Integumentary System

- Is the organ system that protects the body from damage Chromatophores
- Comprising the skin and its appendages (hair, scales, - Is a prominent layer of pigment cells
feathers, hooves, and nails) - Found in the stratum spongiosum
- Located between the epidermis and dermis
Functions: “Frog skin changes a lot, china oil”
1. Serve to waterproof, cushion, and protect the deeper - The skin darkens when the pigment granules in the
tissues chromatophores spread out and cover other elements in the
2. Excrete waste and regulate temperature skin, and it lightens when they shrink
3. Attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, “Changes in color are caused by both external and internal
sensation, pleasure, and temperature states; low temperatures = darkening
4. In most terrestrial vertebrates, it provides for vitamin high temperatures = lighten
D synthesis

- Consist of the largest organ in the human body (skin) B. Mammalian Skin
- First line of defense against: bacteria, viruses, and other
pathogens Epidermis
- Components of the skin: hair, nails, sweat glands, oil glands, - consists of stratified squamous epithelium, usually
blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves, and muscles. composed of several more layers of cells than that of the
frog and having more flattened keratinized layers at the
A. Amphibian Skin surface.
- Predominant pigment in human skin is melanin, which is
Epidermis produced by melanocytes (located in the basal layers of the
- Outermost layer of the epidermis are thin and flattened and epithelium)
lie parallel to the surface Keratin is a tough proteinaceous material that serve
- Underlying cells are cuboidal, and the cells in the basal layer several functions
are columnar (longer in the direction that is perpendicular to - Relatively waterproof substance and
the skin surface) therefore prevents water from entering the
body through the skin
Stratified squamous epithelium - Prevents water loss
- Gradation from columnar to squamous cells - Protects the underlying epithelial layers from
Germinativum Layer damage through ordinary wear
- Continually produce cells, which are pushed toward - Protective on the palms of the hands and
the surface as new cells are formed soles of the feet
- Becoming flattened and harder (more
cornified) as they move (Cornium) Dermis
- During the summer, a new layer of epithelium - Composed mainly of densely interwoven connective tissue
forms under the old one, the old skin is (note the small blood vessels)
molted/ sloughed off. - The blood vessels of the dermis provide nutrients to the skin
and help regulate body temperature.
Dermis
- Nerve and muscle fibers are also present but can’t be easily Hair follicles & Sweat & Sebaceous glands
seen - Located at various levels in the dermis
Hair follicles
Mucous/Slime gland & Poison glands
- The root of the hair develops into the hair
- Lined by a layer of secretory cells and produce fluids
shaft (free end that protrudes from the
that are secreted onto the surface of the epidermis
surface of the skin)
through ducts.
Sebaceous glands
- Found in the stratum spongiosum (laxum)
- One or more sebaceous glands are located
- Upper layer of the dermis
in the dermis and open into the sebum (hair
Poison glands
follicle substance)
- Can be identified by its larger size and the
- The sebum lubricates the hair and the
granular-appearing material in the lumen
surface of the epidermis and also prevents
(cavity)
evaporation of moisture during cold weather
“If the frog is roughly handled the
(thus conserving heat)
poison glands discharge a thick,
Subcutaneous Layer
whitish secretion that causes a
- Beneath the dermis
burning sensation.”
- Important as insulating layer
Mucous/Slime glands
- Composed of adipose tissue (fat cells)
- Secrete a colourless, watery fluid that keeps
- The number of adipose tissue present varies
the skin moist, glistening, and sticky.
according to the body part and the nutrition of
- The surface openings of the mucous glands
the organism
can be widened/narrowed by the contraction
“The fat cells on your slide will look
of stoma cell (regulates the amount of
empty because the method used to
mucous discharged)
prepare the slide dissolved the fat
Stratum Compactum droplet in each cell, leaving only a
- Lower layer of the dermis contains a large number of thin film of cytoplasm with its
small blood vessels that transport food and carbon compressed nucleus.”
dioxide to the skin and take back oxygen absorbed - The fat cells are held together by fine,
through surface layers from the air fibrous, connective tissue
 Skeletal System
- Supports and protects the body while giving it shape and Lower Jaw (mandible)
form - Is a Metro-Meckelian (small bone located
- Composed of connective tissue including bone, cartilage, anteriorly)
tendons, and ligaments - consist of a rod-like ossified part of
- Nutrients are provided to this system through blood vessels the Meckel’s Cartilage encased by
that are contained within the canals in the bones. the dentary and Angulo-Splenial
which are united with the
Functions: quadratojugal bone
1. Stores minerals, fats, and produces blood cells ● Dentary = thin portion that lies on the lateral
2. Provide mobility surface of the middle of the lower jaw
- The tendons, bones, joints, ligaments, and ● Angulo-Splenial = stout component of the
muscles work in concert to produce various lower jaw inner and posterior to the dentary
movements ● Quadratojugal bone = small bone forming
the posterior end of the upper jaw to which
the posterior piece of the squamosal is
A. Axial Skeleton attached
1. Skull
- Anterior part of the axial skeleton
- Houses the brain and the olfactory, optic, and 2. Hyoid Bone
auditory capsules for the organs of smell, - Located in the floor of the buccal cavity
sight, and hearing between the two arms of the mandibular
- Attached to the anterior end of the vertebral arch
column - On the two anterolateral sides of the body
hyoid, there’s a pair of flat wing-like alary
Divided into processes
I. Cranial Region - A pair of long, flat, and thin Anterior Cornua
- Containing the brain and inner ear arise from the anterior margin of the body of
Cranium hyoid
- Roofed by the frontoparietal bones, nasal - The Anterior Cornua form an arch towards
bones, prootics, and the exoccipital bones the outer side and extend backward to join
● Nasal bones cover the nasal capsules below the fenestra ovalis of the auditory
● Prootics house the inner ears capsule
● Exoccipital bones each of which has rounded - A pair of short and more or less cylindrical
occipital condyles Posterior Cornua arise from the posterior
- The two condyles fit depressions in the first margin of the body of hyoid
vertebra, permitting slight movements of the - The Posterior Cornua are the only bones of
head on the spinal column the hyoid apparatus
- Between the condyles is a large opening
(foramen magnum) through which the spinal Hyoid Apparatus
cord passes. Chiefly formed of
- Between the prootics and the maxilla are I. Dorsoventrally flattened plate of Hyaline
the squamosal and pterygoid bones, which cartilage
form the larger borders of the skull II. A pair of rod-like cartilage bones
Body of Hyoid
II. Facial Region - The broad central part of hyoid apparatus
- Forms the jaws, and encloses the eyes, lying beneath the tongue
nose, and part of the ear
Upper Jaw
- Consists of the small premaxillary bones in 3. Vertebral Column
front and the larger maxillary bones that - There are 9 separate vertebrae and a narrow
extend posteriorly to join with the pterygoid blade-like urostyle
Ventral Surface 1. Centrum
● Maxillary teeth located on the margin - Solid, cylindrical
of the upper jaw - At the base of the vertebra
● Vomerine teeth located on the roof of - Concave in front and convex behind
the mouth (procoelous type)
● Sphenethmoid bone (found on each 2. Neural Arch
side of the parasphenoid bone) - Dorsal to the centrum that which
which connects with the frontoparietal encloses the neural canal, the
bone dorsally, and the parasphenoid opening through which the spinal cord
bone ventrally passes
● Palatines are a slender rod-shaped 3. Neural Spine
bone anterior to the parasphenoid to - Projects dorsally from the arch
the upper jaws - For muscle attachment
● Pterygoids (tri-radiate) are the 4. Transverse Processes
posterior bones on the sides of the - 2; lateral to the centrum and neural
skull ventral to the squamosals which arch
make up the anterior part of the
cranium
 B. Appendicular Skeleton
5. Prezygapophyses - Most vertebrate animals have some form of paired
- Have articulatory surfaces that project appendages supported by pectoral (shoulder) and
anteriorly towards the midline and pelvic (hip) girdles
dorsally - Among vertebrates, there are many modifications
- Associated with the concave centrum in the girdles, limbs, and digits that enable the
in a procoelous type animals to meet the requirements of their special
6. Postzygapophyses modes of life.
- Project posteriorly outward and - The 2 pubes that unite at the mid-ventral portion
ventrally forms the pubic symphysis
- Associated with the convex centrum - The 2 ischia are fused at the mid-ventral portion
in a procoelous type forming the ischiac symphysis
Humerus and femur
- Atlas (first vertebra) lacks transverse processes and - Single strong bones closest to the body in the
is modified anteriorly to receive the two occipital legs of a frog
condyles on the skull. By which the latter articulates Humerus
with the vertebral column - in the anterior limb
- The 9th or Sacral vertebra has enlarged transverse - Is attached to the pectoral girdle at the
processes to which the pelvic (hip) girdle attaches. glenoid fossa (cup-shaped structure where
- Between adjacent neural arches are the foramina the head of the humerus fits) by the
(openings) through which spinal nerves connect to ligaments
the nerve cord Femur
- The vertebral column terminates in a long bone - in the posterior limb
(urostyle) - Head of the femur attaches to the pelvic
girdle in a socket, the acetabulum, the
ilium, ischium and the pubis.
4. Sternum ● acetabulum is formed by the fusion
Scapula of 3 bones of the pelvic girdle
- The bone passing dorsally from humerus ● ilium is a long, slender, anterior bone
- Short flat bone that contains the glenoid that articulates with transverse
fossa processes of the sacral vertebra
- Has a broad extension called that ● ischium is a short, posterior flat bone
suprascapular (a pair of flattened structures which forms the border of the
at the dorsal part of the girdle) acetabulum
Coracoid ● pubis is a triangular bone which
- The bone posterior to the clavicles forms the ventral border of the
- Ventrally and posterior to the clavicle (a pair acetabulum
of slender boned on the anterior median - Distal to the humerus and femur are the
ventral part of the girdle) radioulnar and the tibiofibular
Fenestra Radioulnar
- The empty space between the clavicle and - Fusion of the radius and the ulna
coracoid - Found in the forelimb
Epicoracoid Cartilage Tibiofibular
- Found between the two ends of the coracoid - Fusion of the tibia and fibula
and extending between two clavicles unites - Found in the hindlimb
the two halves of the pectoral girdle ventrally Feet and Hands
Sternum - are built according to a common pattern, with
- Located at the point of junction of the two a number of carpal (wrist) or tarsal (ankle)
clavicles bones followed by a group of elongated
- Continues anteriorly as the omosternum and metacarpal (hand) and metatarsal (foot)
episternum (both absent in toad) bones, and the phalanges (bones of the
- Continues posteriorly as the mesosternum fingers/toes)
and xiphisternum (both present in toad) - The astragalus (inside the foot which is slender and
Mesosternum is the bony portion shorter) and the calcaneum (bigger, longer, and
behind the epicoracoid cartilage outside the foot) joins the tibiofibular to the tarsal
Xiphisternum is the posterior bone.
cartilaginous notch
Why do we dissect?
- Performing dissections in class has a lot to do with the
understanding of the body and the wider world
Reasons:
● Seeing these organs and understanding how they work
within a single animal allows students to understand how
these systems work within many other animals, including
themselves.
● In addition to learning about themselves, students can learn
about ecology and evolution through frog dissection.
● Dissection is a valued educational tool thanks to its
hands-on nature. It is thought of that if students see and feel
these organ systems for themselves, they will take more out
of the lesson than if the teacher just lectured or assigned
readings about it.
● Also, some teachers express the hope that by learning
about their own bodies through dissection, students will
come to respect how their bodies work, and think about how
they treat them and what they put into them.

Other fun facts

● One reason frogs are often chosen to be dissected is that
their bodies provide a good overview of the organ systems
of a complex living thing
○ The organs present in a frog, and the way they are
laid out in the body are similar enough to humans to
provide insight for students about how their bodies
work.
○ Certain body structures and adaptations can be seen
in frogs that illustrate how they evolved over time
and how they fill particular niches in the ecosystems
they belong to
“For example, the tongue of a frog has adapted to
have a great length, strength, and speed in order to
effectively catch insects in flight”
“The role that this tongue allows the frog to fulfill
consuming insects as its primary food source—is
important in the balance of many ecosystems the
frog is a part of.”
● There are practical advantages in using frogs:
- They’re an appropriate size for dissection in the
classroom and make the process manageable for
students and teachers
- Frogs have a relatively short life span to begin with,
and while some species of frogs are rare, others are
abundant and are therefore prime candidates for use
in dissection.