Introduction to

Construction Materials
and Testing
Factors that affect the choice of materials for a
particular scheme:
• Climatic background - different materials and forms of construction have
developed in different parts of the world as a result of climatic differences;
strength at low and high temperatures, resistance to ordinary water and sea
water, acids and alkalis etc.
• Economic aspect - The rapid advance of constructional methods, the
increasing introduction of mechanical tools and plants, and changes in the
organisation of the building industry may appreciably influence the choice of
materials.
PROPERTIES OF CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS:
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• 
• 
• 
• Weathering Resistance is the ability of a material to endure alternate wet
and dry conditions for a long period without considerable deformation and
loss of mechanical strength.
• Water Permeability is the capacity of a material to allow water to penetrate
under pressure. Materials like glass, steel and bitumen are impervious.
• Frost Resistance denotes the ability of a water-saturated material to endure
repeated freezing and thawing with considerable decrease of mechanical
strength. Under such conditions the water contained by the pores increases
in volume even up to 9 per cent on freezing. Thus the walls of the pores
experience considerable stresses and may even fail.
• Heat Conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. It is
influenced by nature of material, its structure, porosity, character of pores
and mean temperature at which heat exchange takes place. Materials with
large size pores have high heat conductivity because the air inside the pores
enhances heat transfer. Moist materials have a higher heat conductivity than
drier ones. This property is of major concern for materials used in the walls
of heated buildings since it will affect dwelling houses.
• Thermal Capacity is the property of a material to absorb heat described by
its specific heat. Thermal capacity is of concern in the calculation of thermal
stability of walls of heated buildings and heating of a material, e.g. for
concrete laying in winter.
• Fire Resistance is the ability of a material to resist the action of high
temperature without any appreciable deformation and substantial loss of
strength. Fire resistive materials are those which char, smoulder, and ignite
with difficulty when subjected to fire or high temperatures for long period
but continue to burn or smoulder only in the presence of flame, e.g. wood
impregnated with fire proofing chemicals. Non-combustible materials neither
smoulder nor char under the action of temperature. Some of the materials
neither crack nor lose shape such as clay bricks, whereas some others like
steel suffer considerable deformation under the action of high temperature.
• Refractoriness denotes the ability of a material to withstand prolonged
action of high temperature without melting or losing shape. Materials
resisting prolonged temperatures of 1580°C or more are known as refractory.
High-melting materials can withstand temperature from 1350–1580°C,
whereas low-melting materials withstand temperature below 1350°C.
• Chemical Resistance is the ability of a material to withstand the action of
acids, alkalis, sea water and gases. Natural stone materials, e.g. limestone,
marble and dolomite are eroded even by weak acids, wood has low resistance
to acids and alkalis, and bitumen disintegrates under the action of alkali
liquors.
• Durability is the ability of a material to resist the combined effects of
atmospheric and other factors.
 CE 3102 Course Outline

I. INTRODUCTION TO CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

Building materials have an important role to play in this modern age of technology. Although
their most important use is in construction activities, no field of engineering is conceivable without their
use. Also, the building materials industry is an important contributor in our national economy as its output
governs both the rate and the quality of construction work.
Factors that affect the choice of materials for a particular scheme:
• Climatic background - different materials and forms of construction have developed in
different parts of the world as a result of climatic differences; strength at low and high temperatures,
resistance to ordinary water and sea water, acids and alkalis etc.
• Economic aspect - The rapid advance of constructional methods, the increasing
introduction of mechanical tools and plants, and changes in the organisation of the building industry may
appreciably influence the choice of materials.

PROPERTIES OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS:

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Density (ρ) is the mass of a unit volume of homogeneous material denoted by

A
where M = mass (g)
V = volume (cm3)
2. Bulk Density (ρb) is the mass of a unit volume of material in its natural state (with pores and
voids) calculated as

where M = mass of specimen (kg)

V = volume of specimen in natural state (m3)
3. Density Index (ρo) is the ratio,

4. Specific Density (ɣ) also known as the unit weight) is the weight per unit volume of material,
 where ɣ = specific weight (kN/m3)
ρ = density of the material (kg/m)
g = gravity (m/s2)

5. Specific Gravity (Gs) of solid particles of a material is the ratio of weight/mass of a given
volume of solids to the weight/mass of an equal volume of water at 4°C.

At 4° C ɣw = 1 g/cc or 9.8 kN/m3

6. True or Absolute Specific Gravity (Ga) If both the permeable and impermeable voids are
excluded to determine the true volume of solids, the specific gravity is called true or absolute
specific gravity. The absolute specific gravity is not much of practical use.

7. Apparent or Mass Specific Gravity (Gm) If both the permeable and impermeable voids are
included to determine the true volume of solids, the specific gravity is called apparent specific
gravity. It is the ratio of mass density of fine grained material to the mass density of water.

8. Porosity (n) is the degree to which volume of the material of the material is interspersed with
pores. It is expressed as a ratio of the volume of pores to that of the specimen.

Following inter relationship exists between void ratio and the porosity.

9. Void Ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of solids (Vs).

10. Hygroscopicity is the property of a material to absorb water vapour from air. It is influenced by
air-temperature and relative humidity; pores—their types, number and size, and by the nature of
substance involved.

11. Water Absorption denotes the ability of the material to absorb and retain water. It is expressed
as percentage in weight or of the volume of dry material:

where M1 = mass of saturated material (g)

M = mass of dry material (g)
V = volume of material including the pores (mm3)
12. Weathering Resistance is the ability of a material to endure alternate wet and dry conditions for
a long period without considerable deformation and loss of mechanical strength.

13. Water Permeability is the capacity of a material to allow water to penetrate under pressure.
Materials like glass, steel and bitumen are impervious.

14. Frost Resistance denotes the ability of a water-saturated material to endure repeated freezing
and thawing with considerable decrease of mechanical strength. Under such conditions the water
contained by the pores increases in volume even up to 9 per cent on freezing. Thus the walls of
the pores experience considerable stresses and may even fail.

15. Heat Conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. It is influenced by nature of
material, its structure, porosity, character of pores and mean temperature at which heat exchange
takes place. Materials with large size pores have high heat conductivity because the air inside the
pores enhances heat transfer. Moist materials have a higher heat conductivity than drier ones.
This property is of major concern for materials used in the walls of heated buildings since it will
affect dwelling houses.

16. Thermal Capacity is the property of a material to absorb heat described by its specific heat.
Thermal capacity is of concern in the calculation of thermal stability of walls of heated buildings
and heating of a material, e.g. for concrete laying in winter.

17. Fire Resistance is the ability of a material to resist the action of high temperature without any
appreciable deformation and substantial loss of strength. Fire resistive materials are those which
char, smoulder, and ignite with difficulty when subjected to fire or high temperatures for long
period but continue to burn or smoulder only in the presence of flame, e.g. wood impregnated
with fire proofing chemicals. Non-combustible materials neither smoulder nor char under the
action of temperature. Some of the materials neither crack nor lose shape such as clay bricks,
whereas some others like steel suffer considerable deformation under the action of high
temperature.

18. Refractoriness denotes the ability of a material to withstand prolonged action of high
temperature without melting or losing shape. Materials resisting prolonged temperatures of
1580°C or more are known as refractory. High-melting materials can withstand temperature from
1350–1580°C, whereas low-melting materials withstand temperature below 1350°C.

19. Chemical Resistance is the ability of a material to withstand the action of acids, alkalis, sea
water and gases. Natural stone materials, e.g. limestone, marble and dolomite are eroded even by
weak acids, wood has low resistance to acids and alkalis, and bitumen disintegrates under the
action of alkali liquors.

20. Durability is the ability of a material to resist the combined effects of atmospheric and other
factors.

 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (for testing)

 A testing machine is designed to apply a force and to measure this force. Functionally speaking, it
contains three more elements: the loading system (may be screw-gear or hydraulic), the weighing system
(may be lever, hydraulic or pendulum type), and the indicating system.

The important mechanical properties considered for building materials are: strength, compressive,
tensile, bending, impact, hardness, plasticity, elasticity, and abrasion resistance.

1. Strength is the ability of the material to resist failure under the action of stresses caused by loads,
the most common being compression, tension, bending and impact. The importance of studying
the various strengths will be highlighted from the fact that materials such as stones and concrete
have high compressive strength but a low (1/5 to 1/50) tensile, bending and impact strengths.
Compressive Strength is found from tests on standard cylinders, prisms and cubes—smaller for
homogeneous materials and larger for less homogeneous ones. Prisms and cylinders have lower
resistance than cubes of the same cross-sectional area, on the other hand prisms with heights
smaller than their sides have greater strength than cubes. This is due to the fact that when a
specimen is compressed the platens of the compression testing machine within which the
specimen is placed, press tight the bases of the specimen and the resultant friction forces prevent
the expansion of the adjoining faces, while the central lateral parts of the specimen undergoes
transversal expansion. The only force to counteract this expansion is the adhesive force between
the particles of the material. That is why a section away from the press plates fails early.
The test specimens of metals for tensile strength are round bars or strips and that of binding
materials are of the shape of figure eight.
Bending Strength tests are performed on small bars (beams) supported at their ends and subjected
to one or two concentrated loads which are gradually increased until failure takes place.

2. Hardness is the ability of a material to resist penetration by a harder body. Mohs scale is used to
find the hardness of materials. It is a list of ten minerals arranged in the order of increasing
hardness (Section 3.2). Hardness of metals and plastics is found by indentation of a steel ball.

3. Elasticity is the ability of a material to restore its initial form and dimensions after the load is
removed. Within the limits of elasticity of solid bodies, the deformation is proportional to the
stress. Ratio of unit stress to unit deformation is termed as modulus of elasticity. A large value of
it represents a material with very small deformation.

4. Plasticity is the ability of a material to change its shape under load without cracking and to retain
this shape after the load is removed. Some of the examples of plastic materials are steel, copper
and hot bitumen.

CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR UNDER STRESS

Common characteristics of building materials under stress:

 Ductility
- The ductile materials can be drawn out without necking down, the examples being copper and
wrought iron.

 Brittleness
 - Brittle materials have little or no plasticity. They fail suddenly without warning. Cast iron,
stone, brick and concrete are comparatively brittle materials having a considerable amount of
plasticity.

 Stiffness
- Stiff materials have a high modulus of elasticity permitting small deformation for a given
load.

 Flexibility
- Flexible materials on the other hand have low modulus of elasticity and bend considerably
without breakdown.

 Toughness
- Tough materials withstand heavy shocks. Toughness depends upon strength and flexibility.

 Malleability
- Malleable materials can be hammered into sheets without rupture. It depends upon ductility
and softness of material. Copper is the most malleable material.

 Hardness
- Hard materials resist scratching and denting, for example cast iron and chrome steel.
Materials resistant to abrasion such as manganese are also known as hard materials.
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
The important mechanical properties considered for building materials are:
strength, compressive, tensile, bending, impact, hardness, plasticity, elasticity,
and abrasion resistance.

• Strength is the ability of the material to resist failure under the action of
stresses caused by loads, the most common being compression, tension,
bending and impact. The importance of studying the various strengths will be
highlighted from the fact that materials such as stones and concrete have
high compressive strength but a low (1/5 to 1/50) tensile, bending and
impact strengths.
• Hardness is the ability of a material to resist penetration by a harder body.
Mohs scale is used to find the hardness of materials. It is a list of ten minerals
arranged in the order of increasing hardness (Section 3.2). Hardness of
metals and plastics is found by indentation of a steel ball.
• Elasticity is the ability of a material to restore its initial form and dimensions
after the load is removed. Within the limits of elasticity of solid bodies, the
deformation is proportional to the stress. Ratio of unit stress to unit
deformation is termed as modulus of elasticity. A large value of it represents a
material with very small deformation.
• Plasticity is the ability of a material to change its shape under load without
cracking and to retain this shape after the load is removed. Some of the
examples of plastic materials are steel, copper and hot bitumen.
CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR
UNDER STRESS
Common characteristics of building materials under stress:
• Ductility - The ductile materials can be drawn out without necking down, the
examples being copper and wrought iron.
• Brittleness - Brittle materials have little or no plasticity. They fail suddenly
without warning. Cast iron, stone, brick and concrete are comparatively
brittle materials having a considerable amount of plasticity.
• Stiffness - Stiff materials have a high modulus of elasticity permitting small
deformation for a given load.
• Flexibility - Flexible materials on the other hand have low modulus of
elasticity and bend considerably without breakdown.
• Toughness -Tough materials withstand heavy shocks. Toughness depends
upon strength and flexibility.
• Malleability - Malleable materials can be hammered into sheets without
rupture. It depends upon ductility and softness of material. Copper is the
most malleable material.
• Hardness -Hard materials resist scratching and denting, for example cast
iron and chrome steel. Materials resistant to abrasion such as manganese are
also known as hard materials.
 CE 3102 Course Outline

I. INTRODUCTION TO CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

II. FAMILIARIZATION WITH APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN

TESTING OF MATERIALS
Civil engineering testing equipment is used in the quality control processes associated with
the analysis of soils, concrete, asphalt, bitumen, cement and mortar, steel, aggregates, and other
materials used in civil engineering. Civil engineering projects largely depend on the quality of
their materials; therefore testing equipment capable of providing consumers with accurate and
repeatable results is imperative. While the mechanism in which the equipment performs analysis
procedures varies depending upon the material to be analyzed, these testing instruments are
capable of analyzing the hardness, moisture content, permeability and other mechanical
properties of the material of interest.
 SOIL TESTING
It is often performed by commercial labs that offer a variety of tests, targeting groups of
compounds and minerals. The advantages associated with local lab is that they are familiar with
the chemistry of the soil in the area where the sample was taken. This enables technicians to
recommend the tests that are most likely to reveal useful information.
 PLASTIC LIMIT TEST
The plastic limit of a soil is the water content of the soil below which it ceases to be plastic. It
begins to crumble when rolled into threads of 3mm diameter.

 CONE PENETRATION TEST

It is an in-situ test that is used to identify the soil type. In this test a cone penetrometer is
pushed into the ground at a standard rate and data are recorded at regular intervals during
penetration. A cone penetration test rig pushes the steel cone vertically into the ground. The cone
penetrometer is instrumented to measure penetration resistance at the tip and friction in the shaft
(friction sleeve) during penetration. A CPT probe equipped with a pore-water pressure sensor is
called a CPTU. CPT probes with other sensors are also used.
The cone penetration or cone penetrometer test (CPT) is a method used to determine
the geotechnical engineering properties of soils and delineating soil stratigraphy. It was initially
developed in the 1950s at the Dutch Laboratory for Soil Mechanics in Delft to investigate soft
soils. Based on this history it has also been called the "Dutch cone test". Today, the CPT is one
of the most used and accepted soil methods for soil investigation worldwide.
The test method consists of pushing an instrumented cone, with the tip facing down, into the
ground at a controlled rate (controlled between 1.5 -2.5 cm/s accepted). The resolution of the
CPT in delineating stratigraphic layers is related to the size of the cone tip, with typical cone tips
having a cross-sectional area of either 10 or 15 cm², corresponding to diameters of 3.6 and
4.4 cm. A very early ultra-miniature 1 cm² subtraction penetrometer was developed and used on
a US mobile ballistic missile launch system (MGM-134 Midgetman) soil/structure design
program in 1984 at the Earth Technology Corporation of Long Beach, California.

 SOIL SHRINKAGE TEST

Shrinkage limit is a test that evaluates the water content of a soil where further loss of
moisture will not result in an additional volume reduction. The test to determine
the shrinkage limit is ASTM D4943. The shrinkage limit is much less commonly used than the
liquid and plastic limits.

EQUIPMENTS USED FOR SOIL TESTING

Atterberg Limits tests – a test that establish the moisture

contents at which fine-grained clay and silt soils transition
between solid, semi-solid, plastic, and liquid states.
Casagrande refined and standardized the tests, and his
methods still determine the liquid limit, plastic limit, and
shrinkage limit of soils

Calcium Carbonate Content Chamber

Supports the following standards: ASTM D4373. This test
method covers the quantitative determination of the calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) content of soils. It is a gasometrical
method that utilizes a simple portable apparatus. The test
method is quickly performed for soils containing calcium
carbonate. The acrylic chamber is 2.5" ID x 5.5" long and
sealed with anodized end caps. The unit comes complete
with 10psi test gauge, bleed valve and a 20ml cup
with handle.
CBR LOAD FRAMES
CBR, the California Bearing Ratio test was developed by
The California State highway department. CBR is widely
used to evaluate the potential strength of subgrade, sub
base, and base course materials, including recycled
materials for use in the design of road and airfield
pavements. The test is outlined in ASTM D1883 and
AASHTO [Link] test involves a simple penetration test
using a load frame and a standard, compacted CBR test
mold of the material to be tested. The results of the test are
then compared and evaluated to known standards already established for the material
being tested.
ASTM D1883 covers the determination of the CBR or California Bearing Ratio of pavement
subgrade, sub base, and base course materials from laboratory compacted specimens. The test
method is primarily intended for, but not limited to, evaluating the strength of materials having
maximum particle size less than 3/4 in. (19 mm).
Expansion Index Consolidometer Self - contained unit for
conducting expansion tests on cured soil specimens. After
compaction in stainless steel ring, specimen is placed in the
consolidometer with air-dried porous stones, and loaded
with a stainless steel weight. Specimen is allowed to
consolidate for 10 minutes, after which it is immersed in
distilled water for up to 24 hrs. During this time, height of
specimen is recorded to determine maximum swell.
Corrosion resistant, durable anodized aluminum and
stainless steel construction. Includes anodized aluminum base and collar, stainless steel specimen
ring and weight, 12.6 lb. (5.7kg) loading weight, and two (2) 3.99" dia. x 0.5" (101.4 x 12.5mm)
porous stones. Dial Indicator required, see below. 6" dia x 11" H (152 x 279 mm).
Basic Swell/Expansion Consolidometer
A self-contained consolidometer used to conduct swell
expansion tests on soil specimens. Set includes: stainless
steel base/acrylic ring device with adjustable, dial indicator
standard and bracket, a compaction specimen ring, top and
bottom porous stones and a 60 psf stainless steel loading
weight. Consolidometer can also be used with cutting ring,
listed below, instead of supplied compaction ring for use in
acquiring samples from undisturbed Shelby tube samples. A
dial indicator is necessary for this test. Alternative loading
weights are also available, please enquire.
Compaction Base and Collar
The compaction base and collar is used to produce a soil
sample for use with the basic swell/expansion
consolidometers. Use HM-3701 compaction hammer.

Hydrometer Analysis
Particle Size Distribution of Soils Test, ASTM D422
Hydrometer analysis provides a quantitative evaluation of
the particle-size distribution of the material that is smaller
than 75μm (No. 200 sieve) found in typical evaluations of
fine-grained soils. The test is used in conjunction with a
standard sieve analysis of fine-grained soils with a wide
range of particle sizes to provide a complete gradation
curve. It is also used to more accurately evaluate the
sedimentation or fines of a particular soil.
Hydrometer soil analysis is based on Stokes Law, which claims that the velocity at which a
particle settles while suspended, all other factors being equal, is determined by the shape, weight
and size of the particle. Because it is assumed that soil particles have the same specific gravity,
it’s expected that larger particles will settle more quickly than finer ones in a soil-water
suspension. By measuring suspended solids in sedimentation cylinders, hydrometers are able to
measure a soil’s particle-size distribution.
To perform a hydrometer analysis the test specimen is combined with a dispersing agent and test
water. This sample is then thoroughly mixed and placed into a cylinder with additional water. A
hydrometer is then used to take readings at specific time intervals. The results of this test can
then be combined with the sieve analysis to establish a complete gradation curve of the material
or used to just evaluate the sedimentation or fines of the material.
Hydrometer analysis requires several items. These include soil hydrometers, hydrometer jar
baths, constant-temperature water baths, soil dispersion mixers and sodium hexametaphosphate.
MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOIL
The water content of soil is a critical factor in the ability to
control compaction. Moisture analyzers and testers are able
to determine the water content of soil and other materials by
calculating the dry density of the soil or to ensure that the
water content is within the ideal range of compaction. The
testing information is also used to provide preliminary
results during a construction project to determine whether
water needs to be added or removed.

PERMEABILITY OF SOIL
Permeability Test of Soil
Soil permeability, in terms of a permeability coefficient
(k), measures a soil’s ability to allow water to pass through
it. Soils are permeable materials due to their grain structure
and the existence of interconnected voids. Materials with a
high permeability coefficient will allow fluids to move
rapidly through them while those with a low permeability
will not.
While testing permeability, it is important to make sure all specified conditions are met.
The discharged water must be under laminar flow conditions and move under a unit hydraulic
gradient at standard temperature conditions (20°C). Additionally, consistency of pressure is
important to maintain. Certain control products are useful in regulating the testing environment.
A permeability coefficient is most commonly determined through the use of two main
laboratory tests: the constant head permeability test and the falling head permeability test. For
highly granular soils such as sands and gravels, the constant head method is best and can yield
accurate results even if the sample has been disturbed or reconstituted. The falling head method
is typically used for fine-grained soils and is more accurate when testing undisturbed samples.
These two methods work in different ways to determine a sample’s permeability coefficient.
The constant head permeability test:
The constant head permeability test utilizes a test apparatus with a reservoir on the top to hold
de-aired water and one at the bottom to hold water that has permeated through the soil sample.
Because the samples are large-grained, their hydraulic conductivity is rather fast. The coefficient
of permeability can be calculated using the pressure measurements and volume of the permeated
water during the set time interval, as well as the height and cross-sectional area of the soil
sample. To ensure accurate results, repeat the test three or more times and find an
average coefficient.
 The falling head permeability test:
The falling head permeability test is performed using a standpipe and a relatively small sample
size. A small sample size is due to the fine-grained nature of the test samples, which results in
slow hydraulic conductivity. The soil sample is first placed in a container and saturated with
water. From there, the sample is attached to standpipes filled with a specific level of de-aired
water. The permeability coefficient can be calculated when the water in the standpipe has
reached a previously determined level. The calculation takes into account the size of the sample,
the cross-sectional area of the standpipe, as well as the time it took to change the water level.
PH
Humboldt offers a variety of pH meters and accessories
as part of a complete line of soil laboratory testing
equipment. The HO-4960 pH Bench Meter with
Electrode offers premium features for cost-effective and
reliable pH and ORP measurements. It includes the HO-
4963 3-in-1 plastic refillable pH electrode, pH Buffer
Power Sachet and In-Use Cover.
The HO-4930 Portable pH Meter offers portability with
precise pH measuring capabilities. An ORP or temperature electrode can also be easily
connected for additional functionality. It includes the HO-4964 Plastic Gel, non-refillable
electrode and a pH buffer powder sachet.
Analysis and Conductivity Pens are also offered to measure different properties of the
sample. pH Buffer Solutions with 0.01 resolution are standardized against NIST-traceable pH
references at 77°F (25°C).

Pin Hole Dispersion Apparatus

Supports the following standards: ASTM D4647
This test is used for evaluating clay soils for erodibility by
flowing water through a small hole that is drilled through
the compacted specimen. The test chamber has a unique
clamping ring for holding the stainless steel mold to the
base while compacting the sample. Included with the
chamber are screens, base stand, constant head reservoir,
tubing, connections, pipet and a tool for drilling the
pinhole. The end cap has a pilot hole for drilling the 1.0mm (.040") hole through the sample. All
aluminum parts are anodized for corrosion resistance.
Relative Density Apparatus
Supports the following standards: ASTM D4253
Apparatus determines the relative density of
cohesionless, free-draining soils and provides well-
defined results on soils that do not respond well to
conventional moisture-density impact compaction
testing. Soils for which this method is appropriate may
contain up to 12 percent of soil particles passing a No.
200 (75μm) sieve, depending on the distribution of
particle sizes, which causes them to have free-draining characteristics. Relative density of
cohesion less soils uses vibratory compaction to obtain maximum density and pouring to obtain
minimum density. Complete set includes: vibrating table H-3756.2F, relative density mold sets
H-3757 and H-3758 and relative density gauge set H-3759. Both models are 12 amps 1ph AC.
Both models are 12 amps 1ph AC.
Not supplied with a cord or plug due to the high wattage consumption requirements. Must be
hard-wired through conduit and fittings.

SOIL COMPACTION TESTS

Proctor Compaction Test
The Proctor Compaction Test, named in honor of Ralph
Roscoe Proctor, is a laboratory method to determine
maximum dry density of soil by determining the optimal
moisture content at which a given soil will become most
dense. The standard Proctor compaction test was first
developed in 1933 and was later updated to create the
modified Proctor compaction test. The test is commonly
used for engineering applications globally to determine
how on-site measurements compare with the Proctor test results in the determination of
soil density.
The test consists of compacting soil of known moisture content into a cylindrical mold using
controlled magnitude compaction. The soil is compacted into the mold in layers by receiving
blows from a weighted hammer at a specific height. After repeating the process for different
moisture contents, dry densities can be determined. A compaction curve can then be developed
to show the exact relationship between the dry density and moisture content. Maximum dry
density and the corresponding moisture content are then obtained, or the optimal
moisture content.
This methodology and corresponding equipment is detailed in ASTM D698, “Standard Test
Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort”. Since the
properties of soil will have immediate and long-lasting effects for engineering and structural
integrity, accurate soil compaction tests remain critical to the geotechnical engineering and
construction industries.
CBR Compaction Test (California Bearing Ratio)
Originally developed in the late 1920s by the California Division of Highways (now referred to
as Caltrans and officially adopted in 1935), the CBR test was designed to ensure that highway
pavements could economically carry the anticipated loads. The laboratory test is performed to
evaluate soil subgrade strength and base course materials. Its many years of use and
improvements have affirmed high reliability and accuracy for pavement engineering design.
As outlined in the ASTM D1883 specifications, “Standard Test Method for CBR
(California Bearing Ratio) of Laboratory Compacted Soil”, the test is relatively simple and has
established reliability for field correlations of flexible pavement thickness requirements. The
values obtained from CBR compaction tests are used by the Federal Highway Administration,
state Departments of Transportation and the Federal Aviation Administration.
Compactors include soil compaction hammers, automatic mechanical compactors, Proctor
hammers, manual compaction hammers and accessories.
A variety of Proctor molds (standard and modified) are available in addition to CBR Molds and
LBR Molds, along with swell plates, cutting edges and weights.
Vibratory compaction equipment, such as the Vibratory Compaction Frame and Hammer Set,
and the Harvard Miniature Compaction Apparatus are also useful for a variety of moisture
density tests.

Horizontal Sample Ejector

Supports the following
standards: ASTM D2166, ASTM D2850, ASTM D4767
Hydraulically driven horizontal sample ejector designed
for rapid ejection of 3" (76.2mm) x 30" (762mm) thin-
wall sample tubes (Shelby Tubes). The Horizontal
Sample Ejector provides a smooth and easily controlled
piston stroke providing easy and rapid handling of ejected
samples. The unit's hydraulic system accurately controls
the horizontal piston's 5600lbf (24.9kN) force to eject samples smoothly. Ejector uses 1.7gpm
hydraulic pump powered by a 1hp electric motor. Hydraulic oil resevoir provides 2.5gal
(9.5L) capacity.
This ejector can also be used with 2 or 2.5" Shelby Tube samples using the corresponding
conversion kit, see chart below. Ejector comes with (1) sample trough to support
ejected samples.

Motorized, Sand Equivalent Shaker, Digital Timer

Supports the following standards: AASHTO T176
Motorized sand equivalent shaker features a digital timer,
which can be set from 0 to 60 minutes with automatic
shutoff. It features an easy-to-use digital interface with an
accuracy of 0.5%. To increase accuracy and ease of
operation. It is recommended for samples in
the laboratory.
The consistent, repeatable oscillation of the apparatus eliminates operator-caused variation.
Shaking operation delivers an 8" (203mm) stroke at a speed of 175 ±2 strokes per minute.
Dimensions: 12" x 24" x 24"H (31 x 61 x 61cm).

SAMPLE PREPARATION
Testing of soil for building construction or of any
structure should always be the first step in planning to
ensure the suitability of soil properties. The soil will need
to handle the stress emanating from the structure and any
unreliable or undetermined tests can be catastrophic to its
ultimate life span and safety.
The specific types of tests needed will depend on the
properties of the soil and the type of construction project.
Thorough understanding of soil properties can even sometimes enable engineers to build in
potentially problematic areas.
In order for soil samples to be correctly and thoroughly tested in the lab, they must first be
collected and processed. The soil samples need to be dried, ground and sieved before they are
analyzed. A number of different tools are employed for proper preparation of the soil samples for
testing. Soil grinders are used to prepare samples for evaluation of grain sizes, Atterberg Limits
and other tests. Soil mixers are designed to mechanically mix the sample with an in situ binder.
The process breaks up the soil, injects a binder at low pressure and mixes the binder with
the soil.
The Rapid Soil Processor simplifies preparing soil for compaction tests by producing five-point
moisture density test results five times faster than any other available method.
The Soil Grinder prepares samples to a designated particle size for accurate, repeatable results,
can grind a one-point sample in 15 seconds.
The Electric Disk Grinding Mill is used globally for sample. The grinding mill head and plates
are made with quality materials for durability and long service life. The grinding mill head is
easily removed and disassembled for cleaning.
The Hand-Operated Disk Grinding Mill mounts to a bench top with an integral c-clamp for fast
grinding of samples. The mill head is easily disassembled for cleaning without any special
tools needed.
The 5-Qt. Mixer thoroughly blends, mixes and aerates all ingredients for a consistent, predictable
result. Includes a stainless steel bowl, wire whip, dough hook and aluminum flat beater.
The Mortar Mixer (5L – 5.3 qt.) is a high-quality ASTM mixer that provides a more durable and
lower cost alternative to the Hobart mixer. It features a robust design and works especially well
for efficient mixing of cement pastes and mortar.
The heavy porcelain Soil Mortar is ASTM D421 compliant and specifically for use with our H-
4258 Soil Pestle.

Unconfined Soil Testers

Supports the following standards: ASTM D2166
Humboldt’s line of unconfined soil testers allow for quick
and accurate determinations of unconfined compressive
strength of cohesive soils in intact, remolded or
reconstituted condition in the field or lab. They can be
used with cohesive materials, which will not bleed water
during deformation or compaction testing and retain their
intrinsic strength after removal from loading pressures,
such as clay or cemented soils. Conversely, soils, which are dry and crumbly, such as peats, silts
and sands cannot be tested with these testers. These load testers provide an approximate value of
the strength of cohesive soils in terms of total stresses as per ASTM D2166.
The Humboldt unconfined soil testers provide and inexpensive method to quickly obtain a
measure of compressive strength for those soils that possess sufficient cohesion to permit testing
in the unconfined state. They are ideal for use by consultants, universities and DOTs where a
quick, economical test setup is desired.
They are perfect for field labs where space constraints and desire for a low-cost alternative to a
load frame is needed. They are also perfect for operations, which require multiple units, but are
constrained by low budgets or where existing load frames are dedicated to CBR and the
Humboldt testers would suffice for quick, unconfined soil tests.
The light and compact design of these testers provide great portability for everyday field use.
These digital models feature a quality digital indicator, which provides readings to 1.0lb
precision. They can be used for on-site, pile tonnage or foundation bearing capacity estimates.
All of these testers are sturdily made of light and durable aluminum and feature a geared, hand-
wheel loading system. All include a load ring and platen.
The digital H-4180BD Tester is designed to be a replacement for the now defunct “Rimac”
tester, which are used extensively by the Illinois DOT. It provides a daylight opening between
platens of 5.125" perfect for split spoon samples. This model provides up to 300 lb. (1.33kN)
load capacities and an adjustable height scale for determining vertical travel.
The digital H-4180AD and H-4180DD provide a daylight opening between platens of 6.375",
perfect for use with 6" Shelby tube samples or samples cut down from larger Shelby tubes.
The H-4180AD provides 500 lbs. (2.22kN) load capacity and an adjustable height scale for
determining vertical travel.
The H-4180DD provides 1000 lbs. (4.45kN) load capacity and features a dial indicator for
determining vertical travel.

Soil Volume Change Meter (PVC)

Used to evaluate potentially dangerous swelling/
shrinking conditions found in clay soils in commercial/
residential development sites. PVC (potential volume
change) refers to maximum possible volume change a
soil could undergo when submitted to changing moisture
conditions. It features fast and simple operation,
measuring both shrinkage and swelling of soils and is
ideal for gauging swelling of clay soils. Includes: H-
4454.010, 1,000 lb. (4.5 kN) capacity proving ring, mold
assembly, loading cap, porous stones, loading pistons, 2-3/4" (70 mm) dia. specimen ring (HM-
1220.70), and conversion charts. 7.25" (184 mm) dia. base x 15.5" (394 mm) height.
EQUIPMENT:
❑ Front Loaders – a type of tractor that use to scoop up
loose material from the ground such as sand or gravel,
and move it from one place to another without pushing
the material across the ground.
❑ Dump Trucks – also known as the dumper truck or tipper
truck is used for transporting loose material (sand, gravel or
demolition waste) for construction.
❑ Graders – also commonly referred to as a road grader, is a
construction machine with a long blade used to create a flat
surface during the grading process.
❑ Road Rollers – roller compactor or just roller, is a compactor
type engineering vehicle used to compact soil, gravel,
concrete, or asphalt in the construction of roads and
foundations.
❑ On-road Water Trucks – used to prevent dust lift off and to
maintain the moisture of the gravel road.
 CE 3102 Course Outline

I. INTRODUCTION TO CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

II. FAMILIARIZATION WITH APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN

TESTING OF MATERIALS

[Link] OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Properties of Engineering Materials:
General, Physical and Mechanical
 General Properties of Engineering Materials:
The fields of application of a particular engineering material are governed by the characteristics
and various properties of that engineering material.
Such properties may be classified into various categories as follows:
(1) Chemical Properties:
The chemical properties of the material suggest the tendency of the material to combine with
other substances, its reactivity, solubility and effects like corrosion, chemical composition,
acidity, alkalinity, etc. Corrosion is one of the serious problems faced by engineers in selecting
engineering materials, caused due to chemical properties of metal.
In metals, valence electrons are loosely bound to their atoms and can be easily removed during
chemical reactions. So, when metals are exposed in the atmosphere and come in contact with
gases like oxygen, chlorine etc., the chemical reactions take place. When iron reacts with
oxygen, iron oxide is formed which is red in colour and iron metal is coated with it. This is
called corrosion.

(2) Electrical Properties:

These properties signify the ability of the material to resist the flow of an electric current and
they include conductivity, dielectric strength and resistivity.

(3) Magnetic Properties:

The study of magnetic properties of the material like permeability, hysteresis and coercive force
is required [Link] is to be used for generators, transformers, etc.
(4) Mechanical Properties:

The characteristics governing the behaviour of material when external forces are applied are
included in these properties. Some of the important mechanical properties are elasticity,
hardness, plasticity, strength, etc.

(5) Optical Properties:

When the material is to be used for the optical work, the knowledge of its optical properties like
colour, light transmission, refractive index, reflectivity, etc. is necessary. When light strikes any
material, it interacts with its atoms and causes various types of effects. The light may be
reflected, refracted, scattered or absorbed. The study of light in materials and how to use this
behaviour to control the various light effects is called optics.

(6) Physical Properties:

These are required to evaluate the condition of the material without any external force acting on
it and they include bulk density, durability, porosity, etc.

(7) Thermal Properties:

The knowledge of thermal properties of the material like specific heat, thermal expansion and
conductivity is helpful in knowing the response of the material to the thermal changes. Thus
suitable (8) Technological Properties:

The properties of metals and alloys which have a bearing on their processing or application are
called technological properties. Castability, machinability, weldability and workability are some
of the significant technological properties of metals and alloys.

Out of all such properties, the physical properties and mechanical properties are particularly very
important to a construction engineer. Materials can be selected to withstand fluctuating and high
temperatures.
  Physical Properties of Engineering Materials:
Following terms in connection with the physical properties of engineering materials are defined
and explained:

(1) Bulk Density:

The term bulk density is used to mean the mass of a unit volume of material in its natural state
i.e. including pores and voids. It is obtained by finding out the ratio of mass of specimen to the
volume of specimen in its natural state.

The technical properties of the material such as strength, heat, conductivity, etc. are greatly
influenced by its bulk density and hence the performance efficiency of a material will depend
upon its bulk density.
For most of the materials, the bulk density is less than its density except for dense materials,
liquids and materials obtained from the molten masses.

Table 1-1 shows the bulk densities of some of the important building materials.

(2) Chemical Resistance:

The ability of material to withstand the action of acids, alkalies, gases and salt solutions is known
as its chemical resistance.
This property is carefully examined while selecting material for sewer pipes, hydraulic
engineering installations, sanitary facilities, etc.
(3) Coefficient of Softening:
The ratio of compressive strength of material saturated with water to that in dry state is known as
the coefficient of softening. The materials such as glass and metal are not affected by the
presence of water and their coefficient of softening is unity. On the other hand, the materials like
clay easily lose their strength when soaked in water and hence, their coefficient of softening is
zero.
The materials having coefficient of softening equal to 0.8 or more are referred to as the water-
resisting materials. It is advisable to avoid the use of materials with coefficient of softening less
than 0.8 for situations which are likely to be exposed permanently to the action of moisture.

(4) Density:
The term density of a material is defined as the mass of a unit volume of homogeneous material.
It is obtained by working out the ratio of mass of material to the volume of material in
homogeneous state. The physical properties of a material are greatly influenced by its density.

(5) Density Index:

The ratio of bulk density of a material to its density is known as its density index and it thus
denotes the degree to which its volume is filled up with solid matter.
As there are practically no dense substances in nature, the density index of most of the building
materials is less than unity.

(6) Durability:
The property of a material to resist the combined action of atmospheric and other factors is
known as its durability.
The running or maintenance cost of a building will naturally depend upon the durability of the
materials of which it is composed.

(7) Fire Resistance:

The term fire resistance is used to mean the ability of a material to resist the action of high
temperature without losing its load-bearing capacity i.e., without substantial loss of strength or
deformation in shape.
This property of a material is of great importance in case of a fire and as the operation of fire-
fighting is usually accompanied by water, this property of a material is tested by the combined
actions of high temperature and water. The material should be sufficiently fireproof to afford
safety and stability in case of a fire.
(8) Frost Resistance:
The ability of a water-saturated material to resist repeated freezing and thawing without
considerable decrease of mechanical strength or visible signs of failure is known as the frost
resistance. The frost resistance of a material depends upon the density of material and its degree
of saturation with water.
In general, the dense materials are frost resistant. The porous materials whose pores are closed or
filled with water to less than 90% of their volume are frost resistant.

(9) Hygroscopicity:
The property of a material to absorb water vapour from air is known as the hygroscopicity and it
is governed by the nature of substance involved, number of pores, air temperature, relative
humidity, etc. The water-retaining or hydrophilic substances readily dissolve in water.

(10) Porosity:
The term porosity is used to indicate the degree by which the volume of a material is occupied by
pores. It is expressed as a ratio of volume of pores to that of the specimen. The porosity of a
material is indicative of its various properties such as strength, bulk density, water absorption,
thermal conductivity, durability, etc., and hence it is to be carefully studied and analysed.

(11) Refractoriness:
The ability of a material to withstand prolonged action of high temperature without melting or
loosing shape is known as its refractoriness.

(12) Spalling Resistance:

The ability of a material to endure a certain number of cycles of sharp temperature variations
without failing is known as its spalling resistance and it mainly depends on the coefficients of
linear expansion of its constituents.

(13) Specific Heat:

The term specific heat is defined as the quantity of heat, expressed in kilocalories, required to
heat 1 N of material by 1°C. The specific heat of a material is to be considered when heat
accumulation is to be taken into account.

The specific heats of steel, stone and wood are as follows:

Steel – 0.046 x 103 J/N °C
Stone – 0.075 to 0.09 x 103 J/N °C
Wood – 0.239 to 0.27 x 103 J/N °C.

(14) Thermal Capacity:

The property of a material to absorb heat is known as its thermal capacity and it is worked out by
the following equation –

T = H / M (T2 – T1)
Where, T = Thermal capacity in J/N °C
H = Quantity of heat required to increase the temperature of material from T1 to T2 in J
M = Mass of material in N
T1 = Temperature of material before heating in °C
T2 = Temperature of material after heating in °C.

(15) Thermal Conductivity:

The thermal conductivity of a material is the amount of heat in kilocalories that will flow through
unit area of the material with unit thickness in unit time when difference of temperature on its
faces is also unity. The unit of thermal conductivity is J per m hr °C and it is usually denoted by
K. The thermal conductivity of a material depends on its density, porosity, moisture content and
temperature.
The term thermal resistivity of a material is used to mean the reciprocal of its thermal
conductivity. The thermal resistance of a material is equal to thermal resistivity multiplied by its
thickness.

(16) Water Absorption:

The ability of a material to absorb and retain water is known as its water absorption. The dry
material is fully immersed in water and then the water absorption is worked out either as
percentage of weight or percentage of volume of dry material. It mainly depends on the volume,
size and shape of pores, present in the material.

(17) Water Permeability:

The capacity of a material to allow water to pass through it under pressure is known as its water
permeability and it is described as the quantity of water that will pass through the material in one
hour at constant pressure, the cross-sectional area of the specimen being 1 cm. The dense
materials like glass, steel, etc. are water-proof or impervious to the water.

(18) Weathering Resistance:

The term weathering resistance is used to express the ability of a material to resist alternating wet
and dry conditions without seriously affecting its shape and mechanical strength. It thus,
indicates the behaviour of materials when exposed to changing conditions of humidity.

 Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials:

The mechanical properties of materials like their rigidity, ductility and strength are of vital
importance in determining their fabrication and possible practical applications.
The building materials show a wide range of the mechanical properties ranging from hardness of
diamond to the ductility of pure copper and the astonishing elastic behaviour of rubber. In a
similar way, many materials behave quite differently when stressed in different ways. For
instance, cast-iron, cement and bricks are much stronger in compression whereas wood and steel
are stronger in tension.
Following terms in connection with the common mechanical properties of building materials are
defined and explained:
(1) Abrasion:
The resistance of a material to the abrasion is found out by dividing the difference in weights of
specimens prior to and after abrasion with the area of abrasion.

(2) Creep:
In many applications, the building materials are required to sustain steady loads for long periods.
Under such conditions, the material may continue to deform until its usefulness is seriously
reduced. Such time-dependent deformations of a structure can grow large and may even result in
final fracture without any increase in load. If the deformation continues even when the load is
constant, such additional deformation is known as the creep.
Most of the building materials creep to a certain extent at all temperatures. However the
engineering metals such as steel, aluminium and copper creep very little at room temperature.
The high temperatures lead to rapid creep which is often accompanied by microstructural
changes. The phenomenon of creep is important in polymers at room temperature, in alloys of
aluminium at 100°C and in steels above 300°C.

(3) Elasticity:
When a load is applied to a material, there is change in its shape and dimension. The term
elasticity is used to indicate the ability of a material to restore its initial form and dimensions
after the load is removed.
The difference between the following two terms should be noted:
(i) Elastic Deformation:
A deformation is said to be elastic when the solid deforms when it is loaded but returns to its
original position when unloaded. A change in pressure or an application of load results in the
elastic deformation. The term ideal deformation is used to mean the deformation that takes place
instantaneously upon application of force and disappears completely on removal of the force.
Such deformations obey Hooke’s law and the elastic strain of the metal is directly proportional to
the applied force. The ideal deformation occurs with comparatively smaller deformation forces
which can keep the working stresses within the elastic limit.

(ii) Plastic Deformation:

A deformation is said to be plastic when the solid retains full or partly the change in shape after
the load is removed. The plastic deformation is observed when the stress exceeds the elastic limit
and its rate is controlled by the strain rate, applied stress and temperature. It can occur under
tensile, compressive and torsional stresses. It is intentionally carried out in processes like rolling,
forging, etc. so as to make useful products.

(4) Fatigue:
When the materials are subjected to a repetitive or fluctuating stress, they will fail at a stress
much lower than that required to cause fracture under steady loads.
This behaviour is called the fatigue and it is distinguished by the following three features:
(i) Increased uncertainty in strength and service life;
(ii) Loss of ductility; and
(iii) Loss of strength.

Following are the reasons of the fatigue failures:

(i) Corroding environments resulting in the reduction of the fatigue strength;
(ii) Stress concentration points;
(iii) Surface imperfections like machining marks and surface irregularities; and
(iv) Temperature, the fatigue strength being high at low temperatures and decreasing gradually
with the rise in temperature.

(5) Hardness:
The ability of a material to resist penetration by a harder body is known as its hardness. It is a
major factor in deciding the workability and use of a material for floors and road surfaces. The
hardness is not a fundamental property. But it is a combined effect of compressive, elastic and
plastic properties relative to the mode of penetration, shape of penetrator, etc.
The hardness bears a fairly constant relationship to the tensile strength of a given material. It can
therefore be used as a practical non-destructive test to get roughly an idea of the tensile strength
of the material and the state of the metal near the surface.
The hardness of stone materials can be determined with the help of Mohs’ scale of hardness. It is
a list of ten materials arranged in the order of increasing hardness. The hardness of a material lies
between the hardness of two materials i.e. the one which scratches and the other which is
scratched by the material to be tested.
Table 1-2 shows the Mohs’ scale of hardness.
(6) Impact Strength:
The impact strength of a material is the quantity of work required to cause its failure per its unit
volume. It thus indicates the toughness of a material and the materials are tested in an impact
testing machine to determine their impact strength.
The impact strength is a complex characteristic which takes into account both the toughness and
strength of a material.
It varies with the following factors:
(i) If the dimensions of the specimen are increased, there is also increase in the impact strength.
(ii) If the sharpness of the notch increases, the impact strength required to cause failure
decreases.
(iii) The angle of the notch also improves the impact strength after certain values.
(iv) The impact strength is also affected to a certain extent by the velocity of impact.
(v) The temperature of the specimen under test gives an indication about the type of fracture that
is likely to occur i.e. ductile, brittle or ductile to brittle transition.

(7) Plasticity and Brittleness:

The term plasticity of a material is defined as its ability to change its shape under load without
cracking and to retain its shape after the removal of load.
The materials can broadly be divided into two groups, namely, plastic materials and brittle
materials. The steel, copper, hot bitumen, etc. are plastic materials. The brittle materials fail
suddenly under pressure without appreciable deformation preceding the failure. The rock
materials, ceramic materials, glass, cast-iron, concrete and some other materials are brittle and
they offer poor resistance to bending, impact and tension.

(8) Strength:
The ability of a material to resist failure under the action of stresses caused by a load is known as
its strength. The loads to which a material is commonly subjected to are compression, tension
and bending. The corresponding strength is obtained by dividing the ultimate load with the cross-
sectional area of the specimen.
The stresses in the building materials are not allowed to exceed a certain percentage of their
ultimate strength. Thus, a margin of safety is provided and the term factor of safety is used to
denote the ratio of ultimate stress to safe stress. For instance, if the factor of safety is two, the
stress to be adopted for design purposes would be one-half of the ultimate stress.
The values of factors of safety are specified by design standards and they are framed by taking
into account various factors such as nature of work, quality of material, service conditions,
economic considerations, etc.

(9) Wear:
The failure of a material under the combined actions of abrasion and impact is known as its wear.
The wear resistance is usually expressed as a percentage of loss in weight and it is of great
importance in deciding the suitability of a material for use of road surfaces, railway ballast, etc.
 CE 3102 Course Outline

I. INTRODUCTION TO CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

II. FAMILIARIZATION WITH APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN

TESTING OF MATERIALS

[Link] OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

IV. SPECIFIC WEIGHT, WATER ABSORPTION, ABRASION, DENSITY AND

UNIFORMITY OF AGGREGATES

Specific Weight
- Also known as Unit Weight
- The bulk density or unit weight of an aggregate is the mass or weight of the aggregate
required to fill a container of a specified unit volume. The volume referred to here is that
occupied by both aggregates and the voids between aggregate particles.
Bulk density of aggregates depends upon the following 3 factors:
 Degree of compaction
 Grading of aggregates
 Shape of aggregate particles

IRREGULAR AGGREGATES FLAKY & ELONGATEDAGGREGATES

ANGULAR AGGREGATES ROUND AGGREGATES

Water Absorption
- Aggregate can contain water, both internal, based on porosity, and external, surface
moisture. This gives aggregate the ability to absorb water. This will effectively reduce the
amount of water available for hydration; or conversely, if the aggregate is very wet, add
excess water to a cement mix.
- Is used to determine the amount of water absorbed under specified conditions.
 - Water absorption of aggregates is the % of water absorbed by an air-dried aggregate
when immersed in water at 27°C for a period of 24 hours.
- The water absorption test use to find the water holding capacity of the aggregates.
- The water is absorbed by the aggregates or stones in their pores known as the water
absorption. Usually water absorption gives an idea about the strength of the aggregates.
Those aggregate has more water absorption is usually unsuitable for the construction.
Factors affecting water absorption include:
1. Type of plastic
2. Additives used
3. Temperature
4. Length of exposure.

Abrasion
- Is detachment of particles from material due to weak bond between particles. This can be
prevented by better bonding between particles. Example of abrasion is removal of stones
from bitumenous roads due to tyre friction.

Density and Uniformity of Aggregates

Bulk density of aggregates depends upon the following 3 factors:
1. Degree of compaction
2. Grading of aggregates
3. Shape of aggregate particles
 CE 3102 Course Outline

VII. DETERMINATION OF SETTING TIME OF HYDRAULIC CEMENT

Determination of initial and final setting time of hydraulic cement

(ASTM C 191-04 a, BS-4550, JIS-R5201)

Related theory:
Setting:
It is the measure of gain of stiffness of the cement paste. At this level paste acquires stable shape
and volume and does not flow under its weight on a mild slope surface.
In the setting process little chemical reaction takes place. It only includes the shape acquisition
due to evaporation of water. During the setting process the cement remains in the fluid or the
semi-fluid state and there is very little or no gain in strength. Finer the cement particles more will
be the hydration and therefore it will lead to quick settlement.
Hardening:
Hardening is the rate of gain of strength due to the chemical reaction. It also refers to the strength
of the concrete after a specified interval of time. It can take little load and will maintain its
acquired shape.
Initial setting time/ VICAT time of initial setting:
It is the time elapsed between the start of mixing of water in the cement to the condition of
cement paste such that 1 mm diameter needle of VICAT apparatus penetrates into the paste by
25 mm
Final setting time/ VICAT time of final setting:
It is the time from start of mixing (when water is added) till the condition of paste such that it is
the first penetration measurement that does not mark the specimen surface with a complete
circular impression

Molding Test Specimen—Quickly form the cement paste, into a ball with gloved hands and toss
six times from one hand to the other, maintaining the hands about 150 mm (6 in.) apart. Press the
ball, resting in the palm of the hand, into the larger end of the conical ring, G, held in the other
hand, completely filling the ring with paste. Remove the excess at the larger end by a single
movement of the palm of the hand. Place the ring on its larger end onto the non-absorptive
plate, H, and slice off the excess paste at the smaller end at the top of the ring by a single oblique
stroke of the trowel held at a slight angle with the top of the ring. Smooth the top of the
specimen, if necessary, with one or two light touches of the pointed end of the trowel.
During the operation of cutting and smoothing, take care not to compress the paste. Immediately
after molding, place the test specimen in the moist cabinet or moist room and allow it to remain
there except when penetration measurements are being made. The specimen shall remain in the
conical mold, supported by the non-absorptive plate throughout the test period.

Time of Setting Determination—Allow the time of setting specimen to remain in the moist
cabinet or moist room for 30 min after molding without being disturbed. Determine the
penetration of the 1-mm needle at this time and every 15 min thereafter (every 10 min for Type
III cements) until a penetration of 25 mm or less is obtained. Perform the penetration test by
lowering the needle D of the rod B until it rests on the surface of the cement paste. Tighten the
setscrew, E, and set the indicator, F, at the upper end of the scale, or take an initial reading.
Release the rod quickly by releasing the set screw, E, and allow the needle to settle for 30 s; then
take the reading to determine the penetration. At the option of the tester, if the paste is obviously
quite soft on the early readings, retard the fall of the rod to avoid bending the 1-mm needle, but
when actual penetration measurements to determine the time of setting are made, release the rod
only by the setscrew. Make each penetration test at least 5 mm away from any previous
penetration and at least 10 mm away from the inner side of the mold.
Record the results of all penetration tests and, by interpolation, determine the time when a
penetration of 25 mm is obtained. The elapsed time between the initial contact of cement and
water and the penetration of 25 mm is the VICAT time of setting or VICAT initial time of
setting.

Determine the VICAT final time of setting end point to be the first penetration measurement
that does not mark the specimen surface with a complete circular impression. Verify final set by
performing two additional penetration measurements on different areas of the specimen surface.
Obtain verification measurements within 90 s of the first “final set” measurement. The elapsed
time between the initial contact of cement and water and the end point determination above is the
VICAT final time of setting.

Temperature and Humidity:

 The temperature of the air in the vicinity of the mixing slab, the dry cement, molds, and
base plates shall be maintained between 20 and 27.5 °C (68 and 81.5 °F).
 The temperature of the mixing water shall not vary from 23.0 °C (73.5 °F) by more than
62.0 °C (3.5 °F).
  The relative humidity of the laboratory shall be not less than 50 %.

Precautions:
 Fresh hydraulic cementitious mixtures are caustic and may cause chemical burns to skin
and tissue upon prolonged exposure. The use of gloves, protective clothing, and eye
protection is recommended.
 Wash contact area with copious amounts of water after contact. Wash eyes for a
minimum of 15 min.
 Avoid exposure of the body to clothing saturated with the liquid phase of the unhardened
material. Remove contaminated clothing immediately after exposure
 The apparatus should be free from vibrations during all the test.
 Making and curing
concrete test specimens
in the Field
ASTM Designation: C 31/C 31M
PRESENTATION OUTCOMES
• Why do we make these specimens?
• To know purpose of test conducted.
• To enable you to Make, cure and transport concrete test specimens under
field conditions.
Why do we make these specimens?
• Acceptance testing for specified strength.
• Checking adequacy of mixture proportions for specified strength
• Quality control.
Purposes the tests are conducted for
• Determination of whether a structure is capable of being put in service.
• Comparison with test results of standard cured specimens
• Adequacy of curing and protection
Making specimen
Apparatus:
• Cylinder mold (C 470)
• Beam mold (c 470)
• Tamping rod
• Internal vibrator (150 Hz)
• Mallet (o.6 kg)
• Sampling receptacle
• Slump apparatus (C 143)
• Air content apparatus (C 173)
• Temperature measuring device (C 1064)
Apparatus:
Slump test
• To check the adequacy of our concrete
• To decide the method of consolidation
• According to (ASTM C 143)
 MOLDING
• • Place of molding should be; Flat, Rigid, Free from vibration, as near as
possible to storing place.
• Consolidation; Rodding and vibration
Rodding
Vibration
• Vibrator should be withdrawn slowly to avoid large air pockets
• Tap the sides of mold with mallet 10 to 15 times to eliminate the air
entrapped
Finishing
• Strike off extra concrete from the surface with least manipulation
• Level the surface with suitable tool like trowel or float.
• No projection or depression greater than 3.3 mm be tolerated.
• If desired, cap the surface of freshly made cylinder with a thin layer of
Portland cement paste.
Curing storage
• Move to a place where initial curing is possible immediately after finishing.
• Storing surface shall be levelled within 1⁄4 in. per feet [20 mm per m].
• Support the bottom of mold with flat surface during movement.
• Refinish the surface immediately if marred.
Curing continues… initial curing
• Initial curing temperature must be 16 to 27 °C during 1st 48 hours.
• Prevent moisture loss.
• Specific temperature(20-26 °C) needed for specific strength(40 MPa)
Curing continues… final curing
• Maintain water on the surface of specimen at all times.
• Keep temperature around 23 °C
• According to ASTM C 511
Beams
Beams are to be cured the same as cylinders except that they shall be stored in
water saturated with calcium hydroxide at [23 °C] at least 20 h prior to testing
Transportation
• Specimens shall not be transported until at least 8 h after final set.
• Prevent jarring damage
• Prevent freezing and over heating by proper insulation.
• Prevent moisture loss by wrapping specimen with plastic, burlaps etc.
• Transportation time shall not exceed 4 hours.
Report
• Report the following information to the laboratory that will test the
specimens:
1. Identification number.
2. Location of concrete represented by the samples.
3. Date, time and name of individual molding specimens.
4. Slump, air content, and concrete temperature, test results.
5. Curing method.
 CE 3102 Course Outline

VII. FAMILIARIZATION WITH THE PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE

UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

Universal testing machine (UTM)

- Used to test the mechanical properties (tension, compression etc.) of a given test
specimen by exerting tensile, compressive or transverse stresses.
- The machine has been named so because of the wide range of tests it can perform over
different kind of materials. Different tests like peel test, flexural test, tension test, bend
test, friction test, spring test etc. can be performed with the help of UTM.

Components of Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

A universal testing machine consists of two main parts:
1. Loading Unit
2. Control Unit
The arrangement of the test specimen and the exertion of the load is held in the loading unit. The
variations in the application of the load and the corresponding test result are obtained from the
control unit.
In the figure-2, the left unit with table and crosshead form the loading unit. The right unit with a
load indicator arrangement is the control unit.

I. Loading Unit

The loading unit of a UTM consists of the following components:

1. Load Frame

The load frame of a universal testing machine can be made either by single support or by double
support. The load Frame consists of a table (where the specimen is placed for the compression
test), upper crosshead, and lower crosshead.
2. Upper Crosshead and Lower Crosshead

The upper crosshead is used to clamp one end of the test specimen. The lower crosshead in the
load frame is the movable crosshead whose screws can be loosened for height adjustment and
tightened. Both the crossheads have a tapered slot at the centre. This slot has a pair of racked
jaws that is intended to grip and hold the tensile test specimen.

3. Elongation Scale

The relative movement of the lower and upper table is measured by an elongation scale which is
provided along with the loading unit.

II. Control Unit

The main components of the control unit in a universal testing machine are:

1. Hydraulic Power Unit

This unit consists of an oil pump that provides non-pulsating oil flow into the main cylinder of
the load unit. This flow helps in the smooth application of load on the specimen. The oil pump in
a hydraulic power unit is run by an electric motor and sump.

2. Load Measuring Unit

This unit has a pendulum dynamometer unit that has a small cylinder with a piston which moves
with the non-pulsating oil flow. The pendulum is connected to the piston by pivot lever. The
pivot lever deflects based on the load applied to the specimen. This deflection is converted to the
load pointer and displays as the load on the dial.

The range of load application can be adjusted by means of a knob in the load measuring unit (0-
100 kN; 0-250 kN; 0-500 kN and 0-1000 kN). The accuracy of measuring unit controls the
overall accuracy of the machine.
 3. Control Devices

The control devices can be electric or hydraulic. Electric control devices make use of switches to
move the crossheads and switch on/off the unit. A hydraulic control device consists of two
valves, Right Control Valve and Left Control Valve or Release Valve. A right control valve is
used to apply load on the specimen. The left control valve is used to release the load application
as shown in figure-1.

Functions of Universal Testing Machine:

The main functions of UTM are to test the mechanical properties of materials.

The standard tests performed by UTM are:

1. Tensile Test
2. Compression Test
3. Adhesion Tests
4. Pull-Out Tests
5. Bending Test
6. Hysteresis Test

UTM can be used to test a wide variety of materials like concrete, steel, cables, springs, steel
wires and chains, slings, links, rope, winches, steel ropes, etc.

UTM provides the value of load application and the respective displacements. From the observed
value, the load deflection graph is obtained. With the load value in the Y-axis and the
displacement in the X-axis. The displacement is actually the movement of the crossheads during
the load application.
From the load deflection graph, the stress-strain analysis, modulus of elasticity, yield strength of
the specimen tested can be determined.
 WOOD

Wood, because of its availability, relatively low cost, ease of use, and durability (if properly
designed), continues to be an important civil engineering material. Wood is used extensively for
buildings, bridges, utility poles, floors, roofs, trusses, and piles. (See Figures 10.1 and 10.2.) Civil
engineering applications include both natural wood and engineered wood products, such as
laminates, plywood, and strand board.

In order to use wood efficiently, it is important to understand its basic properties and
limitations. In the United States, the Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture has broad
management responsibility for the harvesting of wood from public lands and for assisting private
sources with the selection of products for harvesting. This agency has produced the Wood
Handbook, which is an excellent document describing the characteristics and properties of wood
(USDA-FS, 1999).

This chapter covers the properties and characteristics of wood. In the design of a wood
structure, joints and connections often limit the design elements. These are generally covered in
a design class for wood construction and, therefore, are not considered in this text.

Wood is a natural, renewable product from trees. Biologically, a tree is a woody plant that
attains a height of at least 6 m (20 ft), normally has a single self-supporting trunk with no
branches for about 1.5 m (4 ft) above the ground, and has a definite crown. There are over 600
species of trees in the United States.

Trees are classified as either endogenous or exogenous, based on the type of growth.
Endogenous trees, such as palm trees, grow with intertwined fibers. Wood from endogenous
trees is not generally used for engineering applications in the United States. Exogenous trees
grow from the center out by adding concentric layers of wood around the central core. This book
considers only exogenous trees.

Exogenous trees are broadly classified as deciduous and conifers, producing hardwoods
and softwoods, respectively. The terms hardwood and softwood are classifications within the tree
family, not a description of the woods’ characteristics. In general, softwoods are softer, less
dense, and easier to cut than hardwoods. However, exceptions exist such as balsa, a very soft
and lightweight wood that is botanically a hardwood.

F I G U R E 1 0 . 1 Wood frame used for building structural support.

F I G U R E 1 0 . 2 Wooden roller coaster.

Deciduous trees generally shed their leaves at the end of each growing season.
Commercial hardwood production in the U.S. comes from 40 different tree species. Many
hardwoods are used for furniture and decorative veneers, due to their pleasing grain pattern. The
decorative properties of some hardwoods increase their value and cost. This makes them
uneconomical for construction lumber. Again, there are some exceptions where some hardwoods
are used engineered wood products that are used in construction applications.

Conifers, also known as evergreens, have needlelike leaves and normally do not shed
them at the end of the growing season. Conifers grow continuously through the crown, producing
a uniform stem and homogenous characteristics (Panshin & De Zeeuw, 1980). Softwood
production in the U.S. comes from about 20 individual species of conifers. Conifers are widely
used for construction. Conifers grow in large stands, permitting economical harvesting. They
mature rapidly, making them a renewable resource. Table 10.1 shows examples of hardwood and
softwood species (USDA-FS, 1999).
 Structure of Wood

Wood has a distinct structure that affects its use as a construction material. Civil and
construction engineers need to understand the way the tree grows and the anisotropic nature of
wood in order to properly design and construct wood structures.

Chemical Composition

Wood is composed of cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, extractives, and ash-producing

minerals. Cellulose accounts for approximately 50 percent of the wood substance by weight
(USDA-FS, 1999). The exact percent is species dependent. It is a linear polymer (aliphatic carbon
compound) having a high molecular weight. The main building block of cellulose is sugar: glucose.
As the tree grows, linear cellulose molecules arrange themselves into highly ordered strands,
called fibrils. These ordered strands form the large structural elements that compose the cell walls
of wood fibers.

Lignin accounts for 23% to 33% of softwood and 16% to 25% of hardwood by weight.
Lignin is mostly an intercellular material. Chemically, lignin is an intractable, insoluble, material
that is loosely bonded to the cellulose. Lignin is basically the glue that holds the tubular cells
together. The longitudinal shear strength of wood is limited by the strength of the lignin bounds.

Hemicelluloses are polymeric units made from sugar molecules. Hemicellulose is different
from cellulose in that it has several sugars tied up in its cellular structure. Hardwood contains
20% to 30% hemicellulose and softwood averages 15% to 20%. The main sugar units in
hardwood and softwood are xylose and monnose, respectively.

The extractives compose 5% to 30% of the wood substance. Included in this group are
tannins and other polyphenolics, coloring matters, essential oils, fats, resins, waxes, gums,
starches, and simple metabolic intermediates. These materials can be removed with simple inert
neutral solvents, such as water, alcohol, acetone, and benzene. The amount contained in an
individual tree depends on the species, growth conditions, and time of year the tree is harvested.
 The ash-forming materials account for 0.1% to 3.0% of the wood material and include
calcium, potassium, phosphate, and silica.

Moisture Content
The moisture content of a wood specimen is the weight of water in the specimen
expressed as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of the wood. An oven-dried wood sample is a
sample that has been dried in an oven at 100°C to 105°C (212°F to 220°F) until the wood attains
a constant weight. Physical properties such as weight, shrinkage, and strength depend on the
moisture content of wood (Panshin & De Zeeuw, 1980).

Moisture exists in wood as either bound or free water. Bound water is held within the cell
wall by adsorption forces, whereas free water exists as either condensed water or water vapor in
the cell cavities. In green wood, the cell walls are saturated. However, the cell cavities may or
may not contain free water. The level of saturation at which the cell walls are completely
saturated, but no free water exists in the cell cavities, is called the fiber saturation point (FSP).
FSP varies from species to species and within the same species, but is typically in the range of
21% to 32%. The FSP is of great practical significance, because the addition or removal of
moisture below the FSP has a large effect on practically all physical and mechanical properties of
wood, whereas above the FSP, the properties are independent of moisture content.

When the moisture content of wood is above the fiber saturation point, the wood is
dimensionally stable. However, moisture fluctuations below the FSP always result in dimensional
changes. Shrinkage is caused by loss of moisture from the cell walls, and conversely, swelling is
caused by the gain of moisture in the cell walls. Figure 10.5 shows that the changes in wood
dimensions vary from one direction to another. Dimensional changes in the radial direction are
generally one-half the change in the tangential direction. Swelling and shrinkage in the
longitudinal direction is minimal, typically 0.1% to 0.2% for a change in the moisture content
from the FSP to oven dry. This anisotropy of dimensional changes of wood causes warping,
checking, splitting, and structural performance problems, as discussed in more detail later in the
chapter. It is also the reason that the sawing pattern of boards affects the amount of distortion
when subjected to changes in moisture.
 For engineering calculations, the FSP is commonly assumed to be 30%. This is easier to
remember and more useful than expecting the engineer to find and use species-specific values.
The same applies for shrinkage calculations. Tangential shrinkage can be assumed to be 8% and
radial shrinkage 4%. For structural lumber where growth ring or orientation is not known in
advance and can be reasonably expected to vary from piece to piece, a value of 6% is commonly
chosen for shrinkage from a FSP (30%) to oven-dry (0%). Thus, shrinkage could be estimated
as 6% shrinkage in 30% change in moisture content, or 1% shrinkage per 5% change in moisture
content. This is the rule of thumb recommended by the American Institute of Timber Construction
(AITC) for calculating shrinkage of a glue laminated (glulam) beam, which consists of several
laminations of varying growth ring orientations.

The moisture content in wood varies depending on air temperature and humidity.
However, the natural change of moisture content is a slow process, so as atmospheric conditions
change, the moisture content in wood tends to adjust to conditions near the average. The
moisture content for the average atmospheric conditions is the equilibrium moisture content
(EMC). The wood handbook includes values of the EMC as a function of temperature and humidity.
The EMC ranges from less than 1%, at temperatures greater than 55°C (130°F) and 5% humidity,
to over 20% at temperatures less than 27°C (80°F) and 90% humidity.

F I G U R E 1 0 . 5 Relation between shrinkage and moisture content.

 Strength Properties

Strength properties of wood vary to a large extent, depending on the orientation of grain
relative to the direction of force. For example, the tensile strength in the longitudinal direction
(parallel to grain) is more than 20 times the tensile strength in the radial direction (perpendicular
to grain). Also, tensile strength parallel to grain is larger than the compressive strength in the
same direction for small, clear specimens. In full size structural members, the tensile strength
controls the capacity of most pieces. Also, tension is more sensitive to strength-reducing
characteristics such as knots and slope of grain. Common strength properties for wood include
modulus of rupture in bending, compressive strength parallel and perpendicular to the grain,
tensile strength parallel to the grain, and shear strength parallel to the grain. Some of the less
common strength properties are torsion, toughness, and fatigue strength.

Load Duration

Wood can support higher loads of short duration than sustained loads. Under sustained
loads, wood continues to deform. The design values of material properties contemplate fully
stressing the member to the tabulated design values for a period of 10 years and/or the
application of 90% of the full maximum load continuously throughout the life of the structure. If
the maximum stress levels are exceeded, the structure can deform prematurely.

Generally, a load duration of 10 years is used for design. Typical load duration factors that
would be applied to the values in Tables 10.3 and 10.4 (except for compression perpendicular to
the grain) are shown in Figure 10.13. For example, if a floor joint is designed for a temporary
stage that is used only for a one-day presentation, the allowable bending fiber stress can be
increased by 33 percent over the allowable stress for a normal application.
F I G U R E 1 0 . 1 3 Adjustment factors for load duration working-stress for wood design
based on 10-year nominal duration. Reprinted with permission of American Forest and Paper
Association (1997).

Testing to Determine Mechanical Properties

Standard mechanical testing methods for wood are designed almost exclusively to obtain
data for predicting performance. To achieve reproducibility in the testing environment,
specifications include methods of material selection and preparation, testing equipment and
techniques, and computational methods for data reduction. Standards for testing wood and wood
composites are published by ASTM, the U.S. Department of Commerce, the National Standard
Institute (NSI), and various other trade associations, such as the Western Woods Product
Association.

Due to the many variables affecting the test results, it is of primary importance to correctly
select the specimen and type of test. There are two main testing techniques for establishing
strength parameters: the testing of timbers of structural sizes and the testing of representative,
small, clear specimens.
 Testing of structural-size timbers provides relationships among mechanical and physical
properties, working stress data, correlations between environmental conditions, wood
imperfections, and mechanical properties. The primary purposes for testing small, clear
specimens are to obtain the mechanical properties of various species and to provide a means of
control and comparison in production activities. Testing of structural-size members is more
important than testing small, clear specimens since the design values are more applicable to the
actual size members. ASTM D198 presents the testing standards for full-size tests, whereas ASTM
D143 presents the testing standards for small, clear wood specimens.

Tests for structural-size lumber include (ASTM D198):

■ Flexure (bending) ■ Compression (short column)

■ Compression (long column) ■ Tension

Tests for small-clear wood specimens include (ASTM D143):

■ Static bending (flexure) ■ Impact bending

■ Compression parallel to the grain ■ Compression perpendicular to the grain
■ Tension parallel to the grain ■ Tension perpendicular to the grain

Figure 10.14 shows a schematic of test specimens of wood tested in tension, compression,
bending, and hardness.

For both full-size lumber and small, clear specimens, the bending test is more commonly
used than the other tests.
F I G U R E 1 0 . 1 4 Test specimens of wood: (a) tension parallel to grain, (b) tension
perpendicular to grain, (c) compression parallel to grain, (d) compression perpendicular to
grain, (e) hardness perpendicular to grain, (f) hardness parallel to grain, and (g) bending. (©
Pearson Education, Inc. Used by permission.)

Flexure Test of Structural Members (ASTM D198)

The flexure test is performed on members in sizes that are usually used in structural
applications. The test specimen may be solid wood such as laminated wood, or a composite
construction of wood or of wood combined with plastics or metals. The test method is intended
primarily for beams of rectangular cross section, but is also applicable to beams of round and
irregular shapes, such as round posts, I-beams, or other special sections. The member is
supported near its ends and is subjected to two-point, third-point, or center-point loading as
shown in Figure 10.15, depending on the purpose of the test. Figure 10.16 illustrates a two-point
loading flexure test on a glulam structural member.

The span of the beam varies depending on the member size. Specimens with a depth-to-
width ratio of three or greater require lateral support to avoid instability. Loading is continued
until complete failure or an arbitrary terminal load has been reached. The load and the deflection
of the neutral axis of the beam at the center of the span are recorded during the test. From the
load-deflection data, the following data are noted: load and deflection at first failure, at maximum
load, and at points of sudden change. Properties that can be obtained from the test include fiber
stress at proportional limit, modulus of rupture, modulus ofelasticity, and maximum shear stress.
The results of this test can be used in several applications, such as the development of grading
rules and specifications, development of working stresses, and checking the influence of
imperfections on the mechanical properties of structural members.

F I G U R E 1 0 . 1 5 Methods of loading a wood beam: (a) two-point loading,

(b) third-point loading, and (c) center-point loading.
F I G U R E 1 0 . 1 6 Two-point loading flexure test on a glulam structural member.

Design Considerations

Measurement of wood properties in the lab does not reflect all the factors which affect
behaviour of the material in engineering applications. For design of wood structures, the strength
properties given in Tables 10.3 and 10.4 must be adjusted for the following (National Design
Specification® for Wood Construction, 2005):

■ Load duration ■ Wet service

■ Temperature ■ Beam stability
■ Size ■ Volume (glulam only)
■ Flat use ■ Repetitive member (lumber only)
■ Curvature (glulam only) ■ Column stability
■ Bearing area
C H A P T E R

8
MASONRY

A masonry structure is formed by combining masonry units, such as stone, blocks, or

brick, with mortar. Masonry is one of the oldest construction materials. Examples of
ancient masonry structures include the pyramids of Egypt, the Great Wall of China,
and Greek and Roman ruins. Bricks of nearly uniform size became commonly used in
Europe during the beginning of the 13th century. The first extensive use of bricks in
the United States was around 1600. In the last two centuries, bricks have been used
in constructing sewers, bridge piers, tunnel linings, and multistory buildings.
Masonry units (Figure 8.1) are a popular construction material throughout the world
and competes favorably with other materials, such as wood, steel, and concrete for
certain applications (Adams, 1979).

8.1 Masonry Units

Masonry units can be classified as
■ concrete masonry units
■ clay bricks
■ structural clay tiles
■ glass blocks
■ stone
Concrete masonry units can be either solid or hollow, but clay bricks, glass blocks,
and stone are typically solid. Structural clay tiles are hollow units that are larger
than clay bricks and are used for structural and non-structural masonry applications,
such as partition walls and filler panels. They can be used with their webs in either a
horizontal or a vertical direction. Figure 8.2 shows examples of concrete masonry
units, clay bricks, and structural clay tiles. Concrete masonry units and clay bricks are
commonly used in the United States.
316 Chapter 8 Masonry

FIGURE 8.1 Masonry units used in construction.

Width
Length Height

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 8.2 Examples of masonry units: (a) concrete masonry units, (b) clay
bricks, and (c) structural clay tiles.

8.1.1 Concrete Masonry Units

Solid concrete units are commonly called concrete bricks, while hollow units are
known as concrete blocks, hollow blocks, or cinder blocks. Hollow units have a net
cross-sectional area in every plane parallel to the bearing surface less than 75% of
the gross cross-sectional area in the same plane. If this ratio is 75% or more, the unit
is categorized as solid (Portland Cement Association, 1991).
Concrete masonry units are manufactured in three classes, based on their density:
lightweight units, medium-weight units, and normal-weight units, with dry unit
weights as shown in Table 8.1. Well-graded sand, gravel, and crushed stone are used
to manufacture normal-weight units. Lightweight aggregates such as pumice, scoria,
 Section 8.1 Masonry Units 317

TA B L E 8 . 1 Weight Classifications and Allowable Maximum Water Absorption of Concrete

Masonry Units (Reprinted, with permission, from ASTM C90, Table 3 and C129, Table 2,
copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428.)

Maximum Water
Weight Unit Weight Absorption kg/m3 1lb/ft32
Classification Mg/m3 1lb/ft32 (Average of 3 units)

Lightweight Less than 1.68 (105) 288 (18)

Medium Weight 1.68–2.00 (105–125) 240 (15)
Normal Weight 2.00 (125) or more 208 (13)

cinders, expanded clay, and expanded shale are used to manufacture lightweight
units. Lightweight units have higher thermal and fire resistance properties and lower
sound resistance than normal weight units.
Concrete masonry units are manufactured using a relatively dry (zero-slump)
concrete mixture consisting of portland cement, aggregates, water, and admixtures.
Type I cement is usually used to manufacture concrete masonry units; however,
Type III is sometimes used to reduce the curing time. Air-entrained concrete is
sometimes used to increase the resistance of the masonry structure to freeze and
thaw effects and to improve workability, compaction, and molding characteristics of
the units during manufacturing. The units are molded under pressure, then cured,
usually using low-pressure steam curing. After manufacturing, the units are stored
under controlled conditions so that the concrete continues curing.
Concrete masonry units can be classified as load bearing (ASTM C90) and
non–load bearing (ASTM C129). Load-bearing units must satisfy a higher minimum
compressive strength requirement than non–load-bearing units, as shown in Table 8.2.
The compressive strength of individual concrete masonry units is determined by
capping the unit and applying load in the direction of the height of the unit until
failure (ASTM C140). A full-size unit is recommended for testing, although a portion of

TA B L E 8 . 2 Strength Requirements of Load Bearing and

Non–Load-Bearing Concrete Masonry Units (Reprinted, with permission,
from ASTM C90, Table 3 and C129, Table 2, copyright ASTM
International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428.)

Minimum Compressive Strength

Based on Net Area MPa (psi)

Type Average of Three Units Individual Units

Load bearing 13.1 (1900) 11.7 (1700)

Non–load-bearing 4.1 (600) 3.5 (500)
318 Chapter 8 Masonry

a unit can be used if the capacity of the testing machine is not large enough. The gross
area compressive strength is calculated by dividing the load at failure by the gross
cross-sectional area of the unit. The net area compressive strength is calculated by
dividing the load at failure by the net cross-sectional area. The net cross-sectional area
is calculated by dividing the net volume of the unit by its average height. The net
volume is determined using the water displacement method according to ASTM C140.

Sample Problem 8.1

A hollow concrete masonry unit has actual gross dimensions of

7-5/8 in. * 7-5/8 in. * 15-5/8 in. 1width * height * length2. The unit is tested
in a compression machine with the following results:
Failure Load = 250 kips
Net volume of 366.9 in3
a. Calculate the gross area compressive strength.
b. Calculate the net area compressive strength.

Solution
a. Gross area = 7.625 * 15.625 = 119.141 in3
Gross area compressive strength = 250,000/119.141 = 2,098.4 psi
b. Net area = 366.9/7.625 = 48.118 in2
Net area compressive strength = 250,000/48.118 = 5,195.6 psi

The amount of water absorption of concrete masonry units is controlled by ASTM

standards to reduce the effect of weathering and to limit the amount of shrinkage due to
moisture loss after construction (ASTM C90). The absorption of concrete masonry
units is determined by immersing the unit in water for 24 hours (ASTM C140). The
absorption and moisture content are calculated as follows.

Ws - Wd
Absorption 1kg/m32 = * 1000 (8.1)
Ws - Wi
Ws - Wd
Absorption 1lb/ft32 = * 62.4 (8.2)
Ws - Wi
Ws - Wd
Absorption 1%2 = * 100 (8.3)
Wd
Wr - Wd
Moisture content as a percent of total absorption = * 100 (8.4)
Ws - Wd
 Section 8.1 Masonry Units 319

where
Ws = saturated weight of specimen, kg (lb)
Wd = oven-dry weight of unit, kg (lb),
Wi = immersed weight of specimen, kg (lb), and
Wr = weight of specimen as received
Table 8.1 shows the allowable maximum water absorption for load-bearing
concrete masonry units.

Sample Problem 8.2

A concrete masonry unit was tested according to ASTM C140 procedure and produced
the following results:

mass of unit as received = 10,354 g

saturated mass of unit = 11,089 g
oven-dry mass of unit = 9,893 g
immersed mass of unit = 5,136 g

Calculate the absorption in kg/m3, percent absorption, and moisture content of the unit
as a percent of total absorption.

Solution
11,089 - 9,893
Absorption = * 1000 = 200.1 kg/m3
11,089 - 5,136
11,089 - 9,893
Percent absorption = * 100 = 12.1%
9,893
Moisture content as a percent of total absorption
10,354 - 9,893
= * 100 = 38.5%
11,089 - 9,893

Concrete masonry units are available in different sizes, colors, shapes, and
textures. Concrete masonry units are specified by their nominal dimensions.
The nominal dimension is greater than its specified (or modular) dimension by
the thickness of the mortar joint, usually 10 mm (3/8 in.). For example, a
200 mm * 200 mm * 400 mm 18 in. * 8 in. * 16 in.2 block has an actual width
of 190 mm (7-5/8 in.), height of 190 mm (7-5/8 in.), and length of 390 mm (15-5/8
in.), as illustrated in Figure 8.3. Load-bearing concrete masonry units are avail-
able in nominal widths of 100 mm, 150 mm, 200 mm, 250 mm, and 300 mm (4 in.,
6 in., 8 in., 10 in., and 12 in.), heights of 100 mm and 200 mm (4 in. and 8 in.), and
lengths of 300 mm, 400 mm, and 600 mm (12 in., 16 in., and 24 in.). Also,
320 Chapter 8 Masonry

Specified length  390 mm (15 5/8 in.)

FIGURE 8.3 Nominal dimensions
Nominal length  400 mm (16 in.) and specified (modular) dimensions.

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 8.4 Concrete masonry units: (a) stretcher,

(b) single-corner, and (c) double-corner.

depending on the position within the masonry wall, they are manufactured as
stretcher, single-corner, and double-corner units, as depicted in Figure 8.4.
Solid concrete masonry units (concrete bricks) are manufactured in two types
based on their exposure properties: concrete building bricks (ASTM C55) and con-
crete facing bricks (ASTM C1634). The concrete building bricks are manufactured for
general use in non-facing, utilitarian applications, while the concrete facing bricks are
typically used in applications where one or more faces of the unit is intended to be
exposed. The concrete facing bricks have stricter requirements than the concrete
building bricks. The maximum allowable water absorption of the concrete facing
bricks is less than that of the concrete building bricks. Also, the minimum net area
compressive strength of the concrete facing bricks is higher than that of the concrete
building bricks as shown in Table 8.3.

TA B L E 8 . 3 Strength Requirements of Building and Facing

Concrete Bricks (Reprinted, with permission, from ASTM C55 and
C1634, copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428.)

Minimum Compressive Strength

Based on Net Area MPa (psi)

Type Average of Three Units Individual Units

Building Bricks 17.3 (2500) 13.8 (2000)

Facing Bricks 24.1 (3500) 20.7 (3000)
Types of Masonry Walls in Building Construction
Based on the type of individual units used for masonry walls and their functions,
the types of masonry walls are:

1. Load Bearing Masonry Walls

Load bearing masonry walls are constructed with bricks, stones or concrete
blocks. These walls directly transfer loads from the roof to the foundation. These
walls can be exterior as well as interior walls. The construction system with load
bearing walls are economical than the system with framed structures. The
thickness of load bearing walls is based on the quantity of load from roof it has
to bear. For example a load bearing wall with just a ground floor can have its
outer walls of 230mm, while with one or more floors above it, based on
occupancy type, its thickness may be increased.

The load bearing walls can be reinforced or unreinforced masonry walls.

2. Reinforced Masonry Walls
Reinforced masonry walls can be load bearing walls or non-load bearing walls.
The use of reinforcement in walls helps it to withstand tension forces and heavy
compressive loads. The un-reinforced masonry walls are prone to cracks and
failure under heavy compressive loads and during earthquakes. They have little
ability to withstand lateral forces during heavy rain and wind. Cracks also
develop in un-reinforced masonry walls due to earth pressure or differential
settlement of foundations.

To overcome such problems, reinforced masonry walls are used. Reinforcement

in walls are at required intervals both horizontally and vertically is used. The size
of reinforcement, their quantity and spacing are determined based on the loads
on the walls and structural conditions.
3. Hollow Masonry Walls
Hollow or Cavity masonry walls are used to prevent moisture reaching the
interior of the building by providing hollow space between outside and inside
face of the wall. These walls also help in temperature control inside the building
from outside wall as the hollow space restricts heat to pass through the wall.

Fig: Hollow Masonry Wall

When the wall is exposed to moisture for a sustained period and penetrates
through the outer face, the water reaches the cavity or the hollow space and
flows down. Then they are drained through the weep holes to the exterior of the
building. These hollow spaces may be coated with water repellent coating or
damp-proofing to further reduce the ingress of moisture.
4. Composite Masonry Walls
These walls are constructed with two or more units such as stones or bricks and
hollow bricks. This type of masonry wall construction is done for better
appearance with economy.

In composite masonry walls, two wythes of masonry units are constructed

bonding with each other. While one wythe can be brick or stone masonry while
the other can be hollow bricks. A wythe is a continuous vertical section of
masonry one unit in thickness.

Fig: Composite Masonry Wall

These wythes are interconnected either by horizontal joint reinforcement or by
using steel ties.
5. Post-tensioned Masonry Walls
Post-tensioned masonry walls are constructed to strengthen the masonry walls
against the forces that may induce tension in the wall such as earthquake forces
or wind forces.

These walls are constructed from the foundation level and post-tensioning rods
are anchored into the foundation. These rods are run vertically between the
wythes or in the core of concrete masonry units.

After the masonry wall construction is completed and cured, these rods are
tensioned and anchored on the steel place at the top of the wall.
 CE 3102A PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE

HISTORY
The development of cementing materials can be traced back to the Egyptians and Romans
and their use of masonry construction.
 The Egyptians used cement produced by heating process, and this may have been
the start of the technology.
 Roman engineering upgraded simple lime mortars with the addition of volcanic ash
which increased their durability, as evidenced by the sound structures that still stand.
A good example of the durability and longevity of Roman concrete is the Aqua Virgo
built around 19 B.C. Today it still carries spring water over 11 miles to the Trevi
Fountain in Rome.
 The development of concrete or cement technology as we know it today probably
can be traced back to England, wherein 1824 Joseph Aspdin produced a Portland
cement from a heated mixture of limestone and clay. He was awarded a British
patent, and the name “Portland cement” was used because when the material
hardened, it resembled a stone from the quarries of Portland, England.

MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT

The manufacture of Portland cement requires raw materials which contain:
1. Lime
2. Silica
3. Alumina, and
4. Iron

The sources of these elements vary from one manufacturing location to another, but once
these materials are obtained, the process is rather uniform (Table 4–2).

As illustrated in Figure 4–1;

 The process begins with the acquisition of raw materials such as limestone, clay,
and sand.
 The limestone is reduced to an approximately 5-in. size in the primary crusher and
further reduced to 3⁄4 in. the secondary crusher.
 All of the raw materials are stored in the bins and proportioned prior to delivery to
the grinding mill.
 The wet process results in slurry, which is mixed and pumped to storage basins. The
dry process produces a fine ground powder which is stored in bins.
 Both processes feed rotary kilns where the actual chemical changes will take place.
The material is fed into the upper end of the kiln, and as the kiln rotates, the material
 passes slowly from the upper to the lower end at a rate controlled by the slope and
speed of rotation of the kiln.
 As the material passes through the kiln, its temperature is raised to the point of
incipient fusion, or clinkering temperature, where the chemical reactions take place.
Depending on the raw materials, this temperature is usually between 2400°F
(1316°C) and 2700°F (1482°C).
 Chemical recombination of the raw ingredients takes place in this temperature range
to produce the basic chemical components of Portland cement.

The clinker produced

 Is black or greenish black in color and rough in texture.
 Its size makes it relatively inert in the presence of moisture. From clinker storage, the
material is transported to final grinding where approximately 2 to 3percent gypsum is
added to control the setting time of the portland cement when it is mixed with water.
 The resulting concrete will have improved shrinkage and strength properties.

For practical purposes, Type I Portland cement contains the oxides illustrated in Table 4–3.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Portland cements are composed of four basic chemical compounds, shown with their
names, chemical formulas, and abbreviations:

1. Tricalcium silicate
 Tricalcium silicate hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and early
strength. In general, the early strength of Portland cement concretes will be higher
with increased percentages of [Link], if moist curing is continued, the later
strength after about 6 months will be greater for cements with a higher percentage of
C2S.

2. Dicalcium silicate
 Dicalcium silicate hardens slowly, and its effect on strength increases occurs at ages
beyond one week.

3. Tricalcium aluminate
 Tricalcium aluminate contributes to strength development in the first few days
because it is the first compound to hydrate.
  It is, however, the least desirable component because of its high heat generation and
its reactiveness with soils and water containing moderate-to-high sulfate
concentrations.
 Cements made with low C3A contents usually generate less heat, develop higher
strengths, and show greater resistance to sulfate attacks.

4. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
 Tetracalcium aluminoferrite assists in the manufacture of portland cement by
allowing lower clinkering temperature.
 C4AFe contributes very little to the strength of concrete even though it hydrates very
rapidly.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

1. One factor which affects the hydration of cement, regardless of its chemical
composition, is its fineness.

 The finer a cement is ground, the higher the heat of hydration and resulting
accelerated strength gain. The strength gain due to fineness is evident during
the first 7 days.
 Currently the fineness of cement is stated as specific surface (i.e., the
calculated surface area of the particles in square meters per kilogram [m2/kg]
of cement).
 Even though the specific surface is only an approximation of the true area,
good correlations have been obtained between specific surfaces and those
properties influenced by particle fineness. Higher specific surfaces indicate a
finer-ground, and usually a more active, cement.

2. Soundness
 is the ability of a cement to maintain a stable volume after setting.
 Unsound cement will exhibit cracking, disruption, and eventual disintegration
of the material mass. This delayed-destruction expansion is caused by
excessive amounts of free lime or magnesium.
 The free lime is enclosed in cement particles, and eventually the moisture
reaches the lime after the cement has set.
 At that time the lime expands with considerable force, disrupting the set
cement. The current test for soundness in cement is the ASTM Autoclave
test. Standard specimens of neat cement paste are subjected to high
 pressure and temperature for 3 hours. After cooling, the length of bars is
compared with the length before testing and cements that exhibit an
expansion of no more than 0.50 percent are considered to be sound. Since
the introduction of the Autoclave test, there have been almost no cases of
delayed expansion due to unsound cements.

TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT ASTM C150

ASTM Type I (Normal)

This type is a general concrete construction cement utilized when the special properties of
the other types are not required. It is used where the concrete will not be subjected to
sulfate attack from soil or water or be exposed to severe weathering conditions. It is
generally not used in large masses because of the heat generated due to hydration. Its uses
include pavements and sidewalks, reinforced concrete buildings, bridges, railway structures,
tanks, reservoirs, culverts, water pipes, and masonry units.

ASTM Type II (Moderate Heat or Modified)

Type II cement is used where resistance to moderate sulfate attack is important, as in areas
where sulfate concentration in groundwater is higher than normal but not severe. Type II
cements produces less heat of hydration than Type I, hence their use in structures of mass
such as piers, abutments, and retaining walls. They are used in warm-weather concreting
because of their lower temperature rise than Type I. The use of Type II for highway
pavements will give the contractor more time to saw control joints because of the lower heat
generation and resulting slower setting and hardening.

ASTM Type III (High-Early-Strength)

Type III cements are used where an early strength gain is important and heat generation is
not a critical factor. When forms have to be removed for reuse as soon as possible, Type
III supplies the strength required in shorter periods of time than the other types. In cold-
weather concreting, Type III allows a reduction in the heated curing time with no loss in
strength.

ASTM Type IV (Low Heat)

Type IV cements is used where the rate and amount of heat generated must be minimized.
The strength development for
Type IV is at a slower rate than Type I. It is primarily used in large mass placements such
as gravity dams where the amount of concrete at any given time is so large that the
temperature rise resulting from heat generation during hardening becomes a critical factor.
ASTM Type V (Sulfate-Resisting)
Type V is primarily used where the soil or groundwater contains high sulfate concentrations
and the structure would be exposed to severe sulfate attack.

Air-Entraining Portland Cements

ASTM C175 governs the air-entraining cements, Types IA,IIA, and IIIA. The three cements
correspond to Types I, II, and III, with the addition of small quantities of air-entraining
materials integrated with the clinker during the manufacturing process. These cements
provide the concrete with improved resistance to freeze–thaw action and to scaling caused
by chemicals and salts used for ice and snow removal.
Concrete made with these cements contains microscopic air bubbles, separated, uniformly
distributed, and so small that there are many billions in a cubic foot.

White Portland Cement

White portland cement is a true portland cement, its color being the principal difference
between it and normal Portland cement. The cement is manufactured to meet ASTM
C150and C175 specifications. The selected raw materials used in the manufacture of white
cement have negligible amounts ofiron and manganese oxide, and the process of
manufacture is controlled to produce the white color. Its primary use is for architectural
concrete products, cement paints, tile grouts, and decorative concrete. Its use is
recommended wherever white or colored concrete or mortar is desired. Colored concretes
are produced by using a coloring additive, and the white cement allows for more accurate
control of colors desired.

Portland Blast-Furnace Slag Cements

In these cements, granulated blast-furnace slag of selected quality is inter ground with
portland cement. The slag is obtained by rapidly chilling or quenching molten slag in water,
steam, or air.
Portland blast-furnace slag cements include two types, Type IS and Type IS-A, conforming
to ASTM C595. These cements can be used in general concrete construction when the
specific properties of the other types are not required. However, moderate heat of hydration
(MH), moderate sulfate resistance
(MS), or both are optional provisions. Type IS has about the same rate of strength
development as Type I cement, and both have the same compressive strength
requirements.

Portland-Pozzolan Cements
IP, IP-A, P, and P-A designate the portland-pozzolan cements with the A denoting air-
entraining additives as specified in C595. They are used principally for large hydraulic
structures such as bridge piers and dams. These cements are manufactured by
intergrinding Portland cement clinker with a suitable pozzolan such as volcanic ash, fly ash
from power plants, or diatomaceous earth, or by blending the portland cement or portland
blast-furnace slag cement and a pozzolan.

Masonry Cements
Type I and Type II masonry cements are manufactured to conform to ASTM C91 and
contain Portland cement, air-entraining additives, and materials selected for their ability to
impart workability, plasticity, and water-retention properties to the masonry mortars.

Special Portland Cements

Oil Well Cement

Oil well cement is used for sealing oil wells. It is usually slowed setting and resistant to high
pressures and temperatures. The American Petroleum Institute
Specifications for Oil Well Cements (API standard 10A) cover requirements for six classes
of cements. Each class is applicable for use at a certain range of well depths. Conventional
Portland cements are also used with suitable set-modifying admixtures.

Waterproof Portland Cement

Waterproof Portland cement is manufactured by the addition of a small amount of calcium,
aluminum, or other stearate to the clinker during final grinding. It is manufactured in either
white or gray color and is used to reduce water penetration through the concrete.

Figures and Tables

Determination of Initial and Final Setting Times
When water is added to cement, the resulting paste starts to stiffen and gain strength and
lose the consistency simultaneously.
Influence the quality of the concrete:
 Mix design
 Quality control
 The characteristics of the mixing water and aggregates

Properties of the hydrated cement are evaluated with either:

1. cement paste (water and cement) or
2. mortar (paste and sand).

6.7.1 Setting

Setting
- Refers to the stiffening of the cement paste or the change from a plastic state to a
solid state.
- Although with setting comes some strength, it should be distinguished from
hardening, which refers to the strength gain in a set cement paste.
- The term setting implies solidification of the plastic cement paste. Initial and final
setting times may be regarded as the two stiffening states of the cement.
 Initial set and final set. The definitions of the initial and final sets are
arbitrary, based on measurements by either the Vicat apparatus (ASTM
C191) or the Gillmore needles (ASTM C266).
Initial set
- The beginning of solidification.
- Marks the point in time when the paste has become unworkable.
- The initial setting time may be defined as the time taken by the paste to stiffen to
such an extent that the Vicat’s needle is not permitted to move down through the
paste to within 5 ± 0.5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould.

Final set
- The time taken to solidify completely.
- This should not be too long in order to resume construction activity within a
reasonable time after the placement of concrete.
- The final setting time is the time after which the paste becomes so hard that the
angular attachment to the needle, under standard weight, fails to leave any mark on
the hardened concrete.
  The initial set time must allow for handling and placing the concrete before
stiffening. The maximum final set time is specified and measured to ensure
normal hydration.

The Vicat test (Figure 6.5)

- Requires that a sample of cement paste be prepared, using the amount of water
required for normal consistency according to a specified procedure.
- The 1 mm (0.04 in.) diameter needle is allowed to penetrate the paste for 30
seconds and the amount of penetration is measured.
- The penetration process is repeated every 15 minutes (every 10 minutes for Type III
cement) until a penetration of 25 mm (1 in.) or less is obtained. By interpolation, the
time when a penetration of 25 mm occurs is determined and recorded as the initial
set time. The final set time is when the needle does not penetrate visibly into the
paste.
- Used for the purpose of determining the consistency and initial/final set times of
cements and mortar pastes. Initial and final setting times are the rheological
properties of cement.

The Gillmore test (Figure 6.6)

- Requires that a sample of cement paste of normal consistency be prepared. A pat
with a flat top is molded, and the initial Gillmore needle is applied lightly to its
surface.
- The application process is repeated until the pat bears the force of the needle
without appreciable indentation, and the elapsed time is recorded as the initial set
time.
- This process is then repeated with the final Gillmore needle and the final set time is
recorded.

Due to the differences in the test apparatuses and procedures, the Vicat and Gillmore tests
produce different results for a single sample of material.

Other factors that affect the set time include:

 The fineness of the cement
 The water–cement ratio, and
 The use of admixtures.
6.7.2 Soundness

Soundness of the cement paste

- Refers to its ability to retain its volume after setting.
- Expansion after setting, caused by delayed or slow hydration or other reactions,
could result if the cement is unsound.
- The autoclave expansion test (Figure 6.7) (ASTM C151) is used to check the
soundness of the cement paste.
- In this test, cement paste bars are subjected to heat and high pressure, and the
amount of expansion is measured. ASTM C150 limits autoclave expansion to 0.8%.
 F I G U R E 6.7 Cement autoclave expansion apparatus.

6.7.3 Compressive Strength of Mortar

Compressive strength of mortar

- Measured by preparing 50-mm (2 in.) cubes and subjecting them to compression
according to ASTM C109.
- The mortar is prepared with cement, water, and standard sand (ASTM C778).
Minimum compressive strength values are specified by ASTM C150 for different
cement types at different ages.
- The compressive strength of mortar cubes is proportional to the compressive
strength of concrete cylinders. However, the compressive strength of the concrete
cannot be predicted accurately from mortar cube strength, since the concrete
strength is also affected by the aggregate characteristics, the concrete mixing, and
the construction procedures.
Importance:
It is important to know the initial setting time, because of loss of useful properties of cement
if the cement mortar or concrete is placed in moulds after this time. The importance of final
setting time lies in the fact that the moulds can be removed after this time. The former
defines the limit of handling and the latter defines the beginning of development of
mechanical strength.

Conditions affecting Setting Time:

The factors influencing the setting properties of cement are:
1. Its composition
2. The percentage of retardant
3. Degree of calcination
4. Fineness of grinding
5. Aeration subsequent to grinding clinker
6. Percentage of water used to make cement paste
7. The temperature of the mixing water
8. Cement and the atmosphere where the cement paste is placed
9. The amount of manipulation the paste receives.

Setting time of cement is rapid with the increase in the fineness of cement. When the mixing
water used in testing cement paste is increased by 1 per cent above that required for
normal consistency, an increase of about 30 minutes or more is observed in the initial or
final set.

Cements stored in warm rooms will, in general, be quick setting than those stored in cold
places. Cold mixing water retards set while warm water accelerates it. Cement exposed to
thoroughly saturated atmosphere will set much more slowly than those exposed to a dry
atmosphere.
STEEL

Pig iron is further oxidized in another furnace at about 3000°F (1650°C) to produce steel.
Most steel is made by the basic oxygen process, electric-arc process, open-hearth process,
or vacuum process. Each has unique features, but in all cases, pig iron, scrap steel, and
sometimes iron ore are melted together with a flux of limestone or lime. The process is a
repetition of the blast-furnace operation with variations. The purpose is the same—to
remove impurities. Impurities are removed as gases and in the slag.

Phosphorus and sulfur are reduced to less than 0.05 percent of the steel. Manganese
content is reduced to an amount from 0.2 to 2.0 percent; silicon from 0.01 to 0.35 percent.
The final amounts depend on the specifications for the steel. Carbon is the key element in
controlling the properties of ordinary steel called carbon steel. Strength and hardness
increase with an increase in carbon up to about 1.2 percent. Brittleness increases and
ductility decreases as carbon increases. Usually an amount less than 1.2 percent is
specified in order to obtain a product satisfactory in all respects.

Carbon in an amount up to 2 percent is completely soluble in molten iron, and when

cooled, the mixture forms a solid chemical solution. Carbon in greater amounts forms
separate grains of graphite or iron carbide throughout the metal.

Steel is defined as a chemical union of iron and carbon (carbon is, therefore, less than 2
percent by weight) plus other elements. This definition does not exclude every kind of iron.
However, almost all kinds of iron contain carbon in excess of 2 percent and steel usually
contains less than 1.2 percent carbon. Therefore, it is usually obvious whether a ferrous
metal is iron or steel. Customary terminology should be used for borderline cases. The term
iron is used to refer to cast iron, malleable cast iron, ductile iron, wrought iron, or pure iron.
As can be seen in Table 5–2, some of these metals may have less than 2 percent carbon.

Carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus, and sulfur are considered impurities because
generally they must all bereduced below the amount found in iron ore. However, when
present in the correct amount, each of these elements improves the final product. In some
cases, due to the characteristics of the iron ore, there is a deficiency of one or more of these
elements, and they must be added to the molten steel.

Any added element is considered an alloying element, but when only the
aforementioned five elements are involved, the steel is not considered an alloy steel. Other
elements may be added to impart certain properties to steel. These are also called alloying
elements, and the steel that results is called alloy steel. Table 5–3 shows the effects of
alloying elements.
 Steels are identified according to a classification system of the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE). Each type of steel is designated by a group of numbers. The first digit
indicates the class of steel. For example, carbon steel is designated by No. 1 and nickel
steel by No. 2. The next one or two digits indicate the approximate percentage of the major
alloying element for alloy steels. The last two or three digits indicate the carbon content in
hundredths of a percent. The classification system is outlined in Table 5–4.

Besides the key information shown directly by the classification number, percentage
ranges for all impurities and alloying elements are also designated indirectly when the
system is used. The system provides a simplified way to specify steel. For example, a 1018
steel is a carbon steel containing 0.15 to 0.20 percent carbon, 0.60 to 0.90 percent
manganese, 0.040 maximum percent phosphorus, and 0.050 maximum percent sulfur; and
4320 steel is a molybdenum steel containing 0.17 to 0.22 percent carbon, 0.45 to 0.65
percent manganese, 0.040 percent phosphorus, 0.040 percent sulfur, 0.20 to 0.35 percent
silicon, 1.65 to 2 percent nickel, 0.40 to 0.60 percent chromium, and 0.20 to 0.30 percent
molybdenum.

The American Iron and Steel Institute has adopted the SAE system with some variations
and has added letter prefixes to designate the steel-making process used and other letters
to designate special conditions. These designations are also shown in Table 5–4. Table 5–5
shows the American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. (AISC) system of designating
structural steel. Each steel is known by the number of the ASTM standard that describes it.
However, manufacturers may call them by trade names. The figure shows which rolled
plates, bars, and shapes are made of each type of steel. For example, it can be seen that
A529 Gr. 50 steel is carbon steel with a yield stress of 50 Ksi or more and ultimate tensile
stress of 65–100 Ksi, and that only shapes listed in group 1, table A of ASTM A6 and plates
and bars up to 1⁄2 in. thickness are manufactured. ASTM A529 specifies manufacturing
methods, chemical content, and mechanical properties required of steel to be supplied
when A529 steel is specified.

The chemical composition of steel is determined by the composition of the materials

used, the temperature, the length of time in the furnace, the medium surrounding the steel
(whether air, oxygen, or vacuum), and whether open flame or heat. The surrounding
medium depends on the process used, and the other variables can be controlled for each
process. The steel is tested at intervals during the process, and adjustments are made.
Alloying elements are added just before the melt is tapped to flow from the furnace to a
ladle. The steel may be poured directly from the ladle into molds to make castings. Steel
castings are made the same way and used for the same purposes as iron castings. Steel is
stronger and tougher, but more expensive.
 Most of the steel is poured into ingot molds prior to further shaping. The ingots are of
various sizes and shapes depending on their future use. Their weight ranges from hundreds
of pounds to many tons. They are tall compared to their cross sections, which are square or
rectangular. A common size is about 6 ft tall with a cross section 2 ft by 2 ft and a weight
over 4 tons. An ingot is cooled to a uniform temperature throughout in a soaking pit, which is
a furnace where the steel temperature is allowed to decrease to about 2300°F (1260°C). It
is then taken to a mill to be given its final shape.

Steel properties are influenced to a great extent by the mechanical operations that
change an ingot of steel into a useful shape. The operations are rolling, extruding, drawing,
forging, and casting. All except casting may be performed while the steel is in a plastic
condition at a temperature of about 2000°F (1090°C), or as low as room temperature. The
operations are called hot working or cold working.

Hot working breaks up coarse grains and increases density by closing tiny air holes and
forcing the grains closer together. Cold working elongates grains in the direction of the steel
elongation, increases strength and hardness, and decreases ductility. Cold working results
in more accurately finished products, because there is no cooling shrinkage to be estimated.
The surfaces are smoother, because oxide scale does not form as it does during hot
working. Overworking, whether hot or cold, causes brittleness.
 For all but very large objects, working to final shape is done in two stages. The first
stage consists of squeezing the ingot into a smaller cross section between two rollers,
called blooming rolls, which exert a very high pressure. This operation is always performed
while the steel is hot. In the second stage, the ingot is rolled into a much longer piece with a
square or rectangular cross section closer to its final size. The desired cross section is
obtained by turning the ingot 90° to be rolled on the sides as it is passed back and forth
through the rolls. If it is approximately square in cross section, it is called a bloom if large
(over 36 sq in.) and a billet if smaller. It is called a slab if the width is twice the thickness or
more. The appropriate shape is used to manufacture beams, rails, plate, sheets, wire, pipe,
bolts, or other items by one of the following methods.

Rolling consists of compressing and shaping an ingot into a useful shape by squeezing it
through a succession of rollers, each succeeding set of rollers squeezing the material
smaller in cross section and closer to the final shape. The piece being rolled becomes
longer and wider as it is compressed. It may be made narrower by cutting or by rolling after
turning 90° so that the rolling reduces the width. A wide variety of cross sections useful for
construction of buildings and bridges can be rolled in long pieces by means of specially
shaped rollers (Figure 5–5). Flat sheets can be rolled by rollers of a constant diameter.
Corrugated sheets can be rolled from flat sheets by using corrugated rollers. Corrugated
steel roof deck can be seen in Figure 5–15. Hot rolling usually precedes cold rolling until the
steel is close to its final shape. Hot rolling is usually the first step in reducing the size of an
ingot prior to extruding, drawing, or forging.

Extrusion consists of forcing a billet of hot, plastic steel through a die of the desired
shape to produce a continuous length of material of reduced cross section in the shape of
the die. The resulting product has the shape of a rolled product; that is, it is long with a
constant cross section. However, more intricate shapes can be formed by extrusion than by
rolling, and the surface is of higher quality. An extrusion is made in one operation rather
than repetitive operations as in the case of rolling. An extruded section can sometimes be
used in place of a section that requires several operations if formed any other way (Figure
5–6). Extrusions can be made with cross sections having a maximum dimension of nearly 2
ft.

Drawing consists of pulling steel through a small die to form wire or a small rod of round,
square, oval, or other cross section. Steel is hot rolled to form a rod of a size not much
larger than the shape to be drawn. It is then finished by cold drawing. Seamless steel pipe
may also be finished by cold drawing over a round, bullet-shaped mandrel to form a hollow
center and through a die to form the outside. The advantages of cold drawing are a
smoother finish, more accurate size, more strength, and better machinability.
 Forging consists of deforming steel by pressure or blows into a desired shape. The
forging may be made from an ingot or from a rolled shape. The steel is usually heated to a
semisolid state at a temperature over 2000°F (1090°C). In some cases it is forged cold. It is
forced to fill the shape between dies by pressure or blows of the upper die upon the lower
one. The shape may be formed more accurately by successive forgings, each succeeding
operation performed with smaller dies closer to the desired final shape. Instead, the final
shape may be achieved by machining. Many shapes can be either cast or forged.
Economics often determine which method is used. However, forging is preferred if strength
of the part is important. Forging improves the mechanical properties of the metal, as does
other hot working or cold working, and produces a stronger, more ductile, more uniform
product with smaller grain size than is produced by casting.
 After steel cools and is given its final shape, further heating and cooling processes can
change the internal structure and thereby impart certain properties. Heat treatment consists
of heating, holding the metal at the high temperature, and cooling. Even here the rate of
heating is not important, except for high-carbon alloyed steels. The metal is held at the
upper temperature so that it can be heated to a uniform temperature throughout. The rate of
cooling is very important.

Normalizing consists of heating the steel to a temperature of about 1500°F (815°C) or

higher, depending on the type of metal, and cooling several hundred degrees slowly in air.
This process increases uniformity of structure.

Annealing consists of heating the steel to a temperature slightly lower than for
normalizing and cooling it several hundred degrees very slowly, usually in a furnace.
Methods vary somewhat depending on the purpose, which may be to soften the metal,
produce a special structure, facilitate machining and cold shaping, or reduce stresses.

Quenching consists of cooling steel very rapidly in oil, water, or brine from a temperature
of about 1500°F (815°C). Quenching increases hardness and strength, but reduces ductility
and toughness. Residual stresses are introduced by quenching and should be relieved by
tempering.

Tempering consists of reheating the quenched steel to a temperature of 300 to 1200°F

(150 to 650°C) and cooling in air to reduce the residual stresses and increase ductility.
Heating to the lower temperature range produces greater hardness, strength, and wear
resistance, whereas higher heat produces greater toughness.
STEEL TENSILE TEST

Mechanical tests for steel include tension, bending, hardness, and impact. For structural
steel the tension, or tensile, test is the most important (Figure 5–7). The purchaser may
specify that the test be performed on steel from the furnace, after rolling, or after fabrication.
Specimens for testing are poured separately as an ingot is being made or are cut from the
waste material of a rolled member. Specimens may be of various sizes.

The typical tensile test specimen is a 0.500-in.-diameter cylinder machined to a smooth,

accurate circular cross section. The specimen is clamped at each end or threaded into a
testing machine that applies an axial pull at a uniformly increasing rate until the specimen
breaks. As the pulling proceeds, the force is constantly indicated in digits or by a dial on the
machine. Tensile stress is calculated by dividing the force by the original cross-sectional
area.

Before the force is applied, two marks are made on the specimen 2 in. apart in the
direction of the applied force. The two marks are drawn farther apart as the specimen
deforms under the tension. Strain is calculated by dividing the increase in distance between
the marks by the original 2-in. distance.

Stress and strain are determined at regular intervals from readings of force and the
measured increase in distance between the marks. A curve of stress versus strain is plotted
to determine whatever information is desired. The yield stress and rupture stress are often
specified as lower limits for acceptance of steel. (Refer to Figure 1-3a for a typical
stress–strain diagram for steel.) In many cases, a complete stress–strain curve is plotted by
an automatic recorder as the test proceeds.

Automatic devices are available to determine yield strength by noting the strength at the
correct plastic (permanent) deformation as the sample is being tested without plotting a
stress–strain curve.
 FIELD TEST OF
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
WHAT IS QUALITY ?
• Quality is usually defined as the ability of a
product or service to satisfy a given need.
• Hence quality is the Fitness for use.
Quality Assurance
vs. Quality Control
• Quality Assurance is
process oriented and
focuses on defect
prevention, while quality
control is product
oriented and focuses on
defect identification.
Quality Chain
Construction Materials
– Brick
– Concrete
– Stone
– Sand
– Cement
– Bitumen
– Steel
– GI sheet
– Electric wire
– Paint
Sampling
A sample is a limited quantity of something
which is intended to be similar to and represent
a larger amount of that thing
Test Frequency of Different
Construction Work contd.
Component Type/Name of Test Test Frequency
Bituminous i) Softening Point 1 per or part of 15000 sq.m
Material ii) Flash Point 1 per or part of 15000 sq.m
iii) Penetration 1 per or part of 7500 sq.m
iv) Gradation of FA 1 per or part of 7500 sq.m
v) Gradation of CA 1 per or part of 7500 sq.m
vi) Water absorption of CA 1 per or part of 7500 sq.m
vii) LAA 1 per or part of 7500 sq.m
viii) Flakiness Index 1 per or part of 7500 sq.m
Test Frequency of Different
Construction Work contd.
Component Type/Name of Test Test Frequency
Concrete i) FM of sand 1 per or part of 50 cu.m
ii) Water absorption of 1 per or part of 50 cu.m
coarse Aggregate
iii) LAA 1 per or part of 50 cu.m
iv) Gradation of Coarse 1 per or part of 50 cu.m
v) Aggregate 1 per or part of 50 cu.m
vi) Setting Time of Cement Set per or part of 75 cu.m
vii) Crushing Strength of Set per or part of 75 cu.m
Cement (3,7,28 days) Set per or part of 50 cu.m
viii) Crushing Strength of
Concrete
Test Frequency of Different
Construction Work contd.
Component Type/Name of Test Test Frequency
Brick Work i) Compressive Strength of Set per or part of 300 m3
Bricks
ii) Water Absorption of Set per or part of 300 m3
Bricks
iii) Efflorescence of Bricks Set per or part of 300 m3
iv) Setting time of cement Set per or part of 300 m3
v) Compressive Strength of Set per or part of 300 m3
Cement
vi) FM of Sand 1 per or part of 300 m3
Test Frequency of Different
Construction Work contd.
Component Type/Name of Test Test Frequency
Brick Work i) Compressive Strength of Set per or part of 300 m3
Bricks
ii) Water Absorption of Set per or part of 300 m3
Bricks
iii) Efflorescence of Bricks Set per or part of 300 m3
iv) Setting time of cement Set per or part of 300 m3
v) Compressive Strength of Set per or part of 300 m3
Cement
vi) FM of Sand 1 per or part of 300 m3

Reinforcement i) Unit Weight, Elongation & 1 set /dia./1000 kg

Tensile Strength
• Trial Test conducted under actual use
conditions, instead of under controlled
conditions in a laboratory
Field Test OF Brick
• T-test
• Nail test
• Sound test
• Shape, size and color
Field Test of Sand
• Test for silt and clay: Field test can be performed by
rubbing a small amount of sand between fingertips.
If clay spots are left on fingertips, it indicates the
existence of clay in the considerable amount.
• Test for silt and clay: Take a glass of water and add
some quantity of sand and stir the mix. Now allow
the mix to settle and observe it after an hour. Clean
sand will settle immediately but if it forms the
distinct top layer of silt than sand contains silt or clay
particles.
• Test for salt: Can be tested by putting some amount
in mouth. The test will reflect the presence of any
salt.
Field Test of Stone
• Angularity
• Sharpness
• Hardness
• Shape and size
Field Test of Cement
• Color Test of Cement - uniform, grey colour with a light
greenish shade.
• Presence of Lumps – The cement should be free from
any hard lumps.
• Smoothness Test - The cement should feel smooth when
touched or rubbed in between fingers. If it is felt rough, it
indicates adulteration with sand.
• Feel Test of Cement: If hand is inserted in a bag of
cement or heap of cement, it should feel cool and not
warm.
• Float Test: If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a
bucket of water, the particles should float for sometime
before it sinks.
• Date of Packing: Generally, the cement should be used
before 90 days from the date of manufacturing.
Field Tests for Steel Bar
• The pitch length between the twist should be 8 to
12 times that of the nominal diameter of the bar.
• The diameter of the bar should not vary
• Steel should be brittle in nature but soft working.
It should not break into pieces during bending.
Cont..
• Length of the bar should be 11 to 12m.
• Steel should not be corroded.
• Steel should be grey in color.
Field Test OF Bitumen
• Pour test – Since asphalt cement is a solid
at room temperature, it will not pour.
• Field penetration test – When the pencil
point penetrates with difficulty or breaks,
the asphalt cement is hard. When it
penetrates slowly with little difficulty, the
asphalt cement is medium. If the pencil
penetrates easily, the asphalt cement is a
high penetration or soft grade.
 Arbitrary Method of Concrete Mix
Design
• In the arbitrary method of concrete mix design is
supposed to do quantity voids in fresh concrete that
the voids of course aggregate will full fill by the fine
aggregate.
• The cement quantity is used according to given
strength of concrete.
• It is maintained a ratio between cement and quantity.

Strength Mix ratio w/c:

M10 [Link]
M15 [Link] 0.5 to 0.6
M20 1 : 1.5 : 3 0.5
M25 [Link] 0.45
Sample Making
• a) Mixing cement with fine and coarse
aggregate, then adding water
• b) 5-8mins mixing were done for homogeneity.

Mixing Concrete Workability Test

Curing
Vibration

• Vibrator with a radius of influence of 6 in. vibration

• Slab: 30 sec in each layer with gradual change of height
• Beam: 1-2min with gradual change of height
REMEMBER:
Standards are usually specified in the
contract (Specifications).
Good workmanship is essential to
achieve the required quality.
It is your responsibility towards the
community to ensure the best quality of
work regardless of how you are
employed.
Develop and use your own quality
assurance plan for all jobs you are
supervising.