.

Air-Into-Water Aerators

Pressure Aerators
There are two basic types of pressure aerators. One uses a pressure vessel; where water to be
treated is sprayed into high-pressure air, allowing the water to quickly pick up dissolved oxygen.
The other is a pressure aerator commonly used in pressure filtration Air is injected into the raw
water piping and allowed to stream into the water as a fine bubble, causing the iron to be readily
oxidized.
The higher the pressure, the more readily the transfer of the oxygen to the water. The more
oxygen that is available, the more readily the oxidation of the iron or manganese.

Centrifugal Aerators
Centrifugal aerators create enhanced conditions for dissolving gas into liquid phase, including
bubble size, and bubble size distribution and duration of interaction with liquid. Centrifugal
aerators combine several elements: 1. High turbulence swirling flow of liquid; 2. Orthogonal
flow of liquid and gas; 3. Constant pressure inside the vessel; 4. Optimum flow velocity
generating centrifugal forces thereby extending diffusion rate within the vessel; and 5. Very
small pores, through which gas permeates into the liquid and is sheered off into liquid phase,
thereby forming small bubbles.

Factors Affecting Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations in Water

Abiotic Factors
The amount of oxygen that can be dissolved in water depends on several factors, including:
water
temperature, the amount of dissolved salts present in the water (salinity), and atmospheric
pressure. On a relative scale, the amount of oxygen dissolved in saturated water will be greater in
cooler waters than in warmer ones. Higher water temperatures result in increased molecular
vibrations, essentially reducing the amount of space available between water molecules. The
capacity of water to hold DO also decreases as the salinity increases. This results from more
effective competition of the salts for intermolecular spaces due to their ionic charges. Altitude
also affects the amount of DO in water due to differing densities of O2 available for dissolution.
Since atmospheric O2 is less dense at higher altitudes, saturation DO concentrations will be
lower than in water at sea level where atmospheric O2 is denser.
Oxygen enters water bodies primarily by transfer from the atmosphere across the air-water
interface and to a lesser extent by the action of photosynthetic organisms. Transfer of oxygen
across the air-water interface is facilitated by increasing the surface area exposed to the
atmosphere. The surface area of a water body in contact with the atmosphere is increased by
wind-driven waves and ripples, as well as by forcing water into droplets by splashing over
obstacles or
forcing through a fountain. Given that atmospheric transfer is the dominant mechanism for
infusing O2 into an aquatic system, the surface area to volume ratio is very important for
establishing the baseline oxygen status for a given water body. Deep water bodies with relatively
low surface area will have less opportunity for O2 transfer into the water compared to shallow
water bodies with a larger surface area exposed to the atmosphere.
Biotic Factors
Aquatic plants and algae also contribute dissolved oxygen to water bodies during daylight hours
through photosynthesis. The very first step of photosynthesis splits two water molecules (H 2O)
into two hydrogen (H2) molecules and one oxygen (O 2) molecule; where the O2 is released into
the water for underwater photosynthetic organisms. While this does represent O2 input into the
water, the net effect on DO concentrations is usually very small or neutral since comparable
amounts of DO are consumed by these same organisms at night through respiration, when
photosynthesis is not actively occurring. Aerobic respiration consumes oxygen to extract energy
from energy-rich carbon compounds needed for sustaining life, ultimately oxidizing the carbon
to
carbon dioxide (CO2) and reducing the O2 to H2O. Thus, dissolved oxygen concentrations will
typically be highest in the mid- to late afternoon when photosynthesis rates are greatest, and will
reach the lowest concentrations just before the sun rises the next morning due to respiration
needs. This fluctuation pattern is referred to as the "diurnal oxygen cycle". In addition to the
respiration needs of photosynthetic organisms during darkness, oxygen within the system is also
consumed through aerobic respiration by other organisms including: aquatic vertebrates and
invertebrates, and bacterial and fungal communities involved in degrading dead plants and
animals. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the potential for DO within a water
body to become depleted and possibly become anaerobic due to the biodegradation of organic
matter by microbial organisms. BOD considerations are especially important when management
activities will increase the available carbon within a system, such as with aquatic weed
management using aquatic herbicides. The plants killed will become a source of BOD within the
system as they are degraded by microbial organisms. Another indirect source of BOD to a water
body is nutrient runoff from surrounding land and drainage systems. Nutrient enrichment often
results in increased algae production, or algae blooms. Once these algal populations die, BOD
will increase significantly as microbes degrade them.

Nitrification-Denitrification Systems
A certain amount of nitrogen removal (20-30%) occurs in conventional activated sludge systems.
Nitrogen removal ranging from 70 to 90 % can be obtained by use of nitrification-denitrification
method in plants based on activated sludge and other suspended growth systems. Biological
denitrification requires prior nitrification of all ammonia and organic nitrogen in the incoming
waste.
Nitrification

There are two groups of chemoautotrophic bacteria that can be associated with the process of
nitrification. One group (Nitrosomonas) derives its energy through the oxidation of ammonium
to nitrite, whereas the other group (Nitrobacter) obtains energy through the oxidation of nitrite to
nitrate. Both the groups, collectively called Nitrifiers, obtain carbon required, from inorganic
carbon forms. Nitrification of ammonia to nitrate is a two step process:

Nitrosomonas   Nitrobacter
NH3 NH4 NO2 NO3

Stoichiometrically, 4.6 kg of oxygen is required for nitrifying 1 kg of nitrogen. Under steady

state conditions, experimental evidence has shown nitrite accumulation to be insignificant. This
suggests that the rate-limiting step for the conversion of ammonium to nitrate is the oxidation of
ammonium to nitrite by the genus Nitrosomonas.
qc = 1
m
where m is the growth rate of nitrosomonas at the worst operating temperature. Sludge age (or
mean cell residence time), qc in a treatment plant must be sufficiently high if nitrification is
desired.
Combined and Separate Systems of Biological Oxidation & Nitrification

Following figure shows flow sheets for combined and separate systems for biological oxidation
and nitrification.

Combined system is favoured method of operation as it is less sensitive to load variations -

owing to larger sized aeration tank - generally produces a smaller volume of surplus sludge
owing to higher values of qc adopted, and better sludge settleability.

Care should be taken to ensure that the oxygenation capacity of aeration tank is sufficient to meet
oxygen uptake due to carbonaceous demand and nitrification. Recycling of sludge must be rapid
enough to prevent denitrification (and rising sludge) owing to anoxic conditions in the settling
tank.

In separate system, the first tank can be smaller in size since a higher F/M ratio can be used, but
this makes the system somewhat more sensitive to load variations and also tends to produce
more sludge for disposal. An additional settling tank is also necessary between the two aeration
tanks to keep the two sludges separate. A principal advantage of this system is its higher
efficiency of nitrification and its better performance when toxic substances are feared to be in the
inflow.

Biological Denitrification
When a treatment plant discharges into receiving stream with low available nitrogen
concentration and with a flow much larger than the effluent, the presence of nitrate in the
effluent generally does not adversely affect stream quality. However, if the nitrate concentration
in the stream is significant, it may be desirable to control the nitrogen content of the effluent, as
highly nitrified effluents can still accelerate algal blooms. Even more critical is the case where
treatment plant effluent is discharged directly into relatively still bodies of water such as lakes or
reservoirs. Another argument for the control of nitrogen in the aquatic environment is the
occurrence of infantile methemoglobinemia, which results from high concentration of nitrates in
drinking water.
Biological nitrification/denitrification is a two-step process. The first step is nitrification,
which is conversion of ammonia to nitrate through the action of nitrifying bacteria. The second
step is nitrate conversion (denitrification), which is carried out by facultative heterotrophic
bacteria under anoxic conditions.
Microbiological Aspects of Denitrification
Nitrate conversion takes place through both assimilatory and dissimilatory cellular functions. In
assimilatory denitrification, nitrate is reduced to ammonia, which then serves as a nitrogen
source for cell synthesis. Thus, nitrogen is removed from the liquid stream by incorporating it
into cytoplasmic material.
In dissimilatory denitrification, nitrate serves as the electron acceptor in energy metabolism and
is converted to various gaseous end products but principally molecular nitrogen, N2, which is
then stripped from the liquid stream.
Because the microbial yield under anoxic conditions is considerably lower than under aerobic
conditions, a relatively small fraction of the nitrogen is removed through assimilation.
Dissimilatory denitrification is, therefore, the primary means by which nitrogen removal is
achieved.
A carbon source is also essential as electron donor for denitrification to take place. This source
may be in the form of carbon internally available in sewage or artificially added (eg. as
methanol). Since most community wastewaters have a higher ratio of BOD:N, the internally
available carbon becomes attractive and economical for denitrification.
Denitrification releases nitrogen which escapes as an inert gas to the atmosphere while oxygen
released stays dissolved in the liquid and thus reduces the oxygen input needed into the system.
Each molecule of nitrogen needs 4 molecules of oxygen during nitrification but releases back 2.5
molecules in denitrification. Thus, theoretically, 62.5% of the oxygen used is released back in
denitrification.
Typical Flowsheets for Denitrification
Denitrification in suspended growth systems can be achieved using anyone of the typical
flowsheets shown in the figure.
The use of methanol or any other artificial carbon source should be avoided as far as possible
since it adds to the cost of treatment and also some operating difficulties may arise from dosing
rate of methanol. Too much would introduce an unnecessary BOD in the effluent while too little
would leave some nitrates undernitrified.
A more satisfactory arrangement would be to use the carbon contained in the waste itself.
However, the anoxic tank has to be of sufficient detention time for denitrification to occur which,
has a slower rate; since the corresponding oxygen uptake rate of the mixed liquor is mainly due
to endogenous respiration and is thus low. The denitrification rate, therefore, in a way also
depends on the F/M ratio in the prior aeration tank.
Consequently, if desired, a portion of the raw waste may be bypassed to enter directly into the
anoxic tank and thus contribute to an increased respiration rate. This reduces the sizes of both the
anoxic and aeration tanks, but the denitrification efficiency is reduced as the bypassed unnitrified
ammonia cannot be denitrified.
By reversing the relative positions of anoxic and aerobic tanks, the oxygen requirement of the
waste in its anoxic state is met by the release of oxygen from nitrates in the recycled flow taken
from the end of nitrification tank. Primary settling of the raw waste may be omitted so as to bring
more carbon into the anoxic tank.
More complete nitrification-denitrification can be achieved by Bardenpho arrangement. The first
anoxic tank has the advantage of higher denitrification rate while the nitrates remaining in the
liquor passing out of the tank can be denitrified further in a second anoxic tank through
endogenous respiration.
The flow from anoxic tank is desirable to reaerate for 10-15 minutes to drive off nitrogen gas
bubbles and add oxygen prior to sedimentation.

Activated Sludge Process

The process flow diagram for a typical activated sludge plant is given in below fig. The essential
features of the process are: an aeration stage, solids-liquid separation following aeration, and a
sludge recycle system. Wastewater after primary treatment enters an aeration tank where the
organic matter is brought into intimate contact with the sludge from the secondary clarifier. This
sludge is heavily laden with microorganisms which are in an active state of growth. Air is
introduced into the tank, either in the form of bubbles through diffusers or by surface aerators.
The microorganisms utilize the oxygen in the air and convert the organic matter into stabilized,
low-energy compounds such as N03, SO4, CO2, and synthesize new bacterial cells. The effluent
from the aeration tank containing the flocculent microbial mass, known as the sludge, is
separated in a settling tank, sometimes called a secondary settler or a clarifier. In the settling tank
the separated sludge exists without contact with the organic matter and becomes activated. A
portion of the activated sludge is recycled to the aeration tank as a seed; the rest is wasted. If all
the activated sludge is recycled, then the bacterial mass would keep increasing to the stage where
the system gets clogged with solids. It is, therefore, necessary to "waste" some of the
microorganisms, and this wasted sludge is the one which is processed and disposed.

Air Supply and Process Modifications

In the initial stages of contact between microorganisms and the organic matter in the wastewater,
the process requires a great deal of oxygen. In the conventional systems aeration and mixing are
achieved at a fairly uniform rate over the length of the aeration tank. As a result, extremely low
oxygen concentrations prevail at the inlet end of the tank (Fig. below) and this condition can be
detrimental to the microbial population. Near the outlet end, the oxygen supply may be more
than that required for the process.
Several variations of the conventional system have been suggested to meet the rate of oxygen
consumption at minimal costs. In one modification of the basic scheme, aeration is intensified at
the inlet end and reduced progressively along the length of the aeration tank (Fig. below) . This
system is known as the tapered aeration and is a major improvement in reducing the cost of
pumping air, as air is used more effectively.

Step aeration, shown in below Fig., is another method of equalizing oxygen supply and demand.
In this system, instead of varying the rate of oxygen supply, fresh feed is introduced at several
points along the aeration tank. In this manner, a more even distribution of oxygen demand is
achieved throughout the aeration stage. Baffles are provided to divide the aeration tank into
several channels. Each channel constitutes one step of the process, and the steps are linked
together in series.

The third modification of the conventional process is the complete mix process. Here fresh feed
and recycled sludge are combined and introduced at several points in the aeration tank from a
central channel, and the effluent leaves the tank from both sides. This ensures a uniform supply
and demand of oxygen along the tank as indicated in figure below. It should be recalled that the
model equations developed earlier assume complete mixing.
In contact stabilisation, the microbial mass is brought into contact with the wastewater for short
periods of time (1/2 -1hr) in the biosorption unit (Fig. below). The resulting sludge is settled and
finally transferred to an aerobic digestion unit for stabilisation (2-3 hr. retention). In the digestion
unit the microorganisms are allowed to consume the organ matter that was removed from the
wastewater in the biosorption unit. Since the stabilisation is carried out on the return sludge
stream which has a much higher solids concentration than that of the mixed liquid in the
biosorption unit, the volume in the aeration tank is reduced. The stabilized sludge is then
recycled to the aeration tank.

Air may be replaced by pure oxygen in activated sludge s stems. In this process (Fig. 9.23) pure
oxygen is supplied into well mixed and converted chambers and is recirculated. This way about
90% utilization of oxygen can be achieved compared to 5 to 10% utilization in the conventional
systems. Use of pure oxygen promotes increased bacterial activity, decreased sludge volume, and
improved sludge settleability. The main economic factor which has to be taken care in this
process is the cost of pure oxygen.

Sludge Volume Index ( SVI)

SVI a varies from 40 to 100 for a good sludge, but may exceed 200 for a poor sludge having
tendency towards bulking.
The poor settling (high SVI) may be due to variable F/M ratio high concentrations of heavy
metals and temperature variation, Bulking can be prevented by adequate pH control, sufficient
aeration and addition of chemicals like hydrogen peroxide to the aeration basin.

Trickling Filters
As mentioned earlier, the second commonly used biological waste treatment process is the
trickling filter method. It has good adaptability to handle peak shock loads and the ability to
function satisfactorily after a short period of time. However, like all biological units, trickling
filters are affected by temperature; therefore, cold weather slows down biological activity in the
filter. Milk processing, paper mill and pharmaceutical wastes are among those treated by
trickling-filters. Conventional trickling filters normally consist of a rock bed, 1 to 3 meters in
depth, with enough openings between rocks to allow air to circulate easily. The influent is
sprinkled over the bed packing (Fig. below) which is coated with a biological slime. As the
liquid trickles over the packing, oxygen and the dissolved organic matter diffuse into the film to
be metabolised by the microorganisms in the slime layer. End products such as CO 2, NO3 etc.,
diffuse back out of the film and appear in the filter effluent. As the microorganisms utilize the
organic matter, the thickness of the slime layer or biofilm increases. Typical film thicknesses
range from 100 µm to 2 mm. If the biofilm thickness is large enough, all of the oxygen may be
depleted at some point in the film before the solid surface is reached. This creates anaerobic
conditions at the base of the film. As a result microorganisms near the support media enter into
an endogenous decay and loose their ability to cling to the solid media, and the film gets
detached from the surface. This process is known as sloughing. A settling tank following the
trickling filter removes the detached bacterial film and some suspended matter. A portion of the
clarified wastewater is recirculated to the top of the trickling filter, usually to dilute the high
strength influent wastewater and to provide even distribution of wastewater over the packing
material thereby increasing the contact efficiency.
Conventional rock filters have been designed based on hydraulic and organic loadings, and are
classified as "standard or low-rate" or "high-rate" trickling filters. Low-rate filters have low
hydraulic and organic loadings while these are significantly higher for high-rate filters. Low-rate
filters are suitable for treating weak wastewaters whereas high-rate systems are used for partial
or 'roughing' treatment of wastes before the waste is sent for further treatment. The low-rate
filters are usually single-stage rock media units but the high-rate filters maybe single-stage or
two-stage systems. The two-stage filters must employ recirculation to achieve good effluent
quality.
Synthetic plastic materials have been used in recent times as packing media in trickling filters.
These filters are known as "super-rate" filters. The packing material is high and can be stacked
many times higher than conventional rock bed. It also has a much higher degree of treatment
capability because of the increase in the available surface area and is mostly used for treating
high-strength wastes and also as roughing units. Typical design criteria for these systems are
listed in Table below.
The important parameters for predicting the performance of a trickling filter are the hydraulic
and organic loadings and the degree of purification required. Several investigators have
attempted to correlate operating data with the bulk design parameters, but a. generalized kinetic
model has not been developed due to the unstable nature of the biological slime layer and the
unpredictable hydraulic loadings.