Power Conversation Applications

Source: https://www.power-eng.com/2020/01/17/increasing-wind-turbine-reliability-through-blade-pitch-control-upgrades/#gref
 Case Study: Doubly-fed Induction Machines-
Wind Turbine
Fixed speed: Variable speed:
Wound-rotor
Induction Network
generator

SCIG
Soft-starter
Capacitor Network Crowbar PWM converters
protection
bank
Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG)
Fixed-speed induction generator (FSIG)
Generator Network
Side Side
Converter Converter
Gearbox

Variable-speed wind turbines have more Generator

control flexibility and improve system efficiency Power

converter
Network

and power quality.

Fully-rated converter wind turbine (FRC)
2
Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/13787336/
 Introduction

• Normal operation as a fixed speed induction motor: slip-rings are short circuited.
• Wound-rotor induction machines may have the stator and rotor connected to
separate AC sources having different frequencies. They are said to be doubly-fed
machines.
• Such machines, when operating as motors, can be used to drive variable-speed
pumps.
• They can also be used as variable-speed generators driven by wind turbines.
➢ The rotor of a wound rotor machine carries a three-
phase distributed winding with the same number of
poles as the stator.
➢ This winding is usually connected in star with the ends
of the winding brought out to three slip rings, enabling
external circuits to be added to the rotor for control
purposes.
Typical torque-speed characteristic

𝑛𝑠 − 𝑛𝑟
𝑠=
𝑛𝑠

At standstill the speed is zero

4
Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/13787336/
Power Flow

Motor Generator

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 3 𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜙 𝑃𝑔 𝑃𝑚𝑖 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3 𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜙 𝑃𝑔 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇𝑚 𝜔𝑚

𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 3𝐼12 𝑅1 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 3𝐼12 𝑅1 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 3𝐼2ሖ2 𝑅2′ = 𝑠𝑃𝑔

ሖ 𝑅′ 1−𝑠
2 2
𝑃𝑔 = 3 𝐼2 = 3 𝐼2ሖ2 𝑅2′ + 𝑅2′ W
𝑠 𝑠

1−𝑠
𝑃𝑚𝑖 = 3 𝐼2ሖ2 𝑅2′ W
𝑠
A DFIG system can deliver power to the grid through the
stator and rotor, while the rotor can also absorb power. This
is dependent upon the rotational speed of the generator.
At low wind speeds, the drive train's rotation is slower than the grid frequency. In this mode, energy is
fed into the rotor (at the right frequency) and superimposed on its ‘rotation’ frequency. Although this
‘additional’ energy is provided by the grid, its amount is significantly less than the stator's output.

When the wind speed increases and drives the rotor at super-synchronous speeds, energy is recovered
from the rotor (at rotor frequency), converted to grid frequency and, then, supplied to the grid.
Basics Revisited

𝒇𝟐
𝒇 𝒏𝒓 𝒏𝒔
𝑛𝑠 − 𝑛𝑟 𝑓2 𝒔𝒏𝒔
𝑠= =
𝑛𝑠 𝑓 𝒇𝟐
𝑓2 = 𝑠𝑓 𝒔𝒏𝒔 + 𝒏𝒓 = 𝒏𝒔

The flux created by the stator current will rotate (with respect to the stationary stator winding) at the
synchronous speed 𝑛𝑠 .
The rotor rotates (in the same direction as stator flux) at a speed 𝑛𝑟
The frequency of the rotor current is 𝒇𝟐
The flux created by the rotor currents will rotate (with respect to the rotor) at a speed = 𝒔𝒏𝒔
With respect to a stationary observer, the flux created by the rotor currents rotates at: 𝑛𝑟 + 𝑠𝑛𝑠 = 𝑛𝑠
 𝑰𝑺
Example 1 4-pole
𝑰𝑹
50-Hz Rotor winding is
connected to a
10-Hz supply

𝑛𝑠 = 1500 rev/min

𝑓2 10
𝑠= = = 0.2
𝑓 50

𝑛𝑟 = 𝑛𝑠 1 − 𝑠 =1200 rev/min

𝒇𝟐
𝒇 𝒏𝒓 𝒏𝒔
𝒇𝟐 𝒔𝒏𝒔
𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟎𝟎
 𝑰𝑺
Example 2 4-pole
𝑰𝑹
50-Hz Rotor winding is
connected to a
5-Hz supply

𝑛𝑠 = 1500 rev/min

𝑓2 5
𝑠= = = 0.1
𝑓 50

𝑛𝑟 = 𝑛𝑠 1 − 𝑠 =1350 rev/min

𝒇𝟐
𝒇𝟐 𝒇 𝒏𝒓 𝒏𝒔
𝒔𝒏𝒔
𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟎 + 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎 =𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎

We can regulate the motor (rotor) speed by connecting the

rotor winding to a variable-frequency source.
 𝑰𝑺
Example 3 4-pole
𝑰𝑹
What happens if we 50-Hz Rotor winding is
interchange two of the connected to a
leads connected to the 5-Hz supply
slip-rings?
𝑛𝑠 = 1500 rev/min
𝑓2 −5
𝑠= = = −0.1
𝑓 50

𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝟐
𝒇 𝒏𝒓 𝒏𝒔
𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟎 𝒔𝒏𝒔
−𝟏𝟓𝟎 + 𝒏𝒓 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎

The motor runs at a super-synchronous speed.

 DFIG Power Electronic Converters

DC-link Grid side

Machine
(Machine
Side (rotor)
stator)
Source: https://www.darrahelectric.com/blog/show/dynex-igbt-modules

➢ Graetz bridge (two-level VSC)

➢ IGBT-Power Devices Converter C1 Converter C2
➢ Pulse Width Modulated (Sinusoidal, Space
Vector PWM) Voltage source converters (VSCs)
➢ Typically, switching frequencies above 2 kHz 11

Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/13787336/
 INVERTER RECTIFIER

ഥ𝒐
𝑽

𝟑 𝟔
𝑛𝑟 < 𝑛𝑠 ഥ𝒐 = − 𝟑
𝑽
𝟔
𝑽𝑹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 𝜶≥
𝝅
ഥ𝒐 =
𝑽 𝑽
𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝒔
𝑉𝑅 is the rms phase voltage at slip-rings 𝑉𝑠 is the rms supply phase voltage
 𝑓, 𝑽𝒔

RECTIFIER INVERTER

ഥ𝒐
𝑽

𝑝
𝑓 = 𝑛𝑟 + 𝑓2
60 𝟑 𝟔
ഥ𝒐 =
𝑽 𝑽 ഥ𝒐 = − 𝟑
𝑽
𝟔
𝑽𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 𝜶≥
𝝅
𝑛𝑟 > 𝑛𝑠 𝝅 𝑹 𝝅 𝟐
𝑉𝑅 is the rms phase voltage at slip-rings 𝑉𝑠 is the rms supply phase voltage
 3𝑉𝑠 3𝑉𝑠

3𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝐼
3𝑉𝑡 3𝑉𝑠
𝑇1 ∶ 𝑇2
N2 ∶ N1
𝑇1
𝑎=
𝑇2
−
𝑠𝑉𝑠 𝑁2
𝑉𝑅 = 3 6 𝑠𝑉𝑠 3 6 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉 = 𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑠
𝑎 = 𝑛 𝑉 cos 𝛼 𝑁1 𝑠
𝜋 𝑎 𝜋 𝑡 𝑠
𝑠
3 6 = 𝑛𝑡 cos 𝛼 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑡 cos 𝛼 3 6
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉 𝑎 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉 cos 𝛼
𝜋 𝑅 𝜋 𝑡
In practice, 900 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 155𝑜
3 6
3 6 𝑠𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑛 𝑉 cos 𝛼
𝑉𝑑 = Therefore, 0 ≤ 𝑠 ≤ − 0.906 𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝜋 𝑡 𝑠
𝜋 𝑎
𝑠
𝛼 = cos −1
For negative slip Theoretically, 900 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 180𝑜
𝑎𝑛𝑡
 Example 4
A 4-pole induction generator is connected to a 400-V (line-to-line), 50-Hz system through two converters, as illustrated
below. The generator is driven by a wind-turbine via a gearbox. If the rotor speed is 1800 rev/min, indicate the mode of
operation of each converter and the required firing angle of the converter that is operating in inversion mode. The
induction generator’s stator-to-rotor effective turns ratio is 2.086 and the transformer turns ration N2/N1 = 0.6.

fs = 50 Hz, ns = 1500 rev/min

Nr = 1800 rev/min, fr = 60 Hz, slip = - 0.2

𝑠𝑉𝑠
Rotor Voltage 𝑉𝑅 = and the dc link voltage at the output
𝑎
3 6 3 6 𝑠𝑉𝑠
of converter 1 is 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉𝑅 =
𝜋 𝜋 𝑎
Energy to be recovered from rotor winding at 10 Hz.
3 6
For converter 2 (the inverter): 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 Converter 1 will be a diode rectifier (no thyristors are
𝜋
triggered) and converter 2 will invert the dc link voltage
and supply recovered energy to mains at 50 Hz.
−0.2
𝛼= cos −1 = cos −1 −0.1598 = 1.731 rad 0r 99.2𝑜
2.086 × 0.6
High voltage dc (HVDC) transmission

16
Limitations Of Long-Distance AC Transmission
• Stability
• Reactive power and Voltage regulation
• Line compensation
• Interconnection of AC systems
• Current limit
• Voltage limit
• Power per conductor

17
 Why Use HVDC?
• Fast and accurate control of power transfer not dependent on
system angles
• Interconnection between asynchronous systems
• Frequency and Voltage independent
• Provides isolation from system disturbances in other system
• To transmit large bulk power over a long distance
• Losses proportional to current squared
• AC systems also have reactive power losses
• Long AC systems use series capacitors to automatically compensate vars
• This can cause sub-synchronous resonance which can harm machines
• DC terminals also have real and reactive power losses, but they occur only at the
injection points and can be more easily compensated

18
 Basic Principle
• AC is converted into DC (Rectifier Side)
• DC is then converted into AC (Inverter Side)
• Both use controlled power electronic switches to allow current to flow
in a controlled fashion
• By adjusting firing angles of the Thyristors, we can control the
magnitude of DC voltage of the rectifier and inverter
• The difference of the DC voltages impacts the magnitude of current and
power flow
• The polarity (which side is higher) controls the direction of power flow

19
 HVDC System Configurations
and Components
HVDC links can be broadly classified into:

• Monopolar links
• Bipolar links
• Homopolar links
• Back-to-back links
• Multiterminal links

20
Monopolar Links Bipolar Links
• It uses two conductors, one positive
and the other negative
• It uses one conductor
• Each terminal has two converters of
• The return path is provided by ground equal rated voltage, connected in
or water series on the DC side
• Use of this system is mainly due to • The junctions between the converters
cost considerations is grounded
• A metallic return may be used where • Currents in the two poles are equal and
earth resistivity is too high there is no ground current
• This configuration type is the first step • If one pole is isolated due to fault, the
towards a bipolar link other pole can operate with ground and
carry half the rated load (or more using
overload capabilities of its converter
line)

21
 Homopolar Links
• It has two or more conductors all having the same polarity,
usually negative
• Since the corona effect in DC transmission lines is less for
negative polarity, homopolar link is usually operated with
negative polarity
• The return path for such a system is through ground

22
 Components of HVDC Transmission
Systems

• Converters
• Smoothing reactors
• Harmonic filters
• Reactive power
supplies
• Electrodes
• DC lines
• AC circuit breakers

23
 HVDC Power Electronic Converters

•They perform AC to DC and DC to AC conversion

•They consist of Thyristor (or most recently IGBT) bridges and
transformers
•Thyristor bridge consists of high voltage Thyristors connected in a 3n
pulse (e.g. 6-pulse or 12-pulse) arrangement
•The transformers are ungrounded such that the DC system will be
able to establish its own reference to ground

24
 Thyristor Based Converters

• There are two main types of converter technologies used for HVDC
transmission
• Line Commutated Converters (LCC) based on Thyristors, and
• Voltage Source Converters (VSC) based on IGBTs
• LCC is the older and more mature technology
• VSC is a new technology which has started coming ups since 2000
• In every DC system one set of converters operate as rectifiers (AC to
DC) and another set as inverters (DC to AC)
• Our discussion will mainly focus on LCC based on Thyristors

25
Rectifier Operation

26
 Rectifier Operation
• α – delay angle
• u – overlap angle (due to commutation)
𝑉0
• The rectifier DC voltage output 𝑉𝑑 = cos(𝛼) + cos(𝛼 + 𝑢)
2
3 2𝑉𝑡
• Where 𝑉0 = , Vt being the AC terminal voltage
𝜋
3𝑋𝐶𝑅
• Also, 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝐼𝑑
𝜋
• Where XCR is the commutating reactance and Id is the DC current
• If there are n series connected bridges (e.g. 12 pulse converter with 2
3𝑋𝐶𝑅
• bridges), then 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑛(𝑉0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝐼𝑑 )
𝜋
• In the rectifier mode 0 < α < 90o
27
Example-1
A bridge connected rectifier is fed from 220 kV/110 kV transformer
with primary connected to 220 kV. Determine the DC output voltage
when the commutation angle is 15° and the delay angle (a) 0°, (b) 30°
and (c) 45°.

Solution:
𝑉0
𝑉𝑑 = cos(𝛼) + cos(𝛼 + 𝑢)
2
3 2𝑉𝑡 3 2×110
Where 𝑉0 = = = 148.6 kV
𝜋 𝜋
(a) For α = 0°
148.6
𝑉𝑑 = cos(0) + cos(0 + 15) = 146.06 kV
2 28
(b) For α = 30°
148.6
𝑉𝑑 = cos(30) + cos(30 + 15) = 116.87 kV
2
(c) For α = 45°
148.6
𝑉𝑑 = cos(45) + cos(45 + 15) = 89.68 kV
2

29
Example-2
voltage is 100 kV and the rectifier A bridge connected rectifier is fed from 220 kV/110 kV
transformer with primary connected to 220 kV. The commutation angle is 15° and the
delay angle 30°. If the DC output delivers 800 A, determine the effective reactance per
phase.

Solution:

3 2𝑉𝑡 3 2×110
𝑉0 = = = 148.6 kV
𝜋 𝜋

3𝑋𝐶𝑅
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝐼
𝜋 𝑑
𝑋𝐶𝑅
100 × 103 = 148.6 × 103 cos 30 − 3 × × 800
𝜋
𝑋𝐶𝑅
3× × 800 = 148.6 × 103 cos 30 − 100 × 103
𝜋

28691.38×𝜋
𝑋𝐶𝑅 = 3×800
= 37.6 Ω

30
 Inverter Operation
Delay angle (α). The time, expressed in electrical degrees, by which the
starting point of commutation is delayed. It cannot exceed 180°. It is also
called ignition angle or firing angle.
Overlap angle (u). The time, expressed in degrees, during which the
current is commutated between two rectifying elements. It is also called
commutation time. In normal operation, it is less than 60° and is usually
somewhere between 20° and 25° at full load.
Extinction angle (δ). The sum of the delay angle α and the overlap angle
u of a rectifier and is expressed in degrees.
Ignition angle (β). The delay angle of an inverter and is equal to π − α
electrical degrees.
Extinction (advance) angle (γ) [may also be shown as δ] . The
extinction angle of an inverter. It is defined as the time angle between the
end of conduction and the reversal of the sign of the sinusoidal
commutation voltage of the source.
31
Inverter Operation
• The inverter DC voltage
𝑉0
𝑉𝑑 = cos(𝛾) + cos(𝛽)
2
3 2𝑉𝑡
• Where 𝑉0 = , Vt being the AC terminal
𝜋
voltage
3𝑋𝐶𝐼
• Also, 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 − 𝐼
𝜋 𝑑
3𝑋
• And 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝜋𝐶𝐼 𝐼𝑑
• Where XCI is the commutating reactance
and Id is the DC current
• If there are n series connected bridges (e.g.
12 converter with 2 bridges), then 𝑉𝑑 =
3𝑋
𝑛(𝑉0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 − 𝜋𝐶𝑅 𝐼𝑑 ) OR
3𝑋𝐶𝐼
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑛(𝑉0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝐼 )
𝜋 𝑑
• In the inverter mode 90o < α < 180o
32
 Power Flow in HVDC System
3𝑋𝐶𝑅
= 𝜋

3𝑋𝐶𝐼
= 𝜋

𝑉𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼−𝑉𝑜𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 𝑉𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼−𝑉𝑜𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 Extinction angle of

The DC current 𝐼𝑑 = = inverter
𝑅𝐶𝑅 +𝑅𝐿 +𝑅𝐶𝐼 𝑅𝐶𝑅 +𝑅𝐿 +𝑅𝐶𝐼
• Id can be controlled by changing α
• If Id is less than required, decrease α
• If Id is more than required, increase α

The powers factors are:

𝑉𝑑𝑟 1
Rectifier side 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝑅 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + cos(𝛼 + 𝑢)
𝑉𝑜𝑟 2
𝑉𝑑𝑖 1
Inverter side 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝐼 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + cos(𝛿 + 𝑢)
𝑉𝑜𝑖 2

33
Example-3
A DC link has a loop resistance of 10 Ω and is connected to transformers giving a
secondary voltage of 120 kV at each end. The bridge connected converters operate as
follows:
Rectifier: delay angle (α) = 15o, X = 15 Ω
Inverter: Extinction (advance) angle (γ) = 10o, overlap angle (u) = 15o, X =15 Ω
Calculate the direct current delivered.
Solution method-1:
3𝑋𝐶𝑅 3 2 3 × 15 × 𝐼𝑑
𝑉𝑑𝑟 = 𝑉0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝐼𝑑 = 120,000 × cos 15 −
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

𝛽 = 𝑢 + 𝛾(𝑜𝑟𝛿) = 15 + 10 = 25 𝑜

3𝑋𝐶𝐼 3 2 3 × 15 × 𝐼𝑑
𝑉𝑑𝑖 = 𝑉0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝐼𝑑 = 120,000 × cos 25 +
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

34
Example-3 contd.
R = 10 Ω

𝑉𝑑𝑟 − 𝑉𝑑𝑖 156,530 − 14.32𝐼𝑑 − 146,870 − 14.32𝐼𝑑

𝐼𝑑 = =
𝑅 10

10𝐼𝑑 = 9660 − 28.64𝐼𝑑

𝐼𝑑 = 250 A

35