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Professional
Writing
4th edition

Sky Marsen
© Sky Marsen, under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited
2003, 2007, 2013, 2020
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this
publication may be made without written permission.
No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted
save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence
permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,
Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
The author has asserted her right to be identified as the author of this
work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
This edition published 2020 by
RED GLOBE PRESS
Previous editions published under the imprint PALGRAVE
Red Globe Press in the UK is an imprint of Springer Nature Limited,
registered in England, company number 785998, of 4 Crinan Street,
London N1 9XW.
Red Globe Press® is a registered trademark in the United States,
the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries.
ISBN 978–1–352–00799–2 paperback
This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully
managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing
processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the
country of origin.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
Contents
List of Figures, Tables and Examplesviii
Acknowledgements and Thanksxii
Preface xiii

Chapter 1  The Writing Process 1

Rhetoric and genre 3
Audience analysis 5
Writing in professional contexts 9
Generating content 14
Drafting18
Overcoming writer’s block 20
Tips for successful writers 21
References and further reading 23

Chapter 2  Writing Style 25

Sentences and style 27
The three “golden rules” of professional writing 34
A typology of style 42
Audience and medium matters 47
References and further reading 51

Chapter 3  Short Business Documents 53

Short reports 55
Progress reports 57
Everyday communication documents 58
Memoranda (memos) 61
Email62
Writing in bullets 67
Oral presentations 70
References and further reading 75

Chapter 4  Research Methods 76

Types of research 76
Evaluating sources 84

v
vi Contents

Types of sources 86
The Internet 88
Copyright and plagiarism 92
Plagiarism and copyright in business contexts 95
References and further reading 98

Chapter 5  Journalism99
A journalism primer 100
Layout and page design 102
Organization of content 104
Journalistic style 107
Writing for the media 110
Accuracy in journalism 111
Developing journalistic texts 115
Integrating quotations 125
Leads, hooks and ties 126
Submitting an article for publication 129
References and further reading 131

Chapter 6  Public Relations Writing 132

Public relations texts 132
Press releases 134
Web writing 138
Social media 148
Speech writing 151
Interviews153
Crisis communication 154
References and further reading 159

Chapter 7  Reports and Proposals  161

Reports161
Visuals167
Proposals170
Business plans 176
Problem-solving reports 178
Front matter 179
Body of report 180
End matter 182
 Contents vii

Brief, executive summaries and recommendations 183

Life fitness club 185
References and further reading 198

Chapter 8  Critical Thinking for Management 199

Principles of critical thinking 200
Fallacies of reasoning 201
Statistics and public opinion 205
Argument in management 208
The Toulmin and stasis models 209
References and further reading 213

Chapter 9  Working in Teams 214

Team dynamics 215
Task allocation 216
The leader 218
Project management 218
Team roles 221
Conflict222
Testimonials on teamwork 227
Team charter 230
References and further reading 231

Chapter 10  Revising and Editing 232

Sentence structure 232
Relative clauses: which and that 236
Active and passive voice 238
Participial phrases 241
Subject–verb–pronoun agreement 243
Punctuation245
Spelling254
Revising and editing 258
Style guides 260
A final note 261
References and further reading 263

Appendix: Job Applications265

Index 280
Figures, Tables and Examples

Figures
1.1 Mind map 15
1.2 Storyboard 17
5.1 Inverted pyramid format 101

Tables
1.1 Planning factors 4
1.2 Audience analysis 7
1.3 Analysis of brief 11
1.4 Nightmare instructions 13
1.5 Writing actions 18
2.1 Adverbial conjunctions and their functions 33
2.2 Common wordy clichés 41
3.1 General business writing principles 54
4.1 Survey questions 80
4.2 Checklist for evaluating internet sources 90
5.1 Stylistic strategies of specialist and journalist writing 113
6.1 Guidelines for media interviews 153
7.1 Charts and graphs 168
7.2 Proposal components 171
7.3 Book proposal components 173
7.4 Feature article proposal components 174
7.5 Common objections to proposals 175
7.6 Common objections to book proposals 175
7.7 Layout of business proposals 176
7.8 Layout of business plan 178
7.9 Discussion writing formats for reports 181
7.10 Layout of investigative reports 183
9.1 Criteria for evaluating team member contributions 225
9.2 Groupthink 227
10.1 Commonly confused words 255
10.2 Revision chart 260
10.3 Style guide sections 261
App1 Career values 266

viii
 Figures, Tables and Examples ix

App2 Action words to describe skills 271

App3 Skill phrases 275
App4 Bad writing in CVs 279

Examples
Chapter 1
Example One: Audience dynamics 6
Example Two: Improved audience dynamics 6

Chapter 2
Example One: Cohesion 34
Example Two: Specialist style 44
Example Three: Journalistic style 45

Chapter 3
Example One: Letter 60
Example Two: Memo 63
Example Three: Email 66
Example Four: Revised email 66
Example Five: Incorrect bullet point list – mixed points 68
Example Six: Incorrect bullet point list – chronological sequence 68
Example Seven: Incorrect bullet point list – no parallel structure 69
Example Eight: Corrected parallel structure in bullet points 69

Chapter 5
Example One: Informative feature article 106
Example Two: Comparative feature article 108
Example Three: Style adaptation 114
Example Four: Analysis of feature article 124

Chapter 6
Example One: Promotional press release 136
Example Two: Informative press release 137

Chapter 7
Example One: Business plan 185
Example Two: Consulting report 189

Chapter 8
Example One: Developing an argument 210
To my professional writing students – present,
past and future
Acknowledgements
and Thanks
Various people have supported, in different ways, the writing and re-writing of
this book since its first edition. Thank you to all.
For this fourth edition, I would like to thank Derek Wallace for reviewing
changes and offering valuable advice, and Ben Stubbs for suggesting
improvements and giving me detailed feedback on what works and what
doesn’t. I would also like to thank Robert Biddle for his valuable suggestions on
the writing needs of IT students, and Andrei Sleptchenko for explaining
probability and statistical reasoning to me.
Many thanks go to colleagues and students at the California Institute of
Technology, who have given me valuable feedback on teaching activities and
the framing of communication tasks – especially Steven Youra, for our insightful
exchanges on communicating technical concepts to non-specialists, and Ken
Pickar’s engineering teams for their input on teamwork and project
management. Thank you also to my writing students at the University of
Southern California, for providing a challenging and rewarding environment
where many of the tips, examples and activities were developed. Also, thanks to
all those who have used the book in their classes and given me feedback,
especially Donna Banicevich Gera for discussing the book with me on many
occasions and giving me useful tips.
My gratitude goes to Jill and Rob Bradley, for giving me a lovely writing room
in their home in Auckland, where this fourth edition came into being. Finally,
many thanks to my editors, Suzannah Burywood and Rosemary Maher, for their
helpful guidance.

xii
Preface
Under current trends, the 21st century will be characterized by an increasing
diversification of the consumer market, global communications and the collapse
of traditional professional boundaries. In this climate, competence in
transferring skills, addressing diverse audiences and understanding emerging
needs becomes paramount for professional success. To a very large extent this
competence is enhanced by the ability to understand, construct and manipulate
written information in order to use it effectively in a variety of situations. Good
business means good writing!
This book is a brief but comprehensive introduction to major aspects of
professional writing for different media. Its content is interdisciplinary, offering a
rare opportunity to synthesize methods and ideas developed in text analysis,
journalism and management. By combining conceptual aspects of written
communication with practical applications, the goal of this book is to assist
readers to express ideas effectively in different written formats, in a variety of
professional contexts internationally.

Distinctive features
The main features of the book, in its fourth edition, are:
1 An eclectic theoretical foundation, informed by genre theory, rhetoric,
discourse analysis and narrative theory. In addition to its theoretical
background, the fourth edition is informed by information on business
practices collected through communication with professionals in the United
States, Australia, New Zealand and Hong Kong, from both corporate and
entrepreneurial fields. The aim was to gather and then disseminate
information that is relevant for professionals communicating in international
business today.
2 As in its previous editions, a direct, concise and student-oriented approach.
The book has expressly avoided the density of many other books on writing,
opting instead for a more hands-on approach, which student-writers should
find very accessible. The aim was to design an easily consultable text that
includes clear instructions on selected areas of interest, gives analysed
examples that place the instructions into perspective and provides
opportunity for practice.

xiii
xiv Preface

Audience
The book was written primarily as a university text for one-semester
undergraduate courses in professional writing or business communication.
However, it is by no means limited to this audience. Because it gives useful tips
and conceptual resources to overcome the most common troublespots in
professional writing, it will serve as a practical guide to anyone who wants to
become more confident in choosing an appropriate style and layout to suit the
occasion. Those who will benefit most from the guidelines offered here
include:
 Students in professional writing and business communication courses
 New professionals, who may be thrust into a professional situation
that requires the production of formal written documents (such as
consulting reports, newsletter articles, or copy for a website) without
prior training
 Entrepreneurs, business people and scientists who want to inform
management or the public of a new development, product or invention in
their field, but lack the linguistic and/or communicative expertise to produce
an effectively constructed written text.

Skills
By working through the book, readers will gain the skills to:
 Understand and use essential terminology and key concepts in describing
writing within the context of professional communication
 Understand and employ the skills needed for writing problem-solving reports
for clients and management, journalistic articles for the wider public and
public relations documents in different media
 Adapt written communication for a specific audience and purpose, and
understand the role of different media in communication
 Perceive writing as a process involving planning, drafting, revising and
editing, and become aware of their own procedures of writing
 Understand the uses of writing in collaborative projects and in project
management
 Develop awareness of critical thinking issues in relation to management and
business contexts.
 Preface xv

Trajectory
In its fourth edition, the book consists of ten main chapters and an appendix:
Chapter 1: The Writing Process
This chapter looks at the planning and thinking aspects of writing. Using an
approach informed by genre, rhetoric and narrative, it discusses ways to analyse
a brief, understand audiences and plan a writing project.
Chapter 2: Writing Style
This chapter looks at elements of style and their adaptation for different audiences.
It outlines a new typology of style going from specialized to public and discusses
such aspects of writing as appropriate length of sentences for different effects,
word choice and sentence variety as a technique to maintain reader interest.
Chapter 3: Short Business Documents
This chapter overviews and analyses the major short documents produced in
business contexts. These include everyday communication texts, such as
agendas and minutes of meetings, letters, memos and email. This chapter also
discusses techniques that make successful oral presentations.
Chapter 4: Research Methods
This chapter looks at the role and methods of researching in the preparation of
professional documents. It provides guidelines on research skills, preparing
questionnaires for interviews and obtaining data in different media. It also
discusses copyright and plagiarism issues as they relate to professional contexts.
Chapter 5: Journalism
This chapter discusses genres used to inform the public of recent developments
in technology, science and business. It overviews journalistic techniques of
writing and magazine layout matters, and focuses on feature articles, which can
be written for magazines or newsletters.
Chapter 6: Public Relations Writing
This chapter looks at public relations genres, such as press releases, web content
and public speeches. It considers the differences between print, broadcast and
digital media in communicating with the public, and explores the increasing
importance of social media for business.
xvi Preface

Chapter 7: Reports and Proposals

This chapter looks at proposals, business plans and problem-solving reports. It
discusses the conceptual concerns involved in writing these documents, such as
finding convincing evidence, and explains their conventional structures with
examples of complete reports.
Chapter 8: Critical Thinking for Management
This chapter looks at aspects of reasoning and persuasion in professional
documents and mass media texts. It explains approaches to argument
construction in professional texts and examines issues of faulty or manipulative
reasoning. It also overviews the uses and abuses of statistics in the popular
media.
Chapter 9: Working in Teams
This chapter describes the role of teamwork and collaboration in projects. It
explains the different role allocation models for team projects and explains the
stages of project management and the terms used to describe its elements. It
discusses the presence of conflict in team projects and some ways to manage
conflict constructively.
Chapter 10: Revising and Editing
This chapter focuses on sentence structure and grammatical aspects of writing.
It provides guidelines on the revising and editing process and explains some
common trouble spots at the sentence level. The chapter is a reference tool for
all aspects of writing and can be used at any stage in a particular writing task or
be revisited at different times in the duration of a course.
Appendix: Job Applications
This chapter looks at some important considerations in the job-hunting process.
These include ideological and personal factors, such as assessing values and
professional aspirations, as well as practical techniques, such as writing a CV.

For those of you who have used the book in its previous editions, you will find
that the fourth edition is updated, extensively revised and reorganized, in light
of feedback from instructors who have adopted the book in their courses, and
students who have learned from it.
For those of you who are coming to the book for the first time (and possibly
to the world of professional communication for the first time too), I welcome
you and hope you find the material given here useful and stimulating.

Sky Marsen
 Chapter

1
The Writing Process

Focus:
 The writing process
 Rhetorical and genre analysis
 Writing in business contexts
 Planning a writing project

The skill of writing is acquired through conscious and persistent effort: unlike
our ability to speak, it is not an innate skill that we are born with. Writing is
more complex than speaking for several reasons. One reason is that it is
separate from any form of physical interaction: writing can take place at a
totally different time and place from reading. This leaves the written text more
open to misunderstanding than the spoken text. Since they are not likely to be
present when their readers read their document, writers must try to perceive
their text from the readers’ point of view and write in a way that is clear and
relevant to their audience. Another reason is that writing is thought-active. The
simple fact that you want to write about a topic triggers thought processes
that give this topic a particular shape out of a range of alternatives. To
paraphrase Flannery O’Connor, we don’t know what we think until we read
what we write. The changes that take place from thinking to writing explain
why many novice writers state that their final result is not what they initially
wanted to express, or that what is in their mind comes out differently on the
written page.
Because of the complexity of written communication, a successful written
text does not emerge spontaneously, but requires considerable preparation
and revision. As Ben Yagoda (2004) comments, “speaking takes place in real

1
2 Professional Writing

time and is an improvisational performance; writing permits, encourages and

to some extent requires reflection and revision. It is an artifact” (p. 26). Even a
brief email requires some revision to ensure it is clear and accurate. And
although much business and technical writing follows standard conventions
of style and organization, each task presents a new problem to solve with its
own audience and situation. This chapter looks at some major tested
techniques for creating effective written documents, from concept to delivery
copy. We focus on the conceptual and idea-generating aspects, as well as the
organizational and analytical skills that develop through careful revision and
editing.
The techniques discussed here are not the only way to write; there are almost
as many variations of the writing process as there are writers. Professional
writers of all varieties, business, academic, journalistic and creative, gradually
develop their own technique of writing. If it works, then stick with it – if not,
consider different techniques.
In fact, writers could be classified into two major categories, top-down and
bottom-up writers. Top-down writers begin by brainstorming an outline of
their document, and then filling it in with content. They work better when
they see the structure of their text, and like to have a “map” or “big picture”
of the whole document before writing the details. Bottom-up writers, on the
other hand, prefer to free-write their ideas without attention to structure.
They are more data-driven, and end up with many points, facts and
examples before they consider how to give form and coherence to their
draft.
Regardless of what category of writer you are, effective writing is the result
of a process consisting of three interconnected stages: the planning or
conceptualizing stage, the drafting stage and the revising/editing stage.
In contrast to what is commonly believed, it is the first and third stage that
require the most time and attention. You will find that by having a clear vision
of what you want to accomplish (stage one), and giving yourself adequate time
to re-phrase, delete, rearrange and add information to sections (stage three),
you are creating your work. In fact, many professionals who make their living
from writing state that planning and revising take about 85% of the time
assigned to a task. The drafting stage is just a bridge between careful planning
and structuring information. All well-prepared professional documents require
this process of writing, although how long each stage takes varies depending on
the length and significance of the document, and on whether you are a
top-down or bottom-up writer.
 The Writing Process 3

Rhetoric and genre

US President Theodore Roosevelt once said that “the most important single
ingredient in the formula of success is knowing how to get along with people”
(Maxwell, 2007, p. 41). Also, research in business communication has
repeatedly shown that successful business professionals are those who actively
participate in the culture of their organization, that is, those who fit in the
organizational environment – the team players. Understanding that the writing
you do as business professionals creates and sustains relationships with
managers, peers, stakeholders, clients and the public (or, negatively, breaks
these relationships) is the first step in conceptualizing business writing as a social
activity. The guidelines proposed here are informed by rhetorical and genre
theory, which takes into account audience, purpose and context (Bazerman &
Prior, 2004; Bhatia, 2004; Cockcroft & Cockcroft, 2005; Swales, 1990).
Rhetoric proposes that all texts aim to have a particular effect on their
readers or listeners, for example to persuade, motivate, inform, warn, etc. If
this desired effect is not achieved, it most likely means that the writer or
speaker did not accurately assess the readers’ dispositions or the situation in
which the communication took place. It could also mean that the way the
information was presented conflicted with or did not meet reader expectations.
In many cases, written material can be classified as a certain document
format or genre. As a simple illustration of this point, think about how a
shopping list looks when compared with a car manual, or a letter compared
with a film script. Knowing what genre we are reading helps to cue us into
what sort of language we might expect the writers to use, how they will
organize their material, whether they are likely to include graphs and other
visuals, and so on. Genre theory proposes that document formats, such as
report, article, essay, email, etc., exhibit certain standard features that
capture the requirements of particular rhetorical situations, and are
therefore appropriate for these situations. For example, a magazine feature
article is shorter than a scientific article and therefore cannot contain as
much detail as the latter; a report is divided into sections with headings for
easy skimming and “chunking” information into categories, etc.
Although genres change over time, and indeed need to be revised to reflect
changing circumstances and emerging media, the conventional structure of a
type of text is shared knowledge between writers and readers and forms a
recognized and accepted way to exchange information. Genre considerations
include such elements as degrees of formality, document length and the
inclusion or not of visuals.
4 Professional Writing

Keeping these factors in mind, when planning a piece of writing consider the
five factors in Table 1.1:

Table 1.1  Planning Factors

1. Who is the audience? What do they already know about the topic? What do they
not know? What do they not want to know? In what areas are they likely to be
specialized (so that you may form analogies between your topic and those areas)?
How much detail do they need? How much of the big picture do they need?
2. What is the purpose of the document? For example, does the document inform?
Analyse? Clarify? Persuade? Will it be used as the basis for a decision? How do you
want to change or affect the readers through your document?
3. What is the most appropriate genre? What is the best format in which to present
your information related to the situation? Would an email do the job, or do you
need to produce a full investigative report?
4. What is the most appropriate medium for the audience, purpose and genre? Would
your message be clearer if transmitted electronically, or in print, or maybe orally on
the phone or in person? If you’re sending a report to a client, would a PDF
attachment to an email be the best way, or should you send a printed copy through
the post? Or both?
5. What is the most appropriate style of writing? Different genres are conventionally
written in a particular style or register; for example, a report is expected to be written
in more formal style than an email, and a newsletter article is expected to have a
lighter tone than a contract. How do you want to appear through your writing?
Knowledgeable? Considerate? Strict? Friendly? Your style, formed through sentence
structure and word choice, will help you to achieve your desired writing persona.

The professional world abounds with examples where making the wrong
decision on the above factors led to costly and serious misunderstandings. For
instance, a famous case of this occurred during the Columbia Space Shuttle
Incident in 2003 (Columbia Investigation Board Report, 2003; Gurak & Lannon,
2007; Marsen, 2014). Columbia disintegrated upon re-entry into the Earth’s
atmosphere, which led to an Investigation Board being formed to find out what
went wrong. Among other things, such as technical damage done to the shuttle
wing during the launch, the Board found several serious communication factors
that contributed to the accident.
In one of these, the engineers responsible for evaluating the condition of
the shuttle during and after the launch suspected that the wing was damaged
by a piece of foam that was dislodged during the launch, and they presented
their suspicions to management during a briefing session. However, they made
a tactical error by choosing a PowerPoint presentation to convey their findings.
In fact, they put the most important information in one crammed slide.
 The Writing Process 5

The management, who were expecting serious scientific results to be

presented in a technical report, did not place as much significance on the
presentation as was needed because, for them, information on PowerPoint
slides did not carry enough urgency. In this example, engineers and
management did not share the same genre expectations, and so important
technical findings were lost in communication fog.
Such considerations make it desirable for organizations to take measures to
ensure consistency in the uses of language by all employees. Large organizations
have what is known as house style to maintain a consistent style among all
documents, and to induct employees in the uses of language favoured by the
organization. This usually comes in the form of a manual or guide that describes
the company’s templates and conventions for using such techniques as
abbreviations, spelling, numbers and fonts.

tIp

When joining a new company find out about the house style. If starting a new
company, make house style a priority in your communication plan to support clarity
and uniformity in document design.

More on house style is given in the last chapter. More information on genre,
medium and style is given in Chapters 2 and 3. The next section looks at
audience considerations.

Audience analysis
Every act of writing takes place in a new context, with a unique time, place or
reader. Audience adaptation (or accommodation as it is sometimes called) refers
to the skill of arranging words, organizing thoughts and formatting a document
to best achieve your desired effect on the target audience. Audience dynamics
refers to the relationship that writers form with their readers through their style,
and through the amount and structure of information that they provide. The 
audience dynamics are effective when the readers get a sense of satisfaction that
the questions raised in the text were relevant to their interests, and the answers
or solutions provided were convincing. In contrast, audience dynamics are
ineffective when the readers feel frustrated or offended because the writer’s tone
is condescending, the answers or solutions provided are simplistic in relation to
the complexity of the questions, or the argument is emotive and based on
generalization.
6 Professional Writing

tIp

To maximize your ability for effective audience dynamics, assess the reader’s needs,
knowledge and interest by conducting an audience analysis before writing.

In all, for a text to be successful, there must be writer–reader complicity. In other

words, the readers must feel that the writer is on their side, supporting their
interests and respecting their needs. If readers feel that a writer treats them as
an example of a general category, rather than as specific individuals, they are
more likely to resist accepting the information given.
For an example of bad audience dynamics and lack of writer–reader
complicity, consider the following text, which comes from a government
information leaflet telling employers about laws governing sexual and racial
discrimination. It is tactless because, by grouping all employers into one
category, it implies that the readers may be practising discrimination. Also, it
fails to bring in the main topic (Equal Opportunity Act) till the very end, when
there is actually no space to give any information about it.

Example One: Audience Dynamics

Sexual and racial discrimination is practised by various employers, in retail, small
business, industry and corporate environments in a number of parts of the country; it is
an important community problem and a direct cause of considerable personal distress.
As an employer, as a Human Resources Officer, or as a business owner, it is
important for you to know about the Equal Opportunity Act.

Here is a revised version, which creates more complicity between the issuing
authority and the readers, by addressing the readers directly and showing them
that the information given is for their benefit. Also, this version has improved
presentation and appearance by including a title and bullet points, and by
introducing the main topic earlier.

Example Two: Improved Audience Dynamics

Employers and the Equal Opportunity Act
You can play an important part in preventing discrimination if you are responsible for
employing staff in

 Retail
 Small business
 The Writing Process 7

 Industry
 Corporations.

The Equal Opportunity Act has been legally enforced since it was passed by
Parliament in 1995. This Act makes it illegal for anyone to discriminate – to treat
people unfairly because of their gender, race, colour, descent, or ethnic origin.
If you know of anyone in your business environment that rejects a suitable
candidate for a position because of their gender, or ethnic group tell them about
the Equal Opportunity Act. You can also ask the Commissioner for Community
Relations for more information.

Marketing executives and consumer researchers, who have a strong interest

in understanding market responses, and who, therefore, conduct extensive
research in mass perceptions, take into account five factors of audience analysis:
(a) Education, (b) Status, (c) Attitude, (d) Demographics and (e) Psychographics
(Table 1.2).

Table 1.2  Audience Analysis

Education refers to the readers’ knowledge (or lack of knowledge) in the topic that
you are writing about. What would be the likely interest of the readers in your topic,
and what aspects of your topic are most likely to interest them? Should you begin with
the big picture to put the readers into perspective, or go straight to the details that you
want to focus on? Are you writing to people of the same educational background as
yours (that is, peers), or to those of different training?

Status refers to the writer’s degree of authority and/or power relative to the readers.
Are you writing to your boss, to a group of peers or to someone who is junior to you?
Is your reader a client with whom you intend to continue doing business, or the
general public that you can only see from a bird’s eye view? Are you an expert
presenting information to a non-specialist audience, or a novice showing to an
authority how much you know about a subject?

Attitude refers to the state of mind you expect the readers to be in when they read
your document. Will your message find them hostile, neutral or positive? How
motivated are they to read your document? Are you proposing revolutionary changes
to a situation you think your readers will resist changing? Are you informing them of a
breakthrough that will undoubtedly improve the quality of their lifestyle, and that they
will be happy to know about? Are you giving them good or bad news?

Demographic analysis works on the principle that the population can be grouped,
and that each group shows a tendency to think or behave in broadly similar ways.
Demographic characteristics include gender, occupation, social class (that is, income
level), age and location/nationality (that is, international or local audience).
8 Professional Writing

From a person’s demographic profile, certain inferences can be made about their
degree of knowledge, expectations and aspirations, though they are not always
foolproof. For example, in most Western societies a middle-class white woman is
probably educated to upper secondary school or tertiary level – but not necessarily.
Also, teenagers are not likely to be classical music fans, but, again, this may not be so.
Demographic research is based on the lowest common denominator of prevailing
social trends, and, therefore, operates mostly on stereotype.

Psychographics refers to the lifestyle, values, leisure activities and social self-image that
the readers are likely to have. Marketing research shows that people react favourably
towards products and services that they see as representative of themselves. Similarly,
readers will respond differently to your message according to their values. What are their
interests, opinions and hobbies? In the rapidly changing and diversifying contemporary
world, interests and values are less and less tied to demographic issues. For example,
when computer games first started to develop, they were associated with a target
market of young males in the 15 to 25 age group. As this form of entertainment
evolved, the target market changed, and there are now computer games that attract
females, older males and other demographic groups. An analysis of the computer game
market, therefore, is more likely to benefit from a psychographic examination that would
see the computer game market as a special interest group, rather than a demographic.

Demographic and psychographic analyses are especially relevant in journalistic,

marketing and public relations writing where you address a wider public.

In addition to these categories, consider whether you have only primary

readers or also secondary and immediate readers. In many cases, the person who
will first read the document is not the primary audience. It could be a manager
or editor, an intermediary between the writer and the primary audience – the
immediate audience. The immediate audience often acts as a form of filter or
quality control agent of the information before it reaches the primary audience.
Additionally, you could have a secondary audience who are likely to read the
document even if they are not the target group.
Consider an example. If you submit an article for publication to a specialist
magazine, you are writing for a public that is interested in the topic of your
article; they are your primary audience. However, before the article reaches this
audience, it will be read by the magazine’s editor, who will make the final
decision about whether to publish the article or not. The editor is, then, the
immediate audience (and maybe the only audience, if they reject the article!).
If published, the article may also be read by readers who are not primarily
interested in the topic: they could be journalism students, for example, studying
the article as an example of writing. They would be the secondary audience.
Matters get complicated when a document has different levels of
audience, primary, immediate and secondary, who have different interests
and/or subject-knowledge. Such cases make it difficult to imagine who you
 The Writing Process 9

are writing to. A solution to this problem is to include a section that gives

background and definitions of terminology for novices, or, in reports, to include
an appendix with more technical details for experts. This way you would be
distributing information in a clearly marked and accessible way to the different
groups of readers. Returning to the example of the article to the editor, you
could include a letter with your article explaining to the editor your goals in
writing the article and justifying your content and stylistic choices (indeed article
submissions are generally accompanied by a proposal). This way you address the
editor’s concerns and cater for your primary audience’s anticipated questions.
As a final note to audience analysis, remember to include yourself in the
analysis, since you are an interlocutor in the communicative exchange. Analyse
your role: as a professional you are always performing a role that is more or
less detached from your personal concerns. Also, as part of your professional
position, you will be asked to play different roles for different situations. For
example, if you are the CEO of a company you would have top management
responsibilities, such as making executive decisions on major financial
initiatives and making long-term plans on new product development.
However, when addressing shareholders in situations such as public relations
speeches, conferences and product exhibitions, you assume the sub-role of
equal, sharing the same values and working towards the same interests. The
language you use should reflect this equality, or your audience will be alienated
and discouraged.

Writing in professional contexts

Writing in professional contexts is pervasive. In fact, most tasks in the workplace
are accompanied by some form of writing. Even face-to-face interactions, such as
meetings, are preceded and followed by such documents as agendas and
minutes. Business documents can be internal, external or both. Internal documents
are circulated within the organization, and include such genres as memoranda
(memos), in-house templates and style guides. External documents are directed at
clients, other companies (business to business or B2B communication), the media
and the public, and include such genres as sales letters and disclosure statements.
Many genres, such as certain kinds of reports and email, can be both internal and
external. Also, some genres are associated with specific professions while others
are general. For instance, most business people, no matter what their actual job,
write proposals to request funding or approval for a project, while Public Relations
officers write annual reports and press releases, and Human Resources officers
write employment contracts and job descriptions.
Two terms are important when considering business writing: Project and
Brief. Tasks in management most often take the form of projects. A project at
10 Professional Writing

management level brings together specialists from different fields in order to

accomplish an aim, which could include developing a new product, creating an
advertising campaign, solving a problem or evaluating the company’s strategic
plan. Most of the work of managers takes place within the scope of defined
projects. In all cases, a project takes place within specified time parameters
(deadlines are important in business) and a budget. It also addresses particular
questions or issues and has specific goals and objectives to achieve. All this
information goes to project members through a brief.
Basically, a brief (also known as terms of reference in longer projects) is an
instruction to perform a task. If it is internal, it may be a short and direct
command: “Investigate the ways in which the company could recruit more
talented professionals.” This task would then become your project, and you
would need to decide how best to approach it. A brief could also involve detailed
specifications spread over several pages. The latter is often the case in briefs
requesting lengthy investigations after a crisis. Problem-solving reports are based
on a brief provided by the client or manager, which indicates what is required
and how the commissioned specialists should structure their report. Similarly,
advertising companies that organize competitions on campaign skills issue a brief
which candidates must address to win funding and/or a position in the company.
However, a brief is not only a formal document that presents issues to be
addressed in a project. It also sets the stage on which project members will
perform. This is because writing itself is not, as is often assumed, a purely
mental activity. Rather, it involves the whole sensory framework: think of the
physical arousal produced by an action novel or a sexy story; words can cause
perspiration, a racing heartbeat, laughter and tears. In fact, it could be said
that understanding a text means having the sensation of being where the
action takes place. This line of reasoning is informed by the narrative approach
to business communication, which sees companies as being organized as
stories. The narrative approach recognizes that narrative, or storytelling, is a
fundamental part of our cognitive framework and manifests in many human
endeavours and creations. Narrative exists, not only in the stories we tell or
write, but also in our perception of the world (Cooren, 2015; Taylor, 1993;
Taylor & Van Every, 2000).
Adapting this approach for professional writing, we can see the brief as
giving the information for the story of the project. It contains, explicitly or
implicitly, information on stakeholders, issues, problems, strengths and
limitations of a business situation. Therefore, a useful way to analyse a brief and
establish a plan of action for a project is to read it in terms of three categories:
scene, content and treatment (Table 1.3).
 The Writing Process 11

Table 1.3  Analysis of Brief

Scene: This includes big picture matters, such as the scope and framework of the
project, the audience(s) and their relation to you as project member, the stakeholders
who may not be the audience of your writing but are involved in some way in the
project, and the event or context that triggered the project. Generally, the scene
involves the level of power and perspective your project involves. If your project is part
of a top management strategy, it will have a larger scope and a more long-term
planning orientation, involving more issues and anticipating changes and
developments. If it is part of a middle management strategy, it will involve more
immediate concerns and specific issues. A top management perspective requires more
research and analysis and tends to produce more complicated and lengthier
documents than a middle management perspective, which looks at issues concerned
with a specific product or service.

Content: This includes the issues that you need to cover, or questions that you must
answer. The content is determined to a significant extent by the raw materials, sources
and limitations that you are given to handle the project, such as funding, deadlines,
access to resources, and equipment. For example, if you have one day to produce a
one-page report, obviously what you write will not be as detailed or analytical as when
you have two years and unlimited resources to investigate and solve a problem.
Historical aspects are also part of the content. For example, if you are investigating the
advantages of networking systems for your company, in addition to analysing
computer systems, you would need to look at the use of networking in your company
and in your industry as a whole.

Treatment: This includes the tasks into which the project should be divided in
order to be completed successfully. It is the plan of action and the steps to be
taken. The treatment includes physical and interactive actions, such as organizing
meetings and conducting interviews and focus groups, and the type of documents
that you decide to produce for a situation. For example, a simple email message
may be sufficient in some situations. In other cases, you may need to follow-up
your email message with a formal letter or maybe a memo, while a more serious
situation would require the submission of a proposal leading to a full report. The
treatment also includes the ways in which to present information according to
audience needs. For example, if you decide that a PowerPoint presentation is
enough to inform an audience of your progress on a project, what kinds of data
will you use in the presentation? Would a verbal description suffice? Should you use
tables, charts and graphs? Should you provide a full financial analysis of the
situation?

The problems that can arise when the scene, content and treatment of a
project are not properly interpreted can clearly be seen in disaster situations.
The NASA space program provides another example of this, in the famous
and well-documented example of the Challenger space shuttle disaster in
12 Professional Writing

January 1986. It is now widely recognized that the explosion of the shuttle was
largely due to misunderstandings that occurred in the exchange of written
information between NASA officials before the launch. Although some officials
had detected a functioning error in the shuttle and knew what had to be done
to fix it, they did not communicate their finding in an appropriate way to the
responsible parties (Herndl et al., 1991).

tIp

A brief can also be productively improvised to assist in the writing process even in
cases when it is not handed out by others. For instance, if you find your progress in a
project is hindered by some uncertain factor, or if you want to achieve an aim but
have no idea how to go about it, you should find that conceptualizing and writing
down your situation in the form of a brief (that is, a set of instructions or issue
statement to yourself) may prove very productive.

A final point about professional projects: recording and detailing your projects is
vital in corporate contexts, where mobility is high and staff are transferred or
change position often. The person replacing you should be able to continue
your work without interruption. This is known, in some IT contexts, as working
in “drop dead” mode, which means that if a team member or manager were
to drop dead, s/he should leave adequate documentation and specifications
on their work so that projects are not disrupted because they were wholly
dependent on their initiator’s habits and methods. Keeping notes on a project
is, therefore, essential. Below is a template, based on the tripartite model
described above, that you can use or adapt to help you document writing tasks
in a project.

Document Planning Template

Scene

1 Scenario (situation that triggered the task)

2 Purpose(s) of document

3 Target date for delivery

4 Audience analysis
 The Writing Process 13

Content
1 Main message to convey
2 Key Issues
(a) ––––––
(b) ––––––
(c) ––––––
(d) ––––––

Treatment
1 Genre
2 Supplementary Documents
(a) ––––––
(b) ––––––
(c) ––––––

As an opportunity to reflect on the above guidelines, consider what can go

wrong in communication. One area that is notorious for miscommunication is the
writing of technical instructions or user manuals. In many cases, these instructions
are at best obscure, at worst dangerously misleading. Look at Table 1.4 for some
real-life instructions from hell and think about how each reflects unsolved
problems at the planning stage. What should the writers do to improve these?

Table 1.4  Nightmare Instructions

From a technical manual:
Since the user interface for analyser calibration refers to calibration as “calibration”, this
chapter will refer to the process of calibration as calibration.
From a manual for a database package:
An action is to be taken on the third non-consecutive day that an event occurs.
From a technical manual for the British military concerning the storage of nuclear weapons:
It is necessary for technical reasons that these warheads should be stored with the top
at the bottom and the bottom at the top. In order that there may be no doubt as to
which is the top and which is the bottom, for storage purposes it will be seen that the
bottom of each warhead has been labelled with the word “TOP.” (Cited in a book on
computer science published by the Computer Science Department of the University of
Virginia – www.cs.virginia.edu/cs/50/book/ch-programming.pdf.)
From a software user manual:
When you first start the application, the options bar appears on the top left of your screen,
and is where option settings are set for the options used with the currently selected tool.

WARNING: The options bar may not be located on the top left of your screen.
14 Professional Writing

Generating content
Generating content is an analytical practice. This is where researching
and thinking come in. Depending on the audience and purpose, different
types of research would be relevant. For example, you may decide that
interviewing would supply you with essential facts; or you may decide that
doing a historical research on a topic would be more suitable; or perhaps a
combination of methods would help. Collecting facts, however, is not
sufficient. You need to think about the significance of these facts and to
interpret them. This is where your skills of analysing ideas (tracing their
constituent elements), and synthesizing them (evaluating their significance
in a given context) come in.
The process of generating ideas tests your capacity for critical and creative
thinking: your ability to imagine all possible aspects or factors of a problem.
Analytical thinkers do not simply arrive at the most obvious solution to a
question; they test out a range of possible answers and keep an open mind.
As happens with chaos theory, sometimes information that initially seemed
irrelevant proves to be the key. To be able to trace analogies between
seemingly disparate topics and to suggest innovative solutions are skills highly
sought in professional and corporate environments. In fact, at the cutting edge
of many industries and business endeavours are individuals who are not only
highly motivated and organized, but also creative and versatile in their
thinking.
The following are some ways to generate ideas. Try them and see which
combination suits you.

Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a creative technique pioneered by Alex Osborn in the 1950s
(Osborn, 1963) and has since been very productive in generating new
concepts in business contexts. Brainstorming lets you list all the ideas that
come to your mind randomly about a particular topic. Brainstorm by writing
single words, phrases or full sentences – whatever comes to mind. Many
writers find that brainstorming in groups is particularly productive. In fact,
brainstorming sessions are now routine practice in many corporations, used
to solve problems and to design new products. For example, IBM holds such
sessions regularly both within one department and across departments and
sections. Also, many popular products were initially conceived during
brainstorming sessions. For instance, Twitter was conceived as a Short Message
Service (SMS)-based social networking site by Jack Dorsey, during a day-long
brainstorming session.
 The Writing Process 15

Mind mapping
Mind mapping was devised by Tony Buzan and is similar to brainstorming but
more visual and less linear. Create mind maps by:
 Starting with a word or image central to your topic.
 Placing it in the middle of a big sheet of paper and drawing a line radiating
out from it to a major subdivision of the topic.
 Circling that subdivision, and drawing a line radiating out from it to a more
specific subdivision.
 Continuing the process until you run out of ideas.
Mind mapping is especially useful to those who find it easier to assimilate and
understand schematic information than linear or sentence-based reasoning. See
Figure 1.1 for an example of a mind map on the subject of digital piracy.

Figure 1.1 Mind map

Asking journalists’ questions

Journalists’ questions begin with what is known as the 5Ws and 1H
interrogatives:

–– Who? –– Where? –– When?

–– What? –– Why? –– How?
16 Professional Writing

You can approach your task by listing as many journalists’ questions about your
topic as you can. Questioning encourages you to look at a topic from many
different perspectives and may help you to narrow the issue that you are
investigating. Journalists’ questions are especially useful when your task involves
much factual information, because they actually force you to answer them by
providing specifics rather than open-ended or ambiguous statements. News
reporters, who need to convey facts as quickly and objectively as possible, use
these questions to craft their news stories.

Bouncing ideas
Bouncing ideas means talking about your project to someone. The aim here is
to listen to yourself talk about your task, so it is not important if your
interlocutor is versed in your topic or not. In fact, some writers find that talking
about their topic to someone who is a total outsider helps them to clarify issues.
If you are having trouble solving a particular problem, talk about why you are
having trouble. Variations on this method include recording yourself, which has
the advantage of capturing your thoughts exactly. Some people are most
productive in generating and developing ideas when they can move around
and create kinetic energy.

Writing scientific categories

If your topic involves interpreting a scientific development or process to a
non-specialist audience, simplify and analyse the topic in your own mind by
brainstorming as many statements as possible under these categories:

Existence: How can the existence of X be shown?

Quantity: How large/small is X/How fast?

Comparison: Is X greater/less than Y? In what ways is X different from Y?

Correlation: Does the speed of X vary with its weight?

Causality: If X occurs, will Y also occur? How do we know?

Outlining
With outlining you first come up with section topics, then a summary of the
document, and then gradually expand your ideas to create the final document.
After some brainstorming, extract the key themes that you identified and give
them headings. Under each heading, brainstorm some more points that are
related to the heading’s theme. Having “filled” the headings, you will have
chunks of information on each theme, which make up a summary of your final
document. You can then decide what sequence would be most appropriate,
 The Writing Process 17

and re-order your section headings in that sequence. Outlining is effective for
top-down writers, those who begin with a big picture plan of the whole
document, and then build up the details as they go. When writing a report, the
outline acts as a first draft that can be submitted to a manager or client to show
the progress of a project.

Storyboarding
This is a spatial type of outlining used in film and multimedia projects. Small
screens are drawn on a page depicting the main visual elements of major scenes
in a project. Under each screen is some script describing the main action and
indicating any areas that need to be developed for the particular scene. In the
case of writing, the screen can be replaced with a descriptive heading. Spatial
experimentation can help you find a logical order in which to present your
ideas; in other words, you can re-shuffle the screens till you find the most
appropriate sequence. For both outlining and storyboarding, do not delete
documents or files until the project is finished, because you may find that
information you thought was redundant becomes relevant again at a later stage.
Figure 1.2 is a storyboard outline of the sections of a report on the causes
and consequences of digital piracy. The outline distributes section headings
without, at this stage, considering the final sequence.

Figure 1.2 Storyboard
18 Professional Writing

Drafting
When you brainstorm and use the other techniques for generating content
described above, you are basically drafting. The drafting stage proper comes
when you feel you have gathered enough information and have a clear idea
where you are heading, so it is now time to expand confidently. Drafting is
when you put into practice the ideas you generated in the previous stage and
see how they work in expanded form. When drafting, it helps to be receptive to
influences that can provide direction and inspiration. Keep your topic in the
back of your mind in your everyday activities, and critically listen to, read and
watch all that is productive for your purposes. Also, be open to serendipity –
inspiration through sudden, previously unrecognized connections. Many great
scientific and technical discoveries were made accidentally, by sudden
awareness of previously unseen analogies.
If you get stuck when drafting, do not attempt to complete the draft in one
go. Instead, let it incubate by putting it on the “back burner” of your mind and
coming back to it later. The time lapse between giving up on a draft and
coming back to it could be a few minutes, hours, overnight or more –
depending on project deadlines, of course! In the meantime, you can do
something that, even though it may seem irrelevant, allows your thoughts to
gestate. In fact, in professional contexts more often than not you work on many
projects simultaneously, so time management, and letting go of one project to
move to another, become significant skills.
Table 1.5 gives a definition of major conceptual actions that you perform
when drafting a document. These are common to both academic and
professional situations.

Table 1.5  Writing Actions

Account for Give reasons; explain why something happened.

Analyse Take apart an idea, concept or statement inorder to evaluate

it. This type of answer should be methodical and logically
organized.

Argue Systematically support or reject a viewpoint by offering

justification and evidence for your position while
acknowledging the opposite point of view.

Assess Judge the worth or value of something critically.

Comment on Discuss, explain and give your opinion on the ideas

presented.
 The Writing Process 19

Compare Set items side by side, show their similarities and differences,
and provide a balanced description.

Criticize (or Critique) Point out strengths and weaknesses of the subject; support
your judgment with evidence.

Define Explain the precise meaning of a concept. A definition answer

often follows the DEMF model: Definition, Examples, Main
Theorist(s) and Further information.

Discuss Explain an item or concept, and then give details about it

with supportive material, examples, points for and against,
and explanations for the points you put forward.

Evaluate Discuss the material, and reach a conclusion either for or

against the concept being discussed and evaluated.

Examine Analyse the topic, give pros (points for) and cons (points
against), or offer a critical judgement about it.

Explain Offer a detailed and exact explanation of an idea, principle or

set of reasons for a situation or an attitude.

Generate Propose new ideas or new interpretations of available

subjects.

Hypothesize Propose a statement or set of statements that can be used as

the basis for testing conclusions.

Illustrate Provide examples to demonstrate, explain, clarify or prove

the subject of the question.

Integrate In a logically related way, draw together two or more subjects

not previously connected.

Interpret Explain the meaning of something, make it clear and explicit,

and evaluate it in terms of your own knowledge.

Justify Give reasons supporting a particular position on the subject.

This could be a positive or a negative position.

List Present issues or subjects in an itemized series. In many cases,

listing can be done in point form.

Outline Give an organized ordering of information stating the main

points or idea and omitting details.

Review Examine, analyse and comment briefly on the main points of

an issue.
20 Professional Writing

Overcoming writer’s block

If you find that it is difficult to generate ideas about a specific topic, leading to
annoying and costly delay, try one or a combination of these “unblocking”
techniques.
Freewriting offers one method of clearing and opening your mind. You can
freewrite by writing non-stop, on any topic, for a specific length of time. Do not
stop to edit or evaluate what you are writing, and, if you cannot think of
anything, keep repeating your last word or phrase until you get going again.
The point of freewriting is to unblock your thought processes and put you in the
mood to express ideas in writing. The topic or relevance of what you are writing
is, at this stage, put aside. Many writers find that freewriting allows them to
approach their task in an uninhibited way.
Writing to the resistance means writing about why you are having trouble
tackling a task, or why you are being frustrated in your investigations. This
process may help you break through a puzzle or identify more clearly what it is
about the forms of evidence you are dealing with that makes them difficult.
Writing to the resistance works especially in cases when you feel so perplexed
or overwhelmed by a topic that you find it difficult to write about it in a
systematically logical way. It may help you to trace a rational pattern in chaotic
thinking.
Responding and mirroring should help you get in the mood for writing, by
engaging with other texts. Read a text in the genre in which you are writing (for
example, if you are writing a report, choose a report, if a magazine article,
choose a magazine article), and write an informal critique of it: if you could ask
the writer questions about it, what would you ask? What do you think could
have been done better in the document? Rewrite a section to improve it. What
is particularly effective in the document, and why? If the document asks a
question, answer it. By responding this way to the text, you are building
motivation and direction to work on yours.
This technique is also called “mirroring”, a term from the world of acting.
Trainee actors learn to perform by reflecting in their behaviour what they
observe in a partner – responding to a smile with a smile, to a frown with a
frown, etc. This is based on the idea that any form of action is also, by
extension, a form of communication, that is, it is meaningful in relation to a
context and a set of participants – action is reaction. Clearly, then, this is
relevant to writing too, and can fruitfully be exploited as a “warm-up” or
“unblocking” technique.
“Blind” writing is a solution for compulsive editors. If you feel critical about
every word you produce and constantly delete and re-write the same sentence,
 The Writing Process 21

it may be better not to see what you write. Try typing with a dark screen to help
you achieve momentum and mass before crafting your output.

Tips for successful writers

As a conclusion to this chapter, here are some inspirational guidelines for
effective writing. These are based on discussions with people from different
countries, who make their living from writing of all kinds, professional, creative
and academic. Therefore these tips are international and based on practical, life
experience.
1 Be observant. All kinds of writing emerge from experience, so the more
experience you get in your chosen field the better a writer you will become.
Also, being a good writer means being good at dealing with people. Writing
always has readers and the more you understand people’s behaviour and
reactions the better a writer you will be. Remember that the writing process
begins before you start writing, so keep an eye out for anything that you
could use in your writing later.
2 Record and organize different types of material. Professional writers keep
a record of ideas, objects or events that catch their eye, even if these may not
seem relevant to what they are writing at the moment. Writers carry a
notebook and pen, or their digital equivalents, everywhere, and many also
carry recording devices to record their thoughts and observations
immediately as they come. This way you are building a pool of resources that
some day will find their way into your writing.
3 Do not wait for inspiration. Writing creates itself – rather like eating is said
to arouse the appetite. Most professional writers write on a schedule to meet
publishing deadlines, whether they initially feel like it or not. So start writing
before you have thought out completely what you want to say. It doesn’t
matter if you start by writing nonsense, repetitions, fragments or mind maps.
You will discover what you want to write by writing and not just by thinking.
Your document will eventually write itself.
4 Revise as you write. Most professional writers do at least two, and
sometimes many more, drafts of anything they write. The first version
should never be the last version. To be a successful writer, you should see
yourself both as innovator (coming up with new ideas and new connections
between ideas) and editor (rearranging and cutting out parts of your text).
Regarding professional writing, keep in mind that many documents are
collaborative and those editing a document may not be the same as those
who wrote it.
22 Professional Writing

5 Learn grammatical rules and genre conventions. Successful writers know

standard English very well. Although writing is based to a large extent on
skill, imagination and knowledge, it is still a technical medium dependent on
grammatical rules. Even if you want to break those rules, like many writers in
fact do, you first need to know what they are. Similarly, find out what the
standard conventions are for different genres in your field of writing. If
working in a business context, find out about your company’s house style.
These rules and conventions are the tools of the trade.
6 Get feedback. In contrast to what some people wrongly believe, writing is
not a solitary activity. A written text is meant to be read, so discuss your
projects with friends and colleagues, and distribute your drafts for comments
when possible and appropriate. Other people may be able to give you
valuable insights on your work that you would have missed if you worked in
isolation.

aCtivities

1 Analyse a media text (for example an advertisement, a magazine feature article,

etc.) in terms of its target audience.
2 Interpret these briefs using the scene-content-treatment model outlined in this
chapter. Plan your course of action and decide what kind of information you
would need to gather to write each report.
(a)  You are a travel industry expert.
A major airline, LibAir, has commissioned you to assess its competitive
position in the travel industry. The airline executives want you to investigate
recent developments in aircraft construction, security measures and client
services, and to evaluate their airline’s advantages and disadvantages in
relation to those of competitors. Write a report that identifies pertinent issues
and recommends a practical course of action for the airline to follow in order
to remain competitive in the current travel market.
(b)  You are a security expert.
The Privacy Commissioner has asked you to investigate and write a report on
contemporary issues concerning privacy. With developments in surveillance
technology, the spread of Internet published information and digitally stored
personal information, there is serious concern that individual rights to privacy
are being eroded. The increasing presence of computer hackers and state-
owned satellite systems mean that individual privacy is being attacked from
both private and public sectors. The Commissioner wants you to investigate
 The Writing Process 23

the extent to which this fear is justified, to evaluate possible consequences

and to suggest possible solutions. Write a report that identifies and analyses
pertinent issues and puts forward a clear set of recommendations for action.
(c) You are the Human Resources Manager at Law Limited, a leading national law
firm.
Law Limited has been having difficulties retaining its junior and intermediate-
level lawyers. This is an industry-wide problem with law firms generally losing
more than half of their junior lawyers before they reach an intermediate level
(3–4 years’ experience). The Chief Executive of Law Limited has asked you to
prepare a report investigating the problem both within the company and inter-
company. Write a report that identifies pertinent issues while taking into
account the interests of the company as well as the views of the junior
lawyers. Outline a couple of alternative solutions, evaluate them and propose
the best solution justifying your recommendation.

References and further reading

Bazerman, C., & Prior, P. A. (eds.) (2004) What writing does and how it does it: An introduc-
tion to analyzing texts and textual practices. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bhatia, V. (1993) Analyzing genre: Language use in professional settings. London: Longman.
Bhatia, V. (2004) Worlds of written discourse: A genre based view. London: Continuum.
Candlin, C. N., & Hyland, K. (1999) Writing: Texts, processes and practices. London:
­Longman.
Cockcroft, R., & Cockcroft, S. (2005) Persuading people: An introduction to rhetoric,
2nd edition. Red Globe Press.
Columbia Space Shuttle Accident Investigation Board Report (2003). Retrieved from http://
caib.nasa.gov/
Cooren, F. (2015) Organizational discourse. New York: Wiley.
Cottrell, S. (2015) Skills for success: The personal development planning handbook, 3rd edition.
London: Red Globe Press.
Elbow, P. (1998) Writing with power: Techniques for mastering the writing process, 2nd edition.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Gurak, L. J., & Lannon, J. M. (2007) A concise guide to technical communication. New York:
Longman.
Herndl, C. G., Fennell, B. A., & Miller, C. R. (1991) Understanding failures in organiza-
tional discourse. In C. Bazerman and J. Paradis (eds.) Textual dynamics of the professions.
Maddison: University of Wisconsin Press, 336–357.
Hyland, K. (2002) Teaching and researching writing. London: Longman.
Marsen, S. (2011) Writing the “professional”: A model for teaching project management
in a writing course. In Martha Pennington and Pauline Burton (eds.) The college writing
toolkit: Tried and tested ideas for teaching college writing. London: Equinox, 239–254.
24 Professional Writing

Marsen, S. (2014) Lock the doors: Towards a narrative-semiotic approach to organiza-

tional crisis. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 28(3), 301–326.
Maxwell, C. (2007) Ultimate leadership. New York: Thomas Nelson.
Osborn, A. F. (1963) Applied imagination: Principles and procedures of creative problem
­solving, 3rd edition. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Peeples, T. (2003) Professional writing and rhetoric: Readings from the field. New York:
­Longman.
Swales, R. (1990) Genre analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Taylor, J. R. (1993) Rethinking the theory of organizational communication: How to read an
organization. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.
Taylor, J. R., & Van Every, J. E. (2000) The emergent organization: Communication as site
and surface. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Yagoda, B. (2004) The sound on the page: Great writers talk about style and voice in writing.
New York: HarperCollins.
 Chapter

2
Writing Style

Focus:
 Style, format and genre
 Types of style
 Writing clearly, accurately and concisely
 Cohesion

Even if you have all the conceptual aspects of a written project thought out and
made a plan of the information that you want to communicate, you may find
that you get stuck in some other areas. For example, you may find that you
have difficulty in putting ideas into words, cannot think how to begin, or how
to end, a sentence or find that your sentences are invariably too short, too long,
unclear or monotonous. All these are matters of style. Furthermore, since style
differs quite drastically from spoken to written form, attempting to write as you
speak can only lead to ineffective communication (unless, of course, you are
writing dialogue). As the poet T. S. Eliot famously once said, if we spoke as we
write, we would find nobody to listen, and if we wrote as we speak, we would
find nobody to read. This chapter gives insights into recognizing and choosing
appropriate style and expression for particular genres and in constructing
sentences in an effective and clear manner.
As style has been examined since ancient times, definitions and approaches
abound. Many definitions focus on style in relation to purpose. For example, the
Roman orator Cicero (Wisse, 2007) distinguished three levels of style: high,
middle and low. The first is grandiose and elaborate, aiming to move, the
second is clear and methodical, aiming to please, and the third is unadorned
and simple, aiming to teach. These distinctions have influenced much of
contemporary rhetoric, and they also underlie the concept of genre.

25
26 Professional Writing

More recently, writers have experimented with style, often blurring genre
distinctions. An example is Tom Wolfe, who challenged journalistic writing
conventions in the 1970s in his “New Journalism”, a style which favoured
subjective phrases and literary devices, such as incomplete sentences
(fragments) and the coinage of new terms – for instance, the phrases “radical
chic”, “the right stuff” and “good old boy” are attributed to Wolfe
(Kaplan, 1987).
Other approaches are more evaluative, and distinguish strengths and
weaknesses of style, regardless of genre or purpose. A common element in these
approaches is applauding precision and transparency in all prose writing and
criticizing opaqueness and verbosity. For instance, the well-respected book
Elements of Style by William Strunk and E. B. White (2000, original 1918)
emphasizes the importance of a tight and concise style that focuses on
information rather than author presence. The book even has a section entitled
“Place Yourself in the Background”. Interestingly, the tenet of transparency is
often espoused by creative writers too. For example, novelist George Orwell
(1953) ends his essay Why I Write by stating that “one can write nothing
readable unless one constantly struggles to efface one’s personality. Good prose
is like a window pane” (p. 46).
Using an eclectic and practical approach, this chapter defines style as the
result produced by different combinations of sentence structures, sentence
lengths and word choices. It explains how particular arrangements of words
emphasize different elements and produce varying degrees of objectivity and
subjectivity, making them suited for specific genres and purposes. This approach
agrees with journalist Ben Yagoda’s (2004) statement that “every time we write
a word, a phrase, a sentence, we have to choose from what seems like an
infinite number of acceptable candidates. Then just as significantly, we choose
how to link the sentences together into paragraphs. Together, these decisions
constitute a style” (p. 36). The choice of what style to adopt should take into
account context, genre and purpose.
The components of style are balance, emphasis, register and tone. Balance
indicates the amount of information given to a topic in a sentence or paragraph
and how information is prioritized and sequenced. Emphasis indicates if
information is foregrounded by repetition or emphatic linkers, such as
“importantly”. Register indicates the degree of formality used. Tone indicates
the degree of flow or abruptness (achieved through sentence structure) and the
use of jargon or creative devices such as metaphor. Like the clothes we wear,
our hairstyle and body language give away much about our status, personality
and cultural affiliations, choice of style tells readers whether what we say
concerns them, and whether they should read it as serious, humorous, urgent,
 Writing Style 27

and so on. In fact, stylistic choices “colour” writing, making the first and
longest-lasting impression. Consider these sentences:
(a) In the era of social media, companies have little control over information.
(b) Social media have taken control over information away from companies.
(c) What social media have achieved is to take control over information away
from companies.
(d) It is control over information that social media have taken away from
companies.
The versions could be multiplied, but what this experiment shows is that you can
draw attention to different parts of a topic and modify your tone by reordering
parts of a sentence and, similarly, of a larger text. Sentence (a) makes a loose
connection between social media and loss of control over information by placing
social media in an introductory phrase. Sentence (b) gives much stronger agency to
social media by making it the subject of the sentence. It is less equivocal than the
first. Sentence (c) also focuses on social media, but in this case, it places social
media in the context of its results or achievements. This sentence suggests that the
surrounding text would describe social media in terms of its historical or
comparative aspects. Sentence (d) emphasizes control over information by implying
that it is the most important element that social media have affected in business.

tIp

This brief analysis shows how we create style by orchestrating linguistic units (words,
sentences and paragraphs) into different combinations. Assume control over this
stylistic manipulation by becoming aware of it in what you write and read.

Sentences and style

The best way to create an effective style is by knowing the values, knowledge
and interests of your audience, the context in which you write, and the genre.
These elements will determine your choice of going formal, impersonal, chatty,
hip, “cool” or whatever other tone you think will be most appropriate. Here are
four important areas to watch out for when creating style (more on grammatical
aspects of style in Chapter 10).
1 Include variety. No document is justifiably boring, so introduce rhythm by
alternating long and short sentences, using some active and some passive
voice, and beginning some sentences with phrases rather than with subject–
verb construction. For example, this extract from a report is concise,
28 Professional Writing

grammatically correct and precise. However, stylistically it is displeasing to

the reader and monotonous, because of its succession of simple, short
sentences and lack of linking words between sentences:
Email is one of the most common Internet activities in business. Some of
the information in emails is of sensitive nature. A technically savvy person
can intercept emails. This person then has access to the information. In
fact, there is little awareness of email’s lack of security among general users.
A less monotonous revision of this text would produce the following:
Email, one of the most common Internet activities in business, often
carries sensitive information. However, email can easily be intercepted by
a technically savy person, who then has access to the information. In fact,
general users are often unaware of email’s lack of security.
In constructing your document, use a variety of simple and complex
sentences, with short, simple sentences for information you wish to
emphasize. Because they condense meaning in a few words, short, simple
sentences have the greatest impact on the reader. The more you expand a
sentence, the more dissipated the meaning becomes. For example:
The project team sent the data to the laboratory for testing. They expect
the results back within two hours of dispatch. It is not always so.
Sometimes they must wait for hours, which means their whole project
could be jeopardized. It is a risky business.
Notice how the two italicised sentences carry a lot of weight in this passage
because they comment on the rest of the information. They are also the
shortest of the five sentences.

2 Think carefully about using main and subordinate clauses. Information in

a sentence can either come in the main clause or in a subordinate clause. The
main clause foregrounds information; the subordinate clause backgrounds
information. For example, consider this sentence:
The proposal, which was approved by the Board, will be implemented
immediately
The most important information here is in the main clause: “The proposal
will be implemented immediately”. The subordinate clause, “which was
approved by the Board yesterday” gives secondary information, or
information that is assumed to be known by the audience and therefore
backgrounded. When using complex sentences with one or a number of
subordinate clauses, think carefully if what you subordinate should not be
given more importance by coming in a separate sentence as a main clause.
Remember that what you subordinate is received by your reader, consciously
 Writing Style 29

or unconsciously, as secondary in relation to what you give as main

information. Subordination and coordination affect balance and emphasis.
Consider the re-write of the above sentence:
The proposal was approved by the Board. It will be implemented
immediately.
Here the two items of information are balanced by being placed in two
separate sentences – neither item is subordinated.
When writing complex sentences with more than one subordinate clause,
be aware that the ways you combine main with subordinate clauses creates
different effects. The different combinations are called loose structure,
centred structure and periodic structure. Here are examples of each.
Loose: Sharks can be very dangerous when they smell blood, although
they may not always be hungry.
Loose structures begin with the main clause and add subordinate clauses at
the end. They project a relaxed, informal style imitating a conversation.
Centred: When they smell blood, sharks can be very dangerous,
although they may not always be hungry.
Centred structures begin with a subordinate clause, then give the main
clause and end with another subordinate clause. They project a tighter and
more formal sentence that gives the impression you are dealing with a
complicated or serious matter.
Periodic: Although they may not be hungry, when they smell blood,
sharks can be very dangerous.
Periodic structures begin with the subordinate clause(s) and lead to the main
clause. They suggest that the information in the main clause is conditional to
other factors, or that you concede a point to an opponent before asserting
your opinion. Use this structure carefully, because, although it may increase
the importance of the main clause, it delays it and could annoy the reader.
Think about whether leading to a statement with a degree of suspense would
be appropriate for the audience and purpose. This structure is more common
in texts intended for oral speech, such as documentaries, than in formal
report writing.
3  Use parallel structure. Parallel structure adds clarity to sentences and
paragraphs. Parallel structure refers to the similar grammatical structure of
linguistic items that belong to the same category in a sentence, paragraph,
set of headings or list of dot points. The more mathematically inclined will
recognize the distributive law in mathematics as analogous to parallel
structure in language: x(a+b) = xa + xb. The common element must work
30 Professional Writing

grammatically with each of the parallel elements; the grammatically parallel

elements could be substituted for each other without needing to change the
rest of the sentence. Check for parallel structure when you add items in one
category, or balance items on one level of information showing equality
between them.

Not parallel: These books are not primarily for reading, but they are used
for reference.
Parallel: These books are not primarily for reading but for reference.
Not parallel: Not only is he a conscientious worker, but also he is very
competent.
Parallel: Not only is he conscientious but also competent.
Not Parallel: Don’t underestimate the value of defining technical terms. Prior
knowledge on behalf of the reader should not be assumed.
Parallel: Don’t underestimate the value of defining technical terms.
Don’t assume prior knowledge on behalf of the reader.
Not parallel: Possible solutions for dealing with at-risk youth include
implementing programs and support measures through
parent and child education, housing and physical, social and
economic conditions should be changed.
Parallel: Possible solutions for dealing with at-risk youth include
implementing programs and support measures through
parent and child education, improving housing, and changing
social and economic conditions.

Parallel structure is very important in instructions, point lists and headings.

For example, here are four introductions to a printer user guide:

A. Setting up the printer, maintenance, and what to do if something goes

wrong are easy with the step-by-step user guide.
B. Setting up the printer, maintaining it and troubleshooting are easy with
the step-by-step user guide.
C. Printer set-up, maintenance and troubleshooting are easy with the step-
by-step user guide.
D. The step-by-step user guide will show you how to set up the printer, how
to maintain it and what to do if something goes wrong.
Version A is awkward because the three elements that it lists are not parallel.
The other three correct this error. Notice also how although all three are
grammatically correct, there are slight differences in tone with each choice.
 Writing Style 31

C with its noun emphasis is the most formal version, while D, with its clause
structure and second person pronoun, is the most informal.
4 Use cohesive devices strategically. Cohesion is the way segments of a text
are combined to produce flow and transition from one point to another. In
the hands of a competent writer, cohesion consists of a blend of repetition
and variation. Cohesion exists within a sentence, between sentences and
between paragraphs. In longer documents, such as reports, cohesion is also
achieved through a logical sequence of sections. Cohesion between
sentences and paragraphs is achieved by means of referents and adverbial
conjunctions.
Referents are words that refer to preceding words without repeating them.
Synonyms and pronouns can act as referents. Synonyms are words of closely
related meaning and provide an effective solution to the problem of
excessive repetition. If you said “approach” in one sentence and had to
repeat the idea, you might choose “method” in the next sentence. If you said
“skill”, you could then use “ability”, and so on. That would give your reader
variety without changing the meaning. It indicates to the reader that you are
writing about the same topic without needing to repeat the same words.
When using synonyms, however, be careful not to overuse them.
Overwhelming the reader with a wide range of words for an object or
concept can be confusing and detracts from the clarity of your document.
In certain cases, especially with regard to technical terminology, it is better to
repeat a term rather than replace it with a synonym.
Pronouns are words that refer to nouns (I, he, she, it, we, you, they, this,
that, these).

If two sentences begin with the same subject, it is sufficient to use a personal
pronoun in the second sentence instead of the noun.
The report claims that the new incentive to include all financial figures in
Intranet documents has not led to an increased interest in the company’s
economic development. It adds that most stakeholders do not know how to
access Intranet information.
However, guard against ambiguity: sometimes the use of a pronoun instead
of a noun can be confusing, especially if there are several nouns in the previous
sentence to which the pronoun might refer. In this case, it is better to repeat the
noun or use a demonstrative pronoun (this, that):

Incorrect: The report claims that the new incentive to include all financial
figures in Intranet documents has not led to an increased
interest in the company’s economic development. Although
32 Professional Writing

they (?) are now available, most stakeholders do not know how
to access Intranet information.
Revised: The report claims that the new incentive to include all financial
figures in Intranet documents has not led to an increased
interest in the company’s economic development. Although
these figures are now available, most stakeholders do not know
how to access Intranet information.
Demonstrative pronouns refer to a noun in the previous sentence or to the
whole previous sentence, especially if followed by a noun:

Repetitive: The popularity of social media in business communication is

increasing. The popularity of social media has been observed by
many researchers and is a growing area of study.
Revised: The popularity of social media in business communication is
increasing. This (popularity) has been observed by many
researchers and is a growing area of study.

Pronouns do not only refer to a preceding noun; if this noun refers to a person,
the pronoun activates aspects of identity. The use of pronouns to designate
gender has come under scrutiny in recent years, after social developments have
challenged the belief that gender is binary. English, in contrast to some other
languages, does not have gendered nouns, but it does indicate gender in the
third person singular pronouns “he”, “she”, “his”, “him”, “hers”, “her”. So,
what to do in order to avoid gender bias and recognize the existence of
transgender and other gender varieties?
In many cases, using a plural noun solves this problem. For example,
consider these sentences:

Gender bias:  The reader expects clarity in journalistic writing. She

values the writer’s attempts to explain clearly complex
issues.
Transgender bias: The reader expects clarity in journalistic writing. He or
she values the writer’s attempts to explain clearly
complex issues.
No gender bias: Readers expect clarity in journalistic writing. They value
writers’ attempts to explain clearly complex issues.

Using “they” to refer to a singular noun is ungrammatical. However, there is a

move towards acceptance of this use in some contexts because of sensitivity to
gender issues. This is especially the case when a name does not specify gender
or the writing context is gender-sensitive (such as in universities, government
departments and socially prominent institutions). For example,
 Writing Style 33

Contextually appropriate Lee Watkins has made important contributions

although grammatically to the debate on transgender issues in public
incorrect: institutions. They proposed constructive
changes to style guides regarding pronoun use.

To avoid using the plural “they” to refer to a singular individual, some have
proposed the third person singular pronoun “zie” and “hir” which are
non-gender specific (see the Gender Neutral Pronoun Blog, 2019).
Adverbial conjunctions are “signpost” words that connect two sentences
and show the relationship between ideas or points. Your train of thought will
usually seem so obvious to you as not to be worth stating. But if you do not
make it clear, you will force your reader to laboriously reverse-engineer your
writing to discover your meaning. In professional writing, your reader may not
have the time or inclination to do that.
If, for instance, the sentence you are writing is meant to contradict the
meaning of the previous sentence, you can signal actively to the reader that you
intend a contradiction, by using “however”, “nevertheless”, or some similar
adverb. If one sentence contains the result or consequence of a previous sentence,
again, do not leave the reader to infer that you are talking about a result or
consequence. Signal it by using “consequently”, “as a result”, etc. Remember to
use signpost words if the relation between ideas is not obvious. Overusing such
words can be tiring for the reader and can at times produce a condescending or
harsh effect that may be detrimental to the quality of your document.
Table 2.1 shows some adverbial conjunctions that provide cohesion, and the
relationships they express.

Table 2.1  Adverbial Conjunctions and their Functions

Function Examples
Listing First, Second, Next, Then, Subsequently, Finally
Adding Also, Moreover, Furthermore, In addition
Showing similarity Equally, Likewise, Similarly, Correspondingly, In the
same way
Emphasizing In fact, Actually
Showing results or effects As a result, Consequently, Hence, Therefore, Thus
Explaining In other words, That is to say
Illustrating For example, For instance
Showing alternatives Alternatively, On the other hand
34 Professional Writing

Function Examples
Contrasting Conversely, On the contrary, By contrast, However,
Nevertheless
Evaluating Surprisingly, In the final analysis, Paradoxically,
Interestingly

Example One: Cohesion

The following extract is analysed in terms of its cohesive
devices.

Provides a Understanding the shape of the tree of life and the details of This is known as a
supportive its branches is more than a quaint sideline of biology, even parenthetical
definition. It is
explanation. though the science of this quest – known as systematics – has used within a
come to be regarded by many biologists as dowdy and old sentence to provide
Summarizes
fashioned, little more than stamp collecting. But such an a brief definition
an important of a term and is
understanding is probably the best foundation for a larger
point in the placed between
appreciation of life, including evolution, ecology and brackets or
paragraph.
behaviour. As Colin Patterson, a palaeontologist at the dashes. It acts as a
Natural History Museum of London, says: “To retrieve cohesive device in
Repeats the allowing for
concluding the history of life, to reconstruct the evolutionary tree, is explanation
sentence of still the aim of evolutionary biology.” Getting it right is without
the previous therefore important. compromising
flow as would
paragraph happen if a
and indicates Getting it right, however, is much harder than might be separate sentence
the topic imagined. Inferring an evolutionary relationship from was inserted to
of this morphology rests on identifying anatomical features, or explain the term.

paragraph. characters, that are shared by two species because of their

Shows transition
common descent. Such features might include the shape of contrast. Note
Refers to the of teeth, the form of a particular nerve canal, the number that ‘but’ and
features of certain flower parts, and so on. Ironically, the thing ‘and’ at the begin-
ning of a sentence
mentioned in most likely to confound the well-intentioned systematist
makes the writing
the previous in identifying such characters is the power of natural informal and
sentence. selection itself. Many shared characteristics do not reflect should be avoided
a common ancestry, but instead are the result of distantly when a higher
Evaluates degree of formal-
this sentence related species independently adapting their bodies to ity is expected.
in relation to meet the demands of similar lifestyles (Lewin, 1998, p. 37,
what was my emphasis). Emphasizes
contrast.
said before.

The three “golden rules” of professional writing

Regardless of genre and style, effective professional writers follow three basic
rules: be clear, be accurate and be concise. In professional writing, these rules can
be traced back to the 1970s when the Plain English campaign that was launched
in most English-speaking countries helped to re-conceptualize business and
government communication. The main claim underpinning the Plain English
campaign was that documents intended for the broad public should be easily
 Writing Style 35

understandable. The campaigners criticized the existing belief that formal writing
should be technical, impersonal and passive, in order to sound respectable and
authoritative. Instead they emphasized the importance of communicative value:
if readers cannot understand what a document says, how can they be persuaded
by the content or be expected to follow the regulations described?
Since then, audience research has refined the guidelines for professional
writing, and this research informs the way in which many corporate and
governmental style guides are designed. Writers spend a lot of time researching
and thinking about the best words and sentence structures to create the desired
effect on target audiences. To be successful as a writer, and especially one with a
serious public responsibility, you must have an eye for detail. As novelist Stephen
King (2000) advises, to create compelling writing that impacts on readers’
perceptions, “you must take your objective one bloody word at a time” (p. 136).

Be clear
Clarity encompasses precision and conciseness. In most cases, the more precise
and concise your writing is, the clearer it is. Obscure expression and verbosity
are not, generally, conducive to clarity. Clarity should be assessed from the point
of view of the reader, so attempt to take the reader’s perspective when
composing a document. Although in the planning stage you are writing for
yourself, to clarify your ideas and give direction to your writing, when revising
adopt the reader’s point of view.

tIp

Write as a writer and revise as a reader.

One way to assist clarity is to be as specific as possible. This is achieved by knowing

exactly what you want to communicate and to whom, and by choosing relevant
information to convey your message. Make sure each piece, section or chapter is
about one topic only and that all information you give relates to that topic. Avoid
changing the topic or including irrelevant information. Also, avoid writing in a way
that forces the reader to waste time by re-reading the document to decipher
“hidden meaning” or to r­ everse‑engineer your thinking. For example, the
following notice on an office building undergoing renovation would have been
very clear to those who wrote it, but very confusing for passers-by and visitors:
Due to renovations, the first floor will be on the second floor, half the third
floor will be on the second floor and half will remain on the third. Second
floor will move to the third.
36 Professional Writing

Revising this notice from a reader’s perspective could include adding a visual
representation of the building or naming the offices that have moved to
different floors.
Clarity can be achieved on the text level and on the sentence level. When
structuring your document, follow a logical pattern of organization that will be
easy for the reader to understand. Usually, this means going from the more
general to the more specific, from assumed shared knowledge to new
knowledge, from “big picture” to details, or from definition of a problem to its
analysis and then to its proposed solution. When revising the document, keep in
mind that the reader should not have to go backwards or forwards to
understand your message but can continue reading in a linear order.

tIp

One test of the quality of professional writing is the ease with which it can be
summarized. If you find a document is hard to summarize, chances are that it needs
revising to refine it of digressions, ambiguities or inconsistencies. Use this test on
both your and other people’s writing.

On the sentence level, clarity is often achieved in these ways:

1 Favour topic-action structures. This means focusing your intended
meaning on the central parts of the sentence, the subject, verb and object.
The topic of the sentence is the main idea that the sentence develops. It does
not have to be the subject of the verb but can be the object in passive voice
sentences. Ask yourself “what is this sentence about?” and place the answer
first or as close to the beginning as possible. Proceed by specifying the
action, what this main idea or topic does or is. For example, the following
sentence, on the costumes of players in a game, has “the first player” as the
topic of the first part of the sentence and “the keeper” as the topic of the
second. This is misleading, however, because the topic is actually each
player’s costume and not the players themselves.

Confusing: The first player wears a special leather suit that is designed for
fast movement and the ability to slip through the opponent’s
clutches, while the keeper wears a heavily padded suit to
protect him from aggressive attacks.
Revised: The first player’s special leather suit is designed for fast movement
and slipping through the opponent’s clutches, while the keeper’s
suit is heavily padded to protect him from aggressive attacks.
 Writing Style 37

Also, the following sentence includes the redundant and confusing ideas of
“design” and “ability” when the aim is to describe what a prototype does:

Confusing: The prototype is designed to ensure that it would be able to

maintain consistency among all products of the same series.
Revised: The prototype ensures consistency among all products of the
same series.

2 Avoid more than two nouns in a row. Sometimes writers try to make their
writing more concise and technical by eliminating prepositions (in, of, etc.),
and linking nouns in a chain. Unfortunately, this is often done at the expense
of clarity and accuracy. Make sure that elegant style and clarity win over
brevity and the tendency to repeat jargon indiscriminately.

Confusing: He designed a new graphics construction language.

Revised: He designed a new language for constructing graphics.
Confusing: The project includes a long-term failure prevention programme.
Revised: The project includes a long-term programme to prevent failure, or
The project includes a programme to prevent long-term failure.

3 Break up long sentences, especially if they contain more than one piece of
information. Usually, sentences that contain one piece of information, even if
this includes details on that item, are clearer to grasp in one reading.

Confusing: Although this methodology has been tested worldwide on

different formats and has been hailed as the most effective
currently available, we have decided not to use it in this
experiment because the present situation requires more rigorous
techniques of controlling testing procedure.
Revised: This methodology has been tested worldwide on different
formats and has been hailed as the most effective currently
available. However, the present situation requires more rigorous
techniques of controlling testing procedure. Consequently, in
this experiment, we have decided not to use it.

Confusing: This is a science fiction action film set in the year 2325 about a
self-centred superstar of a world sport phenomenon called
Destruktion, which has eclipsed the popularity of all sports, who
is targeted by a terrorist group.
Revised: This is a science fiction action film, set in the year 2325, when a
world sport phenomenon called Destruktion has eclipsed the
popularity of all other sports. The film is about a self-centred
superstar of this sport, who is targeted by a terrorist group.
38 Professional Writing

4 Position phrases correctly. When you order words and phrases in a

sentence, make sure that nouns agree with all their subject positions. It can
be especially misleading when the noun immediately following an opening
phrase cannot be identified with the noun of the phrase. This has the effect
of confusing agents and actions and potentially leading to incorrect
attribution of responsibility.

Confusing: As an experienced manager, my boss gives me little supervision.

Revised: Because I am an experienced manager, my boss gives me little
supervision.

Be accurate
To make your writing more accurate, follow these guidelines:
1 Favour quantification. If you can give measurements and numbers, instead
of ambiguous words, then do so.

Vague: This policy has been effective for several years.

Revised: This policy has been effective since 2010.

Vague: Many people attended the event.

Revised: About 200 people attended the event. Or: Attendance for the
event this year was 20% higher than last year.

2 Avoid words with many meanings. Think of a word that is specific to the
meaning you intend in the sentence. For example, consider how we use the
word “over” with different meanings:
During – The experiment must take place over the winter
Onto – The fertilizer was spread over the field
More than – This disease affects over 10% of the population
From – We collected data over three locations
Of – Apply two replications over six dilutions
To – Statistical sampling was applied over the data
Across – Sampling was stratified over taxonomic groups
Through – Dust accumulates over time
With – The company policies changed over time
Now consider some examples with the word wrong:

Vague: The decision was wrong.

Revised: The decision was financially costly for the company.

Vague: This number is wrong.

Revised: This number is incorrect.
 Writing Style 39

Vague: Cheating is wrong.

Revised: Cheating is unethical.

Vague: He was wearing the wrong clothes.

Revised: He was dressed inappropriately.

Words that have many meanings include also evaluative adjectives whose
meaning is relative to the speaker’s judgment – “nice”, “terrible”, “good”,
“big”, etc.

Vague: This team contains good members.

Revised: This team contains conscientious and hard-working members.

Vague: The manager’s decision was terrible.

Revised: The manager’s decision was irresponsible. Or: The manager’s
decision was based on short-term profit only.

3 Define terms and favour specific words instead of phrases, where possible.
This sharpens your writing, making it more direct. However, be careful not to
offend readers by putting them in categories and labelling them.

Vague: Clear documentation pleases people and may increase the people
who buy our software.
Revised: Clear documentation pleases users and may increase our clients.

Vague: Strict regulations are in place to protect against people who break
into computers and steal information.
Revised: Strict regulations are in place to protect against hackers.

Be concise
The above sections show that, to be clear and accurate, you sometimes need
to expand on a point, and use more words. This does not condone verbosity,
however. Being direct is important in professional writing if for no other
reason than “time is money”, and readers want to know if a document
answers their question or addresses their need without having to analyse it in
detail. Some writers believe that by including as many details as possible and
repeating information they become clearer. Trying to “drill in” information,
however, may draw attention away from the main message and confuse
readers. In most cases, by stating clearly and directly your point at strategic
points in the document you have a better chance of getting your intended
meaning across.
You can make your writing concise by avoiding long, crowded and wordy
sentences, especially if they are in succession. If you write one or two long
40 Professional Writing

sentences, make sure the next sentence is short to break the density. Also,
following these tips will help:
(a) Favour the active voice where possible. Passive sentences are wordier
and can also be confusing if they do not reveal the agent of an action.

Wordy: The work was finished by the engineers before the deadline was
reached.
Revised: The engineers finished the work before the deadline.

Wordy: The policy decision was met with disapproval by the public.
Revised: The public disapproved of the policy decision.

(b) Avoid “there is/are” at the beginning of sentences, where possible. In

many cases, we overuse these words, even when they are not necessary.
Wordy: There are several conclusions that we can draw from these results.
Revised: 
We can draw several conclusions from these results. Or: From
these results, we conclude…

Wordy: There are several organizations that belong to the union.

Revised: Several (number?) organizations belong to the union.
(c) Use modals (may, might, could, should, must) where possible. Some
writers harbour suspicion that modals are informal; however, this is not
true. Modals modify verbs and have a clear place in language.
Wordy: It is possible that the project will be funded.
Revised: The project may be funded.

Wordy: It is imperative that all options be considered before making a

decision.
Revised: All options must be considered before deciding.
(d) Use verbs where possible instead of nouns. Besides making sentences
concise, verbs are action-oriented and give your writing a more direct tone.
Noun-centred sentences, known as nominalizations, have a heavy effect
that makes the sentence static by reducing elements that evoke
movement. Although nominalizations are used in some technical and
scientific texts, they should be avoided, if possible, in energetic and
people-oriented writing.
Heavy: The results are not a demonstration of a data breach.
Revised: The results do not demonstrate a data breach.
Heavy: A vacuum chamber is not a requirement for this procedure.
Revised: This procedure does not require a vacuum chamber.
 Writing Style 41

(e) Avoid weak verbs. Some verbs, instead of signalling action, depend on a
noun to support them. In many cases, such verbs can be replaced by other
verbs that do not require a noun. Weak verbs include take, make, do, give,
get and reach.

Wordy: Researchers conducted an investigation of inflation.

Revised: Researchers investigated inflation.

Wordy: This study serves to show the results of the investigation.

Revised: This study shows the results of the investigation.
(f) Use punctuation strategically. If you find that your paragraph is getting
cluttered with too many wordy or long sentences, it is often possible to use
punctuation to cut down on words. This is especially effective when
announcing or introducing a list of items.
Wordy: There are many reasons for climatic change, which include toxic
pollution, deforestation and volcanic activity.
Revised: There are many reasons for climatic change: toxic pollution,
deforestation and volcanic activity.

Wordy: Most professional writing can be divided into three categories.

These categories are essays, reports and articles.
Revised: Most professional writing can be divided into three categories –
essays, reports and articles.
(g) Avoid wordy clichés. Some phrases are so commonly used in spoken
language that they have become almost unconscious. Writing,
nevertheless, gives you the opportunity to become more conscious of how
you use language and allows for elimination of repetitive material.
Table 2.2 shows a list of such clichés.

Table 2.2  Common Wordy Clichés

Wordy Concise
a majority of many (or number)
a number of some (or number)
subsequent to after
due to the fact that because
for the purpose of to
have the capability to can
42 Professional Writing

Wordy Concise
in the event that if
so as to to
in order to to
with regard to about
has the ability to can
give a summary of summarize
make an assumption about assume
come to the conclusion that conclude
take action act
make a decision decide
make a proposal about propose
basic essentials essentials
end result result
cancel out cancel
enter into enter
completely eliminate eliminate
at this point in time now
there can be little doubt definitely, certainly
in the absence of without
higher in comparison with higher than
may be the mechanism responsible for may be why

A typology of style
This chapter ends with a typology, which shows the stylistic features of different
kinds of writing and should help you to decide on style. Classifications and
typologies impose sometimes artificial boundaries between elements that are
often as inclusive as they are exclusive. Classifications can be useful, however, in
highlighting similarities and differences in the composition of these elements.
The following typology is intended as a continuum, with writing addressed to a
broad audience on one end, and writing addressed to a specialized audience on
 Writing Style 43

the other. This typology is based on criteria that are conventionally expected in
different genres and contexts. Like it is inappropriate to attend an executive
board meeting in your pyjamas, so it would be inappropriate to adopt an
informal style for a formal occasion and vice versa.
This typology distinguishes three main types of writing style: specialist,
journalistic and creative. Although some genres are associated with a particular
type of style, styles can be mixed depending on the writer’s intended purpose
and are not strictly bound by genre conventions. The basic criteria for selecting
a writing style are the audience you are addressing and your purpose. For
example, business reports tend to be written in specialist style, but their degree
of formality varies according to the company’s “personality” – more “hip”
companies would favour a less formal style than more traditional ones. National
culture also plays a role in selecting a style. For instance, American, Australian and
New Zealand businesses tend to use a less formal, and more direct, style than
British companies, while Asian companies tend to use the most formal, and most
indirect, style of English. Such factors show that cultural factors are important in
analysing differences in stylistic choices (Holmes & Stubbe, 2003; Watts, 2003).
Journalistic style, as the title suggests, is found in journalistic texts such as
magazine and newsletter articles. This style is also used in public relations
documents and documents that are addressed to the broad public. How
“chatty” such documents become depends on the publication and context.
Creative style is arguably the most complex because it can be found in a
variety of genres. Fiction genres, especially poetry, are associated with this style,
but fictional texts include a variety of styles. For example, some science fiction
texts are written extensively in a specialist style that emulates scientific
discourse, even though their content is based primarily on imagination. So,
what are the distinguishing features of each type of style?

Specialist style
At one end of the style spectrum is specialist style, which is suitable for an
audience with a specific interest and some specialized knowledge in the topic.
These readers may be managers, technical peers or technically savvy
stakeholders. Characteristics of this style are:
 Strong use of quantitative or quantifiable information: where possible give
numbers, facts and measurable data – but make sure you explain them.
 Factual tone produced by minimal use of evaluative adjectives: avoid words
that show personal response, such as “wonderful”, “horrible”, “delightful”,
“heartbreaking”, etc.
 Use of abstract entities as agents of actions rather than people: where
possible, use words that refer to things as agents in a sentence. This helps to
44 Professional Writing

focus on facts and observable elements rather than people. For example,
write “The project is developing on time” instead of “I am developing the
project on time”, and “Evidence suggests ...” instead of “I think ...”.
 Focus on the topic rather than on readers’ anticipated response towards
it: avoid using direct questions, such as “Don’t you think that …?”, or
“Wouldn’t you …?” and expressions that attempt to tangle the reader in
appeals to common sense, such as “We all feel that …”, “Of course,
everybody knows …”. The “you approach” is a feature of journalistic writing,
so avoid it in specialist style.
 Description and analysis of topic, presented with critical distance: describe a
situation objectively, even if you have strong feelings about it.
 Use of complete words. Avoid the use of contractions (it’s–it is, haven’t–have
not, etc.), as they give writing a “spoken” or “chatty” tone.
Here is an extract from the introduction and conclusion of a report written by
the IT manager of an insurance company to department managers, on the
dangers of new computer viruses for the functioning of the company’s network.
Notice the direct approach tackling the main topic immediately, the use of
specifics, such as names and dates, and the impersonal presentation of facts.

Example Two: Specialist Style

This report examines the type of computer viruses that are currently circulating and
that constitute the greatest threat to the company’s network system during 2019. The
viruses discussed are Sircam, Love Bug and Code Red. These are especially
destructive and attack the operating system. Given the insidious nature of these
viruses, prevention is very important. All employees should follow these precautions:
 Make sure the antivirus software installed on all computers is functioning and
updated. Check the bottom right corner of screens for an icon of a sealed
computer monitor. If this is not there, contact the System Support section
immediately.
 Do not open any suspicious email attachments. Open only those attachments that
you are expecting or that are clearly justified.
 Make sure all important files are backed up so that information can be retrieved
even if a virus attack deletes files.

Journalistic style
Because it addresses a very wide audience, and comes in a variety of formats,
journalistic style is more complex and harder to define. The main purposes of
documents written in this style are to inform the public of a development or
 Writing Style 45

event, to entertain them by presenting a personal commentary on an issue that

is of collective concern, or to influence and motivate them to adopt a certain
attitude towards an issue. In this respect, anything that popularizes a subject
would use journalistic techniques to an extent. Popular science, for instance, is
written in this style. In fact, even some academic or professional textbooks,
including this one, are written in journalistic style, as they too aim to present
specialist information in a readily accessible manner that can be understood by
non-specialists.
Journalistic writing can vary from factual (such as reporting news stories), to
informative (such as the scripting of scientific documentaries), to promotional
(such as marketing products in business publications) and to demagogic (such as
the opinionated and often polemic style of editorials). The general
characteristics of journalistic style are:
 Chatty tone produced by colloquial words and phrases, question-answer
format and sentence fragments
 Appeal to emotion and common sense
 Consistent use of generalities and exaggeration
 Consistent use of imperatives (sentences that begin with command words),
and exclamations
 Direct address to the reader: “you” and “we”
 Dramatization of events through use of colourful metaphors and visual
language.
Here is an extract from a journalistic piece written by the same IT manager that
wrote the specialist example of the previous section. This time the manager is
writing for the IT column of a local newspaper and dealing with the same topic
as his report – computer viruses. Notice the chatty tone, the direct address to
the reader and the use of humorous exaggeration:

Example Three: Journalistic Style

Be prepared for Armageddon! Just as you are farewelling last year’s
unprecedented cataclysm of computer viruses, a whole new army – better,
smarter and stronger – is marching in.

What can you do? Sit tight. If you don’t already own anti-virus software, invest in
some. If somebody sends you a love email, resist the temptation – don’t open it.
Love Bug is rampant. In case the worst happens, make sure you have backups of
files, online or on hard drives. Remember, do something before a virus attacks:
better safe than sorry!
46 Professional Writing

To better understand the difference between specialist and journalistic styles,

compare the following two extracts. Both were written by biologist Frank A.
Brown, but for two different publications. The first was written for a specialist
scholarly journal, addressed to expert peers, while the second was published in
a popular science magazine, addressed to a wider, and therefore less technically
versed, audience. Both extracts deal with the same topic but present this topic
differently to suit the knowledge and interests of the respective audiences.
A. A deep-seated, persistent, rhythmic nature, with periods identical with or
close to the major natural geophysical ones, appears increasingly to be a
universal biological property. Striking published correlations of activity of
hermetically sealed organisms with unpredictable weather-associated
atmospheric temperature and pressure changes, and with day to day
irregularities in the variations in primary cosmic and general background
radiations, compel the conclusion that some, normally uncontrolled, subtle
pervasive forces must be effective for living systems. The earth’s natural
electrostatic field may be one contributing factor (published in Biological
Bulletin – Brown, 1962).
B. Everyone knows that there are individuals who are able to awaken
morning after morning at the same time to within a few minutes. Are they
awakened by sensory cues received unconsciously, or is there some
“biological clock” that keeps accurate account of the passage of time?
Students of the behaviour of animals in relation to their environment have
long been interested in the biological clock question (published in Scientific
American – Brown, 1954).
Extract A, written in a high degree of specialist style, is almost undecipherable by a
lay audience. Some features that produce this effect are strong presence of
technical jargon, long sentences, and emphasis on abstract entities and processes
with no mention of human agents or personal concerns. Extract B, written in
journalistic style, “interprets” the technical information by associating it with
personal, everyday experience. Some features that demonstrate this are rhetorical
questions, use of metaphor (“biological clock”), and generalization (“everyone
knows”).
For another example, consider this extract, adapted from an editorial in New
Scientist (30 June 2001). Its use of personal pronouns is typical of the
demagogic variant of journalistic style. The demagogue is the enthusiastic
public speaker, who tries to sway audiences with a highly emotive tone.
Although fine for an editorial, this style would be highly inappropriate in
business writing, say, in a formal report to a client:
 Writing Style 47

So, it turns out that poisonous polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are turning
up in our food more often than we thought. Should we panic? PCBs are in
everyday food in high concentrations and we aren’t even monitoring them.
It makes you wonder what else is out there.

Creative style
As noted above, creative style is an umbrella term encompassing a variety of
techniques, generally associated with fictional writing – although it is also used
in some journalistic genres, such as “creative non-fiction” and in advertising.
The main aims of creative style are (a) to draw attention to language processes
themselves, rather than to events or objects in the objective world, and/or (b) to
evoke images in the reader’s mind through linguistic symbolism such as
metaphor. Creative style is not covered in this book, but it is useful to include
this brief description in order to contrast it to the other stylistic types that we
discuss. For an example consider this extract from William Gibson’s novel
Neuromancer (1984), which, incidentally, introduced the term “cyberspace” in
the lexicon:

Cyberspace. A consensual hallucination experienced daily by billions of

legitimate operators, in every nation, by children being taught mathematical
concepts. A graphic representation of data abstracted from the banks of
every computer in the human system. Unthinkable complexity. Lines of light
ranged in the nonspace of the mind, clusters and constellations of data. Like
city lights, receding … (Gibson, 1984, p. 510)

Although this extract describes an abstract concept, cyberspace, it does so by

creating mental images and arousing an emotional response, rather than by
detailing the technical specifics of the concept. The features that create this
effect include the use of fragments (the extract has no complete sentences), the
strategic use of metaphor (“consensual hallucination”), analogies to common
experiences (“like city lights …”), and intensifiers (“every nation”, “every
computer”, “unthinkable complexity”).

Audience and medium matters

It is worth repeating that the most important considerations in choosing your
style are audience and purpose. If writing for complete outsiders or novices,
for example, you may find that to be clear you have to use definitions and
explanations that lengthen the text. If that is what would ensure reader
understanding, then so be it – you cannot be as concise and direct in this
48 Professional Writing

situation as would be appropriate in a different situation. Also, when writing

about a delicate or controversial topic, you will need to take care to avoid using
phrases that are loaded with offensive connotations, especially if the audience
is the general public (unless you deliberately want to provoke!). Similarly, it is
sometimes impossible to be precise when quantifying a situation. In that case
you could give a range, average or approximation. In all cases, choose a style
that supports your message and is aligned to the situation in which your
writing takes place.

tIp

When reading others’ writing, use the guidelines given here to analyse and understand
what flatters you, offends you, leaves you indifferent, angers you, enlightens you or
seduces you. Then use the insights you gain to control your own writing.

The medium is the channel in which you transmit your message and is a
separate decision to choosing genre and style. For example, you can submit a
report by sending it through the post or you can attach it as a PDF to an email
and send it electronically. The genre (report) remains the same in both cases,
but the medium is different. Medium is mostly a matter of access. Which
medium would reach your target audience most effectively?
Access, however, is linked to the ways readers process information
perceptually. For instance, it is still easier and faster to read script off paper than
it is to read it off a screen (although new digital technologies are rapidly
changing this). Professional editors, in fact, often print typescripts to proofread
them since it is easier to pick errors on a hard copy. With regard to style, this
means that journalistic style, with its shorter sentences and words, is more
suited to digital writing, especially writing that is generally not printed, such as
website content.
Besides mental processing, space is another consideration in different media.
Websites have a strict layout and typography, which affects the number of
words that can “fit” in a space. This is analogous in many ways to magazine
and newspaper layout (in fact, websites were initially modelled on magazines).
A rule of thumb states that a business headline should have 5–8 words or 16
characters. This has the added advantage that it fits on a smartphone screen.
Websites, magazines and newsletters are often printed in columns, so shorter
paragraphs, sentences and words are best. A paragraph can look much longer
in a column than across a page, so journalistic style is, again, a preferred choice.
 Writing Style 49

aCtivities

1 The following sentences are grammatically correct. However, they are

inappropriate for professional writing because of ambiguity and/or wordiness.
Restructure the sentences to make them more suited to a professional context.
1 This program has a graphics design capability.
2 The security guards have the responsibility of checking all offices.
3 We opened the project to suggestions with a view to being able to get some
ideas on the improvement of the security of the building.
4 Since we hired the new technical assistant, the quality of the equipment has
improved.
5 His project will involve a big investigation into how the monetary economy
has evolved.
6 There are several organizations that are concerned with the destruction of
rainforests.
7 The inspecting officer can do a verification of the data when the manager
has made a decision on a suitable methodology.
8 The media could not provide the public with a justification of their
manipulation of the information in the news story.
9 When logging in, the data must be completed fully.
10 Non-computer background personnel can do this task.
11 To find the committee room, signs have been posted along the corridor.
12 A detailed analysis of trends and an evaluation of the relations between state
and corporation is the purpose of this report.
13 Prolonged use of the battery can cause it to become drained of its energy.
14 Because there is a trend towards fewer and larger offices, it will cause an
increase in the demand for computers.
2 The following sentences come from informal genres, such as conversations and
email. Rewrite them in specialist style to make them appropriate for a formal
business report. You will need to make up some specific information.
1 The deplorable staff turnover rate could be reduced if those long-awaited
fringe benefits could be introduced.
2 You can hardly imagine the effect of incentive pay on staff morale.
3 I don’t understand why anyone would opt for this outrageous solution.
50 Professional Writing

4 Nobody likes to feel unsafe at home, so these building security measures

will help to make people feel more secure.
5 I think the Slick Graphics upgrade is a good, solid way to do what we want
and we can also save money.
6 Advertisers feed on people’s greed and futile attempt to fill the emptiness
of their lives with consumer objects.
3 Rewrite the following sentences so that their structures are parallel.
1 He has the ability both to choose a suitable course of action and he can
implement his decision wisely.
2 Walking quickly burns as many calories as you burn when you run slowly.
3 It has been found that homo sapiens have not changed anatomically in the
last 10,000 years, and also our intellectual capacities are about the same.
4 The court found him guilty of insurance fraud and he has been sentenced
to two years imprisonment.
5 From this report it is recommended that the following initiatives be adopted:
links with the Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the viability of an
information technology school should be examined and also a scheme,
which assists small business with accounting matters, should be established.
4 Improve the cohesion in the following paragraphs by using some of the devices
described in this chapter. You may rearrange sentences and add linkers, but do
not rewrite the paragraphs extensively. Keep the style and content the same as
the original.
(a) Romantic individuality may have something to do with the sport’s popularity –
the fact that one undertakes a kind of Byronic solo adventure when one jumps.
The jumpers do their thing in groups and form little outlaw societies in which
they approve of and cheer one another. It could be the illegality of the sport that
pumps them up. In an interview last April, Kappfjell said he delighted in playing
outlaw and “fooling the authorities” as he gained access to his perches. (adapted
from Rosenblatt, 1999 – note that the sport mentioned is base jumping)
(b) Complex systems are particularly good for modelling the complexities of the
natural world. During the Gulf War, large quantities of oil polluted the sea. This
damaged the ecosystem – but how do you go about measuring that damage
and monitoring the ecosystem’s recovery? Researchers needed to disentangle
a complex web of interrelationships. (adapted from Stewart, 1998, p. 37)
(c) Explorative graphics enable the user to move about a web site by selecting
a graphical object. This is an alternative to using text to navigate the web
site. They make the web site more attractive while increasing download time.
Excessive use of exploration graphics can confuse a user.
 Writing Style 51

References and further reading

Brown, F. A. (1954) Biological clocks and the fiddler crab. Scientific American, 190, 34–37.
Brown, F. A. (1962) Response of the Planarian, Dugesia and the Protozoan to very weak
horizontal magnetic fields. Biological Bulletin, 123(2), 264–281.
DeWitt, S. L. (2001) Writing inventions: Identities, technologies, pedagogies. Albany, NY:
State University of New York.
Dias, P., Freedman, A., Medway, P., & Paré, A. (1999) Worlds apart: Acting and writing in
academic and workplace contexts. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Finkelstein, L. Jr. (2000) Pocket book of technical writing for engineers and scientists. New
York: McGraw Hill.
The gender neutral pronoun blog (2019). Retrieved 26 July 2019 from https://
genderneutralpronoun.wordpress.com/
Gibson, W. (1984) Neuromancer. New York: Penguin.
Gunnarsson, B-L. (2009) Professional discourse. London and New York: Continuum.
Gurak, L. J., & Lannon, J. M. (2007) A concise guide to technical communication, 3rd edition.
New York: Longman.
Harper, G. (2012) Inside creative writing: Interviews with contemporary writers. London:
Red Globe Press.
Harris, R. (2009) Rationality and the literate mind. London: Routledge.
Holmes, J., & Stubbe, M. (2003) Power and politeness in the workplace. London: Longman.
Kane, T. (1994) The new Oxford guide to writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kaplan, J. (1987) Tom Wolfe on how to write New Journalism. Rolling Stone, 5 November.
King, S. (2000) On writing. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
Kirkman, J. (1992) Good style: Writing for science and technology. London: Spon.
Lewin, R. (1998). Family feuds. New Scientist, 24 Jan.
Marsen, S. (2004) To be an actor or to be an observer? A semiotic typology of narrator
roles in written discourse. Semiotica, 149(1/4), 223–243.
Marsen, S. (2012) Detecting the creative in written discourse. Writing and Pedagogy.
Special Issue on Creativity in Writing, 4(2), Autumn 2012. 209–231.
New Scientist editorial (30 June, 2001). Here we go again, n.p.
Orwell, G. (1953) Why I write. London: Penguin.
Petelin, R., & Durham, M. (1992) The professional writing guide: Writing well and knowing
why. London: Longman.
Pinker, S. (2012) The sense of style: The thinking person’s guide to writing in the 21st Century.
New York: Penguin.
Rosenblatt, R. (1999) The whole world is jumpable. Time, 19 July.
Stewart, I. (1998) Rules of engagement. New Scientist, 29 Aug.
Stott, R., & Avery, S. (2001) Writing with style. London: Longman.
Strunk, W. Jr., & White, B. (2000) The elements of style, 4th edition. New York: Allyn and
Bacon.
Watts, R. (2003) Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Williams, J. M., & Cizup, J. (2016) Style: Lessons in clarity and grace, 12th edition. New York:
Pearson.
52 Professional Writing

Wisse, J. (2007) ‘The riddle of the Pro Milone: The rhetoric of rational argument’ In J.
Powell (ed.) Logos: Rational argument in classical rhetoric. London: University of London
Institute of Classical Studies, 35–68.
Woolever, K., Trzyna, T. N., & Batschiet, M. (1999) Writing for the technical professions.
Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Yagoda, B. (2004) The sound on the page: Great writers talk about style and voice in writing.
New York: HarperCollins.
 Chapter

3
Short Business Documents

Focus:
 Everyday communication genres
 Bullet points
 Presentations

This chapter looks at the writing that professionals do every day, and the
formats of short business genres, such as memos, email and oral
presentations.
The amount and kind of writing that professionals do every day varies
greatly, depending on the industry, the size of the company and the person’s
position in it. For example, in a routine and relatively uneventful week, a
Public Relations Officer in a mid-range high tech company would need to
write about ten press releases about two pages long each, one proposal about
four or five pages long (a topic could be to get approval and funding to
conduct a media trip to a new site of the company), one presentation or
speech to be delivered by a senior manager or the CEO, one press conference
or media-addressed statement and about two newsletter articles addressed to
stakeholders. In addition, every day s/he would write several statements and
responses, to media and stakeholders, sent mainly through email and instant
messaging. If the company does not have a social media specialist, the PR
Officer would also need to update the company’s social media communication
daily.
Although different genres have their own conventional formatting
conventions, there are certain writing principles that are relevant for all business
genres since they reflect the rhetorical situation of workplace communication in
general. Table 3.1 describes these principles:

53
54 Professional Writing

Table 3.1  General Business Writing Principles

1 State your purpose close to the beginning of the document: business writing is
‘top heavy’. This means that the beginning of a document is a prominent position
and important information should be placed there. Don’t let the reader wait for the
main point – suspense is not a desirable quality in business writing.
2 Respond to the brief/establish a link with previous exchange: remind readers
why you are writing this document. Is it in response to a request? Is it an answer to a
question? Is it a follow-up from a decision reached at a meeting? Establishing a link
between your document and a previous communication is especially important in
short documents, such as memos and email, because readers receive a number of
these daily and would need some context.
3 Present information in order of its importance to the readers: the most effective
way to organize information in a business document, regardless of genre, is from
most important to least important from the point of view of the reader.
4 Chunk information into sections with a clear pattern of development: make sure
the logic of organization of paragraphs and sections is clear to the reader and
consistent throughout the document.
5 Use listing and bullet points to condense and highlight information: if not over-
used, bullet points can be a strategic device for summarizing and emphasizing
information, as well as a technique for making your document more concise.
6 Put information of questionable or partial importance into an attachment: short
documents must have one main message. Any additional information should go in a
separate attached document. Reports also have the advantage of allowing you to
attach appendices with additional information. This is especially important when you
have mixed audiences, with some readers having more knowledge of your topic and
others needing more detail and explanation.
7 Where appropriate, state clearly what action you want the reader to take: if the
document requires action, make sure this is explicit and not implied. Action
requested of the readers usually comes at the end of a document – in the closing
line in memos and email, and in the recommendations in a formal report.

These principles are consistently confirmed in research into corporate

communication (Canavor, 2018; Cardon, 2017). For example, management
communication researchers John Fielden and Ronald Dulek (1998) analysed over
2,000 documents in a corporate context and found that most were confusing
and ineffective because they buried their main message and purpose by placing
it in an inconspicuous position. This forced the reader to re-read sections and to
attempt to interpret the writer’s intention. To remedy this, Fielden and Dulek
propose a ‘bottom-line’ approach to business writing, by organizing information
so that the main message and purpose of the document are stated first, before
any justifications, explanations or reasoning. All the information that follows
becomes meaningful, because it is framed by the main point.
 Short Business Documents 55

Short reports
The report is the most common genre in business writing, divided into various
sub-genres. Many reports are analytical, evaluating and interpreting facts and
ideas. Other reports are descriptive, stating facts without any analysis. Objectivity
and good summarizing skills are necessary to produce clear and useful
descriptive reports. Here are some types of descriptive reports, the focus of this
chapter and their functions:

Agendas
Agendas for business meetings list the items for discussion. An agenda is circulated
prior to the meeting to people who are scheduled to attend. Items included are
the date, time and venue of the meeting, and the topics to be discussed. After
apologies from absentees is a discussion of whether the tasks allocated at the
previous meeting have been actioned – this way facilitating continuity in meetings
and, by extension, in the progress of a project or the management of a section.
The following is an example of an agenda for a meeting of the Research and
Development Committee of a company.

XYZ Company
Research and Development Committee
AGENDA 19 April 2019
Time: 11.00–12.00 pm
Venue: XX Building Block B
1 Minutes of Previous Meeting (Attachment A)
2 Business Arising from the Minutes
3 Reports
3.1  Chair’s Report
3.2  Creative Arts Project (Attachment B)
3.3  Report by Project Director
4 Any Other Business
Next meeting Friday 10 May, 10.00am–12.00pm in XX Building Block B

Minutes
Minutes contain a summary of discussions held at meetings. The meeting
secretary is responsible for taking notes at the meeting, revising them into
a minutes document and circulating the document to members. Minutes
56 Professional Writing

should include information on tasks allocated to project or section members

to action. Here are the minutes of the meeting following the above agenda:

XYZ COMPANY
Product Development Meeting
Minutes of Meeting 19 April 2019
Present: John Amos, Grace Chung, Mary Willis, Steve Johnson, Adam Reeves
Apologies: George Craig, Petar Sladic
1 Minutes of Previous Meeting: The minutes were accepted as a true record.
2 Matters Arising: Mary Willis contacted the South American representative and
arranged a two-day symposium later in the year to discuss possible collaboration
on the new electric engine. Dates to be decided.
3 Reports
2.1 Chair’s Report: Our main concern is developing the new electric engine
within the set deadlines and within budget. As this is an international
collaboration many of our problems and delays have been in negotiating
meetings, deadlines ,and exchange of resources with our international
collaborators. At this stage we are still within the assigned timeline and
within budget, but we must act swiftly.
2.2 Creative Arts Project: The Creative Arts Department has not yet been
established. It was due to be inaugurated in March, but we had to delay the
inauguration and prioritize the development of the electric engine. At this
stage, the Creative Arts Project is on hold until further notice. However, the
Project must start this year.
2.3 Report by Project Director: We spent the last two months contacting
collaborators and gauging interest. We made a formal agreement with Dan
Jones, CEO of Trademark to obtain all raw material from them. We have not been
able to contact Mario Gracci in Italy because he has been away on business.
Action: By next meeting, 10 May 2019:
 Adam Reeves to contact Mario Gracci
 Mary Ho to initiate contact with UC Davis and gauge interest in
collaborating
 Team members to bring prototype of engine for analysis and
discussion.
3.  AOB: None reported.

Next meeting on Friday 10 May 2019

 Short Business Documents 57

Progress reports
Progress reports state tasks completed to date within a project. Progress reports
compare actual progress against planned progress in terms of cost, resource
use, and level of performance. Writing progress reports is an essential part of
project management. With regular and timely progress reports, problems can
be addressed and corrected before they damage the outcome of the project.
Ideally, progress reports are written into project design as a formal requirement.
For example, a systems analyst might be required to report to the project team
or project manager every three weeks. This procedure reduces the risk of
confusion, misunderstandings and delays.
When writing a progress report, consider:

Who to report to: Progress reports of projects are typically addressed to both
sectors of the project team, the project steering committee who oversee the
project and the project implementation group, who put the project design
into operation.

When to communicate: Project reports are generally required regularly.

What to communicate: Headings for the report may include the following:
 Major issues
 Key achievements
 Targets
 Progress against schedule (indicate whether the project is progressing
according to plan)
 Resource summary against plan (compare the utilization of resources
against planned use at this stage)
 Major tasks remaining
 Forecast
 Additional comments/notation (for example, explain any deviations from
the project plan).

How to communicate: As with all professional communication, expression in

the report should be accurate, concise and unambiguous. It should be
formatted using the house style of the company.

Contracts and licence agreements

Contracts and licence agreements list obligations and privileges that bind
two or more parties and describe the conditions and rules that underlie
the transactions of the signing parties. The legal and non-negotiative nature
58 Professional Writing

of such documents gives them the highest degree of formality of all descriptive
reports.
Here is an extract from a licence agreement:

Disk Manager/Disk Manager Diagnostics (the ‘software’) is copyright 1990–2000 by

ONTRACK COMPUTER SYSTEMS, Inc, and is protected by International Copyright
Law and International Treaty provisions. All rights are reserved. The original Purchaser
(‘You’) is granted a licence to use the Software only, subject to the following
restrictions and limitations:
1 The licence is to the original purchaser only, and is not transferable without the
written permission of Ontrack Computer Systems, Inc.
2 You may make back-up copies of the Software for your own use only, subject to
the limitations of this licence.

Everyday communication documents

Business letters
In addition to reports, much professional communication takes place through
shorter documents, such as letters and memos. These two documents are very
similar in many respects. Their main difference lies in their recipients: letters
tend to be addressed to readers outside the writer’s organization, while memos
are written for colleagues and employees within the organization.
Business letters generally serve these functions:
 They accompany a report (as in a letter of transmittal), a packaged product
or advertising material (such as a brochure).
 They confirm a previous communication between writer and reader by
stating the decisions or agreements that were made.
 They introduce a candidate’s application for a professional position (as in a
cover letter to a job application).
 They notify the recipient of the outcome of his/her application.
 They notify the recipient of changes or developments made in an established
relationship (such as writing to shareholders to inform them of a new
method of accessing financial data, or notifying employers of resignation).
 They carry a formal complaint or warning.
 They congratulate the recipient on a success, such as a promotion, or offer
sympathy on a loss.
 They thank the recipient for his/her support or continued support.
 Short Business Documents 59

The use and frequency of letters in a company depend on the company culture.
Letters are more frequent in traditional companies but are being replaced by
digital media in many progressive companies. They generally draw attention to
something, whether that is an agreement, product or longer document, and
should do this succinctly and directly.
The standard length of a business letter is one page. Only under special
circumstances should you go to one and a half or two pages. For any situation
requiring a longer document, write a short report. The standard order of items
in a business letter is as follows:
1 Use a letterhead for the sender company’s name and address. If you are
writing as an individual and have no letterhead, include your name and
address as the first item on the top left of the page.
2 Follow by the date and then by the recipient’s name, position and address.
Always try to address readers personally. Avoid addressing them by the
impersonal Dear Sir or Madam. If need be, phone the company to find out the
person’s name. If you cannot find the recipient’s name, use their title, such as
Dear Public Relations Officer, or Dear Human Resources Manager. Use a title
(Mr, Ms) and then the recipient’s surname. If you don’t know the gender of the
person or if you are writing in a gender-sensitive context, do not include a title
but write the person’s full name. Use a first name only if you know the recipient
well. Polite forms of address differ worldwide, so, in cross-cultural contexts, it
would be advisable to do some “homework” to find out what term of address is
expected.
3 The first sentence should state the nature of the letter. The best way is to
write a short sentence beginning with “Here is…” or “This is to…”. The word
Re (short for regarding) followed by a title summarizing the purpose of the
letter is also often used.
4 Follow with two or three paragraphs of two to four sentences each, with the
main content. Be as concise as possible and avoid repetition and elaborate
descriptions or justifications. End with a sentence indicating further action
that you or the reader should take.
5 The most widespread courteous close is “Yours sincerely”. Although “Yours
truly” and “Yours faithfully”, and the less formal “Cordially”, are also used
extensively, “Yours sincerely” is an internationally accepted standard. If the
recipient is a close associate, you could go for the friendlier “Regards” or
“Best wishes”.
6 Type your name after your signature and follow by your position title.
As regards spacing, leave double space between each section. You can leave
more space if the letter is short and there is a lot of white space on the page,
60 Professional Writing

but make sure you do not leave too many gaps between sections as this gives a
fragmented appearance.
Example One is the letter of transmittal of a report investigating career
opportunities for law graduates. The report was commissioned by a career
consulting company and written by the president of the law students’ society.

Example One: Letter

Law Students’ Society
4 Gladstone Terrace
X City, Y Country

Note that in Catherine Hayes

the United Manager
States, the Bellevue Career Counsellors
month comes Street Address
first, followed City
by the date,
October 24, 24 October 2019
2019.
Dear Ms Hayes,

Please find attached the report regarding the occupational First sentence
This being a
possibilities of Law Majors that you requested on the 1st of states directly
letter of
October 2019. In accordance with your specifications, the the purpose of
transmittal, it
report includes information on employment opportunities, the letter.
summarizes
pay rates and trends – areas interesting to graduates. Also,
the main
the report incorporates information for prospective students,
contents of the
such as advice on appropriate choice of courses and study
report, and
planning.
connects them
with the
The report outlines possible career options for law graduates
client’s
and examines advantages of the profession such as the wide The second
specifications
range of work available, the flexibility within the occupation paragraph goes
and the high levels of remuneration. Disadvantages such as into more
high stress levels and competition are also considered. detail on report
The body of
contents.
the letter ends Recommendations include advice concerning appropriate
with a note professional development training, membership in
on recom- professional associations and publicity.
mendations.
In other types I hope this report will be useful for Bellevue’s further work on
of letters, this career advice to students and graduates. Please feel free to The letter ends
would be contact me if you have questions about the report or require with an offer to
replaced with additional information. assist further
action to be should it be
taken by Yours sincerely, required.
either the
recipient and/ Franziska Federle
or the writer. President, Law Students’ Society
 Short Business Documents 61

Memoranda (memos)
Memos are internal documents, written to colleagues, superiors or subordinates
within a company. There are a few cases where memos are sent to another
company, notably when a Memorandum of Understanding is written to formalize
an agreement between the two companies.
Memos are rapidly being replaced with email. The use and frequency of
memos in a company depend on the company’s culture. Since memos are an
older genre than email, they tend to be associated with more traditional
communication. In many cases, memos are considered a little more formal than
email. Often they are attached to email as a PDF or Word document, especially
in cases where it is expected that they will be printed or saved in a folder and
recorded as a formal notification. Memos were the template for email when it
was first introduced, so the two can be seen as variants of the same genre
transmitted in a different medium. Both memos and email use the same header,
known as a memo header: To, From, Date, Subject.
Memos are sent for a great range of reasons that involve some form of
notification. They generally serve these functions:
 They confirm in writing the results of an oral communication, often also
providing some more detail on the issues discussed.
 They inform the recipient of the stage reached in a developmental
procedure. In this case, they function as informal progress reports.
 They carry a formal request, reminder (memorandum is actually a Latin word
for reminder) or suggestion.
 They notify employees of a change or development in an established course
of action (for example, if set hours for coffee and lunch breaks are
implemented or changed).
 They accompany and introduce documentation, such as internal reports.
Companies often have house style templates for internal memos. If not, follow
these guidelines:
 Always use a “memo header”: To, From, Date, Subject.
 As with letters, aim for one page and do not exceed two pages.
 Begin with a personal address, especially if you are writing to one person or
to group members with whom you work closely. A memo is still a relatively
informal piece of communication, so beginning with “Dear X”, or “Dear
colleagues” is more palatable than an abrupt beginning. However, if you are
writing to many readers who do not fall into one particular category, leave
out the personal address.
 Tie your topic to a concern you expect your reader to share or to a subject
you have previously discussed. For example, you could start by writing “As
62 Professional Writing

you know…” or “Following our meeting…”. Do not begin abruptly with a

new piece of information stated out of context.
 If appropriate, include a closing remark indicating further action, such as
“Please get back to me on this question as soon as possible.” However, a
closing tie is not necessary in a memo and you can, in fact, end with your
last paragraph.
 A memo is a short text that states facts, so use bullet points and lists to
summarize and classify information. Avoid wordiness and detailed
specifications and justifications (but you can write a memo to point the
reader to a document that gives these detailed specifications and
justifications). Optionally use headings, if they assist communication by
signposting information.
Example Two is a memo written by the Staff Welfare Officer to the Human
Resources Manager of the Ministry of the Interior. The memo informs the
manager of the results reached in a feasibility analysis carried out by the Staff
Welfare Officer regarding coffee breaks. Note how it also acts as an informal
progress report.

Email
Email has one definite quality: it is fast. For professional situations, this is both
an advantage and a drawback. The advantage is that your message can reach a
number of recipients in different parts of the world in seconds. Also email can
make a message public (read by many readers simultaneously) thereby opening
it up to more constructive feedback. The drawback is that, because of its ease
and simplicity, email often tends to be associated with speech rather than written
language, which can lead to bad audience dynamics and miscommunication.
When sending email as part of a professional communication, keep in mind
these two points:
An email message is a written text. It is, therefore, bound by the conventions
of writing, as discussed in this book. That is, your audience and purpose should
determine the relative formality, the style and the amount of detail. Contrary to
what is sometimes assumed, the Internet does not level status distinctions; you
are still writing to someone with a specific position of power and authority in
relation to your own. Reflect this in your writing. Also, the ease with which a
message can be transmitted and deleted does not justify sloppy composition,
with misspelt words and ungrammatical sentences. In fact, a very common
complaint with business email is that the writer seems abrupt and disrespectful
and the message is hastily put together. Therefore, implement the guidelines for
revision and editing given in this book also for email text.
 Short Business Documents 63

Example Two: Memo

TO: Greg Taylor, Human Resources Manager

FROM: John Masters, Staff Welfare Coordinator
DATE: 25 November 2019
SUBJECT: Coffee Breaks

Greg,
The second The first
As you requested in our phone conversation last Friday, here is a
sentence gives sentence links
summary of the issue and recommendations developed in
more context this communi-
relation to the current problem of coffee breaks. These issues
by stating cation with a
and recommendations will be part of the formal report that I will
the overall previous one
submit to the Human Resources Committee on January 15th.
purpose of the that initiated
document. it. The recipient
The Issue is, therefore,
Currently there is no provision of morning or afternoon given context for
The headings coffee breaks for staff at the Ministry of the Interior. However, the memo.
signal the recent surveys and monitoring have indicated that
organization approximately 70% of staff take unofficial breaks of between
of content. 20 and 40 minutes’ duration each day. Other than causing
work disruption, this also leaves staff that do not take breaks
feeling disgruntled.

The issue for the Ministry of the Interior is whether it should

implement an official morning and afternoon break policy,
and, if so, on what conditions.

Recommendations
Studies have shown that 20-minute morning and afternoon
breaks have a measurable positive effect on labour efficiency. The beginning
This is reflected in the fact that three quarters of businesses of this section
nationwide have daily break policies. summarizes the
findings that
The formal report in response to this issue will contain these
justify the
recommendations, briefly outlined here:
recommen­
dations.
1. The Ministry of the Interior should implement an official
morning and afternoon break policy. This
recommendation is legal and within the powers of the
commissioners to authorize.
2. No more than half the employees in any department
should be on a break at one time.
3. The Ministry should establish a canteen on the premises
to provide a facility where staff can purchase food and
The last
beverages. There is currently no such facility close to the
sentence
Ministry. I have obtained the relevant costs and am
avoids an
currently conducting negotiations for final pricing.
abrupt ending
by offering Please contact me if you have any other questions at this stage.
further
communica- Regards,
tion. John
64 Professional Writing

Email does not replace signed copy. Signed documents (often printed) are
still considered more binding and formal than soft copy in some contexts. For
example, although you may email a formal report for fast transmission, send
also a hard copy to formalize the communication (unless youve been instructed
not to). One reason for this is that it is still easier to lose documents in
cyberspace than if they are in tangible form. Another reason is that electronic
communication depends on availability of software and hardware, whereas print
can fall back on the universality and reliability of paper. Your best option for
certain transmission is to send your document in both forms keeping in mind
that digital communication is rapidly replacing “snail mail”.
Here are some general guidelines on writing effective business email.
1 Begin with an opening address: this could be “Dear” for more formal
correspondence, or “Hello” for less formal. Omit an opening address if the
message is one in a series of reply exchanges on a topic.
2 Place your main message as close to the beginning as possible. Do not
force the reader to have to read the whole message to understand what it is
about. Give as much information as possible about you (if necessary), and
your main point at the beginning to put the reader in perspective. Any
details you then proceed to give will be more meaningful.
3 Write in full words and sentences. Do not use abbreviated words, unless
they are acronyms – email is not text messaging.
4 Do not use upper case to emphasize. Words and sentences written in
upper case fonts are perceived as equivalent to shouting, not emphasis. If
you want to emphasize, do so by using appropriate terminology.
5 End by clearly stating what action you request or expect the reader to
take in response to your message and close the message politely.
6 Revise the message before you send it, paying close attention to
spelling, word choice and repetition. Also, make sure the tone is
appropriate. Never send an email when you are angry with the recipient.
Wait till you cool off!
7 Sign your message with your name and affiliation as appropriate: often,
the e-mail address is not enough for the recipient to know who you are. If
you are writing a response to a thread of emails your name is enough to
sign off. Delete long signatures from threads as they take space
unnecessarily.
8 Write short paragraphs (three to four sentences). It is more difficult to read
off a screen than it is off paper, so you facilitate communication by making
the text as simple as possible.
9 Do not use headings, tables or formatted text in the body of the email.
The reason for this is that email text is based on code – HTML (Hypertext
 Short Business Documents 65

Mark-up Language). This means that layout and formatting may not display
as you intended. If you want to send graphs and tables, attach them as a
Word or PDF document (and don’t forget to actually attach the
document!).
10 Think carefully before you copy secondary audiences. The ease with
which email can be sent increases the temptation to copy in a number of
recipients. However, some content may be inappropriate, offensive or just
irrelevant to some audiences. Similarly, always be discreet when writing
about a third party in an email. This person may well be copied in to your
message at some stage in the sometimes long and convoluted circulation of
email messages. The nature of the digital medium makes it very easy to
make private information public.
11 Think carefully before you blind copy audiences. If you send marketing or
informational emails to groups of recipients, it is best to blind copy them in
order to maintain their privacy (recipients cannot see each other’s names).
Blind copy also helps to avoid headers with long lists of names. However, do
not use blind copy to “hide” secondary recipients from your primary
audience. Ethical concerns are important in digital communication, as they
are in other media. Transparency is a positive value in professional writing,
so don’t use the perks of digital media to obfuscate. Similarly, when
receiving email, keep in mind that there could be hidden audiences. With
email, the possibility of people lurking “on the side” is always a risk.
12 Give informative subject headings. The reader should be able to
understand the topic of the email from the subject heading. Avoid
ambiguous or “playful” titles in professional email and be as descriptive as
possible in a few words.
In cases where your message is a binding contract, or includes information that
should be recorded, consider submitting it in a different document, such as a
letter, a contract, a written agreement or a report. Submit these as PDFs or Word
documents or in hard copy. For formal, developmental procedures where the
actual document is important, and not just the action it recommends, make sure
a permanent copy is available, such as a brochure or content on a website – and
maybe signal its existence by an email message.
Example Three is the body of an email written by an information analyst of a
small-size IT company to her manager to complain about ineffective duty
allocation. The email is tactless, unclear and contentious: it’s obvious that the
writer did not revise it and wrote it while in an emotional state. The email has
bad audience dynamics, and the writer is defeating her own purpose to
implement changes in duty allocation by confusing and antagonizing the
recipient of the message.
66 Professional Writing

Example Three: Email

Positions in the corporation have multiplied to such an extent
over the last two years that human resources have no longer
any idea who is doing what. I have to do so much that is not
directly in my area that I hardly have any time to do my job.
Only last week I had to prepare three press releases for new
products and to respond to questions e-mailed to me by the
marketing department because I didn’t know who to refer them
to. None of this is stuff I have to do. My job is to produce
reports for management and for clients. I should not be at all
involved in the selling area. If you want me to do my job
properly, you should contact the human resources manager and
tell him to do something about it. We should all get detailed
job descriptions, our own and other people’s so that we can
refer requests to the relevant people within the company.

The email is ineffective in these areas:

 It begins abruptly with no introductory statement to define the context.
 It constantly repeats the writer’s personal problem but does not show how
this problem affects the whole company and how its correction would
benefit everybody.
 It focuses on the problem but makes very little attempt to propose solutions.

 It is written in one chunk with no section or paragraph breaks. This makes it
even more unpalatable and overbearing.
Example Four is a suggested revision:

Example Four: Revised Email

Dear Dave, States the
Establishes purpose and
I would like to draw your attention to a problem that affects
rapport main point in
staff efficiency as well as time and resource management.
with the the first
reader sentence.
As you know, over the last two years, positions in the
through
company have multiplied. This has led to a confusion in duty Gives
shared
allocation, with staff not knowing who to contact for specific background to
knowledge.
tasks. As a result, many staff members divert their time and the situation
energy to tasks that are not officially in their area. For that created the
Gives personal
example, I often have to deal with the marketing department problem.
situation as
for sales enquiries, although this is not within the scope of
an example,
my position. As you can understand, this situation is Links personal
not as the
counterproductive and time consuming, and works against situation with
main focus of
the company’s best interests. the company’s
the message.
interests.
I propose that we organize a meeting with representatives
from Human Resources to discuss possible solutions.
Concludes Makes a
with a request Please get back to me with your views on this matter, or if practical
for reader you need more information. suggestion.
action.
Regards,
Anna
 Short Business Documents 67

Writing in bullets
With the exception of email, the other short business genres described above
(as well as longer reports, of course) include bullet points in their layout. This
section gives some general advice on using bullet points effectively. Bullet points
and numbered lists are a powerful device to condense and highlight information
in reports. They make a text more concise while allowing you to cover a wide
area. Points also stand out from the rest of the text and draw the reader’s
attention to the issues you are discussing. They enable you to show your
awareness of issues without needing to discuss them in depth.

tIp

Use bullet points for items of roughly equal value; use numbered lists for items with
priority ranking.

Bullet points list information that belongs to one logical category. For this
reason, they should not list random or unrelated items. If placed within a report
or memo, they should follow from a lead sentence, and be structured as
endings of that sentence, with each point suggesting an alternative completion
of the sentence. The only cases when bullet points can follow directly from a
heading, without an introductory sentence, are in CVs and in presentation
slides. Headings describe the content of a whole section and should not be used
as an introduction to a list of bullet points. Bullet points could be complete
sentences or phrases, but in either case, the rule of being part of a logical
category would apply: they should present different aspects of the same
category of information. They are an additive, not a developmental or
procedural technique: they accumulate information on a topic but do not
develop the discussion from one topic to another.
Compare the following extracts; the first is written in a block paragraph, and
the other uses bullet points. Both are correctly written, so their appropriateness
is determined by context and purpose. For example, the bullet-pointed version
lends itself more readily to a document where each point is taken up and
discussed further in subsequent sections.
(a) The department must make a reasonable effort to make stakeholders
aware that information is being collected and the purpose for which it is
collected. Also, the department must indicate who the intended recipients
68 Professional Writing

are, and provide details on its own structure. Another responsibility of

the department is to notify the stakeholders of the legal requirements of
the information (that is, whether it is mandatory or voluntary), and the
consequences of not providing it. Finally, the department must clarify what
access stakeholders will have to the information.
(b) The department must make a reasonable effort to make the stakeholders
aware of the:
 Fact that information is being collected
 Purpose for which the information is being collected
 Details of the department collecting the information
 Legal requirement of the information
 Consequences of not providing the information
 Rights of access and correction of that information.

Common problems with bullet points

If bullet points are overused, they can make writing choppy and may leave the
reader without a strong grasp of the main message. Other common problems
with bullet points include confusing items in a series, using points to develop a
sequence of events, and neglecting parallel structure. Example Five is an
incorrect list because the first point is a heading, the second is an explanation of
the heading and the third is a prescription of what should be done; the points
do not list items in a category and should not be formatted as bullet points.

Example Five: Incorrect bullet point list – Mixed points

 Confusing levels of hierarchy
 This disrupts the flow of information
 Points should follow from lead sentence

In Example Six the points actually describe a chronological sequence of events

and should be presented in paragraph form.

Example Six: Incorrect bullet point list – Chronological sequence

 The project investigates the high staff turnover in the company
 We collected data from surveys and interviews conducted over a period of two
years
 Exit surveys showed a dissatisfaction with promotion opportunities
 It is obvious that measures need to be taken to prevent such staffing issues.
 Short Business Documents 69

Parallel structure in bullet points

Parallel structure is very important in bullet points because the similar
grammatical structure of all points reflects the fact that they belong to the same
logical category. For example, in Example Seven the list lacks parallel structure
and is incorrect:

Example Seven: Incorrect bullet point list – No parallel structure

Suggestions for improvement include:
 More incentives for initiative should be given
 Salary increase
 we should review current recruitment methods
 developing a mentoring scheme

This problem can be corrected by choosing one structure and keeping it

consistent in all points, as in Example Eight (notice also the consistency in using
upper case first letter for each point):

Example Eight: Corrected parallel structure in bullet points

Suggestions for improvement include:
 Giving more incentives for initiative
 Increasing salary
 Reviewing current recruitment methods
 Developing a mentoring scheme.

Punctuation in bullet points

Consistency is very important in bullet points and numbered lists, and this
extends to the use of punctuation. Companies usually have their own house
style on punctuation in bullet points. However, it is becoming increasingly
common practice to omit any punctuation at the end of each bullet point and
use a full stop after the last one. Semicolons at the end of bullets are
becoming outdated and used in more traditional companies. Using upper or
lower case for the first letter of each point usually depends on the content of
the points: points that complete the introductory sentence tend to take lower
case, whereas those that list independent items tend to take upper case.
Whichever option you follow, make sure you are consistent throughout your
document.
70 Professional Writing

Oral presentations
Presentations are a staple of business communication. Their combination of
physical presence with text and visuals enables the presenters to establish a
relationship with their audience and to promote their aims. Presentations are a
multimodal genre, which allows the presenter to showcase the qualities of
a product, new idea or service in an appealing and creative manner. They
are used in countless business situations, from presenting a business plan
to potential investors, to presenting the particulars of a new advertising 
campaign to management, to presenting progress on a project, to presenting
the findings of an investigation – to name just a few situations.
What makes a good presentation? In the final analysis, the best way to
answer this question is by attending presentations and seeing which stand out
as impressive, which are competent but unexceptional, and which are
downright boring and confusing. You can then analyse the characteristics of
each, emulate the ones that produce effective results and avoid the ones that
lead to failure, while keeping in mind that quality should be assessed
according to the criteria of each industry. Being an attentive member of the
audience will give you invaluable tips on being a master speaker. The following
guidelines are based on tested observations and discussions with seasoned
presenters.
The most common digital tools used for presentations are PowerPoint,
Keynote and Prezzi. All have advantages and disadvantages, and all can suffer
from two common misuses caused by over-reliance: “Death by PowerPoint” and
“PowerPoint Karaoke”.
Death by PowerPoint occurs when the presenter relies on the digital tool to
carry through the presentation. This happens when the speaker “kills” the topic
(not to mention the audience) by relying inordinately on slides. Some speakers
have been known to write slides to fill an hour’s talk – which can make up about
90 slides!

tIp

The best way to conceptualize a presentation is as a speech genre with the digital
tool as an aid in delivering this speech, a means to an end, not the end itself.

PowerPoint Karaoke occurs when the speaker uses the slides as transcripts and
reads them out to the audience. In this case, the slides become the centrepiece
of the talk, not the speaker. However, although focusing on one or two slides to
 Short Business Documents 71

analyse information is acceptable (especially if the slides contain financial data

or other important graphical information), relying on the slides to carry the
whole interaction is not. If you expect the audience to read a lot of data during
your talk, consider giving handouts or sending out some written information
before the talk, to prepare the audience.

tIp

For complex arguments, elaborate explanations and detailed justifications,

complement presentations with written material that does not have to be read off a
screen.

Speaking and writing

A. Differences between speaking and writing
In order to understand the role of business presentations within the general
genre of public speech consider some differences between spoken and
written information:
1 Spoken information is more difficult to retain. This is why listeners
need to take notes or be given written material to summarize, highlight
and reinforce the main information presented.
2 Attention tends to fluctuate when listening. Distractions are more
pronounced in oral communication contexts than in written. When
reading, one can always reread information; when listening this is not
always possible.
3 Spoken information is coloured by the speaker’s physical presence.
The speaker him/herself may be a distraction, which is why speakers
should take care to dress, speak and move in ways that complement the
content of their speech, not in ways that draw attention away from it.
When delivering an oral presentation take care to present a strong and
confident presence (unassuming speakers tend to diminish the
importance of what they are saying), with enough control over
mannerisms and voice projection, so that you do not become the centre
of attention (unless that is your intention), drawing attention from the
content of your presentation.
4 Speaker’s presence enables clarification. This is an advantage in
speaking because listeners can ask for explanations and otherwise
interact with the speaker.
72 Professional Writing

B. Similarities between speaking and writing

At the same time, oral and written information is governed by certain
similarities. In both written documents and oral presentations the following
guidelines are valid:
1 Take the audience from what they know to what they do not know.
People become involved in the interaction if the presentation begins
with common ground (that is, information that is shared between
speaker and audience), and then presents the new information or
findings against this background.
2 Have an overall message sustained throughout. A presentation is an
interactive instance. Therefore, do not try to cram too much
information in it, especially if it does not relate directly to the main
message of the presentation. If you have a lot to say, produce different
documents with a main message in each, or give a series of
presentations. At the end of your talk, the audience should be able to
clearly summarize what the talk was about.
3 Establish a pattern of organization. Be consistent throughout the
presentation, so that the audience can recognize your logic of
organization and follow it better. For example, if you decide to present a
topic in its chronological development, sustain this throughout. Similarly,
if going from most important to least important, sustain it and do not
suddenly include an important point towards the end where it is more
likely to be misunderstood as a minor detail because of its position.
4 Balance innovation with expectation. People generally listen and read
to learn something new that they can understand. Therefore, make
sure your content is original enough to be compelling and interesting,
and understandable enough so that the audience do not lose their way.

Designing slides
When designing slides or screenshots, follow these important tips:
1 Avoid visual clutter: include ample white space; in fact, five points or fewer
on a slide is a good way to go.
2 Avoid blaring colours and contrasts: include informative items on your
slides, and avoid irrelevant or distractive items, such as ornamental images or
intense colours.
3 Choose clearly visible fonts: remember that readers need to be able to read
your text so make it easy for them. A font of 18 point or larger is advisable.
4 Take care when designing graphs: numbers and graphs are harder to read
off a slide than text, so if you use graphs ensure that they are clearly visible.
 Short Business Documents 73

5 Use animation and special effects judiciously: don’t get carried away with
the different effects you can include in a presentation. Use animation or
other effects strategically with a purpose in mind. Special effects are not just
ornamental but also communicate, so make sure the ones you use have a
meaning that will be clearly understood by the audience.

Ordering information in presentations

What you say and how you say it depends on your purpose, audience and time
limits. An analysis of these should give you the background and confidence
necessary to create an effective talk that answers the audience’s questions and
wins them over. Here are some general guidelines that would be valid for many
occasions.
1 Begin with the “bottom line” in business contexts and with hypothesis/
objectives in research contexts: this puts the subject into perspective for the
audience in and directs their attention – they know why it is important to
listen.
2 Give only as much background as necessary: since listeners cannot retain as
much information as readers, limit background details to the essential.
3 Avoid an overly linear sequence: especially in longer (one hour or more)
presentations, divide your content into sections. At the end of each section,
summarize briefly and introduce the next section. This is useful because
listeners may get distracted and lose your thread; by including appropriate
section endings and beginnings within the talk, you allow them to catch up.
4 End on a high note: the chances increase that the audience will remember your
presentation if it ends on a strong point rather than just fading away or ending
abruptly, especially if you are competing with other presenters for attention.

aCtivities

1 Here is an email written by a software developer to the Public Relations Manager

of a corporation. The email concerns a new networking system, called Wizz,
currently on trial at the corporation. The writer has made the common error of
“writing as he thinks”, which means the email lacks organization and focus. Read
the email and make a list of the problems it has in communicating a clear
message. Especially, answer these questions:
 Does the email have a main message? If yes, summarize it.
 What is the implied event that triggered the writing of the email? What problem
is the email concerned with?
74 Professional Writing

 What action does the writer expect the reader to take after reading the email?
Is this action clearly delineated?
 What problems are there with content organization and cohesion?
 What are some problems with style and sentence structure that contribute to
the lack of clarity?

After answering these questions, write a revised version of the email.

To: Michelle Lanier

From: David Atkinson
Date: 10 November 2019
Subject: Wizz

The Wizz system is designed to help with the job of managing a large
number of company stakeholders’ access to the computer resources of the
corporation. This includes configuring the network accounts up in the first
place and removing the accounts at appropriate times. As it is currently
implemented the system is very incomplete and is useful only as a way for
any network administration staff to track how they have set up the
computers.

We’ve had great input into developing what Wizz should be, but much less
input at how Wizz should do this. Unless we have specific regulation on
how to use to use it, unless we give users specific instructions, unless we
get specific feedback on what problems there are, we won’t know if Wizz is
the best solution to the problem. Using someone who is not the designer of
a component to implement it, is a test on the correctness of the design as it
is likely to show up any shortfalls in it. For this reason the different
approaches of a whole team of developers is valuable, based on their
different interpretations or scepticism as well as their ability at solving a
particular problem.

In general the Wizz software developed may be the highest quality system
we have ever used. The process would work better if we had ways to get
specific feedback. For this reason I don’t regard the system as a total
success, but feel it is a valuable experiment.
 Short Business Documents 75

References and further reading

Alred, G. J., Brusaw, C. T., & Oliu, W. E. (2000) The business writer’s handbook, 6th edition.
New York: St Martin’s Press.
Barker, T. T. (2003) Writing software documentation: A task-oriented approach, 2nd edition.
New York: Allyn and Bacon.
Canavor, N. (2018) Business writing today, 3rd edition. London: Sage.
Cardon, P. W. (2017) Business communication: Developing leaders for a networked world,
3rd edition. New York: McGraw Hill.
Fielden, J. S., & R. E. Dulek (1998) How to use bottom-line writing in corporate communi-
cations. In K. J. Harty (ed.) Strategies for business and technical writing (pp. 179–188).
New York: Allyn and Bacon.
Harty, K. J. (ed.) (1999) Strategies for business and technical writing, 4th edition. New York:
Allyn and Bacon.
Long, K. (2003) Writing in bullets: The new rules for maximum business communication. Phil-
adelphia, PA: The Running Press.
Van Alstyne, J. S., & Tritt, M. D. (2001) Professional and technical writing strategies: Commu-
nicating in technology and science, 5th edition. New York: Prentice-Hall.
 Chapter

4
Research Methods

Focus:
 Types of research
 Types of sources
 Legal and ethical issues in using sources

In many cases, creating professional documents means finding information,

assessing its relevance for your purpose and integrating it in your text. Analysing
the information that you find not only provides you with facts and usable data,
but also makes you aware of the effects of different styles and writing strategies
on audiences. As all good writers are by definition also good readers, text analysis
skills are essential in highlighting the structures and techniques of organization in
which a writer presents ideas. Being able to understand facts, issues and
arguments is fundamental for successful participation in any kind of professional
activity. Correlatively, being able to critically analyse the shortcomings and
ambiguities of a document assists in avoiding such problems in your own writing.
This chapter considers the role of research in professional writing and describes
how information can be accessed and analysed. It begins with a description of
types of research, goes on to explain how sources may be evaluated, and
continues with an overview of legal and ethical concerns in using sources.

Types of research
The research process
Regardless of the type of information you require to tackle your project, five
steps are essential in the data-gathering process:
1 Identify the information that you require.
2 Identify potential sources of information.

76
 Research Methods 77

3 Decide upon appropriate search strategies.

4 Evaluate the source and content of the information that you find.
5 Integrate the information appropriately and effectively in your writing.

Primary and secondary research

Research is divided into primary and secondary. Primary research includes
direct observation, preparing questionnaires and interviewing, undertaking
fieldwork and conducting experiments. Secondary research includes the
consultation of printed and electronically transmitted material. Primary research
leads to the presentation of empirical data, has a more applied focus and is,
therefore, generally written in an analytical and descriptive fashion. Secondary
research searches for historical backgrounds, different points of view on an
issue, recorded precedents of a situation and theoretical perspectives. As a
result, it generally lends itself to techniques of synthesis, interpretation and
evaluation.

Primary research: Focus groups, interviews, user observation

and surveys
Primary research consists of the knowledge you have obtained through first-
hand experience. It includes research associated with laboratory experiments,
marketing research carried out with focus groups and statistical evaluations
based on responses to set questions. Here we focus on some points to consider
when collecting primary data by conducting interviews.

Focus groups
Because work in professional contexts often means developing products and
services for the market, or dealing directly with the public, the ability to
detect client needs and responses is very important. An effective way to
monitor client reactions to a decision or product is through controlled
interviews. In fact, many corporations have the interviewing process built in
their marketing and public relations procedures through focus groups. These
tend to be organized at transitional periods of a product or project’s
development (known as the lifecycle of product development) and involve
inviting a selected sample of the target audience, and discussing with them
specific problems, needs and expectations. Focus groups have a facilitator,
who asks questions and generally leads and monitors the discussion and
responses.
Focus groups bring facilitator and group in a face-to-face situation that allows
for more negotiation of questions, and enables members of the target group to
78 Professional Writing

interact and respond to each other’s comments. The company thus receives
feedback on the value and usability of a product, on ways that would make
the product more appealing and competitive, and on common complaints
regarding the product’s design. The company can subsequently make
alterations that would make the product more functional and/or more
attractive, and thereby increase their customer numbers. Famous examples of
product change as a result of focus group feedback abound: one of these is the
development of the now widespread flip-top for toothpaste tubes to replace the
previously common screw top, which, as focus groups revealed, used to annoy
consumers.

Interviews
The physical proximity that characterizes the focus group situation brings
into play non-verbal communication, such as body language, and
conversational aspects such as intonation, turn-taking and silence gaps, all
of which contribute to the feedback received during the interaction.
However, the success of the discussion depends to a large extent on the
quality of the questions asked. Whether in person-to-person communication
or in surveys, make the most of questions by taking the following points into
account:
 Research your target audience. You should have a clear idea of who you are
communicating to before deciding on questionnaires and methods of
interviewing.
 Decide whether it is appropriate to administer the questionnaire one-to-one,
in a focus group, by mail or by email.
 Decide how you are going to approach the respondents to obtain consent.
 Decide if the information will be confidential or not, and make sure
respondents know too. Usually, the researchers do not include the name of
respondents in any published findings; however, if they do, they must obtain
formal consent, as in a signed release.
 Decide whether the information you seek is best obtained by open or closed
questions, or a mixture of both. Open questions start with the 5Ws and 1H
(What? Why? Where? Who? When? How? ) and require the respondent to
create a response. Closed questions give only a set number of options; the
respondent ticks boxes or ranks items on a scale.
 Make sure that your questions are not ambiguous. Will your respondent
understand what you are asking for?
 Make sure that each question asks for one piece of information only.
 Research Methods 79

 Make the questionnaire attractive and easy to use by including

headings, a clear layout, and an effective sequencing of questions to
enable a linear progression and prevent returning to previous questions
in zigzag.
 Keep questions short and try them out on someone first.
When conducting interviews face-to-face or focus groups, keep the following
factors in mind:
 Allow the interviewee time to respond. Do not be afraid of silence.
 Maintain eye contact, and be professional and impartial. Do not antagonize
your interviewee or make personally intrusive remarks.
 Avoid leading questions (questions that presume an answer in advance, such
as “Don’t you think it’s true that ...?” and “Wouldn’t you say that ...?”).
 Ask easy questions first to build rapport, trust and connection between
yourself and the interviewee. Ask short, impersonal and general questions
first. Leave difficult or sensitive questions for the latter part of the interview.
If you are dealing with people or animals, do not launch into your research
without considering the ethical consequences of your action. Will you be
harming your subjects? Engaging in unethical activities? Dealing with
confidential information? In many cases, you may need to submit your proposal
to an ethics committee for approval before conducting primary research.
In other cases, you may need to obtain releases of information or sign
confidentiality agreements.

User observation
In cases where the feedback that you wish to obtain is related to usability
of equipment or tools, user observation is a popular method of primary
research. This involves inviting a sample group of target users of the
product to try out the product by following the instructions on the
provided documentation. Engineers, designers and communication
specialists observe the users and note points of misunderstanding and
glitches, as well as the areas where the product was used effectively
without problems. They then decide if problematic areas are in design or
in documentation (or a combination), and make a plan to amend and
revise the product and its documentation.

Surveys
If the information you require involves a large number of respondents and
statistical data, surveys are a useful method.
80 Professional Writing

Table 4.1 shows the question categories of surveys, with examples of each

category:

Table 4.1 Survey Questions

1 An open-ended question – this allows respondents to supply their own answer with
little guidance:

Who would you like to see as the corporation’s Chief Executive Officer?

2 A closed-ended question with unordered answer categories – this provides several

possible answers and asks respondents to select one:

Who would you like to see as the corporation’s Chief Executive Officer?

1. Smith
2. Jones
3. O’Neil
4. Robinson

3 A closed-ended question with ordered answer categories – this provides several

possible answers and asks respondents to rate each according to degrees of intensity:

For each of these candidates, please indicate how much you would like that
individual to be the corporation’s Chief Executive Officer.

Strongly Somewhat Somewhat Strongly

favour favour oppose oppose

a. A 1 2 3 4
b. B 1 2 3 4
c. C 1 2 3 4
d. D 1 2 3 4
e. E 1 2 3 4

4 A partially closed-ended question – this provides several possible answers, but also
allows respondents to select a different answer if required:

Who would you like to see as the corporation’s Chief Executive Officer?

1. Smith
2. Jones
3. O’Neil
4. Robinson
5. Weir
6. Other (specify)
 Research Methods 81

5 Ladder-scale question – this provides a scale on which respondents can rate the
performance or degree of probability:

On a scale from 0 to 10, where 0 means you rate the job the CEO is doing as
extremely poor and 10 means you rate the job the CEO is doing as extremely
good, how would you rate the job CEO X is doing?

Extremely Extremely
Poor Good

0  
1  
2  
3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10

6 Lickert-scale question – this asks respondents to evaluate the likelihood of particular

actions:

How likely do you think you will be to support the election of X as the
corporation’s new Chief Executive Officer?

1. Very likely
2. Somewhat likely
3. Neither likely nor unlikely
4. Somewhat unlikely
5. Very unlikely

7 Semantic differential question – this asks respondents to give impressionistic answers

to a particular object by selecting specific positions in relation to pairs of contrastive
adjectives on a scale of one to seven. The aim is to locate the meaning of the object
in three dimensions: evaluation (for example, good–bad), potency (for example,
strong–weak) and activity (for example, active–passive). This method is useful in
studying emotional reactions and attitudes and gauging the differences in outlook
between cultural groups.

How would you characterize X as the corporation’s CEO?

Good ————————————————————————–——–——–– Bad

Strong ————————————————————————–––––––––– Weak

Decisive —————————————————————————— Indecisive

Moral ———————————————————————————–– Immoral

Intelligent ——————————————————————–––––––––– Stupid
82 Professional Writing

Secondary research: Print and electronic sources

Secondary research refers to the activity of obtaining information from published
sources, including books, journal articles, newspaper and magazine articles,
government publications, corporate publications, and online journals. Different
sources are valid for different subjects, and professionals know what these are
through experience and by being immersed in their fields. Strategies to help you
keep up to date with current developments in your field include networking with
relevant groups and joining professional associations. In addition, many
organizations and professional bodies require their members to regularly update
their knowledge and qualifications through professional development training.
Depending on your position in a company, very often the writing you will need
to do falls into two broad categories: routine documents, such as press releases and
information statements (for PR and communication officers), and urgent responses,
such as response to crisis. For both these categories, the first port of call is the
company’s databases. Companies record their history of document production,
their corporate memory, so new employees do not have to “re-invent the wheel” by
writing everything from scratch; they can recycle existing statements and phrases.
In fact, many companies have databases of statements related to scenarios that
they encourage, if not require, employees to use in their texts.
For example, if you are a PR Officer or Media Liaison and there’s been an
accident with a company truck overturning on a highway, you will need to
rapidly produce a statement informing the media and the public. The 
company’s database will have some information on how to organize your
statement in such a situation. For instance, it might say that you need to begin
by specifying that this was “an isolated incident” (if it actually was, of course),
continue by describing what happened, then emphasize that there was “no
environmental damage or deaths”, and end by listing the measures taken to fix
this problem and prevent it from happening in the future.

Search methods
Besides recorded corporate memory found in company databases and style
manuals, work projects may require you to investigate specific topics and
problems. Before identifying potential sources or starting any form of research,
you should have a clear idea of your objectives. This comes with audience,
purpose and genre analysis. Once this is done, and you have some idea of what
you are looking for, adapt the following procedure according to the
requirements of your topic:

Search for research journals in your topic. For example, if your research is on
surveillance technologies, check journals on video and photographic equipment,
 Research Methods 83

on new media technologies, and on privacy issues. Many of these have online
access, and most allow you to search inside the publications to see if they have
published articles in your topic of interest.
Do a Google Scholar search using keywords associated with the topic. Google
Scholar is much more likely to direct you to trustworthy, expert work, as
opposed to Google standard, which will give you too many hits, most of which
are not likely to be of the quality you require. When searching, use a variety of
keywords associated with the topic. For example, if you are researching
“smoking”, look for “tobacco”, “nicotine”, “lung diseases”, “cigarettes”, etc.

Search reference material, such as dictionaries, thesauri and encyclopedias.

A considerable number of these can be found online. However if your work
consists to a large extent of writing, you will find that building a library of
reference material will prove very useful for your tasks. The market abounds in
dictionaries of various sorts – quotations, humour, famous speeches, clichés,
etc. – and a good collection of these will often prove instrumental in helping
you come up with the right idea. Reference material will also point you to the
right direction even when it does not itself offer the answer to your question.
The online encyclopedia Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org), for example,
provides information of varying quality and depth; it can, however, direct you
to the sources that may be more suited to your requirements and more
credible.

Do a database search: many organizations are affiliated with research

institutions and universities that have substantial libraries. Others subscribe
to online database services, such as the Online Computer Library Center
(OCLC), the Research Libraries Information Network (RLIN) and DIALOG,
which cover a wide range of subjects and can be searched by keywords.
Search library catalogues for names of experts in your topic; search databases
for keywords of the topic. Databases such as ProQuest will give you a range
of sources, while LexisNexis will point you to popular sources, such as
newspaper articles.

Get company annual reports, government reports, newsletters and

information material from institutions and corporations that are related to
your topic. These are often available online, although you may need to
subscribe. Even if these documents defend the interests of the issuing
organizations, they can still offer valuable factual information.

Follow up articles and books that are included in the references and
bibliography sections of published material.
84 Professional Writing

For current information and recent developments, search press releases and
news sections of corporate and governmental websites. Almost all
organizations contain a page on their websites where they publicize their
breaking news. This is usually called “For Journalists” or “Press Room,” and it
is where you can get press releases and information on new products. If you
work in the fields of science and technology, a central source of press releases
is www.eurekalert.org.

Search social media sites. Most organizations have Facebook, Twitter and
YouTube sites and these have updated information on developments, products,
etc. that might be useful in your project. The advantage of information found in
social media sites is that it is current; the disadvantage is that it is often biased,
not well thought out and not detailed.

Contact professionals for advice on major publications and journal titles in

specific fields. These professionals include academic staff in university
departments, editors of key journals in your speciality, staff in research
institutions and public relations representatives of relevant companies. Your
networks can be very useful in research. Many professionals belong to online
social networks that allow them to connect with other professional in different
fields internationally and keep up with developments in their field. For example,
www.LinkedIn.com is a major social networking site for professionals.

Browse library bookshelves with the call number related to your topic. You
may well serendipitously come across useful material that you would not have
otherwise planned to get. Also, browse the catalogues of publishers that deal
with your topic for recent publications. You can set up alerts with most
publishers, who will email you updated catalogues with titles of newly published
books and journals.

Clearly, sources abound. In most instances, there is a higher risk that you will
suffer from information overload than from a shortage of data. The problem
now becomes which sources to use and which to avoid – the topic of the next
section.

Evaluating sources
In truth, there is no totally foolproof way to establish the credibility of a text.
New data constantly emerges that destroys previously accepted “truths”, bias is
insidious and mistakes are made. One safeguard for credibility is to ensure that
the text has been accepted by the community in which it belongs, as happens,
for example, with peer-reviewed material. Peer-reviewed articles have been read
 Research Methods 85

and approved by experts in the field prior to publication. The peer review
process takes place in these stages. First, a writer submits his or her text to the
editor of a journal or a publishing company. The editor, in turn, sends it to
reviewers who are familiar with the knowledge in the field. If the information
provided in the text is acceptable, the reviewers recommend that the article
proceed to publication. The reviewers could also recommend revisions and
amendments to the text, and they could also advise that the text is not worthy
of publication.
This method, however, is also inconclusive. Both Galileo’s and Einstein’s
theories, for example, were rejected by the scientific community when they
were first formulated.
In other cases, one discourse community (group of specialists who share the
same way of writing and talking about things) may find fault with a text where
another will not. This is a symptom of the diversification of knowledge and the
multiplication of specialities, even within one discipline. An author may send an
article to a journal, for instance, and have it criticized and rejected by reviewers.
S/he may then send the same article to another journal, where it is accepted
without hesitation. This shows that knowledge is regulated according to the
cultural values of specific groups, who set the criteria for its assessment.
Attaining expertise in a professional or scholarly field, therefore, in many ways
means being accepted by the community that is formed around this field. It also
means that, as a writer, you should not be discouraged by an initial cold
reception to your work but continue looking for your “niche”; and, as a
researcher, you should be aware that publications reflect certain perspectives
and follow a particular tradition of thought.
Keeping all this in mind, when deciding whether an information source is
likely to be accurate and reliable, consider the following factors:
 Has the information been peer-reviewed? This will show you at least if a
community of specialists have accepted it as “true”.
 How prestigious or credible is the information source? Publications with a
reputation for impartiality and rigour would be more selective of their
material.
 Does the writer give references for information cited? Are these references
accurate? An article that is based on personal opinion only may make a good
editorial, but it would not provide a solid basis for an objective and
comprehensive assessment of an issue.
 Has the writer considered a range of information sources, or merely relied on
just a small number of sources? Are the information sources themselves
reliable? Writers should not only show rigour in their own thinking, but also
ensure that the sources they rely on have done the same.
86 Professional Writing

 What organization does the writer belong to? What is the reputation of this
organization? Non-profit organizations may have ideological biases as “big
business” may have financial biases, and the possibility of these biases should
be taken into account when assessing the information.
 What organization funded the research? Many funding organizations have
vested or political interests in assisting certain forms of research, as opposed
to others, come to light. Learn as much as you can about the values and
political structure of research funding agencies.
 Did the writer conduct primary research? If so, does the writer state what
kind of research was conducted and how it was conducted? Is the sample
population typical or exceptional in some way? If a questionnaire was used,
was it anonymous? Was the interview conducted face-to-face, by mail or by
email? Are copies of the questionnaire included? The results of primary
research depend strictly on the methods used.

Types of sources
Following the above discussion and keeping in mind that the boundaries
between types are not always clear-cut, here is a following typology of sources,
going from most to least authoritative.
A. Scholarly
Scholarly sources include academic or research-based journals, research
monographs, university textbooks and anthologies of essays on academic
disciplines. Most scholarly journals are published by universities or professional
bodies, and scholarly books are published by publishers specializing in
“serious” work. These sources are written in language specific to their
discipline (insider language, or jargon), and always cite their own sources.
Writers of such sources make a conscious effort to make their assumptions
explicit and to persuade the readers with logical and systematic reasoning
rather than emotive appeals or generalizations. The audience for such
documents is peers, and students being initiated into the conventions and
language expectations of the discipline. Consequently, the style and
terminology of these sources is not “easy” or obvious for outsiders.
Scholarly sources are the most authoritative because their authors, in most
cases, have a professional commitment to keeping debates open, while
acknowledging and building on previously received knowledge.

B. Specialist
Specialist sources include magazines on science, technology and social topics,
and serious non-fiction, such as popular science. The aim of such documents is
 Research Methods 87

usually to inform a non-specialist public of technical topics in an accessible way,

and thereby to publicize or popularize otherwise daunting or overly complex
concepts. The intended audience of this type of source would be an educated
and informed reader with no or little expertise on the topic presented, but with
a commitment to gaining new knowledge, and, consequently, with a longer
attention span than a reader of lower level documents.

Authors of specialist documents attempt to entertain as well as inform, and

therefore tend to rely more strongly on analogy, metaphor and dramatization
than authors of scholarly documents. They do, however, cite sources, although
the technique of integrating these in the text may be different from that in
scholarly documents, which use formal referencing styles. Serious non-fiction
often uses similar techniques of referencing to scholarly work. Specialist
magazine articles, in contrast, name researchers and their professional positions
in the body of the articles, rather than in endnotes or end-of-text references. In
addition, in magazines of this type, the role of visuals becomes important, with
attention paid to aesthetics of layout and design.
Specialist documents are an excellent source of information on a rather
superficial level. If more depth or analysis is needed, such documents can refer
you to the original, more formal sources.

C. Public
These sources include governmental, corporate and legal documents, such as
public statements issued by government agencies, and corporate information,
as can be found in organizational websites and public relations material. As
these documents are generally addressed to the general public, the language
is clear and unambiguous, and concepts are made as simple as possible. This is
especially so with government and business documents since the Plain English
campaign which foregrounded reader-based aspects of communication and
propounded a direct and informal approach to public writing.
Documents belonging to this category tend to assume a low attention span,
and do not expand on a topic more than is necessary to get their point across.
Many have a promotional edge, and, even when they are not selling a product,
they support the issuing organization’s interests – as happens with press
releases, for example. Public documents are usually a good source of facts (often
the only source of facts about a corporation or government policy), but should
always be read critically, and interpreted according to the requirements of a
specific project.
This category includes (non-tabloid) local newspapers and non-specialized,
general interest magazines, as they too address the general public, aiming to
appeal to the low common denominator of a community’s interests and
sensibilities.
88 Professional Writing

D. Sensationalist
Sensationalist sources base their information on rumour, fabrication or
exaggeration, rather than on any form of empirical or interpretative research,
and are, therefore, the least credible type. In fact, they do not merit to be
classified as sources of research at all, unless you use them as examples of the
distortion of information in the popularization of knowledge. Many popular
magazines, newspapers and social media sources fall into this category,
especially the ones that appeal to thrill and sensation as opposed to any form
of truth or reflection. These sources should be avoided in business writing,
unless your aim is to analyse the way they use language.

The Internet
Today information on any subject can be retrieved in a wide variety of formats
and through a range of channels, and the plethora of information can make it
difficult for researchers or investigators to decide on which sources to use.
The temptation for many is to automatically search the Internet. Although this
can be productive, be cautious to avoid potential problems.
It is difficult to estimate how much information, and how many documents
are available through the Internet at any one time. Whatever number people
might estimate, one minute after the estimation there will be more. The size of
the Internet in terms of the amount of information contained is one of the
factors that, while making it a strong support for learning, can also limit its
potential. Sometimes there is just too much information to be found, which
makes assessing the credibility of information difficult, and which can also be
extremely time-consuming.
For example, those who received primary and secondary education before
the 1990s are accustomed to consulting (and trusting) textbooks and
encyclopedias for facts about specific events. This attitude is now being seriously
challenged by the quantity and quality of information on the Internet. If you do
an Internet search for the answers to seemingly straightforward factual
questions such as “Who invented the microscope?” and “In what year was the
telescope invented?” you may come up with some surprises. You will probably
find a range of names and dates offered as the right answer, depending on such
factors as different definitions, different methodologies of research, different
interpretations of events – even personal preference! This suggests that, because
of its lack of control over what is published, the Internet is not always a reliable
source of information – but it can certainly give you alternative views and
different sides to an issue that you may wish to investigate further.
 Research Methods 89

One way to avoid such problems is by recognizing that the Internet, besides
being a source, is, in fact, a medium. This means that although sources of
information may be transmitted through the Internet, they can still be evaluated
with reference to the typology proposed earlier, like print sources. The presence
of “walled gardens” on the Internet is a case in point. For example, many sites
are encrypted, and require a special password to access the information they
contain. An example of this is digital libraries, which require subscription for
access. In fact, many digital libraries from scholarly institutions or reputable
publishers have valuable resources online but limit their access to subscribers or
members.
Many scholarly and specialist journals offer the option to access materials
both online and in print. This is the case, for instance, with many business
publications, such as The Economist (http://www.economist.com/) and Time
(http://www.time.com/time/magazine), as well as popular science publications
New Scientist (www.newscientist.com) and Scientific American (www.sciam.com),
which have both online and print versions. An interesting additional element to
using the Internet as a medium in such cases is the option to open articles to
discussion and comment. In fact, often writers of articles enter the interactive
discussion to offer clarifications on points they have made in their articles, and
to respond to reader feedback.
Similarly, broadcast companies transmit news stories online as well as
through the older media of radio and television (see, for example, www.bbc.
com and www.cnn.com). Finally, government agencies and corporations
publish information on their policies and products online, and these can be very
useful when you search for facts and figures, and for contacts from whom to
obtain more details.
Other Internet sources include:

Blogs and wikis: these are popular online forums for discussion and
collaboration. Easily designed with authoring tools that can be downloaded
from sites such as www.blogger.com, blogs enable users to interact in real-time
to exchange ideas and opinions, or to produce collaborative documents where
all writers contribute and can edit each others’ work. Blogs can be very
productive in their interactive and collaborative function. However, they should
not be used as the sole or main source of information because their informality
and experimental nature generally does not lead to definite information, but,
rather, to work in progress, or to directions that need more exploring through
other means.

Blogs (originally weblogs) are authored by individuals or groups, and have a

serial nature, offering commentary on a particular topic. The credibility of this
90 Professional Writing

commentary, as in other media, depends on the reputation and expertise of the

blogger. In contrast, wikis are not serial, but collaborative. Some wikis are open
and some are closed. Wikis generally allow the community to add, edit and
restructure contents. High-quality wikis have communities of volunteers to
continually check and edit content to ensure credibility. They generally also
attribute edits and changes to particular individuals and may also include a
change history with comments and discussing showing the rationale of the
changes. Wikipedia is an example of this.

Discussion groups: you can find discussion groups on practically any topic
imaginable. These can be useful in exchanging information with similar-interest
peers, who may direct you to the information you need for a project. At the
same time, remember that, however insightful the information you obtain may
be, it does not represent all the input the topic can generate, and requires
careful scrutiny and balance with material from other sources. For
straightforward topics, discussion groups can be useful in encouraging and
documenting questions and answers. Also, in finding the answer to a query
about a narrow topic, discussion groups may be the best resource.

Personal websites: these are the least credible of Internet sources, and could, in
fact, be placed in the sensationalist category. The Internet’s decentralized and
open structure allows anyone with server space and minimal technical
knowledge to set up a site and post whatever they want on it, so the best advice
is to avoid personal websites altogether for research purposes (unless personal
websites are the topic of your research).
Table 4.2 lists some question to ask when deciding if an Internet source is
credible.

Table 4.2  Checklist for Evaluating Internet Sources

1. Is the information presented on the site comprehensive and unbiased? Does it
describe clearly where the information came from and what its purpose is? Sites
that present opinions based on personal experience or belief should be avoided
when credible data is required.
2. What is the style and quality of writing of the site? No organization that takes itself
seriously would condone sloppy or ungrammatical writing, so if you find this in the
site, be careful. As with other types of written communication, the text of a site
should use the terminology and style that are recognized and used by its target
audience.
3. Does the site clearly state its purpose? Sites whose purpose is ambiguous or hard to
find may be of dubious value.
 Research Methods 91

4. Does the site include author’s name and affiliation? Does the author have
credentials in the field in which s/he is writing? Suspect anonymous sites unless they
are sponsored by a well-known organization.
5. Does the site include a date of updating? Like with all publications, the date that the
information was last reviewed is vital in assessing its reliability.
6. Does the site have links to other sites and/or references to other sources? What is
the value and reputation of these other sources? Links function like references in
printed texts, allowing the reader to obtain further information or different points of
view on a topic. A site that is self-sufficient is more likely to be based on personal,
unsupported opinion.

Searching the Internet

Search engines
Currently, there are more than 100 search engines that can be used to locate
information on the Internet. An important feature of search engines is their
increasingly commercial nature. For example, many engines will place
prominently paid advertisements related to a search, according to criteria set by
advertisers. Advertisements should be distinguished from search results, and
some engines make this difficult. Also, some engines are suspected of reducing
or eliminating search results for products or services that compete with those
owned by the search engine company. Finally, some search engines censor
results to appease political authorities in some countries.
Another important issue is that many websites actually exist for the sole
purpose of being found in search results. These often have many words that
people might search for and contain advertisements or links to other sites. Some
of these sites promise their content only to those who register with an email
address, which then leads to spam advertising messages.
Therefore, choosing the right search engine can mean the difference
between finding a lot of useful information and a lot of useless information.
Users should have some awareness of the qualities of the different engines so
that they can choose the one that best meets their needs.

Searching tips
The following tips are generally valid for many search engines and searching
activities on the Internet.
1 Use multiple words
You will get more refined results from several words than from a single word.
For example, “Detective Sherlock Holmes” will yield more relevant results
than “Sherlock Holmes” or “detectives”.
92 Professional Writing

2 Use similar words

The more similar words you use in a search, the more results you will get
back; for example, “restaurant, cafe, bistro”.
3 Capitalize when appropriate
Capitalize proper nouns. Capitalized names that are adjacent are generally
treated as a single name and not as two separate words.
4 Use quotation marks to set off phrases
Use quotation marks to find words that are part of a set phrase; for example,
“deep blue sea”. Otherwise, you may get pages that include the word
“deep”, the word “blue” and the word “sea”.

Copyright and plagiarism

The general context
When thinking about research, the terms copyright and plagiarism come to
mind. Plagiarism means copying or in some way reproducing someone else’s
work without giving them credit or acknowledgement. In many ways, it is a
form of stealing – consistent with the etymological root of “plagiarism”, which
in Latin means “kidnapping”. In our era of collaborative writing and digital
re-mix, however, things are not as simple as they sound. It is sometimes unclear
where the boundaries lie between one’s own and someone else’s work. This
section attempts to shed light on some pertinent issues.
Using another’s work without permission and/or credit signals one of three
different situations: copyright breach, plagiarism or invasion of privacy (Branscum,
1991; Howard, 2003; Leval, 1990).

Copyright
Copyright is a legal issue. If you use without permission work that has been
published in a tangible medium or patented, you breach copyright and are
liable to, often very costly, lawsuits. Any item that has been formally published
or registered with a recognized organization is protected by copyright law, and
this includes Internet sources. Copyright law originated in England to protect
the printing trade. Since then, it has become part of a set of laws, together
with patent law and trademark law, that regulate Intellectual Property (IP).
Copyrighted items include scientific articles; novels and other literary works;
drawings, paintings, photographs, films and other audiovisual work; musical
compositions; and software. As copyright laws tend to change regularly, it is
always advisable to check the copyright status of an item you want to use.
 Research Methods 93

To complicate matters further, copyright is regulated by the laws of each

country, although there are some general international principles. For instance,
more than 160 countries have signed the Berne Convention, administered by
the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), which sets some basic
standards for copyright protection.
Copyright expires after a certain amount of time, when the work becomes
part of the public domain. Countries set a different timeline for this, but a
generally accepted principle is that for works created after 1977, the term of
copyright protection is the life of the author with 70 additional years for
individuals (known as “life plus 70”) and 95 years for corporate authors (Karjala,
1999; WIPO, 2019).
Copyright law was designed to protect the rights of producers of literary and
artistic artefacts. After all, these individuals make a living from their products,
and these should be protected to encourage their producers to continue
creating. However, public access to such artefacts also needs legal protection, so
fair use or fair dealing was created as an amendment to copyright law. This
entails using a part of a work for purposes that benefit the public good, such as
education. According to fair use or fair dealing, you may use another’s work
without permission if:
 you are using only a fraction (usually 10%) and not the complete item
 you give credit to the original source
 the item has been published, and is, therefore, not private
 the purpose is educational
 your use of the material will not affect the market value of the original.
Government documents are considered public property (government
employees are paid from taxes) and are not copyrighted. This does not mean to
say, however, that you can copy material from them without citing the source –
this would be plagiarism, even though it is not copyright breach.

Plagiarism
If you reproduce a work or part of a work without acknowledging the original
creator, and present it as being your own, you are plagiarizing, even in cases
when the work is not copyrighted and is in the public domain. For example,
Shakespeare’s work is now in the public domain; however, if you copy a part of
it and present it as your own, you are plagiarizing the work, even if you are not
liable to legal action for doing so. With plagiarism we leave the domain of law
and enter the domain of ethics.
Copyright protects only the tangible expression of an idea – not the idea
itself. In contrast, plagiarism regulations cover the unacknowledged reproduction
94 Professional Writing

of the idea itself. Knowledge and ideas are academic and artistic currency:
through the exchange of ideas, the academic and artistic communities sustain
themselves and contribute to the well-being of society as a whole. Individual
scholars and artists produce and publish ideas for their livelihood, and any
unacknowledged use of their hard work is both injury and insult. This accounts
for the heavy penalties universities impose on students convicted of plagiarism;
although legal sanctions may not apply if the work is not copyrighted, the
ethical violation carries an equally serious consequence – exclusion (temporary or
permanent) from the community.
Plagiarism can be avoided by:
 Summarizing: expressing in your own words the gist of a document, and
citing the source
 Paraphrasing: expressing in your own words the gist of a part of an idea, and
citing the source
 Quoting: copying the exact words of a section of the original document,
putting them in quotation marks to set them off from your own words, and
citing the source.

tIp

If you copy more than four words in a row from a document, put them in quotation
marks.

All ideas taken from other texts need referencing. The only exception is common
knowledge. Common knowledge consists of propositions and statements that
did not originate with the writer (or speaker), but that are accepted facts in the
wider community. Examples include such propositions as “Rome is the capital of
Italy”, “the Sun is a star” and “two plus two equals four”. This, however, is not
always so straightforward because knowledge, in many cases, depends on the
community in which it is used. A proposition that may be considered common
knowledge among quantum physicists, for example, may not be so among
another group. This is why, as with other aspects of writing, analysing your
audience and purpose will point you to the right direction on ways to integrate
knowledge in your document, and on when to cite a source. The general
advice, though, is that when in doubt, always cite.
Finally, when using another’s work you may also be invading their privacy – a
legally sanctioned offence. This generally occurs when you publicize
information that the originator kept personal or private. If you publish your
 Research Methods 95

roommate’s journal on the Internet, for example, you are infringing on their
privacy. If you publish the journal and present it as your own, you are also
plagiarizing. In professional contexts, privacy issues often arise with email and
Internet use. It is contestable if a manager has the right to “spy” on employees’
email exchanges and the sites they visit on the Internet. For some, the manager
does have this right, since the employees are using computers, Internet
provision and time supplied by the company. For others, email is private if it is
not exchanged for professional purposes, and should not be accessed by
employers, even if the employee exchanges it during work hours. The debate
continues on such issues.

Plagiarism and copyright in business contexts

As the last example shows, the professional world presents a challenge to
conventions regarding plagiarism and privacy. One reason for this is that the
Intellectual Property (IP) of a company can be used in different ways by
employees. Since companies have the legal status of persons, they can own IP,
and this can be used in different texts produced by the company. Employees
who write material that finds its way into recorded corporate memory generally
do not have ownership of this material. In fact, in many instances new recruits
sign contracts releasing all the work they produce to the company, which then
becomes the sole copyright owner.

Boilerplate text
One example of text that is considered common property within a company is
boilerplate text – standardized writing that can be reproduced verbatim, or with
minor alterations, for different audiences and documents. For instance, letters
sent to clients to inform them of company developments or changes work on
the boilerplate model – all recipients get basically the same letter, with only the
opening address differing. Similarly, a lab whose members often apply for
funding may have a set description of the lab and its operations, which
individual members must use, unchanged, in their proposals. In such cases, the
individual whose name appears on the document is not the same as the one
who wrote a section of the document. This is accepted practice in business and
is not considered plagiarism in this context.

Public relations texts

Public relations texts are also often anonymous, attributed to anyone who
may be a PR officer at a particular time, or written by someone other than
the one whose name appears on the document. For instance, corporate
96 Professional Writing

websites and promotional material, such as brochures, often contain

segments written by different individuals, and they can be updated by
rewriting some sections, reorganizing information by cutting and pasting
from different sections, etc. – all without acknowledging the original source.
Press releases contain the name of a Media Relations Officer from whom the
press can obtain more information, but this does not mean the release was
written by that person. Furthermore, speeches and articles of Chief Executive
Officers (CEOs) and other senior personnel are more often than not written
by the company’s professional writers but presented as the CEO’s own words.
The original writer in these cases has nothing to show but financial reward
and secret pride!
In the corporate world, the company takes precedence over the individual in
matters of production. This is acknowledged as business convention, so the
CEOs who put their name on an article written by their writers are not
reprehensible. In such instances, the corporation is seen as a body (“body”
being, in fact, the etymology of “corporation”) and is acting as an individual.
Stepping outside the boundaries of a company, however, would transgress this
convention. If a writer of X company, for example, uses material that a writer of
Y company wrote, s/he is plagiarizing, not to mention breaching copyright if
the work was published. Similarly, circulating published material, such as news
stories or scientific articles, among members of a project team constitutes
copyright breach, regardless of the fact that the material does not leave the
company confines. In such cases, permission should be sought from the
copyright owners to distribute the material or, alternatively, the distributor
should send out the link or reference to the article for each team member to
access individually.
Ongoing writing projects in business contexts are generally open to rewrite
and, therefore, have many writers, who most often remain anonymous or are
given a group or position title. These projects include style manuals, which are
regularly updated and changed. It should be noted that this situation is not
unique to companies. The creative industries have similar methods. For
example, a Hollywood film can have several writers, and the final product
shown on screens could be the result of a rewrite done by someone who had no
contact with the original writer of the first version.
However, some business documents, especially those that involve major
finalizable projects, follow rules akin to those of academic contexts. For
example, proposals to management for funding and/or approval of a project
always include writers’ names, and so do reports describing the results of an
investigation. The accountability involved in such writing makes it necessary to
 Research Methods 97

frame the writing in more personal terms and associate it with its actual author.
Accordingly, in such reports, the writers also are expected to cite their sources of
information and to quote, summarize and paraphrase as appropriate. In such
situations, the rules of referencing apply, both for sources within the document
and for the document itself when used as a source.
Besides giving credit where it is due, citing sources, in both professional and
academic contexts, enhances a writer’s accountability. As a researcher and
problem solver, refer to sources to:
 show you have consulted relevant material and can advise authoritatively
 support your findings and recommendations by linking them with
independent data
 enable readers to follow up material for more information.

aCtivities

1 Watch or listen to a television or radio interview and notice how it was conducted.
How did the interview compare with the guidelines given in this chapter? How
would a different approach have produced other results? Write a short report with
the results of your investigation.
2 Discuss the ways that you could use the following sources of information in a
formal business report. Decide what other sources you would need to consult to
complement these.
1 A university textbook on software engineering.
2 A report on smoking published by an anti-smoking organization.
3 A Discovery Channel documentary.
4 An article on cosmetic surgery published in Vogue.
5 Information on cosmetic surgery published on a plastic surgeon’s website.
6 An article on globalization written by a left-wing radical.
7 Data published on an academic’s personal web page in a university’s
website.
8 A website set up by a special interest community group emphasizing the
dangers of Genetically Modified Foods.
9 A press release published on a major corporation’s website.
10 An interview with a scientist published in Nature.
98 Professional Writing

References and further reading

Booth, W., Colomb, G., & Williams, J. (1995) The craft of research. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Branscum, D. (1991, March) Ethics, e-mail, and the law: When legal ain’t necessarily right.
Macworld, 63, 66–67, 70, 72, 83.
Bunnin, B. (1990, April). Copyrights and wrongs: How to keep your work on the right side
of copyright law. Publish, 76–82.
Croucher, S. M. (2019) Understanding communication research methods: A theoretical and
practical approach, 2nd edition. New York: Routledge.
Fishman, S. (2017) The copyright handbook: What every writer needs to know. Berkeley,
CA: Nolo.
Howard, T. (2003) Who “owns” electronic texts?. In T. Peeples (ed.) Professional writing
and rhetoric. New York: Longman, 250–263.
Karjala, D. (1999) Copyright protection of operating software, copyright misuse and
­antitrust. Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy, 9 (1), 161–192.
Leval, P. (1990, March) Toward a fair use standard. Harvard Law Review, 1105–1136.
Slauter, W. (2019) Who owns the news? A history of copyright. Stanford: Stanford University
Press.
World Intellectual Property Organization (2019). Retrieved from https://www.wipo.int/
portal/en/index.html
 Chapter

5
Journalism

Focus:
 Types of journalism
 Journalistic style
 Writing feature articles

The ability to develop new products, invent new methods for doing things or
discover how the universe works requires also the ability to communicate your
results to various groups for support, funding or publicity. In such cases, your
audience could comprise people who may not have the same level of technical
knowledge as you, but who may have an interest, financial or social, to learn
about your findings. This chapter looks at techniques that will assist you to write
an appealing and informative article for a specialist magazine or company
newsletter.
As opposed to other kinds of journalistic writing that address the wide public
or the general consumer, high-level specialist journalism addresses an audience
that is more versed in subject-specific terminology, and that is more motivated
in acquiring the information presented. Business journalists, for example,
present more detailed and accurate information than consumer advertisers.
In advertising jargon, the language directed to the general consumer is
marketese: direct selling in a sensational and highly emotive tone – the
language of television commercial scripts and popular consumer magazine
advertisements. Because it addresses the wider public, or the consumer in
general, marketese lacks specificity and is characterized instead by frequent use
of generalities focused on highlighting the benefits of a product for the lowest
common denominator of the population. In contrast, high-quality journalism
uses language with a strong informative content, which not only entertains, but
also educates. The targeted audience is those who know what their specific

99
100 Professional Writing

needs are, and who can communicate in the jargon of the industry – at least on
a basic level.
The value of developing skills in journalistic writing is also attested by the
diversification of the contemporary job market. Professionals may occupy a
range of different roles in their careers, some of which may involve
communicating with the public. Also, the development of freelance journalism,
spurred mainly by the proliferation of online venues and social media, provides
opportunities to business professionals and experts in technical and scientific
fields to popularize their skills and knowledge to a wider audience – and
increase their income sources at the same time!

A journalism primer
Types of articles
Journalists divide news into hard and soft varieties. Hard news is the information
that readers need to know: the “breaking” or “hot off the press” news of events
that happen suddenly and affect a great number of people or a whole
community. Hard news is ephemeral. Although the information presented may
have serious and long-lasting consequences, the actual news itself becomes
outdated quite rapidly. Examples of hard news are reports of war outbreaks,
earthquakes, terror attacks, transportation accidents or stock market changes.
Soft news, on the other hand, is the kind of information that people want to
hear and its relevance or popularity does not disappear as rapidly as that of hard
news. Examples include technological developments, profiles of leaders and
fashion research (Batty and Cain, 2010; Garrison, 2004; Hay, 1990).
Below are some major journalistic genres, found in most specialist magazines:
Editorial
This is an opinion article written by the editor(s), dealing with a current news
topic, usually one that is covered at more length later in the issue. Depending
on the publication, editorials can be provocative and/or strongly opinionated,
with a “call to arms” approach intended to increase awareness of an issue.
In more formal journals, editorials introduce the theme of the issue and briefly
present each of the contributors’ articles.

News stories
These present the facts in current events and developments. News stories are
generally not long – a one-page story would be long; most news stories take up
a quarter to half a page. They describe the facts in the event by following the
5Ws and 1H questions (what, where, when, who, why and how). News stories
 Journalism 101

follow the inverted pyramid format of organization. They begin with the most
important information and continue with increasingly less important
information.
There are two reasons for this format: one is that research has shown readers
of news to habitually focus on the beginning of the article and ignore the rest or
skip through it, making the beginning more important; the other is that the
length of an article is determined not only by its content but, more significantly,
by the amount of space available on the page. Conventionally, editors cut down
sentences from the end of the article to make it fit. Journalists are therefore
required to write in inverted pyramid format: the most important information in
the article is placed first. Non-essential information appears in the middle and
end of the news item.
The Inverted Pyramid is shown in Figure 5.1:

Figure 5.1 Inverted Pyramid Format

Feature articles
These articles elaborate on topics that may have been news stories weeks or
months before. They describe the topic in terms of its history, constituent parts,
applications, relevant people, and possible benefits and/or dangers. They come
in different lengths and are based on secondary research as well as primary
research, such as interviews. In magazines, the cover story is a feature, usually
located close to the centre of the publication.

Opinion articles
An issue of a magazine may have two to three opinion articles of different lengths
scattered throughout the issue. These present an analysis of a topic in terms of
the argument(s) it generates. In some cases, a slot where an opinion article
appears (a column) becomes associated with a particular writer and his/her
102 Professional Writing

style (the columnist). In other cases, opinion articles are written by scholars who
specialize on the topic, and who can, therefore, present an expert opinion.

Interviews
The usual format for this genre is question and answer. These articles focus on
the contribution to a topic of an individual and present this topic through the
direct words of that individual, spurred by the writer’s questions.

Profiles
These articles balance information on a topic with a personal narrative of a key
individual associated with the topic. They are similar to interviews in some ways,
since, if the profile is of a living person, they are largely based on an interview
with that person, with additional or background information from secondary
sources.

Reviews
These articles describe and comment on the quality and innovation of a book,
film or game. They often compare their object of analysis with others in the
field, showing its advantages and drawbacks. For writers, producers and
developers, getting a favourable review in a reputable publication is a much-
desired achievement.

Layout and page design

Magazine layout is pivotal in editorial decisions about length and presentation
of articles. Magazines have a set layout, which determines content choices – not
the other way around. In other words, a magazine will not change its layout and
the space it assigns to each type of article, to accommodate a particular article,
no matter how interesting or how important this article may be. The article will
be edited and formatted in the magazine’s standard manner. This is analogous
to buying furniture. It is unlikely that you would demolish walls and restructure
the building to fit particular pieces of furniture. It is much more likely that you
would measure the space you have and then buy furniture to fit that space.
Printing is costly, and changes to templates make it even costlier.
The following are the main layout considerations:
 Space: word limits are required for each article in relation to the space
allotted for the article in the magazine template layout.
 Paragraph length: magazine articles generally have shorter paragraphs than
reports or essays. Paragraphs would need to be even shorter if printed in
columns (more on this below).
 Journalism 103

 Visuals: some articles are graphic-intensive, and others are more verbal.
In general, visuals complement effectively documents written in journalistic
style. Visuals are chosen to convey meaning more accurately to target
audiences and are designed with the target audience’s assumed needs and
expectations in mind.
Page design is divided into four aspects: proximity, alignment, repetition and
contrast.

Proximity
This refers to the spatial layout that displays related objects. For example, you
should leave more space before a heading than after it. Headings belong to the
text that follows them and should be closer to that text. Also, photos and
captions should relate to each other and come close to the relevant text.
Different elements should be separated by space to create a hierarchy of
information.

Alignment
This refers to the horizontal and vertical elements on the page placed in
balanced positions in relation to each other – as opposed to thrown together at
random. For example, keep unity on a page by aligning every object with the
edge of some other object. In a table, for instance, you could align the objects
on the left with the left edge of the page, and the objects on the right with the
right edge of the page.

Repetition
This refers to repeating elements that tie different sections together. Bullet
points, colours and typefaces can be repeated to provide visual impact, and
help the reader recognize and scan through the pages quickly and easily. By
repeating certain elements, you reinforce the uniqueness, or personality, of a
publication, as readers become aware of the characteristic motif of the
publication – a bit like a signature.

Contrast
The opposite of repetition, contrast refers to putting together elements that are
different and thus creating a visual impression on the reader. The use of
contrasting elements acts as an information hierarchy and increases scanning
ability. Contrast adds a dimension to the page, introduces an element of
surprise and shows that it has depth and variety. Contrast can be used in
colours, fonts and direction. To create an effective and impressive publication,
ensure a balance of repetition and contrast.
104 Professional Writing

Here is some terminology that journalists use to talk about layout of articles
and pages:
Titles and Headlines
Title is used for all articles except news stories; headline is used for news stories.
Titles can be creative and cryptic; headlines are not: they are structured in
sentence form, present tense, leaving out articles. For example, a title could be
Swept Away (an actual feature article in New Scientist on tsunami); a headline
could be Largest Tsunami Ever Recorded Hits Country.
Pullquote
A pullquote is text pulled out of the article and used as a highlighting device –
the pullquotes of an article should themselves tell a story (that is, summarize
main points of the article).
Subhead
A subhead is the text that comes under the title and is used to give more
information on the article’s topic. Subheads are useful when the title is too
enigmatic and needs explanation.
Crosshead
A crosshead is a section heading. Crossheads are used, generally, in longer
articles as a form of signposting to direct readers’ attention. They are also
effective in cutting down on transitional sentences and paragraphs and are
used when brevity is required. For example, a sentence or even a paragraph
can be deleted if space requires it and its content summarized in a phrase
that becomes a section heading. As regards organizing content into sections,
the general rule for journalistic articles is that they are top-heavy, that is, they
place important and/or catchy information at the beginning.
Captions
A caption is the text that accompanies a visual. Captions can be creative or
descriptive and signal to readers the significance of the visual and its relevance
to the article.

Organization of content
Paragraphing
The purpose of paragraphs and sections is to divide and prioritize information
into meaningful chunks. This helps to highlight points and issues and to
encourage a sense of sequence and development. Bear in mind that people
 Journalism 105

assimilate and commit to memory “chunks” of information that comprise

between about five and seven items. This should guide your paragraphing style,
especially in journalistic documents where a direct and conversational approach
is favoured.
Magazine article paragraphs tend to be short, often running to two or three
sentences. Most magazine articles are printed in columns: a short paragraph will
look longer in a narrow column format than it would if spread across the page.
Even one sentence paragraphs are acceptable in articles as long as they do not
run in succession. Like short sentences, short paragraphs have a more intense
effect than long ones because they concentrate meaning in a few words that
stand out from the rest of the text. This is why in magazine articles one-
sentence paragraphs are often placed at strategic places to provide a striking
effect.
Also, magazines tend to work on the assumption that the reader will have a
relatively short concentration span and may not necessarily want to follow an
item in detail. In many cases, magazines are read at hours of leisure, coffee
and lunch breaks, while riding the bus, etc. Writers, therefore, cannot assume
that the reader will invest the time and attention necessary to absorb a
complex document. Accordingly, the writer has to present the information
succinctly and directly, without elaboration and in-depth analysis. The tone
should have a conversational impact rather than conceptual density. Finally,
magazine articles also compete for attention. As opposed to a formally
commissioned report, which can assume that the reader has a vested interest
to read it closely, a magazine article often needs to grab the reader’s
wandering eye. In this situation, having long paragraphs would be daunting
and discouraging.

Organization of information
The order in which information is presented in a text is a strategic device
providing the writer with the means to craft information so as to produce the
most desired effect. In feature articles, the beginning is very important, so place
there information that is likely to attract the readers’ attention and not
discourage them from reading the rest of the article. If your readers
are non-specialists, avoid densely technical jargon in the beginning of the
article. For example, the following article on Botox (Example One) is objectively
informative and balanced. However, it avoids emphasizing the technical aspects
of the drug, and putting off the reader, by describing them towards the end of
the article and placing them in an appropriate context.
106 Professional Writing

Example One: Informative feature article

In the Quest for Youth: Understanding Botox®
Creative
exaggeration In the battle against ageing, Botox® has emerged as the
world’s favourite weapon to fight wrinkles and fine lines.
Botox users are rumoured to include celebrities and
Highlights
Sets the scene politicians. But what exactly is this Botox®? How does it
popularity of
work? And are there side effects that need to be considered
product
before selecting this method for regaining a youthful
appearance? Introduces the
article by
Botox® is an easy and affordable treatment. In fact it is indicating its
nicknamed the “lunch-hour face-lift,” because it is a simple sections in the
injection costing on average US$400 and taking 10 minutes – form of
very different from the traditional “face-lift,” a major and questions to be
expensive plastic surgery which requires the patient to answered
undergo anesthesia, long recovery time and potential
scarring, However, unlike plastic surgery, in order to maintain
Description of
wrinkles at bay with Botox®, treatments need to be repeated
product
every four to six months.
showing user
benefits. Last
Botox® is Allergen Inc.’s trade name for botulism toxin type
sentence
A, a neurotoxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium
acknowledges
botulism. Botulism toxins, of which there are seven distinct
limitation
types, attach to nerve endings and reduce the release of
acetylchoine, the neurotransmitter responsible for generating
muscle contractions – and resulting wrinkles. Cosmetic
Botox® injections are a diluted form of this neurotoxin, and
work by temporarily relaxing the muscles into which they are
injected.
Simple scientific
description of the In the 1950s, researchers discovered that injections of
Botox process botulism toxin type A into overactive muscles decreased
muscle activity for four to six months. However, it was only in
the 1980s that ophthalmologist Alan Scott discovered that
the toxin could be used to treat blepharospasm, an eye
muscle disorder characterized by uncontrollable contractions.
Allergen Inc., then a small pharmaceutical company
specializing in eye therapies, bought the rights to the product History of the
in 1988. The drug was renamed Botox®. Further clinical trials product,
continued and in April of 2002, Botox® was approved for linking it with
cosmetic treatments including temporarily eliminating research and
wrinkles, facial lines caused by excessive muscle contraction. experimen­
tation
Botox® is generally considered safe by medical authorities
and has been approved by several international drug
authorities. However, side effects are possible, although all
known ones are temporary, and no cases have been Introduces side
documented of systemic complications. Clinical trials reveal effects;
that the most statistically significant side effect, observed in emphasizes
3.2% of patients treated with Botox® versus 0.0% placebo, is their low risk
blepharoptosis, or “droopy eyelid,” which results from either
 Journalism 107

injection of too much toxin or injection into the wrong facial

area causing paralysis of eyelid muscles. Other common side
effects include headache, respiratory infection, nausea and Objectively
redness at the injection site. lists side effects

In the US, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) also

recently issued a warning against popular “Botox® parties”,
at which patients combine Botox® with alcohol in a
non-medical setting. This may be dangerous for two reasons:
(1) alcohol thins the blood, allowing it to more easily pass
into the skin, increasing bruising, (2) since, as with all
medical interventions, complications are possible, the patient
Ends on a
needs to be at a location equipped to handle an emergency.
high note, Focuses on one
suggesting possible
Today, Botox® is used in over 70 countries, and the
the future problem in
popularity of the treatment is growing. Clinical trials
looks good using the
continue, and novel uses for Botox® are emerging for
for the product and
controlling side effects.
product explains it in
more depth

Journalistic style
Journalistic writing makes unfamiliar concepts and developments familiar, by
presenting information that is clearly relevant to readers, in a creative and zesty
way. This involves skills of analysis and synthesis: of combining innovation and
the new in a framework that also contains assumed shared knowledge between
writer and readers. When popularizing your topic, choose language and
techniques that are:
Factual: Give as much factual information as possible, while avoiding a “dry”
tone. Use the 5Ws and 1H questions to guide you.
Rational: The business reader is usually interested in making an evaluative
judgement. Therefore, rational descriptions of an economic, technological or
business nature are best. Emotional appeals may fall flat unless they are
supported by a rational basis.
Specific: Give specific examples where possible. People love to read about other
people, so include quotations, success examples and testimonials. Also,
describe experimental data where possible to provide some evidence for your
statements.
Technical: While avoiding tediously technical jargon that may alienate the more
uninformed readers, use the jargon and dominant metaphors of the industry
that you represent. Business and technology journalism should be both
innovative and popular. Show that you can speak as an insider who knows
the concerns, strengths and needs of the industry, and with whom your
readers can identify as “one of us”.
108 Professional Writing

Example Two compares two (fictional) operating systems: the corporate

OpenEye and the open source Salter. The first version of the article is a draft
where the writer describes plainly the pieces of information that will make
up the final. The second version is an example of how a plain listing of
facts can be “spiced up” to produce the creative and energetic style
characteristic of “insider” technology journalism. The target audience is
IT enthusiasts.

Example Two: Comparative feature article

A: Draft
OpenEye vs Salter

For the last few years, OpenEye has been the strongest
company in the computer operating system market. This has
been because of a lack of real alternatives, but now OpenEye
is being challenged by Salter. This system was created by
Mark Salter and is becoming famous. It is based on the
source code of an older system, called Marcus. OpenEye beat
Marcus, but now Marcus is getting stronger by making
another system very similar to it on a basic level. It is cheaper
than OpenEye and also has some qualities that OpenEye does
not have.

First, Salter costs very little. Its only expenditure is in the side
effects of its implementation. It was made this way in order
for users to continue developing it as they are using it. On
the other hand, OpenEye costs about $700 to start with,
and would require much more money if used as an
investment.

Second, Salter is faster than OpenEye and it has more

functions. Because Salter has been built by engineers all over
the world in an open format, it has a variety of functions. For
example, it is very easy to network using Salter and this is a
serious consideration for IT experts.

The drawback for Salter is that, like Marcus, its predecessor, it

is difficult to use. Only specialists with considerable expertise
can understand its use, since it uses many of the same
commands as Marcus. Also, as Salter was made to run from a
command line based shell interface, it is not as visually
impressive as OpenEye. OpenEye, on the other hand, uses a
graphical user interface, or GUI, as its method of control,
which is easy for non-experts to use.

In conclusion, OpenEye is easier and is visually more pleasing

than Salter. Salter, on the other hand, is more advanced and
gives expert users the satisfaction of control. Increasingly, it is
overcoming its weaknesses and becoming more and more
competitive for OpenEye.
 Journalism 109

B: Revision
OpenEye vs Salter – The contest

For the last few years, OpenEye has dominated the computer
operating system market. This has been because of a lack of
real alternatives, but times are changing and the OpenEye
empire may be brought to its knees by a man called Mark
Salter. Salter has developed an operating system that has
gained mention worldwide. And the name of the new
heavyweight? You guessed it – Salter.

Salter was developed from the source code of an older

system called Marcus. OpenEye has ruled supremely ever
since it overthrew Marcus, but now Marcus is making a
comeback with a clone of itself. But why would OpenEye
have cause to be afraid? After all, it has already defeated
Marcus once. What does Salter have to offer that OpenEye
does not?

First in most people’s minds is the question of price. How

much is this going to cost to implement? Salter has the
perfect answer to this question – nothing! Well, almost
nothing. There is always going to be some outlay when
implementing a new operating system, but Salter takes a
long step forward by offering itself for free. Salter was made
so that it would be openly available to everyone, thus making
it possible for anyone to help develop the system. With this
in mind, most applications and other such software are
available for free on the Internet, which is more than can be
said for the popular OpenEye system. Not only are you
looking at a large outlay for the initial purchase of the
product, which starts at around US$700, but you could be
looking at thousands of dollars being invested in software
titles.

A determining factor in whether or not an operating system will

be successful, is likely to be the expertise required to use it. This
is where Marcus lost out to OpenEye. While Marcus was and still
is a more powerful operating system, it required a highly skilled
technician to run it. Like Marcus, Salter was originally made to
be run from a command line-based shell interface, and so it
lacks the lustre of the beautiful graphical interface that OpenEye
provides. At first glance, Salter even looks like Marcus as it uses
many of the same commands and thus is almost as difficult to
use. OpenEye, on the other hand, uses a graphical user interface
or GUI, as its method of control. This means that almost anyone
can use it, and it provides a great introduction to the world of
computers for complete novices.

There is no debate as to which system is faster. Salter is light

years ahead of OpenEye as far as speed goes. Functionality?
Salter wins the race hands down. Because Salter has been
built by engineers all over the world in such an open format,
there is almost nothing it cannot do. Networking is a breeze,
110 Professional Writing

and anyone in an IT position would have to seriously consider

Salter over OpenEye. While OpenEye may be more
aesthetically pleasing and simpler to use, it does not have the
same degree of mastery that Salter has when it comes to
making the computer do what you want it to. The fact
remains that until Salter becomes easier to use, OpenEye will
still be the juggernaut. But Salter continues to grow in
strength, and so the war rages on.

The revised article includes these changes:

A consistent use of the metaphor of contest and fight: “contest”,
“dominate”, “overthrow”, “heavyweight” and “juggernaut”. This helps to
create an image or schema in the minds of the readers with which they will
subsequently identify the system.
Rhetorical questions: open questions to the reader, which act as a technique of
engagement, and make the writing conversational.
Sentence variety: the revised version includes more variety of sentence
structures and lengths, introducing more rhythm in the article.

Writing for the media

In light of the above points, here are some guidelines to follow when writing to
popularize a subject or to inform and engage the public.
 Focus on your reader and keep your style simple, direct and clear.
 Focus on your key point. What is the take-home message? You should be
able to summarize that message in a sentence and in the space of a headline.
Write that sentence and headline first.
 Include in your piece as soon as possible a paragraph that summarizes the
crux of what the whole article is about. This is known in journalism as a “nut
graf” – the paragraph that contains the story’s kernel.
 Provide enough explanation of concepts, companies, events and people so
the reader can keep reading without having to puzzle over what something
means.
 Be specific in identifying problems and solutions. Your article should
communicate clearly what it is arguing for, what is at stake and why it
matters. Avoid umbrella statements like “something needs to be done”.
You’re the expert, so tell the reader what needs to be done.
 Avoid scope creep (providing too much detail or introducing complementary
subjects). You cannot cover everything in the number of words expected in a
magazine article. So be judicious and stick to your key points.
 Journalism 111

Accuracy in journalism
As a scientist or technical professional, you are faced with a dilemma when
popularizing a complex concept: how accurate can you be and also avoid
jargon, equations and formulas? How appealing and entertaining can you make
your article without betraying the complexity and seriousness of your topic? By
creating a lighthearted approach will you not also be sacrificing depth? In short,
will you be misleading your readers into thinking there is an absolute truth
where in fact there are only conjectures and hypotheses? Such doubts have
plagued science writers for a long time. Einstein, for example, describes this
situation quite neatly in 1948:
Anyone who has ever tried to present a rather abstract scientific subject in a
popular manner knows the great difficulties of such an attempt. Either he
succeeds in being intelligible by concealing the core of the problem and by
offering to the reader only superficial aspects or vague allusions, thus
deceiving the reader by arousing in him the deceptive illusion of
comprehension; or else he gives an expert account of the problem, but in
such a fashion that the untrained reader is unable to follow the exposition
and becomes discouraged from reading any further. If these two categories
are omitted from today’s popular scientific literature, surprisingly little
remains. (cited in Barnett, 1948, p. 69)
There is no simple answer to this predicament. Three factors, especially, must
be considered. First, as noted earlier, space is a major consideration in
journalism, and it is impossible to do justice to a complex topic by examining
it from different angles and analysing it in depth within such space
constraints. In this respect, popular science, non-fiction and travel writing
books have an advantage because they have the length necessary to expand
and elaborate. Second, audience is another major consideration. People still
need and want to be informed about technological developments even if they
do not have the same expertise as the initiators of these developments. At the
same time, it would be unrealistic to expect them to understand terminology
and methods that have taken professionals years to learn. Therefore, an
interpretation becomes necessary. Third, the market and general social
context should be taken into account. Technology develops hand in hand
with the evolution and diversification of society, in which market forces and
commercial interests are major factors. Connecting technology and science
with its social relevance, the theory with the application, is, therefore,
important as is identifying the links between scientific endeavour and
commercial practice.
112 Professional Writing

Within this framework, writing for the media can be fruitful if the writers:
 understand that they cannot be as thorough in a popular document as in a
specialist or scientific document, and must, therefore, be carefully selective
 have a sense of visualization and narrative and can explain concepts in terms
of images and stories, keeping in mind that being simple does not mean
being simplistic
 can resist the temptation to exaggerate, generalize or sensationalize in ways
that would mislead the reader into thinking that a debatable and
inconclusive topic has a clear answer.
Hedging (using terms that mitigate certainty and absolute constructions) is a
major difference between academic/scientific writing aimed at specialist, peer
audiences, and journalistic/popular writing aimed at a wider public. One of the
reasons that academics are often suspicious of journalists is the tendency of the
latter to simplify and generalize from inconclusive results, and thereby to
discourage or raise the hopes of the public inappropriately. Science writing
scholar Jeanne Fahnestock (1986, 2004) gives some interesting examples of this.
In the debate whether the sexes are equally endowed with mathematical ability,
she quotes scientists’ statements and compares them with their interpretations
in popular publications.
Here is the scientists’ claim:
We favor the hypothesis that sex differences in achievement in and attitude
toward mathematics result from superior male mathematical ability, which
may in turn be related to greater male mathematical ability in spatial tasks.
This male superiority is probably an expression of a combination of both
endogenous and exogenous variables. We recognize, however, that our data
are consistent with numerous alternative hypotheses. (Benbow & Stanley: Sex
differences in mathematical ability: Fact or artifact? Science 1980, cited in
Fahnestock, 1986, p. 284; my emphasis)
Here is one popularization of the claim:
According to its authors, […] Benbow and […] Stanley of Johns Hopkins
University, males inherently have more mathematical ability than females.
(The gender factor in math – Time Magazine, cited in Fahnestock, 1986,
p. 285)
And here is another:
The authors’ conclusion: “Sex differences in achievement in and attitude
toward mathematics result from superior male mathematical ability” (Do
males have a math gene? – Newsweek, cited in Fahnestock, 1986, p. 285)
 Journalism 113

Table 5.1 shows some common communicative strategies that characterize the

styles and content choices of specialist writing and journalistic writing:

Table 5.1  Stylistic Strategies of Specialist and Journalist Writing

Specialist Style Journalist Style

Concentrates on objects, events and Concentrates on people, their intentions,

outcomes. Credibility comes from thoughts, hopes and reactions. Interest
showing that a claim stands comes from showing the human interest
objectively, independently of personal aspect of professional endeavours.
merits of specific persons.

Uses jargon and specialist terminology. Avoids jargon. Instead “translates” technical
Shows that writer is a member of the terms into everyday language. May give
expert community. examples to illustrate the meaning of
specialist terminology. In specialist
journalism, writer uses “insider” language to
establish peer–audience dynamics.

Uses specific claims or statements that May rely on general observations when
are testable and falsifiable. Supports explaining a phenomenon. May appeal to
these claims with specific and detailed imprecise constructs such as “common
evidence, such as facts and figures. sense” and “people”.

Avoids certainty. Uses “hedging” to Describes events with more certainty. Does
modify the certainty aspect of not need to look at different sides of a
statements (“might,” “appears to be,” hypothesis, but may present one view only.
“it seems,” “evidence suggests”). Uses imperatives (command-type structures).

Avoids emotional evaluation of May use evaluative adjectives, such as

observations. Instead uses words that “terrible,” “fantastic,” etc. Shows relevance
specify and quantify. Concentrates on of abstract data for personal experience, for
factual information rather than on example, through examples of everyday life.
feelings about this information.

Appeals to scientific community and Appeals to ideal, personalized readers, using

not to individual readers. Avoids techniques such as direct questions and use
excessive use of personal pronouns. of pronouns.

As an example of how these strategies work on the textual level, consider

Example Three, on the financial crisis of 2008. Both extracts come from the
introductions to their respective articles: extract A is taken from a scholarly journal
and extract B is taken from a journalistic publication for non-specialist readers. As
is the norm, the article from where extract A comes was written before extract B,
with the latter being a popularization of the findings presented in the former.
114 Professional Writing

Example Three: Style adaptation

A. Academic/Specialist Style

This paper analyses the narrative and discourse strategies of Starts by clearly
annual reports of banks from different world regions during stating the aim
the financial crisis of 2008, in order to ascertain if they of the article.
contain significant patterns or distinctive features. It aims to
shed light on how the banks used the annual report genre to
construct their role in the crisis, and how these constructions
compared with the ways the crisis was represented by
The second independent investigative reports. The paper examines the
sentence annual reports of Bank of America (BOA), Barclays, Royal
elaborates on Bank of Canada (RBC), and Australia-New Zealand Bank
the aim. (ANZ) over four years from 2008 to 2011. The analysis
focuses on the narrative sections – the President/Chairman
and CEO’s letter. The banks were chosen from the 20 largest
in the world by market capitalization and by total assets, and
were selected to represent major global regions, North
Provides details
America, Europe and Oceania respectively, each of which was
of the data
affected to varying degrees by the crisis.
analysed with
The paper examines the annual reports through these some
research questions: justification.

1 What is the narrative of the financial crisis composed by

independent investigations, and how do the narratives
created by the banks in their annual reports compare with
Itemizes and
this? In other words, do the banks identify similar factors
explains clearly
in the crisis as do the independent investigations, or do
the research
they resist the findings in some way and propose
questions on
alternative interpretations? Is there a different approach
which the
by each bank and does this change over the four years?
article is based.
2 What Image Repair strategies did the banks employ in
their narratives to represent the crisis, and how did they
position strategically the events and agents that they
describe?
3 Are there any discourse patterns in the ways banks
represented the crisis in their annual reports? In other
words, are there any recurrent linguistic features used by
the banks in constructing the crisis and their role in it? The lead sets
the scene and
B. Journalistic/Popular Style aims to arouse
interest. Note
During crises, everybody tells stories – the businesses, the the use of
media and the public. However, the kinds of stories they tell generalizations
differ. And sometimes they clash. Understanding what stories – ‘everybody’.
are told is a way forward in overcoming crisis. Also, note the
short length of
Different stories were told about the Global Financial Crisis sentences and
States the (GFC) of 2008. The banks told some stories while paragraphs
context of the government reports told others. I looked at three government compared to
research in reports and the CEO’s letters in the annual reports of four the above
simple terms. extract.
 Journalism 115

Places the banks: Bank of America, Royal Bank of Canada, Barclays and Ends with a
context of the ANZ. Did they agree or not? direct question.
research in a
personal One way to see storytelling is through the actions of heroes Describes
narrative of in their struggle towards a goal. These heroes have a narrative in
the motivation, which answers the question “Why is the hero terms of
researcher. acting this way?” and they are assisted by some elements ‘storytelling’
(helpers), while opposed by others (opponents). Taking banks and ‘heroes’,
Continues the as the hero, I looked at who the helpers and opponents were thereby
researcher’s in the stories told. making a link
personal with popular
narrative. culture.

Developing journalistic texts

This section gives guidelines on how to develop a feature article, non-fiction
piece, travel writing or any text where you inform the public of something new
and/or important or interpret complex information in an understandable and
appealing way (Kaku & Cohen, 2012; Roush, 2004; Starkman et al., 2012).
In these genres, you may be doing one or more of the following:
 Describing the parts of your object and their interrelationships
 Tracing the history of the object and describe its changes
 Describing the object’s qualities and characteristics
 Analysing the object’s value.
To achieve this effectively, use a combination of these strategies:

Definition
Define terms and differentiate them from other similar ones. This is very useful
when you are writing about a large topic with many subdivisions, aspects and
categories. By defining it, you are specifying the parameters in which you will
explain it.
You can give an extended definition of an object or phenomenon, a sentence
definition or a parenthetical definition. An extended definition takes one or
more paragraphs, and includes explanations of the meaning of terms, as well as
a description of the general category in which the defined object belongs.
Be careful that your definition does not contain terms that will themselves be
obscure to your target audience. If you have to use such terms, ensure that they
too are explained or defined. Lead the audience from the familiar to the
unfamiliar. Sentence definitions are condensed versions of this, while
parenthetical definitions explain the meaning of a term without disrupting the
sentence in which they are found.
Here is a one-paragraph definition of “presence” in virtual reality. Notice how
the writer justifies the choice of “presence” in a discussion of virtual reality, by
116 Professional Writing

pointing out that it is one aspect of virtual reality when seen in terms of human
experience rather than of technology. The writer leads gradually to a
one-sentence, precise definition of “presence” by first describing some of the
attributes of the term.

The key to defining virtual reality in terms of human experience rather than
technological hardware is the concept of presence. Presence can be thought of as
the experience of one’s physical environment; it refers not to one’s surroundings as
they exist in the physical world, but to the perception of those surroundings
as mediated by both automatic and controlled mental processes. Presence is defined
as the sense of being in an environment (Steuer, 1992, p. 75).

The following is a form of parenthetical definition, using a dash (dashes

are generally preferred to parentheses in journalistic articles for layout
reasons).

Dating back to Newton’s laws of motion, the equations of physics are generally “time
symmetric” – they work as well for processes running backwards through time as
forwards (Barry, 2006, p. 36).

Analogy
Give an analogy. This gives the reader the gist of what you are saying and makes
complicated terms and processes easier to grasp. In the same light, you can
contrast the term to what it is opposite to or different from. This is useful if you
think the reader may misunderstand a topic by confusing it with something that
looks similar but is actually very different.
Analogies are useful when you are presenting a difficult topic or a topic that
the reader has little knowledge of. The advantage of analogies is that they can
clarify and explain a topic by tracing a parallel pattern with another topic that
may be easier to grasp. The disadvantage of analogies is that, if not used
carefully, they can confuse the reader by understating or overstating a topic and
creating a false equivalence. You use an analogy by juxtaposing two situations
and showing their common features and qualities. Rhetorically, an analogy is
equivalent to a simile. For example, here is how writer Flannery O’Connor
addressed a class in writing:
 Journalism 117

I understand that this is a course called “How the Writer Writes”, and that each week
you are exposed to a different writer who holds forth on the subject. The only parallel
I can think of to this is having the zoo come to you, one animal at a time; and I
suspect that what you hear one week from the giraffe is contradicted next week by
the baboon (Kane, 1994, p. 89).

Here is the introduction to an article on the spectrograph. The writer begins by

defining the spectrograph and then explains the definition by creating an
analogy with television. The writer ends the paragraph with a concluding
sentence that links the analogy with the definition.

The spectrograph is the single most important instrument used in astronomical

observations. Observing with a spectrograph is like watching a football game on a
static plagued television set – you might realize when a team scored a goal, but do
not see any of the details of the action. Without spectrographs, astronomy would be
nothing more than pictures with no real information.

Examples
Give examples that illustrate the functions or properties of the topic you are
explaining. This helps the reader put the topic in context and can relate to it
better.
A paragraph of example/illustration could lead off with a topic sentence that
states the general principle or idea. Your second sentence will usually contain
the phrase “for example” or “for instance” or variations on this. If you have a lot
of example paragraphs to write you could introduce variation by employing
some substitutes for “for example” and “for instance”. You might perhaps write,
“An interesting case of X is ...”.
Another way to exemplify is to define or describe the object discussed in
general terms and then to make it specific by focusing on examples of its uses
or applications. The following extract on key cryptography exemplifies these
principles. The first sentence gives a general description of cryptography.
The following two sentences introduce more terms related to this definition,
while the rest of the paragraph elaborates on the object through the use of an
example that a non-specialist reader will understand.
118 Professional Writing

Cryptography is a catch-all term for hiding information. It covers everything from the
“cryptoquotes” in the newspaper to secret government communication to your
financial information. Encryption and decryption are the acts of hiding and un-hiding
the information you wish to protect using cryptography. For example, when you buy
something on the Internet, your credit card information is encrypted on your
computer. Then it is sent using cryptography to the vendor, who has the ability to
decrypt it. But how can the vendor read this information if you are the one who
encrypted it? The answer is that you and the vendor need to share a key – another
piece of information used to hide the information. However, anyone who knows the
key or guesses it can read your information; so, now instead of transferring your data
securely, you have to find a way to transfer the key securely.

In the following extract, novelist Stephen King explains the importance for
writers of reading. To illustrate this, he gives examples of the many occasions
available for people to read in the course of a day. Notice that the writer adopts
a first-person perspective in presenting his examples. This is effective because
the writer is an expert in the field he describes (writing), and so his personal
experience is directly relevant.

Reading is the creative center of a writer’s life. I take a book with me everywhere I go,
and find there are all sorts of opportunities to dip in. The trick is to teach yourself to
read in small sips as well as in long swallows. Waiting rooms were made for books –
of course! But so are theatre lobbies before the show, long and boring checkout lines,
and everyone’s favorite, the john. You can even read while you’re driving, thanks to
the audiobook revolution (King, 2000, p. 114).

Comparison
Compare the topic with others to show its special features or common attributes.
Like with analogies, comparisons are useful in helping the readers classify the
topic in a category with which they are familiar, and/or to understand the
innovation or specific nature of the described object.
When comparing, select some qualities from an object and describe how
they compare with qualities of another object. Create a balance between
similarities and differences. Two objects that are completely different cannot be
compared – it would be like comparing an artichoke and an elephant. Similarly,
 Journalism 119

two objects that are identical do not have enough distance between them to
allow comparison – this would be like comparing yourself with your image in a
mirror. In such cases, other strategies of description and explanation would
probably be more effective.
Adverbs and adjectives of comparison are useful in this strategy. “More”,
“less”, “fewer”, and words ending in -er or -est show comparison. In addition,
there is a range of signpost words and phrases that express the relation of
comparison/contrast, for example, “similarly”, “conversely”, “also”, “in the
same way”, “after all”, etc. The following extract compares two cameras.
Notice that the writer chooses to base the comparison on user needs and
skills.

Both model X and model Y are great cameras, containing features for the beginner as
well as for the more advanced photographer. However, model X’s ease of use and
limited extra features mean it is more targeted towards the amateur or novice
photographer who occasionally wants to dabble in manual photography, but still
needs an automatic camera. Model Y, in contrast, with its more powerful system and
additional features is more for the serious photographer who occasionally wants to
take photos without setting up the scene. Financially, it sets you back a bit more,
especially if you purchase all the extra gadgets, but you can take it further – which is
great if you get serious about your photography.

The following extract compares science and art.

The scientist works mainly at the level of very abstract ideas, while his perceptual
contact with the world is largely mediated by instruments. On the other hand, the
artist works mainly on creating concrete objects that are directly perceptible without
instruments. Yet, as one approaches the broadest possible field of science, one
discovers closely related criteria of “truth” and “beauty.” For what the artist creates
must be “true to itself”, just as the broad scientific theory must be “true to itself.”
Thus, neither scientist nor artist is really satisfied to regard beauty as that which
“tickles one’s fancy.” Rather, in both fields structures are somehow evaluated,
consciously or subconsciously, by whether they are “true to themselves”, and are
accepted or rejected on this basis. So the artist really needs a scientific attitude to his
work, as the scientist must have an artistic attitude to his (Adapted from D. Bohm,
1998, pp. 32–33).
120 Professional Writing

Description
Describe the properties/qualities of an object or situation and detail how it works or
how it occurs and under what circumstances.
Here you detail the features or aspects of the object. This is a spatial strategy,
so remember to chunk qualities in categories, and prioritize information if
appropriate. You can list qualities or describe them in paragraph form.
The following example lists some aspects that make up the quality of a virtual
reality system. The writer first lists the aspects, and then explains each by asking
a question from the user/reader’s perspective.

To the layman’s eye, the quality of the VR system is based on the following:
1 The details of the graphic. Does he really look like a relatively believable robot? Is
this an aesthetically pleasing and compelling environment?
2 The responsiveness of the image. Do objects move in real time to match my
gestures? When I reach out, is there a delay before my computer-generated hand
reaches out?
3 The safety and comfort of the helmet. Does it fit? Can I get out of it if I get
claustrophobic?
4 The ease of use of the input device. How coordinated do I have to be to use this
thing? (Adapted from Hawkins, 1995, pp. 178–179)

Causes and reasons

Suggest reasons for a situation or development. This is useful when you think the
readers are likely to ask the question “why”. It justifies a current state of affairs
by explaining what caused it to come into being.
When adopting this strategy, present your topic as something whose
existence requires justification or explanation. Then describe one or more
possible causes. You can begin by describing the causes leading to a
phenomenon and then describe the phenomenon itself, or you can describe the
phenomenon and then go to its possible causes. In the following example, Bill
Gates speculates on the reasons for revolutionary software. He achieves this by
listing several possible causes and leading to his answer.

What does it take to create revolutionary software? Does it mean being first to come up
with a new idea, or being first to turn that idea into a product? Does it mean carrying
out pioneering research, or making incremental improvements to what’s already there
 Journalism 121

until you get it right? Does it mean becoming a giant, or standing on the shoulders of
giants? Usually, the answer is a bit of each. Most software blends innovation,
inspiration, and incremental improvement in equal measure (Gates, 2002, n.p.).

The following extract presents a reason why roboticists do not build more
lifelike robots. Notice how this paragraph also leads to a definition of a
phenomenon.

One reason researchers have shied away from building more sophisticated androids
is a theory put forward in 1970 by roboticist Masahiro Mori. He proposed that our
feeling of familiarity increases as robots appear more and more human-like, but that
our comfort level plummets as slight defects in behaviour and appearance repulse us,
as if we are watching a moving corpse. Mori called this the “uncanny valley”.
The term is widely used by roboticists and has spread to the animation industry,
where it describes people’s reaction to increasingly realistic digital characters
(Schaub, 2006, p. 43).

Processes and procedures

Describe a process or procedure. This is a way to show how something is done, a
protocol or procedure. Describing processes also comes into play when giving
instructions on how to carry out a task.
The principle behind presenting a process is quite similar to the principle
behind storytelling. When presenting a process, divide it into stages going from
the beginning of the process to its intended result. Sentence openers such as
“first”, “next”, “then” and “finally” are useful in describing processes, and so
are numbers and lists. If the process includes technical terms, remember to
adapt them to the technical level of your target audience. The following
paragraph describes a process for extracting titanium.

The process takes place in an electrolytic cell. The cathode is connected to a pellet of
titanium dioxide powder, while the anode is made of an inert material such as carbon.
The two electrodes are immersed in a bath of molten calcium chloride, which acts as
the electrolyte. When the power is switched on, electrons at the cathode decompose
the titanium dioxide into titanium metal and oxygen ions. The ions flow through the
electrolyte to the anode, where oxygen is released as a gas (Hill, 2001).
122 Professional Writing

Applications and uses

Describe the application or use of an object. This emphasizes the practical aspects
of research, by showing how inventions and discoveries can be used in
everyday life.
When describing the applications of a discovery, you are, in effect, listing
possible future or present situations where the discovery is put to action.
Applications show different uses of a product or method, so you could describe
them by listing (“first”, “second”), or adding (“also”, “another application”).
Here is an extract from an article describing how science defines the feeling of
love as the result of biochemical and genetic processes. The extract outlines
some ways in which such research may be useful.

Is this useful? The scientists think so. For a start, understanding the neurochemical
pathways that regulate social attachments may help to deal with defects in people’s
ability to form relationships. All relationships, whether they are those of parents with
their children, spouses with their partners, or workers with their colleagues, rely on an
ability to create and maintain social ties. Defects can be disabling, and become
apparent as disorders such as autism and schizophrenia – and indeed, as the serious
depression that can result from rejection in love. Research is also shedding light on
some of the more extreme forms of sexual behaviour. And controversially, some
utopian fringe groups see such work as the doorway to a future where love is
guaranteed because it will be provided chemically, or even genetically engineered
from conception (The Economist, 2004, p. 10).

Use visual aids, such as a diagram or photograph. If you choose this strategy,
make sure you explain in your text what the visual is intended to show and how
it fits in your written explanation. To avoid digressing from your text to explain
a diagram, consider using side-bars that contain visuals and text, and provide
self-sufficient information that complements the information presented in the
body of the article.

Narrative
Tell a story that illustrates your discussion. This is useful in making conceptual
information more concrete by describing a “physical” situation where the ideas
you are talking about were at play. Stories are very effective in assisting the
readers to visualize and, therefore, to better understand your description.
When telling a story, decide how much of your story your target reader is
likely to be able to absorb without a break and how much they want to know.
Also, make sure that your story clearly relates to the topic that you are
 Journalism 123

attempting to explain, by explicitly making connections between the two. For

example, the following extract tells a story to explain why many people find the
concept of evolution difficult to understand. Notice how the writer begins the
paragraph by stating his main topic. Then he asks two questions constructed
from the perspective of “most people”. He then recounts a story, which
becomes a story within a story, giving “most people’s” version of why evolution
is difficult to grasp. He ends the paragraph by extrapolating that it is the time
element in evolution that “most people” find difficult to conceptualize.

Most people find evolution implausible. Why is my spine erect, my thumb opposable?
Can evolutionists really explain that? Once I attended a lecture by the writer Isaac
Bashevis Singer, and one of the many biologists in the audience asked Singer about
evolution – did he believe in it? Singer responded with a story. He said there was an
island upon which scientists were certain no human being had ever been. When
people landed on the island they found a watch between two rocks – a complete
mystery. The scientists when confronted with the evidence of the watch stuck to the
view that the island was uninhabited. Instead they explained that although improbable,
a little bit of glass, metal, and leather had over thousands of years worked its way into
the form of a watch. Singer’s view differed from that of the scientists – as he
summarized, “No watch without a Watchmaker.” This story reflects the feeling many
people share that random chemical interactions cannot explain the existence of life on
earth. The reason it is hard for such people to grasp the evolutionary viewpoint is the
difficulty in grasping the immense time a billion years actually is (Pagels, 1983, p. 96).

Ben Stubbs (2012) begins his book on Australian communities in South America
by contextualizing it within his own personal story. He frames this personal story
in terms of curiosity and the urge to explore by means of the metaphors “itch”,
“mosquito bite” and “rash”, which evoke experiences of travelers in exotic
lands. The main topic – Australian communities abroad – is connected to the
narrator’s own family as one of immigrants. The phrases “putting boats in
bottles” and “drawing family trees” further reinforce the themes of travel and
genealogy that are expanded in the book.

I started to feel the itch a few years ago. My father was given our family history by a
curious relative who liked putting boats into bottles and drawing family trees.
I discovered the story of my great great great grandfather William Peat. His
grandfather Charles Peat arrived in Australia as a convict on the First Fleet for
highway robbery in London. What began as a mosquito bite became a rash as I
learned more (Stubbs, 2012, p. 1).
124 Professional Writing

Example Four: Analysis of feature article

Read the following article on the planet Mars and notice how
some of the strategies described above are used in its
composition.

Life on Mars

Can Mars contain life? Is there any possibility that we are not
alone in this solar system? Close examination of these questions
has led scientists to propose that the following characteristics
(rare for any planet) are necessary for Mars to support life:

� 
The planet must have a strong magnetic field which is
created by the spinning of liquid metals deep inside. This
magnetic field acts like a force-field to prevent the harsh
winds and energies of the Sun from stripping away
atmosphere and clouds like a gas-powered leaf blower.
� 
The area in which life evolves must be relatively stable.
Life is delicate and would not survive repeated
bombardments by meteors and other objects, which
would cook any developing organisms in hot gas and
magma.
� 
The planet must contain water. Water is necessary for all
life. It dissolves almost any compound and allows
organisms to produce energy for their own growth and
survival.
Lists qualities
� 
It must have an atmosphere with enough carbon dioxide necessary for life
to allow the surface of the planet to be warmed by on a planet
trapping the Sun’s rays much like the Greenhouse Effect.

With the explosive growth of spaceflight technology,

examining Mars for these planetary characteristics has finally
become a reality. The Mars of today, unfortunately, does not
meet these criteria. The planet’s core is not spinning any
more leading to the lack of a magnetic field and an
atmosphere. All of Mars’s water is either deep underground,
out of the Sun’s reach, or frozen in the ice caps. Finally, Mars
is a very cold planet with frozen carbon dioxide that cannot Gives reasons why
be used by living organisms. Mars cannot
support life
Thus, for all you ET fans out there, the chance we find any
living organisms on Mars is very small. “What’s the point of
exploring Mars for life?” you may ask. Mars may be cold and
dead now, but it wasn’t in the past. Transitional
paragraph lead-
ing to a historical
About four billion years ago, Mars was a stable planet while report on Mars’
Earth was still in its infancy. New data analysed from the Mars atmosphere
rovers shows that Mars had an active core resulting in a
magnetic field comparable to present-day Earth – enough to
maintain an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, oxygen and
water. Analysis of Martian canal-like structures reveals a cloud
system similar to Earth’s and vast oceans several kilometers
 Journalism 125

deep. During this time, Mars was also volcanically active,

theoretically providing organisms with energy that could be
harnessed for life. Four billion years ago, Mars met all the
criteria for a living world. In fact, many scientists have a
Tells a story about
difficult time arguing against life on Mars!
Mars’ situation in
the past
Why do we care about fossils billions of years old? Evidence
of ancient life on Mars has very important consequences for
our understanding of how life begins. In 1984, scientists
working in Antarctica discovered a meteorite from Mars
approximately 4.6 billion years old. This Mars object created
controversy, as many scientists suggested the meteorite
contained evidence of bacterial life. If such meteorites indeed
contained Martians, as could be confirmed by our
Gives reasons for
expeditions on Mars, all living organisms on Earth may have an interest, and
evolved from Martian hitchhikers. We might be, in fact, the leads to a specula-
last traces of Martian life. tion that further
supports the
reason

Integrating quotations
An important difference between specialist and journalistic documents lies in
the use of quotations. In formal reports, as in academic writing, quotations
have a secondary function: they are there to provide credibility or lend
support to an idea. In journalistic writing, on the other hand, ideas or facts are
often crafted around quotations, foregrounding the immediacy of spoken
language. For this reason, specialist documents avoid extensive use of
quotations, which give the document a choppy or fragmented appearance.
This is not the case for journalistic articles, however, where it is generally
expected to attribute opinions, facts and ideas directly to people by reporting
their speech.
This difference in emphasis is highlighted in the way quotations are
integrated in the text. In specialist documents, lead to a quotation so that the
sentence begins in your own words and ends with the quotation. Reverse this
technique in journalistic writing: begin the sentence with a quotation and end it
with your comment. Compare these extracts. The first is appropriate for a report
and the second for a magazine article.

1 Conservation International, North Motor Company and Nielsen Engineering have

agreed to collaborate in three “walkway projects” in the Amazon Valley and
Indonesia. These projects involve creating walkways that allow visitors to traverse
densely forested areas without the need of roads. This is an important step in
promoting both tourist activity and the safety of the forests. As the Public
126 Professional Writing

Relations Manager of Conservation International points out, “Tourism can boost

an economy, but it will bust it if it destroys the environment.”
2 Conservation International recently joined forces with Motor and Engineering
companies for a series of ventures promoting tourism in environmentally safe
ways. “Tourism can boost an economy, but it will bust it if it destroys the
environment,” says Tim McIntyre, Public Relations Manager of Conservation
International. “Ecotourism can be as, if not more, profitable as a logging-based
tourism industry, especially in our era of environmental awareness,” he adds.

Another difference in the integration of quotations and attributed knowledge in

specialist and journalistic documents is the kind of referencing to sources.
In specialist documents, such as reports and academic articles, references follow
one of the formal styles, APA, Chicago, etc. This means that the full source is
named either at a footnote, or in an end-of-text reference list. In journalistic
articles, on the other hand, the convention is to include the person’s name and
affiliation within the body of the article, preferably in the sentence that includes
the quotation. References to journals where research was initially published are
placed in brackets at the end of the sentence or paragraph that describes this
research.

According to Jeremy Gruber, legal director of the National Workrights Institute

based in Princeton, New Jersey, US companies can legally watch everything
employees do – and only two states require employers to tell workers they are
under surveillance (Newitz, 2006, p. 30, my emphasis).

Leads, hooks and ties

In contrast to reports, journalistic texts do not develop in a linear fashion. Also,
they do not state assumptions and background, or give justifications for
assertions. They are subjectively descriptive in that they describe an object from
the point of view of the mental and/or physical state of the reader – they tell the
readers what they want them to see.
A report would start by describing the background, overview and
assumptions, and then go on to detail different aspects of the topic leading to a
set of recommendations. Instead, a magazine article plunges straight into the
description of the product or discovery that the article discusses, immediately
showing its relevance to the interests or needs of the reader. It then goes on to
 Journalism 127

present different facets of the topic, beginning with the most crucial and
continuing in diminishing importance. It may end quite abruptly, or it may end
with one or two sentences that tie in a comment, opinion or evaluative remark
to the preceding discussion.
A corporate client needs less invitation to read a report and expects more
precision from the outset. A magazine reader, on the other hand, wants to be
seduced into reading the article. The lead is the opening statement that should
attract the reader to the article. Its job is to relate your main topic to what you
believe your reader’s general interests and experience are. A hook is similar to a
lead, although it is usually more “spicy” or provocative. A hook should be well
baited, so that your reader is tempted to carry on reading. Avoid abstractions
and densely technical language at this point. The following extract from an
article on the Kepler telescope, for example, makes a connection between
Kepler and popular culture:

In 1982, E.T. phoned home in his big screen debut. Scientists have been trying to
trace the call ever since. While finding E.T. is still a way off, astronomers can now at
least see some of the houses in his neighbourhood. They are achieving this with the
Kepler space telescope.

Also, John Morrish (2000) starts his description of how the word “geek” is used
with a short humorous anecdote that sets the scene for the definition that
follows. The writer begins with a play on the phrase “made it into”, leading to a
direct question to the reader and a hypothetical reply, which piques the reader’s
curiosity.

There was great excitement the day “geek” made it into The Times. Not the
newspaper, you understand, but the offices, where someone directed the word at the
editor, shortly before resigning on the spot. But what does it mean? A basic guess
would suggest that a “geek” is someone who relates better to computers than to
people. A synonym for “nerd”, in fact. But this is an oversimplification (Morrish, 2000,
p. 73).

The sentences following the lead add background to the topic or issue. As with
formal report introductions, you may also add a sentence that states what it is
that the ensuing article will do, although this is not necessary. The following
128 Professional Writing

extract, for example, leads by stating a fact and asking a question about this fact
from the reader’s point of view. It then goes on to overview the specifics that
the article will discuss in more detail, and ends with a statement on the purpose
of the article:

The two market leaders in non-professional cameras are the Canon X and the Pentax
Y, but what makes them so good? The X leads the market by being so jam-packed
with features. However, the Y holds its own with its ease of use and a slightly better
price. Here we set them head to head and pull them apart for our readers.

If you have more space to expand, you may also consider using a short narrative
as the lead. As people respond more strongly to narrative information than to
any other form, your chances of intriguing and capturing your audience are
increased. For example, the writer of the extract below, on the Turing test,
begins with a fictional story that sets the scene and captures attention.

A group of renegade androids, with near-perfect artificial intelligence, are hell-bent

on extracting revenge on humanity for their forced servitude. Only through careful
interrogation, aided by a polygraph-like apparatus, can the best-trained detectives
distinguish these robots from humans.
Does this sound like science fiction? Fortunately, it is. In this scenario, enacted in
the cyberpunk film Blade Runner, artificial intelligence has evolved to the point where
it can emulate human intelligence, a benchmark that Alan Turing, the father of modern
computer science, called “the imitation game”.

Below is the lead from Richard Branson’s 2012 article, Why we need more women
in the boardroom. It begins with an example from a personal situation that sets
the scene for the paragraph’s last sentence, the question that forms the basis of
the article. This is also an example of an analogy between trial juries and
company executive boards.

I recently watched 12 Angry Men – that classic 1957 film about a jury struggling to
decide the fate of an 18-year-old man who has been charged with murder. The movie
gives you a sense of how the legal system worked in the United States back then,
when juries were less diverse. By today’s standards, we would find it unsettling if a jury
were comprised of 12 middle-aged white men. So why have so many business leaders
been slow to take notice when women are absent from the boards of their companies?
 Journalism 129

The tie is an optional device that ends the article with a comment or question
summing up the writer’s attitude towards the topic. More attention is paid to
introductions in articles because of the aim to capture attention, and the fact
that most readers look at the opening sentences of an article before deciding
whether to invest any more time in it. If space allows, however, a good tie does
have the effect of emphasizing the main message of the article and making it
more memorable for the reader. For example, Richard Branson’s 2012 article,
whose lead is cited above, on the lack of women in executive positions in
business, also has an interesting tie, which loops back to the lead:

So take a look at who’s sitting around your boardroom table. If you see 12
angry men, it’s time to write a new script!

Submitting an article for publication

When you decide to submit an article to a magazine for publication, make sure
you are familiar with the topics and styles of your chosen magazine. You have a
higher chance of having your article accepted if it fits with the “culture” of the
magazine. All magazines have details of the editor, so if you cannot find
submission guidelines, contact the editor to request them – this is the editor’s
job and, besides, most magazines are looking for fresh ideas and new writers.
In most cases, you will be required to submit a proposal summarizing your
article and noting its significance and the types of readers it is likely to interest.
In order to familiarize yourself with the stylistic conventions of your chosen
magazine, follow these steps:
1 Read carefully each article in recent issues of the magazine. Note the basic
question or issue that they deal with and trace the ways that they answer it.
How do they use the 5Ws and 1H? What new knowledge do you learn from
the articles? What facts do you learn?
2 Notice the tone of the articles. Is it humorous? Serious? Technical? Chatty?
This will give you a hint on what tone to give your own article.
3 Notice the use of research. Have the writers conducted primary research,
such as interviewing people, or are most articles based on secondary
research – the consultation of written sources? How many quotations do
the articles use? How much information is paraphrased, that is written in the
writer’s own words? List the sources. Check some of them to see how the
writer used them in his/her article.
4 Notice the use of pronouns (“I”, “you”, “we”, etc.). Are articles written mostly
in an impersonal, objective style or do they rely heavily on personal comment?
How do the writers refer to themselves? Do they use personal pronouns?
130 Professional Writing

5 Notice the leads and ties. How long and snappy are they? Do the articles
rely strongly on leads to “bait” the reader, or are other elements, such as
pictures or quotations of famous speakers, more prominent?
6 Underline the first sentence in each paragraph. They should form a step-
by-step sequence. Then note the cohesion that the writers have used: the
linking words and phrases within paragraphs and the transitions from
one paragraph to the next. Often the same words or ideas will be
repeated in the last sentence of one paragraph and the first sentence of
the next.
7 Notice how the articles develop their theme. Is the article structured
chronologically, developmentally, by alternating examples, point by point?
How did the writer build the organizational structure to answer the title’s
question?
8 What techniques do the writers use to make the article both informative and
appealing? For example, do they use analogies, anecdotal examples,
metaphors, personal stories, rhetorical questions, direct questions to the
readers, etc.?
9 Notice the title. It may have been changed by the editor; nevertheless, how
does it reflect the article? Does it tease, quote or state facts? What technique
does the writer use to make the reader want to read the article?
10 Look at para-textual elements, such as visuals, pull-quotes, subheads, etc.
Although the editor may have produced these, you can still get an idea of
the type of “framing” that the magazine requires, and this will give you
some tips on what types of information the editors consider important.

aCtivities

1 Research the business or scientific magazines that publish in an area you are
interested in. Find out the submission requirements of each magazine and make a
style-format analysis of the types of articles each magazine publishes. Then write
a memo to your instructor detailing your findings.
2 Analyse a feature following the guidelines presented in this chapter. Bring your
analysis to class for discussion. Concentrate on what impressed you about the
article and what areas you think could be improved. Did the writers answer the
questions you had on the topic? Could they have been clearer and more accurate
within the space limitations?
 Journalism 131

References and further reading

Angler, M. (2017) Science journalism: An introduction. London: Routledge.
Barnett, L. (1948) The universe and Dr Einstein. London: Doves.
Barry, P. (2006) What’s done is done. New Scientist, 30 September, 36–39.
Batty, C., & Cain, S. (2010) Media writing: A practical introduction. London: Red Globe Press.
Bohm, D. (1998) On creativity, ed. L. Nichol. London: Routledge.
Branson, R. (2012) Richard Branson on why we need more women in the boardroom.
Entrepreneur, September 24. Available at http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/224476
Carroll, B. (2017) Writing and editing for digital media. New York: Routledge.
Fahnestock, J. (1986) Accommodating science: The rhetorical life of scientific facts. Written
Communication, 3, 275–296.
Fahnestock, J. (2004) Preserving the figure: Consistency in the presentation of scientific
arguments. Written Communication, 21(1), 6–31.
Garrison, B. (2004) Professional feature writing, 4th edition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Hawkins, D. (1995) The future of fun. In F. Biocca & M. R. Levy (eds.) Communication in
the age of virtual reality. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 159–189.
Hay, V. (1990) The essential feature: Writing for magazines and newspapers. New York:
Columbia University Press.
Hill, S. (2001) Get tough! New Scientist, 30 June.
Kaku, M. & Cohen, J. (2012) The best Americal science writing 2012. New York:
HarperCollins.
Kane, T. (1994) The new Oxford guide to writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
King, S. (2000) On writing. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
Kraft, N. (2019) Always get the name of the dog: A guide to media interviewing. New York:
Routledge.
Lindgren, S. (2019) Digital media and society. London: Sage.
Marsen, S. (2006) Communication studies. London: Red Globe Press.
Newitz, A. (2006) The boss is watching your every click … New Scientist, 30 September,
3– 31.
Pagels, H. R. (1983) The cosmic code: Quantum physics as the language of nature.
Harmondswoth: Penguin.
Pirolli, B. (2018) Travel journalism: Informing tourists in the digital age. London: Routledge.
Roush, C. (2004) Show me the money: Writing business and economics stories for mass
communication. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Schaub, B. (2006). My android twin. New Scientist, 14 October, 42–46.
Starkman, D., Hamilton, M., Chittum, R., & Salmon, F. (2012) The best business writing
2012. New York: Columbia University Press.
Steuer, J. (1992). Defining virtual reality:Dimensions determining telepresence. Journal of
Communication (2), pp. 73–93.
Stubbs, B. (2012) Ticket to paradise: A journey to find the Australian colony in Paraguay
among Nazis, Mennonites and Japanese beekeepers. Sydney: HarperCollins.
 Chapter

6
Public Relations Writing

Focus:
 Press releases
 Web writing
 Social media
 Speech writing
 Crisis communication

This chapter looks at some major business genres targeting a public audience
and the situations in which they are used. The chapter also includes information
and guidelines on writing for the Internet and website design.

Public relations texts

Much of a company’s success depends on the perception that the public has of
it, and on its reputation in dealing with consumers, clients and the general
social context in which it operates. The way a company communicates with its
public and the ways in which it creates and sustains relationships become
paramount in its continued progress and expansion. The two related business
fields that focus on the social status of the company are marketing and public
relations (PR). The first is concerned with the design, branding and positioning
of products, while the second is dedicated to identifying, maintaining and
correcting factors that contribute to the company’s reputation and public
image (Bivins, 1999; Davis, 2004; Kent, 2011; Morris & Goldsworthy, 2012;
Theaker, 2008).

132
 Public Relations Writing 133

Genres that publicize a company’s products and services, as well as the

company’s contribution to social endeavours, include:
 Press releases: short documents written for the media, functioning to
publicize a new development, product, service or policy. They are sent to
media outlets and published on the company’s website.
 Websites: the company’s representative in cyberspace, websites tell the
company’s story, its mission, organization and products. Currently, they are
the first source of information for a company.
 Brochures and prospectuses: booklets that describe the company’s products
and/or services. A prospectus is a larger document than a brochure and includes
more detail. These can be delivered in print or in digital medium, depending on
audience and purpose. In many cases, large organizations offer both versions.
 Flyers and posters: similar to brochures and prospectuses but smaller, these
are one-page advertisements of an event or product. These too can be
delivered in print and digital medium.
 Mission statements: the company’s concept of its main goals, objectives
and reason for existing, the mission statement is addressed as much to
employees and investors as it is to the wider public. Since the mission
statement is posted on a company’s website, however, it is generally
perceived as a public relations text.
 Newsletters: in-house magazines that report the company’s news to various
stakeholders, include clients and members. They can be delivered in both
print and digital medium, although digital medium is rapidly becoming the
favoured form, especially if the recipients are professionals.
 Letters: short texts that carry messages of different kinds to customers, members
and other stakeholders. Letters can be part of welcome packs and membership
packages, or they can inform of the formal outcome of a procedure, such as
rewards. Letters also accompany other texts such as prospectuses.
 Annual reports: documents written at the end of a financial year, detailing
the successes and failures of the company during the year. An important
document for investors, annual reports combine technical and financial
details with motivating articles on how the company fulfilled its mission
during the year. Annual reports are public documents, and most large
organizations include them on their websites.
 Social media: contributions to social networking sites such as Twitter,
Facebook and YouTube, which update the public of new developments to the
minute and enable users to respond or comment.
 Speeches and press conferences: texts written for oral delivery, speeches
can be addressed to the wider public through the media or to employees
and stakeholders through the company’s internal communication channels.
134 Professional Writing

When deciding on a public communication strategy, it might be useful to think of

possible media in terms of push and pull. Push media are those that transmit
information to the public, who are quasi-passive recipients. Broadcast media, such
as television and radio, are examples of push media. Pull media, on the other
hand, are those in which a company participates in a community and attracts an
audience from that community. The digital media, especially social networks, but
also, to a lesser extent, websites are examples of pull media. As Guy Kawasaki
(2011), says, “Push technology brings your story to people. Pull technology
brings people to your story” (p. 135). Each type of medium has a different degree
of control. In pull technology the company has less control and needs to take a
more adaptive approach. From a consumer’s perspective, pull media allow users
to select and combine information that they receive from organizations.

Press releases
Press releases target an audience of news professionals, working either in print,
broadcast or digital media, and announce new products or events. Sometimes
press releases are sent to specialized audiences, such as convention organizers.
At other times, they are placed on the company’s website, on the “Press”,
“Public Relations” or “Journalists” page. Often they are mailed to target press
representatives as part of a press kit, which may include testimonials, quotations
and product features – anything a journalist would need to know to write an article.
Press releases are structured as news stories and vary in length from half a
page to three or four pages, depending on the significance of the
announcement and on the number of people or companies involved. Press
releases are known as uncontrolled news. That is, the writer and issuing
organization have no control over the final version in which the news will
appear. Therefore, clear organization and adequate facts are important. The first
paragraph gives all the information the press wants, structured around the 5Ws
and 1H. It states what the situation or product is, who is involved, where and
when it was produced, launched or used, why it is interesting or important, and
how it is different from others or from its predecessors. The subsequent
paragraphs give more background and details in descending order. Being news
stories, press releases follow the Inverted Pyramid format (see Chapter Five).
As regards the content of press releases, the focus or angle is very important:
depending on your product, event or service, will the most effective means of
communicating your message be by detailing qualities, by explaining
functionality and application or by showing its novelty with regard to its
predecessors in a historical framework? Press releases can be promotional or
informative.
 Public Relations Writing 135

Promotional press releases

When writing a promotional press release, apply one of these strategies:

Product-Centred Strategy: This looks at features of the product, event or

service, and builds a message around them. This strategy turns the product
into a desirable object by using signs of value, such as prestige, ease, ethical
standards, high-status, aesthetic appeal or expertise.
Prospect-Centred Strategy: This focuses on needs and wants of the target
audience and turns product attributes into client benefits. It emphasizes the
functional aspects of the product in relation to their practical results or
applications. It usually achieves this by outlining how a product may be used,
or the product’s effect on people.

Although the two strategies can be used simultaneously, the need to have a
clear focus or angle means that effective press releases tend to construct their
message around one of the two. Regardless of the selected strategy, a press
release is a promotional genre, so where possible emphasize and highlight the
product’s Unique Selling Point (USP), describing the qualities that make it
distinctive or unique in relation to predecessors or competitors. Focus on
innovations and on the specific attributes and benefits that make the product a
novelty.
As an example of a product-focused strategy, study Example One on a new
laptop produced by the fictional company Wicked Wisdom.
One way to write a promotional press release is to decide on the image you
want to create of the product and on the customer needs that the product
satisfies, and then to brainstorm some key words, phrases and metaphors that
capture this verbally. Then use these words and phrases at strategic points in the
release. For instance, Example One is constructed around the idea of “light” and
“beautiful”, and this is reflected in the use of superlatives (that is, structures that
show the highest level of something, such as – est adjectives) slimmest, lightest,
unique, the best, the most, the first, sharpest. Also, the release repeats words that
denote beauty, such as beautiful, gorgeous, stupendous, magical, wonderful,
dazzling, eye-catching and attractive, in every paragraph as well as in the title.
Such strategic repetitions “drill” the message and create a memorable
impression of the product in the reader’s mind. It is also more likely that these
words, because of their prominence in the release, will find their way in the
articles and news stories written by journalists on the product. In fact, one
outcome sought after by press release writers is to encourage journalists to
publish as much as possible of the original release (indeed the ideal is to have it
published verbatim) in their articles.
136 Professional Writing

Example One: Promotional Press Release The title provides

information on
appearance
Wicked Wisdom Presents Vision:
and
Lightest Laptop in the World with 14-inch Screen, functionality
Gorgeous Look and Dozens of Unique Features of product and
this focus is
LONDON – June 27, 2019 – Wicked Wisdom today sustained
announced the release of Vision, the slimmest and lightest throughout the
Consistent with laptop in the world, with a new design that features a release. Notice
the top-heavy beautiful 14-inch screen, 15-hour battery, the unique the use of
approach of performance and ultra-speed of 7-4500U (1.80GHz/3.00GHz), superlatives
press releases, and the dazzling look of HD Graphics 4400. Vision comes ‘lightest’
the first with OpenEye 6 operating system and, unlike other slim ‘gorgeous’ and
paragraph laptops in the market, it includes a DVD drive and three USB ‘unique’ to
summarizes all drives – all without adding any weight. Loyal to its promise suggest the
the important of giving the best vision ever, it even comes with the option highest quality.
features of the of glossy or anti-glare screen.
product. It also
plays on the “Vision is the most beautiful and functional machine that
word “vision” we’ve ever created,” said Andrew Watson, Wicked Wisdom’s
and the name The second
Vice-President. “We’ve created Vision with the best balance of
of the product, paragraph
innovation and functionality. Weighing only 1 kg, Vision is
Vision. elaborates on
now the lightest 14-inch laptop available, a product both
the features
stupendous to look at and multifunctional to use, with an
listed in the
attractive, custom-built 14-inch screen to suit all tastes. Its
The third first, in the form
10GB of memory and 600GB hard drive make it also the most
paragraph of a quotation.
powerful laptop of its kind”.
continues the
emphasis on Vision is the lightest laptop in the world, with an all-new carbon
superlatives fibre construction that is 10% thinner and 20% lighter than Paragraph five
(thinner, other laptops. The 600 GB powerful hard drive was designed by combines
lighter). It also Wicked Wisdom to increase performance and efficiency, and to product
introduces the support all the wonderful new features of Vision. And of course, qualities with
name of the since fibre construction has no moving parts, Vision tops all functionality,
company and others also in durability and long life. mentions again
positions it as the company
an agent in The magical 14-inch screen supports millions of colours, and the name and
the events. HD Graphics 4400 make it the best choice for gamers and emphasizes the
photographers alike. It is also the only slim laptop in the world company’s role
Paragraph to come with the option of glossy and anti-glare display – in designing
four includes respecting the uniqueness of its users. Equipped with GMA these qualities
the superlatives technology, Vision gives the sharpest image from any viewing and functions.
“best,” “the angle – perfect for making that eye-catching presentation or Also, it
only” and watching a favourite movie. introduces a
“sharpest”. It “you” angle,
also mentions Vision supports super-fast wireless standards, so you can surf which tilts the
the uniqueness the internet, download and stream content almost faster than release towards
of the users, you can think. As for battery life, Vision runs for up to 15 hours, a prospect-
which creates enabling you to word process, email, give presentations or centred
an association watch movies all day long. With the design of Vision, Wicked approach. The
between Wisdom has ushered in a new era in slim and light laptops release ends with
products and that are uniquely beautiful in design, can be adapted to a reiteration of
users through different tastes, are ultra-fast and powerful, and have a long the “lightest”
“uniqueness”. life. And all this in just one kilogram! message.
 Public Relations Writing 137

Informative press releases

When writing an informative press release, which publicizes an event,
development or new policy, describe the events and people involved, add some
quotations and explain the significance of the event or development. For
example, study Example Two, which contains a university press release
describing a project of collaboration between the university and a corporation.
Notice how the first two paragraphs contain all the information necessary for
the audience to understand what this project is about. The rest of the press
release provides additional information and elaboration.

Example Two: Informative Press Release

The opening
sentence
Professors at XYZ School of Business are collaborating with Big summarizes the
Blue to fine-tune an interactive teaching tool specifically project. Notice
designed for use in universities. the nickname
Big Blue to refer
SocialStudent is an adaptation of Connections, IBM’s existing
to IBM.
business networking environment. Three faculty members in
XYZ’s Center for Management Communication are using it to
Elaborates on
teach online components of the core writing class for
the first
undergraduate students – and using data from that experience
sentence by
to help optimize the project for IBM.
providing more
“It’s a great example of XYZ/corporate collaboration,” says Sky details.
Marsen, Associate Professor of Management Communication.
“We are working with two other universities on this project, Aalto A quotation
University in Finland and the University of Netherlands. Our students that introduces
are learning remote team building and negotiation skills.” an individual
involved in the
Bob Jones and Malinda Walker, both Associate Professors of project and
Mentions
Management Communication, are also working on the project also continues
other people
with their students. to develop the
involved in
the project. description of
SocialStudent includes audio and video meeting functions as well
the project.
as advanced networking and collaboration functions, such as
Focuses on the
file-sharing and team editing.
software used
in the project. “This is essentially a research project on virtual team
collaboration,” said Jones, whose work with IBM helped bring
the project to XYZ

Students at the three universities are collaborating on a team

report on corporate reputation. But instead of going for an
A plus, they’re working for perhaps a more valuable prize.
“We’ve identified the top five teams,” said Marsen. “Now we
give them to IBM, who will weigh in and choose the top team.
Those team members will be offered internships with IBM.”
Describes the
All students who participated in this semester’s project will result of the
receive badges certifying their role in the project. project.
138 Professional Writing

Some important items in both promotional and informative press releases are:
 Clear presentation of names, dates and titles. If you use acronyms, make sure
you explain what they stand for. Do not take for granted the readers will
understand them, no matter how famous these acronyms may be.
 Easy-to-find contact details of people that the press can contact for more
information. Ideally, include phone numbers, email addresses, fax numbers
and physical addresses. These come at the end of the release, like a signature.
 At least one relevant quotation. This makes the release more specific, by
focusing on the direct words of responsible parties. It also gives the press an
indication of the opinion of key figures and a lead to follow if they want to
investigate further. The quotation could also be used directly in news stories
and features that media professionals will write following your press release,
so you are helping them by including it. Company web pages that contain
press releases (and press kits sent to media outlets) also include photos and
general information on the company, which journalists can use in their stories.
 A zesty, active and concise style. A press release is still a promotional text
targeting publicists (it promotes to the promoters, so to speak). Although
marketese, or pompous exaggeration, must be avoided, press releases
emphasize Unique Selling Points and can create a memorable image through
the use of adjectives and metaphors.
If the press release is broadcast on radio or television, timing is very important.
The average reader can read about 150 words in a minute. Broadcasts are on
average about 30 seconds. So, for a 30-second announcement, you will need
about 60–70 words. Practise reading out your announcement to make sure it fits
comfortably within this time frame while providing the main information. Also,
note that broadcast press releases tend to begin with location. This is an influence
from drama, where a scene is described before the dialogue begins. Unless you
have reason to improvise, start your announcement by stating the scene. Because
broadcast announcements are spoken, avoid abbreviations and acronyms, unless
they are well-known (for example, NASA, USA). Finally, incorporate quotations in
your own words (that is, paraphrase them) to fit with the reading voice.

Web writing
An internet primer
High visibility and low cost make websites the fastest and most effective means
of publicity. Since the medium of websites is the Internet, an overview of its
nature would be useful here. This subsection is quite basic, so those with more
experience in digital media can skip it.
 Public Relations Writing 139

Think of your computer as divided into three parts: the hardware (also known
as the part that you can kick!), the operating system and the software. The
hardware is the actual electronics and wiring of the computer together, and
includes memory, hard drive capacity, the presence of different drives and type
of screen. The hardware gives the computer its inherent power, so, for example,
if you want to run multimedia applications, you need a computer with a certain
size of hard drive and a minimum of megabytes (MB) of memory. Otherwise,
the computer will not be able to handle the programs you try to feed it.
The next step from hardware is the operating system (OS), or platform, that you
choose, and this determines general functionality (how the computer works) and
interface (what the design of the screen looks like). It also determines the kind of
software you can install and run. Currently, the most common platforms are
Microsoft Windows, Macintosh and Open Source operating systems.
Software refers to the programs, or applications, that you install. There is
software for different purposes: for example, Microsoft Word is a very
widespread word processing program, and Adobe Photoshop is an equally
popular graphics program. Most software programs come in two formats, for
either Windows or Macintosh platforms.
To connect to the Internet, you need a browser and an ISP (Internet Service
Provider). The browser is the software that allows your computer to access
data on the World Wide Web, for example, Chrome, Firefox and Safari. The
Internet is actually a huge, centreless network of computers connected through
individual servers – the part of a company’s computer network that connects
directly to the Internet. If you are an individual user, you need a provider that
has a server in order to connect (usually at a set fee). Companies and institutions
have their own servers. What is known as a web address (or URL, Uniform
Resource Locator) is actually a link to a server. If you want to publish any material
on the Internet, such as a website, you need a server, which will host your site.
Everyday talk often confounds the Internet with the World Wide Web.
A distinction is, however, necessary. The Internet includes the Web; in fact, the
Internet is the infrastructure level of the medium, and includes such services as
email. The Web is the public face of the Internet medium, where users access
information on products and services by visiting websites (allowing for the
existence of secure pages, of course, which make the Web not so public!)
It is important to remember that the Internet is a medium – not a genre.
In other words, it provides the means of transmission and exchange of different
forms of information presented in different document types. For example, you
can send a report via email as an attachment or post it as a Portable Document
Format (PDF) on a site. The document would still be report genre, regardless of
its medium of transmission. In other words, when composing it, you should still
follow the conventions and expectations of report writing.
140 Professional Writing

Multimedia
Before anything else, remember that websites are addressed to users rather
than readers. This means they must provide information in a way that is
consistent with the nature of their medium, and in a way that makes full use of
the medium’s resources. Digital capabilities are often grouped under the umbrella
term multimedia, which includes text, graphics, sound, video and animation. The
potential of multimedia is increasingly been recognized and used in most areas of
communication: in education, entertainment and business. In fact, new fields of
communication have emerged through the use of multimedia applications, such
as the creative combination of educational, information and entertainment
techniques that has come to be known as edutainment and infotainment (see also
Bateman, 2011; Heskett, 2005; Kostelnick & Roberts, 1998).
The fact that the digital medium is actually a collection of different media
capabilities gives the web designer a singular task: to coordinate the different
media and produce, through their combination, an effective and compelling
result. As the technology for graphics, sound, video and animation is constantly
changing, the next section focuses on text.

Digital text
Content is still the most important factor in website development. A website is,
in most cases, not just an ornamental piece used for decoration. It should
provide specific information that will attract and interest readers and motivate
them to take some form of action (such as contacting the company, buying a
product, etc.) in response to the information presented. This makes text the
fundamental element in website development. Surveys of product marketing on
the web, for example, generally find that there are more return visits to sites
with substantial text content than to those that rely on other multimedia
elements. This suggests that most users still expect the graphic elements to
complement the text rather than the other way round (Nielsen, 2000).
The writing strategies outlined throughout this book are valid also for
web design. The fundamental principles of clarity, conciseness and accuracy
are as important in websites as they are in other types of professional
documents. In addition to these, text that is read on a computer monitor
requires some other considerations. When writing content for websites follow
these guidelines:
Balance text with other media. The visual nature of electronic communication
should be acknowledged by blending verbal information with visual or aural
components to produce a multisensory effect. Sites that rely too much on
verbal language exhaust users and are not likely to have a strong appeal. If
 Public Relations Writing 141

you have a lot of written information to communicate, it is best to include

PDF files or printable brochures in your site. These can be printed out as
complete numbered pages, becoming much easier to read.
Begin with most important information. Although this is valid also for other
types of journalistic documents, it is of special significance in websites. Pages
load from top to bottom, so the users need to read something compelling in
the first eight seconds or they might leave. As graphics take longer to
download than text, make sure the users have something substantial to read
while waiting – preferably some information on the purpose of the site or on
the function of the company hosting it. The most common form of
information distribution on the web is the Inverted Pyramid style.
The conclusion, or central point, of the document goes first followed by
information in descending order of importance.
Organize text into small chunks. Words, sentences and paragraphs should be
shorter in electronic format than in print, and they are better presented in
columns balanced with other media, rather than across the screen. In all, layout
considerations for web writing are more similar to journalism than to other
professional writing, such as reports. Visual information is processed faster than
verbal information, so try to make electronic text as visual as possible.
Select font, colour and size carefully. Legibility is important, so use reasonably
large fonts and allow users to change font size. Fonts are divided into serif
and sans serif (serif fonts have little “tails” on the edges while sans serif fonts
have sharp edges). Sans serif fonts are easier to read in multimedia format,
which may include colours and graphics. See the section on typography,
which follows, for more tips on fonts.
Restrict the use of upper case to major headings. Experiments have shown
that upper case fonts reduce the readability of text and increase reading time
by about 10%. Reading from a screen increases reading time by about 25%,
so text has to be made as easy as possible to read.
Be aware of the style and aesthetic that your audience values. The web is
too diverse to be bound by one aesthetic. Online communities develop
distinctive styles that are recognized and emulated by in-group members.
Since “online” is a medium and not a genre, web content varies depending
on the genre: for instance, online news stories are still news stories and
follow their genre conventions. There are as many styles in cyberspace as
there are cultural communities in the physical world, so audience and
purpose analysis techniques are as important here as in other forms of
document production. General advice is to target a reading level some steps
below your target audience’s assumed education level, even when writing for
professionals.
142 Professional Writing

Cater for international audiences. One thing to remember when choosing

words and phrases for your web content is that your audience will be
international. This means that many local terms and symbols may be
misunderstood by outsiders. For this reason, most multinational corporations
employ technical writers and language specialists to localize products; that is,
to research and recommend appropriate, inoffensive, memorable and
pleasant-sounding terminology for international audiences. Globalization is
accompanied by localization, since users utilize global media but still tend to
identify with specific cultural groups.
Use colour effectively. Colour is useful for emphasizing important information,
grouping related items, reinforcing site structure, and increasing
comprehension and recall. When using colour, be aware that it can change
the appearance of objects, including text type. For example, warm and bright
colours make things look larger than cool and dark colours, so, for example, if
you use a black screen, use bigger text. Also be aware that people cannot
look into bright colours for long, so avoid dense text on a bright screen.
Shape also affects the appearance of colours. Use blue for large areas and
backgrounds, but not for text type, thin lines or small shapes, as it is difficult to
focus on blue. To remember the impact of colour on the user, think of the colour
spectrum (ROYGBIV) running from the front of the screen to the back. For
example, red, orange and yellow will stand out the most; blue, indigo and violet
will recede into the background. Keep in mind also that colour and shape carry
symbolism that varies from culture to culture. This is of particular relevance if
you are aiming for an international audience.
Optimize your website for different devices. The internet is accessed from
computers, smartphones, digital tablets and other digital devices, so keep
this in mind when writing text or designing multimedia.

Digital writing and cultural studies

Besides its use in business websites, digital writing is attracting attention from
text and cultural theorists because of its potential to change the cognitive
aspects of writing. For example, linguist and philosopher of language Roy Harris
(2000) distinguishes three stages in the understanding of writing: crypto-literacy,
where writing is seen through the lens of magic and secret knowledge,
associated with occult or esoteric practices and beliefs; utilitarian literacy, where
writing is seen as a practical tool achieving particular ends and being equivalent
to speech; and full literacy, where writing is considered to be “a particular mode
of operation of the human mind and the key to a new concept of language”
(Harris, 2000, pp. x–xi). Full literacy has not been achieved by any society yet,
 Public Relations Writing 143

although Harris suggests that digital technology could well herald its era
because of the extensive experimentation with language that computers
encourage and make possible.
Two major factors that contribute to the large scope for experimentation
inherent in digital writing are hypertext and collaboration (see also Landow, 2006).
Hypertext challenges the linear perception of the printed text by including links
to different sites, thereby connecting content from different fields. Hypertext
does not only allow for creative associations, but also changes the ways
knowledge is defined. Historically, the last time an invention produced a similar
result was the creation of the encyclopedia in the 17th century. Collaboration
challenges the notion of sole author, since many digital texts are written by
various authors. In some situations, such as wikis, collaborative authoring is the
norm. This collaborative element of digital writing also enables professionals from
different countries to contribute to a project simultaneously, thereby emphasizing
the importance of “expert community” rather than “local community”.

All in the (type) family: Fonts

This section looks at typography: the study of writing characters, or fonts. Fonts
are arranged in generalized groupings known as “type families”. Type families are
divided into individual and specific. For example, Arial is a member of the sans-
serif family, which can include specific groups such as 10 point Arial, 12 point
Arial Bold, 8 point Arial Italic and so on. Some of the more common families are:
Serif
Serif fonts have little “tails” on the end of letterforms. These “tails” help the eye
to quickly define letters and words and are easier to read in print than other
families. They have an ancient history: the Romans chiselled serif typefaces on
their buildings. One serif font is Century Schoolbook, which was designed in the
USA in the early 20th century for use in primary school textbooks.

Century Schoolbook

Sans serif
The art and literary movements of the early 20th century, particularly those
following World War I, brought sans serif typefaces. As the name implies, the “tails”
are missing, giving a stripped-down, unemotional, nihilist typeface reflecting the
ideologies of that era. Today, sans serif fonts are the favourites of advertising
designers and transportation signage creators. They are generally the preferred
font for electronic writing as they are easy to read on a computer monitor.

Verdana
144 Professional Writing

Script
Originally designed to put feeling back into the mechanical world of printing,
scripts are used to imitate handwriting. Never use all upper case letters in a
script typeface. It is very difficult to read.

Lucida Calligraphy

Decorative
Some type is not meant to be read in large text blocks. Decorative faces are
great for headlines, signage and other uses, but use them sparingly.

Party Let

Engraved
Engraved fonts have a classical, sophisticated and elegant look. They are based
on the work of John Caxton, the founder of the British printing and typography
industry in the 17th century.

Colonna MT

Black letter (also known as fraktur)

In the 16th and 17th centuries, printing and type design were wrapped
up in the political and economic birth of European nation states. A few
examples of these “nationalistic” typefaces remain in Cyrillic (Russian
alphabet) and Black Letter. This typefont has a Gothic touch to it and is
associated with horror movies, prison tattoos and Nazis. Because of these
connotations, use with care. Once again, avoid setting words in all upper
case in this font.

Lucida Blackletter

Wingdings
Wingdings are symbols masquerading as letters. Use very, very sparingly and
only for fun. Definitely avoid, if precision and clarity are your aims!



The decision to use a particulat font type should be taken seriously: fonts affect
reader response since they are part of the medium in which information is
 Public Relations Writing 145

communicated. For example, Pamela Henderson (2005) and her team

conducted a survey to gauge reactions to different fonts and found some
interesting results. They found that fonts can be perceived as “emotional”,
“likeable”, “unsettling”, “cold”, “warm”, “feminine” or “masculine”, and even
“exciting” or “dishonest”. For instance, Playbill, Onyx, and Stencil were
perceived as the worst (which Henderson suggests makes them suitable to use
when describing features of competitors!)

• Playbill
• Onyx
• Stencil

At the other end, some of the most comfortable but unexciting fonts, and
therefore the “safest” to use, were Georgia, Verdana, Times New Roman and
Century Gothic.

• Georgia
• Verdana
• Times New Roman
• Century Gothic

Checklist for evaluating content, aesthetics and usability

of websites
How much credibility you give to a website depends, as do all other genres, on
purpose and audience. For example, if the site was designed for entertainment
purposes, factors such as accuracy of factual information and in-depth analysis
of topics would not be suitable criteria for evaluation. Similarly, a promotional
site should be evaluated according to advertising, as opposed to scholarly,
criteria. For example, does the site attract attention through graphic design and
text that is appealing to its target audience? Does it provide information that
anticipates the users’ questions and concerns?
The following is a checklist of the most important aspects of an effective
website. Refer to this checklist both when you design your own site and when
you evaluate others’ sites:

CONTENT
Relevance
 Does the site provide information relevant to its topic?
 Does the content reflect the title of the site, and are all headings and sections
useful in determining content?
146 Professional Writing

Timely/current information
 Does the site include a date for the information it presents?

Purpose
 If it is a commercial site, has an exaggerated promotional writing style, or
marketese, been avoided?
 Are the language and style used appropriate to the content, purpose and
audience?

Scannable
 Do users have the option to scan table of contents, section of summaries,
bullets, and boldface, short paragraphs?

Concise
 Is the text clear and concise?
 Is text organized in small chunks?

Writing
 Are spelling and grammar correct?
 Is there introductory text where necessary?
 Do multimedia elements support the task?

AESTHETICS
Audio (if used)
 Does the music evoke an appropriate emotion?
 Does the audio help to set the scene?

Video (if used)

 Is it useful?
 Is the quality adequate?
 Does it load quickly?

Animation (if used)

 Is it useful?
 Is the quantity suitable?

Graphics
 Do they complement the text?
 Are they stored for maximum compression (in other words, do they take the
least space possible for their size and therefore decrease downloading time)?
 Public Relations Writing 147

Colour
 Is the choice appropriate for the site?
 Is the number of colours suitable?
 Are colours used consistently?

Typography
 Is the font appropriate to the content of the site?
 Are there sufficient margins?

Layout and design

 Does the page fit on the screen?
 Is the layout consistent throughout the site?
 Does the site appear pleasing?

USABILITY
Download time
 Does the content download fast enough (up to 10 seconds)?

Ease of use
 Are options visible without scrolling?
 Is it possible to compare all options at the same time?

Links/Image map
 Do link names match page names?
 Are link headings easy to understand?
 Do all the links work?
 Is there a clear link to the Home Page?
 Are clickable areas obvious in the image map?

Navigation
 Is the navigation scheme obvious?
 Does each page include information on the site?
 Can the user go from one page to another without returning to the
Home Page?

Platform and device

 Does the site work with all major browsers?
 Does the site work on small and large monitors?
 Does the site work on all digital devices?
148 Professional Writing

Social media
As one of the “new” media (in contrast to the “old” print and broadcast
media), the Internet has modelled its design on preceding forms. For
example, email, one of the first uses of the medium, is modelled on the memo
genre, and website design is modelled on magazine layout. At its inception in
the 1990s and early 2000s, the Internet emphasized its visual quality and
borrowed cinematic techniques in how it organized and presented information
(Manovich, 2001). With its growth, however, it is changing focus and form, to
a large extent because of the development of interactive features, such as the
dramatically rapid expansion of social media.
Social media started with the launch of wikis (collaborative writing systems),
which allowed different users to contribute to a writing project. Wikipedia
(launched in 2001) is a prime example of this. The subsequent years saw the
development of other social media sites that allowed the interaction of different
users: Facebook and Flickr were launched in 2004, YouTube in 2005 and Twitter
in 2006. These media have come to be known as Web 2.0, and are based on
User-Generated Content (UGC) – that is, writing produced by users of the
Internet regardless of expertise or status (although, of course, access to the
Internet and to the particular site, as well as a certain degree of skill, are
assumed).
At the same time, the advent of social media saw the development of
subgenres, such as citizen journalism, where “ordinary” citizens create news
content, using devices such as mobile phones, and upload it to relevant news
sites. Sometimes, as when the news comes from politically restricted areas,
such as war zones, news and images delivered by non-specialist bystanders
have become the only timely source of information. In fact, this kind of user
empowerment in Web 2.0 led Time magazine to name as person of the year
2006 “You” (meaning the individual users of the world). This person of the year
was imaged by using a reflective surface mounted on a computer screen and
carrying the headline “You. Yes, you. You control the Information Age. Welcome
to your world” (Cull, 2011, p. 3).
What is the effect of social media on business, and, in particular, on
professional writing? The high popularity of social media has made it almost
imperative for businesses to incorporate them in their communications strategy.
At the time of writing this book, all major international corporations had
accounts with social media sites and kept these updated to the minute. In fact,
many public relations experts advise companies to make the most of social
media by joining sites such as Facebook, LinkedIn and Twitter, contributing to
Wikipedia, adding content to YouTube, and blogging.
 Public Relations Writing 149

Social media have allowed companies to very quickly respond to a

relevant event, and to direct users’ attention to desirable content. Such entries
give writers the opportunity to direct readers to more expansive genres, such as
blogs or online articles, and generate more company-controlled data on the
Internet. Although they create avenues for discussion and exchange of ideas,
they are also means by which to promote the company image.
Social media have also created a new kind of professional, a “social media
expert”, with a clearly defined company position. The job of social media expert
is to keep an eye on what users are saying about the company, to respond to
users and to advise management on ways to use social media to enhance the
company reputation. Similarly, there are consulting companies whose mission is
to advise companies on their social media image – known as Reputation
Management. These professionals monitor the Internet for potentially damaging
information about their client and assist their client in handling such information
if it emerges.
Personal interviews with such professionals have revealed some techniques of
reputation management. These include posting positive data to cover the
damaging material and even contacting reviewers and bloggers who have posted
negative feedback about the client, to negotiate the removal or amendment of this
information. In one example, whose particulars must remain confidential, a
company received a negative review by a popular video blogger, whose entry
received thousands of views and comments. After research, the company found
the blogger’s email and contacted him. Following a discussion, the blogger refused
to take down his comments, but agreed to post a new entry describing how the
company contacted him and showed interest in his opinion. The situation,
therefore, was given a different spin, one more favourable to the company.
Although the ethical concerns revolving around such matters are
complicated, the fact remains that social media have increased peer-to-peer
feedback and recommendations, as well as support, and have introduced an
era where consumer-to-consumer and consumer-to-company communication
has increasing influence on social perceptions of the company. In fact, the
rise of social media has created another title, “influencer”. Needless to say,
the most ethically constructive way for a company to use customers’ reviews
and feedback is to learn what people think and to respond to concerns
truthfully.

Writing for social media

As regards writing style and genre considerations, social media, being informal
venues of information, tend to follow journalistic conventions. The speed in
which entries are written and the small space they occupy do not allow for
150 Professional Writing

elaborations, definitions or extensive analyses. In fact, Twitter modelled its genre

on Short Message Service (SMS) text-messaging, or txtese, favouring abbreviated
words. It is therefore very important to scrutinize every word to ensure it has the
appropriate impact, as the risks of miscommunication in social media are
maximized.
When using social media for professional communication, keep three features
in mind:
1 Social media are a marketplace where you compete for attention. So, your
company should stand out in some way. Try creating an image for the
company through a distinctive use of multimedia and original content.
2 Timing plays a major role in social media – more so than in all other media.
Updating content and responding to comments and concerns quickly are
crucial factors in maintaining a successful social media presence.
3 Social media are highly interactive, so much so that others might “kidnap”
your content and take it in directions you hadn’t anticipated. In the micro-
blogging site Twitter, for example, at present, you can write up to 1000
tweets of 280 words each a day. Enough to keep your public updated? Keep
in mind that “mentions” of your user name or “handle” in others’ tweets can
draw attention to you. You can also receive “replies” using your user name,
and your tweet can be “retweeted” many times over, often with added
comments by the re-tweeter. Furthermore, your hashtag can be used by
others in their own tweets. All this can be as beneficial as it can be damaging
to your organization’s reputation.
For example, in a famous PR blunder, the Australian airline company Qantas
grounded its fleet internationally for two days due to an industrial dispute in
October 2011. This resulted in thousands of disgruntled passengers left
stranded around the world. Instead of using social media to apologize and
appease the public, Qantas decided to draw attention away from the strike and
onto something more positive. Thus, they started a competition for a luxury
holiday and advertised it on Twitter, just one day after the strike ended. This
decision backfired on them, however, as their hashtag was “hijacked” and they
attracted a flood of angry replies. For example, one tweeter wrote, “Qantas
Luxury means sipping champagne on your corporate jet while grounding the
entire airline, country, customers and staff”. “Qantas Luxury is getting my
flight refund back after waiting almost a month,” wrote another. Another
customer suggested the phrase meant “more than 3 mins notice that the
whole airline is on strike” (Qantas Twitter contest draws thousands of angry
replies, 2011).
 Public Relations Writing 151

In a similar blunder, Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos tweeted from a dog sledding
holiday in Norway in April 2018:
Dog sledding above the Arctic Circle in Norway. Jim Lovell says it’s not that
you go to heaven when you die, but “you go to heaven when you’re born.”
Earth is the best planet in our solar system. We go to space to save the Earth.
@BlueOrigin #NoPlanB #GradatimFerociter #EarthDay
This happened in a year when Amazon was hit by an onslaught of accusations
for low wages and employee mistreatment. So, although the tweet was meant
as a celebration of Earth Day, it didn’t take attention away from the company’s
PR scandals and didn’t go down too well with the public. Comedian Sarah
Silverman, for example, responded,
Why do your employees need to be on food stamps & govt assistance? Be an
example of fair payment & take the pressure off the taxpayers who are
subsidizing ur lack of fair pay. I KNOW you can do it, Jeff! Don’t be like the
Waltons of Walmart.
The conversational and informal aspect of social media sometimes leads to an
attempt by organizations to create a friendly and approachable image in the
public mind. This attempt can have both positive and negative results.
The positive effects are more clearly seen when the company’s tweet, blog entry
or Facebook post is about a new product, especially one that is likely to be well-
received by the public. The negative effects emerge when the company
attempts to use social media to deal with an explosive or controversial situation.
For example, the tweet below was written by BP on 15 December 2010 while
the company was under scrutiny for its oil-spill disaster in the US:
BP Public Relations @BPGlobalPR
The bad news – we’re being sued by the United States. The good news –
they sue in dollars, not pounds. #1.5538
Given the nature of the event, and the public’s reaction, a humorous tone
would not be advisable in any communication about this topic – making the
above comment sound more self-centred than lighthearted.

Speech writing
A major way in which professionals communicate with the public is through
speeches – especially true of top management executives. Speeches can be
made during press conferences, followed by Question and Answer (Q&A)
152 Professional Writing

sessions, or through broadcasts (radio, television) and digital (YouTube,

company website) media. In many cases, the speech becomes available in
written form for future reference. In all cases, important public speeches are
written first, and then memorized or read aloud. Different occasions call for a
speech. Also, the speech could have different audiences and would need to be
adapted to suit the knowledge and interests of each. For example, speeches to
the wider public tend to contain more general information and a zestier style
than speeches addressed to investors and shareholders, which include specific
details and a more “bottom-line” approach. Speeches in professional contexts
generally fall into five broad categories:
Information: Government officials and company executives keep the public
informed of initiatives and developments through speeches. These may be
delivered at press conferences, at special events or through broadcast and
digital media.
Motivation: CEOs and successful entrepreneurs are often invited to give
inspirational speeches where they describe their successes and failures and
give advice to new professionals.
Promotion: A speech is often an effective medium to promote the qualities of
a new product or service because the physical presence of the speaker can
enthuse the audience and create interest. This is especially true if the
speaker is charismatic and uses appealing and innovative methods of
presentation.
Apology: After an accident or mistake caused by a company, the CEO must
publicly accept responsibility and apologize. Apology speeches, part of
crisis management and image restoration, are very important in ensuring
that the reputation of the company is not damaged irreparably. Apology
speeches must be timely (delays have been found to have negative effects
on the company reputation), and constructive (the apology itself is not
enough – the speaker must show the company is taking measures to
effectively repair the situation). See below for more on crisis
communication.
Progress: In large-scale projects that have public significance (for example,
when taxpayers’ money is used), it is important to keep the public informed
of events and developments. Press releases can play this role, but at pivotal
stages of the project a speech can personalize the project and create a
favourable impression.
When writing a speech, follow these guidelines:
 Write in a conversational style so that the speech doesn’t sound like reading.
Use contractions and idioms.
 Public Relations Writing 153

 Give the speech a clear structure (for example, problem-solution or big

picture to detail) and sustain it throughout. Include stories, analogies and
examples to ensure the message is reinforced.
 Include a strong beginning and ending. A well thought-out framing makes
the speech memorable.
 Make sure the speech has one main message. Know exactly what you want
to say and don’t try to do too much in one speech.
 Show sincerity and humility as appropriate in the context: do not claim you
know all the answers.
 Perform your role in relation to the audience. If you are an expert delivering a
speech on an area of your expertise, don’t try to “dumb down” the content.
Showing expertise, through the use of appropriate technical terminology, adds
credibility to what you say. However, if the audience is composed of
non-specialists, give enough explanation for them to understand.
 Give credit where it’s due. Name any collaborating companies or government
agencies and explain their role. This is a technique of transparency as well as
shared responsibility. However, if the speech is delivered during a crisis,
handle this with care as it can easily become a scapegoating exercise or
appear as a method for displacing blame.
 Pay close attention to the tone of the speech. The tone must respect the
circumstances of the context and audience. For example, avoid a humorous
tone in cases where the audience is likely to be hostile or concerned about a
serious matter.

Interviews
A press interview is an oral communication, similar in many ways to a speech.
As successful professionals, you may often be invited to present your work to the
public through an interview. As PR practitioners, you may be tasked to instruct
managers on the best way to present themselves and the company in a press
interview. Table 6.1 gives some useful guidelines in preparing for this.

Table 6.1 Guidelines for Media Interviews

Before the interview:
•  Learn as much as possible about the reporter, publication/programme interview
format, audience
•  Have a clear idea of your goal for the interview
•  Know what you want to say: review your key message points
•  Write likely questions and appropriate answers.
154 Professional Writing

Interview tips:
•  Speak in “headlines”: offer conclusion first, briefly and directly, and back it with facts
or “proof points”
•  Do not “over-answer”: short answers are better than long
•  Do not be trapped by a question, but “bridge” it to a related point you want to make
•  When asked about a problem, talk about a solution
•  Do not let false charges, facts or figures offered by a reporter stand uncorrected;
interviews are opportunities to correct misconceptions
•  Do not repeat a reporter’s negative statements: frame your reply as a positive
statement
•  Speak clearly: avoid technical jargon
•  If you do not know the answer admit it (positively, if possible) and assure the
reporter that you will find and provide the needed facts in a timely manner, or offer
to assist the reporter in finding that other source
•  Do not overlap the interviewer’s question; begin your answer when the reporter is
finished
•  Keep cool – do not be provoked, and never lie to a reporter.

For telephone and radio interviews:

•  Buy preparation time by asking to call the reporter back if deadline allows
•  Establish an “interview atmosphere” and mindset
•  Use notes
•  Ask questions in order to gain feedback
•  For radio, speak visually – use words to paint pictures.

For television interviews:

•  Take care with appearance and clothes: the common advice is for women to avoid
solid black or white or busy patterns, and for men to wear a dark suit
•  Do not wear large, shiny or noisy jewellery, unless this reflects the image you want to
project
•  Sit upright, but don’t be too stiff, slightly forward in the chair
•  Unbutton suit jacket when seated
•  Resist the urge to shout into the microphone; speak and gesture naturally
•  Talk to the reporter/interviewer, not the camera
•  Keep a pleasant expression; smile when appropriate
•  Hold your “interview attitude” from the moment you are lit until the interview is
completely over and the camera is off.

Crisis communication
Crisis communication is a branch of public relations dedicated to the study of
communication during and after crises. By analysing case studies of crisis and
conducting experiments and surveys on public response, crisis communication
experts have classified crises and identified communication strategies to deal
with them effectively (Benoit, 1997; Coombs, 2014).
 Public Relations Writing 155

Crises can be preventable (human error, corner cutting) or unpreventable

(natural disasters), and intentional (sabotage, terrorism) or unintentional
(economic recessions, technical faults). An organization that has suffered a crisis
tends to be held accountable to varying degrees depending on the type of
crisis. In some instances, the organization can claim to be a victim but in other
cases it is closer to a perpetrator. Therefore, being strategic in how the crisis is
managed is paramount in safeguarding reputation.
Some situations that could signal a crisis include:
 An accident has occurred that caused deaths and/or environmental damage
 Products have been found to contain technical faults and deficiencies
 A company needs to cut down on jobs and make employees redundant
 A company did not make a profit and is in financial difficulties
 Security has been breached compromising people’s personal information
 Corrupt management or employees have caused irreparable financial loss.
The gravity of the crisis varies with each situation: an accident involving equipment
malfunction that has caused environmental damage is much more serious, and
would require much more justification, than a response to a customer’s complaint
that the company’s retail outlets do not open on public holidays.
In general, the following actions have been found to be effective in most
public relations crises:
Respond quickly: Things get quickly out of hand in crises, so a company or
government agency facing an accusation or a failure should respond
immediately, or as quickly as possible. Research has consistently shown that
delays sway public opinion against the company, and it is more difficult to
repair reputation damage after time has lapsed.
Accept responsibility: It is important to tell the truth and not attempt to
conceal faults, or to deflect responsibility. After a crisis, image restoration
becomes essential, so defensive tactics would not help. Claiming
responsibility for mistakes enhances the company’s damaged integrity.
Avoid laying blame and scapegoating: Similar to the above point, don’t
focus on finding someone to blame. Instead, focus on facts where possible.
Usually crises and damage are the outcome of many individuals’ actions
and cannot be reduced to one person’s decisions. It is more constructive
to try to find the causes of the damage, not so as to punish individuals,
but so as to revise the system that enabled the problem to occur in the
first place.
Apologize: Victims of disasters and the public appreciate an apology. An
apology shows recognition and respect for people’s feelings and losses and
should be an immediate response to a crisis.
156 Professional Writing

Describe measures taken to remedy the situation: Apologies are empty without
actions, however. Show that your company is taking measures to fix
the problem. In cases where people have suffered loss, compensation is a
measure to alleviate the situation. In cases where there is ongoing damage,
explain clearly how the company is taking the most appropriate actions
regardless of cost.
Be constructive: Fixing a problem is important, but not enough. Show also that the
company is taking long-term measures to ensure that the problem is not
repeated in the future. Show foresight and the willingness to learn from mistakes.
In fact, Renewal Theory is an approach to crisis communication that describes
crisis as opportunities to implement constructive changes and renew the system,
making it stronger and more resilient for the future (Ulmer et al., 2018).

Risk and issues management

Prevention is better than cure. In addition to having a crisis plan in place to deal
with a crisis when it occurs, organizations should have clear communication
procedures as a part of their everyday functioning. Good communication has
been shown repeatedly to prevent a crisis from developing. Similarly, inefficient
communication practices have been found to accompany, and often even
cause, the sparking of a crisis. In PR, preventing a crisis is known as “risk” or
“issues management”.
Below are some tested and widely recommended actions that can prevent a
problem from escalating into a disaster:
Do not downplay problems: If you suspect that there is a problem somewhere
that will worsen if not fixed, make this known to management. Even if you
are not sure the problem is serious, it is better to work on the premise of
“better safe than sorry”. If a situation seems urgent to you as an expert, do
not hesitate to communicate this urgency to decision makers. This approach
can help to prevent costly and even fatal outcomes, and is the reason that
pessimists generally make better risk managers than optimists.
Communicate your message to the appropriate individuals in the most
effective genre and style: When communicating bad news or possible
dangers to management or decision makers, make sure you present your
reasons in ways that they will understand.
Establish feedback mechanisms to enable free exchange of information: If
you are in a management position, make sure that there are communication
channels and feedback mechanisms between all ranks of employees, and that
employees are made aware of these and are encouraged to use them without
fear of penalty.
 Public Relations Writing 157

aCtivities

1 Collect as many public relations documents as you can from two competing
companies in the same industry and compare them. What similarities and
differences can you find in writing strategy, style and layout? How does the
company’s image (that is, the desired way the company wants the public to see
it) account for the differences? Can you see any differences between push and
pull media?
2 Below is an abridged version of BP CEO Tony Hayward’s speech on the oil spill
accident in the Gulf Coast of the US in 2010. The speech was delivered by
Hayward on 17 June 2010, addressing the congressional committee (the full
speech text can be found at http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2010/jun/17/
bp-tony-hayward-oil-spill-statement). Although this is a shortened version, it
retains the original organization and sequencing of information. Analyse the
speech in relation to the concepts of speech writing and crisis communication
discussed in this chapter. In what ways do you think the speech is effective and
in what ways do you think it is not and could be improved?

The explosion and fire aboard the Deepwater Horizon and the resulting oil spill in the
Gulf of Mexico never should have happened – and I am deeply sorry that they did.
None of us yet knows why it happened. But whatever the cause, we at BP will do
what we can to make certain that an incident like this does not happen again.
Since April 20, I have spent a great deal of my time in the Gulf Coast region and in
the incident command center in Houston, and let there be no mistake – I understand
how serious this situation is. This is a tragedy: people lost their lives; others were
injured; and the Gulf Coast environment and communities are suffering. This is
unacceptable, I understand that, and let me be very clear: I fully grasp the terrible
reality of the situation.
I want to acknowledge the questions that you and the public are rightly asking.
How could this happen? How damaging is the spill to the environment? Why is it
taking so long to stop the flow of oil and gas into the Gulf?
And questions are being asked about energy policy more broadly: Can we as a
society explore for oil and gas in safer and more reliable ways? What is the
appropriate regulatory framework for the industry?
We don’t yet have answers to all these important questions. But I hear the
concerns, fears, frustrations – and anger – being voiced across the country.
I understand it, and I know that these sentiments will continue until the leak is
stopped, and until we prove through our actions that we will do the right thing. Our
actions will mean more than words, and we know that, in the end, we will be judged
by the quality of our response. Until this happens, no words will be satisfying.
158 Professional Writing

Among the resources that have been made available:

 Drilling and technical experts who are helping determine solutions to stopping the
spill and mitigating its impact, including specialists in the areas of subsea wells,
environmental science and emergency response;
 Technical advice on blowout preventers, dispersant application, well construction
and containment options;
 Additional facilities to serve as staging areas for equipment and responders, more
remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) for deep underwater work, barges, support
vessels and additional aircraft, as well as training and working space for the
Unified Command.

Working under the umbrella of the Unified Command, BP’s team of operational and
technical experts is coordinating with many federal, state, and local governmental
entities and private sector organizations. These include the Departments of Interior,
Homeland Security, Energy, and Defense, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), US Fish & Wildlife Service (USFW), National Marine Fisheries
Service (NMFS), EPA, OSHA, Gulf Coast state environmental and wildlife agencies,
the Marine Spill Response Corporation (MSRC) (an oil spill response organization), as
well as numerous state, city, parish and county agencies.

Our efforts in response to this incident are focused on two

critical goals:
 Successfully stopping the flow of oil; and
 Minimizing the environmental and economic impacts from the oil spill.

These are without a doubt complex and challenging tasks. While we have had to
overcome hurdles, we are doing everything we can to respond as quickly and
effectively as we can.
The investigation team’s work thus far suggests that this accident was brought
about by the apparent failure of a number of processes, systems and equipment.
While the team’s work is not done, it appears that there were multiple control
mechanisms – procedures and equipment – in place that should have prevented this
accident or reduced the impact of the spill. The investigation is focused on the
following seven mechanisms:
1 The cement that seals the reservoir from the well;
2 The casing system, which seals the well bore;
3 The pressure tests to confirm the well is sealed;
4 The execution of procedures to detect and control hydrocarbons in the well,
including the use of the blowout preventer (BOP) and the maintenance of that BOP;
 Public Relations Writing 159

5 The BOP Emergency Disconnect System, which can be activated by pushing a

button at multiple locations on the rig;
6 The automatic closure of the BOP after its connection is lost with the rig; and;
7 Features in the BOP to allow ROVs to close the BOP and thereby seal the well at
the seabed after a blowout.

I understand people want a simple answer about why this happened and who is to
blame. The truth, however, is that this is a complex accident, caused by an
unprecedented combination of failures. A number of companies are involved,
including BP, and it is simply too early to understand the cause.

References and further reading

Bateman, J. (2011) Multimodality and genre: A foundation for the systematic analysis of
multimodal documents. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Benoit, W. (1997) Image repair discourse and crisis communication. Public Relations
Review, 23 (2), 177–186.
Bivins, T. H. (1999) Public relations writing, 4th edition. Lincolnwood, Ill: NTC/Contemporary
Publishing Group.
Coombs, W. T. (2014) Applied crisis communication and crisis management. London: Sage.
Cull, N. J. (2011) WikiLeaks, public diplomacy 2.0 and the state of digital public
­diplomacy. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 7, 1–8.
Davis, A. (2004) Mastering public relations. London: Red Globe Press.
Eyrich, N., Padman, M. L., & Sweetser, K. D. (2008) PR practitioners’ use of social media
tools and communication technology. Public Relations Review, 34(1), 412–414.
Harris, R. (2000) Rethinking writing. London: Continuum.
Henderson, P. (2005) Just my type. Harvard Business Review, n.p.
Heskett, J. (2005) A very short introduction to design. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kawasaki, G. (2004) The art of the start: The time-tested, battle-hardened guide for anyone
starting anything. London and New York: Penguin Portfolio.
Kawasaki, G. (2011) Enchantment: The art of changing hearts, minds and actions. London
and New York: Penguin Portfolio.
Kent, M. L. (2011) Public relations rhetoric: Criticism, dialogue and the long now.
Management Communication Quarterly, 25(3), 550–559.
Kostelnick, C., & Roberts, D. D. (1998) Designing visual language: Strategies for professional
communicators. New York: Allyn and Bacon.
Landow, G. P. (2006) Hypertext 3.0: Critical theory and new media in an era of globalization.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Mangold, W. G., & Faulds, D. J. (2009) Social media: The new hybrid element of the
promotion mix. Business Horizons, 52, 357–365.
160 Professional Writing

Manovich, L. (2001) The language of new media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Morris, T., & Goldsworthy, S. (2012) PR today: The authoritative guide to public relations.
London: Red Globe Press.
Nesheim, J. L. (2000) High tech start-up. New York: Free Press.
Nielsen, J. (2000) Designing web usability: The practice of simplicity. New York: New Riders
Press.
Nielsen, J., & Tahir, M. (2001) Homepage usability: 50 websites deconstructed. New York:
New Riders Press.
Qantas Twitter contest draws thousands of angry replies (2011). BBC News, 23 Novem-
ber 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2019 from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-
asia-15852965
Shimp, T. (1997) Advertising, promotion and supplemental aspects of integrated marketing
communications. Chicago: Dryden.
Taylor, M. (2011) Building social capital through rhetoric and public relations. Manage-
ment Communication Quarterly, 25(3), 436–454.
Theaker, A. (ed.) (2008) The public relations handbook. London: Routledge.
Ulmer, R., Sellnow, T., & Seeger, W. (2018) Effective crisis communication, 4th edition.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
 Chapter

7
Reports and Proposals

Focus:
 Proposals
 Business plans
 Problem-solving reports
 Visuals in reports

This chapter looks at longer business document types, in particular proposals,

business plans and investigative reports. The guidelines and formats outlined here
are based on standard, international conventions where English is the medium of
communication. Keep in mind, however, that the format and structure of reports
vary to a certain extent to suit the needs of the particular organization, writing
situation and audience. As noted before, many companies have in-house
templates that should be complied with. In all, however, the framework presented
here will alert you to the factors that you should take into account when writing
reports, and when creating templates and style guides for others to use.
As a professional in business or industry, the longer documents you will need
to produce fall into two broad categories: reports on various issues to
management and/or clients, and articles for professional associations and
journals documenting the data you discovered in your experience. If you decide
to develop your writing talents further, you might also publish popular
interpretations of your work for non-specialist audiences, such as blogs, essays
for creative non-fiction publications, and journalistic features for magazines. This
chapter focuses on different types of reports.

Reports
In business contexts, you may be required to produce three types of reports:
descriptive, technical and analytical. Descriptive reports inform the reader of
events that have happened in the past or that are planned for the future, and

161
162 Professional Writing

are detailed and factual. Technical reports describe and explain specifications,
components of equipment and system applications. Analytical reports usually
deal with a problem by identifying the issues involved, investigating solutions
and recommending action. Whereas descriptive and technical reports may be
based entirely on facts, analytical reports include elements of persuasion and
logical reasoning. Here we consider analytical reports.

Analytical reports
Here are some major types of analytical reports and their functions (see also
Bargiela Chiappini & Nickerson, 1999; Bell & Smith, 2010; Kolin, 1998):
Proposals and submissions show the highest level of persuasion. A proposal
argues for a particular course of action and often takes the form of a request
for funding or formal authorization to pursue a particular project. While an
investigative report researches a problem and suggests solutions, a proposal
sets out a detailed project and in most cases includes a budget and resource
requirements. Submissions argue for or against an issue to be decided by a
responsible body. Members of the business community, for example, might
make submissions for or against a new taxation bill under consideration by a
government select committee.
Problem-solving reports analyse a problem and methodically recommend a
specific course of action to solve this problem. They are also known as
investigative reports. Such reports often require specialist knowledge and are
commissioned by a client or management, who requests the writer to
expertly judge certain actions and comment in detail on issues and events
that relate to a particular situation.
Feasibility studies investigate a possible plan of action and advise on whether
the action should be taken. For example, a software company might request
a feasibility study to decide whether there is market potential to invest in a
new virtual reality application. A feasibility study weighs projected costs
against projected income, taking into account such aspects as demographic
factors, market demand, the actions of competitors and resource
requirements.
To better understand the difference in approach among these types of reports,
consider this scenario. Assume you are the Director of Facilities Management in
a company, in charge of ensuring security and smooth operation of building
facilities. You are confronted with a problem of high electricity costs and
inadequate heating. At the moment, the building uses electric heating. You
could become aware of the problem in different ways, leading to different forms
of communication.
 Reports and Proposals 163

For example, you could become aware of the problem through your own
observations and decide to propose a change in heating from electric to gas.
In this case, you would communicate your idea in the form of a proposal, which
would support the claim that it would be more cost effective to replace the
current electric heating with gas. Alternatively, you could be led to believe that
the problem is serious and long-ranging, and requires more research to find an
appropriate solution. In that case, you would undertake an investigation leading
to a recommendation report, based on the problem that heating costs are high
and the building is not warm enough. In your initial stage of research you are
aware of the problem, but not the solution: you do not yet know if gas would
be more cost effective. Finally, you could begin with the question, “Should we
convert to gas heating?” and base your research and analysis accordingly, in
order to answer it. Your results would then be presented in a feasibility analysis.
This would analyse the problem and recommend action but its scope would be
more limited than in an investigative report, because you would be considering
only one possible solution to the problem.
These alternatives would take the following forms:
Proposal claim:
It would be cheaper and more effective to replace the current electric
heating with gas.
Trigger for investigation:
Heating costs are high but, at the same time, the building is too cold.
Feasibility analysis:
Would our heating situation work better if we converted to gas heating?

General guidelines for effective reports

All analytical reports share some common compositional and structural
characteristics, so these guidelines are generally relevant to all:
 Include all the information the readers need. Pay special attention to the
problem or situation that triggered the report, the methods used to gather
information and the findings of the investigation or data-gathering. In design
reports, include information about why you made specific design decisions
and justify your choices.
 Structure your report so that readers can easily locate the information they
want. For example, some readers will be interested in one or several sections.
This is why reports are divided into titled and numbered sections.
The executive summary and the section headings act as signposting showing
the readers where to go to get what they want. Also, it is advisable to include
a header or footer with identifying information on each page (such as the
164 Professional Writing

title of the report and your name or the title of the project). Report sections
may be distributed, so readers should know where each section came from.
 Write as clearly and concisely as possible without sacrificing content or detail.
Keep in mind that clarity comes not only from style but also from the
organization of information. The pattern you create in sequencing
information communicates as much as the data you present. For example,
presenting information in chronological order suggests that time and
progression or change are important aspects; similarly, prioritising and listing
information show the degree of importance attributed to each item in
the list.

Paragraphing in analytical reports

As a researcher and writer, you will find that paragraphing offers a powerful tool
for articulating and critiquing your ideas. As a communicator, you will find that
paragraphing helps you to keep your reader focused on your topic and line of
logic. Paragraphs enable you to divide your material into units that readers can
readily cope with and assimilate into their understanding.
Report paragraphs tend to be longer than those in web content or magazine
articles, but shorter than in essays. A length of four to six sentences is generally
appropriate. By committing yourself to that kind of length you are serving the
following objectives:
(i) The paragraphs are sufficiently short so that crucial pieces of information
catch the reader’s eye. Reports generally contain section headings for this
reason.
(ii) But equally, the paragraphs are long enough to allow elaboration and
analysis of issues. Enough space should be given so that cause and effect,
chronological, comparison/contrast, and other relationships between ideas
are clearly and fully expressed.
When composing report paragraphs, follow these guidelines:
1 Avoid a succession of very short (one to two sentences) and very long
(eight sentences or more) paragraphs. The problem with short paragraphs is
that they read disjointedly and present the reader with difficulty in linking your
ideas together into a main message. With very long paragraphs, the readers
need a pause so as to feel that they have read and understood a unit of the
message. If you rush on without a paragraph break, the readers will soon feel
overwhelmed and stop assimilating the ideas and interacting with the text.
2 Present one main point or idea in each paragraph. Avoid crowding a
paragraph with too much vital information. If you have a large amount of
reasoning or supporting examples to give for a point, break them into two
 Reports and Proposals 165

paragraphs. Bear in mind that people are adapted to taking in and

committing to memory chunks of information that comprise between about
five and seven items, so structure your paragraphs in a way that reflects
this fact.
3 Make sure there is enough cohesion within the paragraph. That is, avoid
listing a set of disconnected sentences. Similarly, provide adequate transition
signals between paragraphs in one section. Show the reader how the idea of
one paragraph is connected to the idea of the next paragraph in that section.
Writers have three main problems when composing paragraphs:
 The paragraph could contain too much information, which can confuse the
reader as to what the main point is. This is a bit like a song with discordant
rhythm or beat.
 The paragraph could be abrupt, containing incomplete information on the
main point. This again loses the reader who may find it difficult to follow
through a point and understand its relevance.
 The paragraph could give enough information on the main topic, but the
sentences are disconnected and the paragraph lacks unity. This reads like a
list of items with no connection and can be quite dull for the reader, who is
forced to provide all the links.

Sections and section headings

As opposed to articles and essays, where headings are optional, reports require
division of paragraphs into sections and headings for all sections. Headings
summarize the point(s) of each section and make reading under pressure easier.
Readers can scan a document and find information without having to read all
the text. In reports, this is an important asset because, often, different people
read different sections of the report. Also, headings give readers some breathing
space, as they indicate where a section has ended. Finally, sections give depth
and dimensionality to the report by adding levels. The main sections constitute
the main level, subsections introduce subordinate levels, etc. When sectioning:
1 Balance the sections so that information is distributed effectively across
the report. Avoid short, one-paragraph sections; also avoid putting the
whole report in one long section. Use subsections for details or subordinate
points of the idea of the main section. If information is important, do not
bury it in a subsection, but devote a main section to it. On the whole, avoid
sub-subsections, for simplicity and clarity. Sub-subsections add layers and
therefore introduce more complexity in what could already be a complex
report topic. Reduce the layers by analysing information, and thereby
spreading it across fewer levels.
166 Professional Writing

2 Think carefully of the quantity and quality of the information you want to
include in a heading. If a heading is too vague or general, it defeats the purpose
of signalling to the reader the content of its section. At the same time, if a heading
is too long and detailed, it can slow down the flow of reading unnecessarily.
3 Make sure all your headings of the same level have parallel structure.
When you choose a structure for all your headings, remain consistent
throughout the report. For example, if you begin one heading for a main
section with a gerund (an – ing form), the rest of the headings in main
sections should also begin with a gerund. If you begin a heading with a
noun, all headings should begin with nouns, and so on.
The importance of headings becomes clear in the report outline. A report outline
lists the sections and subsections that you intend to use in your report. A client
or project manager often asks for an outline to monitor the progress of the
report, to consider extra funding, and similar reasons. It is important, therefore,
that your headings are worded and structured in a way that highlights the
content and significance of your project.

Numbering of report sections

Headings and subheadings are conventionally numbered according to
alphanumeric or decimal numbering methods.
Alphanumeric numbering:
I.  First main idea
A.  First subdivision of main idea
B.  Second subdivision of main idea
1.  First example
2.  Second example
(a)  First detail
(b)  Second detail
C.  Third subdivision of main idea
II. Second main idea
Decimal numbering:
1.  First main idea
1.1  First subdivision of main idea
1.2  Second subdivision of main idea
1.2.1  First example
1.2.2  Second example
1.2.2.1  First detail
1.2.2.2  Second detail
1.3  Third subdivision of main idea
2.  Second main idea
 Reports and Proposals 167

Visuals
Visuals include diagrams, charts, tables, figures, graphs, photographs, drawings,
clip art, and other pictorial or schematic representations. Visuals are alternative
methods of presenting information and form a useful non-linear complement to
the written word. Information presented diagrammatically or in pictorial form is
memorable and can simplify, and thereby clarify, complicated data. When
including a visual in a document, assess it in relation to two factors: content, that
is, in terms of how it communicates meaning that is complementary to the
meaning presented linguistically; and design, that is, in terms of its size and
positioning on the page.
As regards content, these points are important:
 The visual should be necessary to clarify a point in the document. Do
not include a visual just for decoration. The visual must be the best way
to present the particular information you wish to express. It should
convey a message more emphatically, more clearly or more concisely
than written sentences, or it should clarify the meaning of the
sentences.
 The kind of visual you have chosen (pie chart, image, table, etc.) should be
the best for your purpose. For example, a line diagram may be inappropriate
for discrete data.
 The visual must be introduced, discussed, interpreted and integrated in the
text of the document. Remember that raw data is useless unless its relevance
to the issue at hand is made clear. The reader should not have to figure out
why the visual is included in the document, or what the significance of the
data may be.
 The visual must stand alone in meaning. While it should be interpreted in the
text of the document, it should also be self-explanatory and complete, and
not obscure or confusing.
 All visuals must be numbered consecutively and given a specific, meaningful
title. Include the title of a table above the table, and the title of a figure
below the figure.
 As with all writing choices, visuals must be designed and formatted
in a manner appropriate for the likely audience of the document.
Will the visual be clear and appealing from the intended reader’s
perspective?
 If you have copied the visual from another document or website, remember
to credit the source following the formatting required by your referencing
style.
 If using a table, make all like elements (the factors to be compared) read
down not across.
168 Professional Writing

As regards arrangement and design, these points are important:

 Make the visual easy for your reader to find; the visual should closely follow the
reference to it in the text. Where possible, format the document so that visuals
do not appear on different pages from where they are mentioned in the text.
 Surround the visual with white space and do not clutter it. This makes it
easier for the reader to absorb the information presented.
 Consider whether the visual would be better located in an appendix rather
than in the body of the report. If the body of your report is becoming too
cluttered, some visuals may be moved to an appendix. Any visual that takes
up more than half a page should, ideally, be placed in an appendix.
 As a convention, the visual should take up no less than one third of a page,
again, for reasons of clarity and visibility.
 Position the visual in alignment with the text, for balance.
 If using colours, note that by ordering colours from light to dark vertically or
horizontally, elements will appear to be next to each other. This is because
lighter colours tend to stand out and darker colours to recede (Table 7.1).

Table 7.1  Charts and Graphs

Here is a list of different kinds of charts and graphs with guidelines on their uses in
documents.
Line graph
Useful for showing trends and fluctuations over time.

Column graph
Shows clearly comparisons of amounts. It is presented in vertical
form.

Bar chart
Indicates proportions as they are related to each other. It is
presented in horizontal form.
 Reports and Proposals 169

Pie chart
Indicates proportion of parts to the whole.

Scattergram
Shows correlations between different items.

Flow chart
Specifies the relationship between processes.

Gantt chart
Combines a process with the amount of time it takes to
complete it.

Organizational chart
Shows relationships between things and creates a directory.

Exploded diagram
Shows components in a structure.

Schematic
Shows relationships between theoretical concepts.

Timeline
Indicates simple time sequences.
170 Professional Writing

Proposals
Proposals are a very common type of document in professional settings. Even if
your line of work does not put you in a position to write reports – say, if you are
a trade journalist or a computer programmer – chances are that the time will
come when you will need to submit a proposal in order to get approval and/or
funding for a project. The following guidelines give an overview of the standard
format and type of information associated with proposals. Many companies and
funding agencies have a house-style template to be filled when submitting a
proposal. If that is the case, follow the instructions (they will not be too different
from the ones outlined here). If no guidelines are offered, use the model
presented here.
Proposals are initiated in two main ways: either you have an innovative idea
that you believe will benefit an organization or company and want to sell it to
them, or you respond to a request for ideas published by an organization. In the
first case, the proposal is unsolicited. In the second, it is a request for proposals
(RFP). Unsolicited proposals are investigator-initiated, and, therefore, there is
often a greater need to sell the concept because it is novel and innovative.
On the other hand, an RFP or a programme announcement (PA) calls for
research in a defined area or requests an answer to a specific question. In this
case, it is a matter of matching one’s expertise, ideas and plans to the
solicitation.

Preliminary work for proposals

To maximize your chances for success, follow these guidelines (see also Johnson-
Sheenan, 2002; Taylor, 2009):
1 Work on the conceptual framework of your idea until you have good
control over it.
2 Articulate your conceptual framework. Sit down with friends and/or
colleagues and practise explaining your idea to them in a brief manner. If it is
well conceptualized, you should be able to articulate it in a matter of
sentences, over three minutes. Entertain their questions and make notes of
the questions that occur. Reoccurring questions are probably indicative
of problems in your communication or weaknesses in the concept. Use
this feedback to improve your concept.
3 Investigate the current and previous research. Make sure that no one has
already done the work you have in mind, or if they have, that there is
something different or necessary about your approach. You are going to
have to convince the readers that your activities are unique and justified.
 Reports and Proposals 171

A major “howler” is to be informed that your project has already been done,
or that you have missed a fundamental piece of work in the research.
4 Do your homework on the agency or company. Make sure that your
idea falls within the topics they are interested in (especially if writing
externally). Also, get as much information as you can on their required
document formats. This will determine what attitude and style you should
adopt. Familiarize yourself with the culture of the company and choose
your words and expression in tune with this culture. If your proposal is
unsolicited, find out about the funding capacity of the agency or
company. Remember that small agencies cannot afford to fund high
budget projects, so it would be a waste of time submitting ambitious
proposals to them.
5 Assess your need for collaborators. Sometimes having collaborators can
substantially strengthen your proposal. However, it is important that, from
the project’s inception, everyone understands their role. Make sure that the
content of each member’s contribution and time allocation is understood
and accepted by all.

Proposal components
Table 7.2 shows the body elements that most proposals contain. More or less
space is given to each element depending on the nature of the proposal.
Therefore, some of these topics would constitute sections in some proposals,
and subsections in others.

Table 7.2  Proposal Components

Project description
Identify the problem or question to be addressed and describe its implications. Give some
background on the proposed project, including results from prior research. Show a clear
connection between the problem, lack or gap that you identified and the role of the
proposed project in dealing with it. Visuals that depict the relationship of your work to
the current knowledge base or model base are often helpful in getting your message
across.

Objectives or specific aims

State concisely and, where possible, in measurable terms the specific aims of the
project and the hypotheses that underlie those aims or objectives. Distinguish between
short-term plans and long-term goals. It is always useful to describe how the project
can evolve and develop if the expected results are achieved (in other words, what the
organization is buying in the long run).
172 Professional Writing

Methodology
Describe precisely how you will achieve your objectives. If several outcomes (or result
scenarios) are plausible, describe them. Give alternative courses of action in the event
that results occurring early lead you away from your original method – anticipate
outcomes and have a plan to deal with them.

Evaluation
In certain proposals, especially in those for projects with long-term implications,
describe plans for evaluating the project. Explain how you will know if the project is
producing positive results.

Personnel and qualifications and facilities

Identify who will perform the various activities or procedures described in the plan.
Provide justification for each individual appropriate to his/her level of involvement and
include the qualifications of key project personnel. Make clear the reasons that make
you or your team the best candidates for the project. Describe the resources that are
already available for performance of the project.

Budget and justification

Work out your budget very carefully and give as much detail as possible. Itemize each
cost and justify its relevance to the project. The budget is usually presented in cost
sheet format. Items commonly included are salaries and wages, fringe benefits,
equipment, travel, supplies, publication charges, postage, telephone, consultants,
subcontracts and indirect costs. A justification section usually accompanies the budget,
which explains how you arrived at your totals. Briefly explain how budget items were
estimated and why these items are needed, if not obvious.

Sources cited
If applicable, include a list of the sources cited in the proposal, using a method of
referencing that is acceptable in the subject area of your topic.

CV/biographical sketch (optional)

In external proposals, you may need to “sell” yourself as well as your concept.
Include some details about your professional background if you think this will
influence the reception of your proposal positively. In many cases, attaching a
CV is a requirement for proposals.

Appendices (optional)
Possible items include:
 Facilities descriptions
 Letters of support, illustrations
 Maps
 Reports and Proposals 173

 Extensive bibliography
 Other material not easily incorporated into the body of the proposal.

Proposal to an editor
If you decide to submit a feature article for publication in a specialist magazine
or have an idea for a book in your area of expertise, you will need to contact an
editor for approval. Although similar, in general aspects, to the model outlined
above, a book or article proposal differs in some respects.
Publishers’ websites include guidelines on how to submit proposals. Table 7.3
gives an outline of the components of a book proposal.

Table 7.3  Book Proposal Components

Description of subject and its position in the market
Describe the topic of the book and explain why it is significant or worthwhile in the
current market. Position the book in relation to interests, needs and debates in the
wider social context. Propose a title.

Distinctive features
Explain the features of the book that distinguish it and give it a unique identity. Do
some homework first to see what is already on offer in the market in order to clearly
identify the features that make your book distinctive.

Primary and secondary markets

Describe the target readers of the book. Will they be reading it for entertainment,
instruction or other purposes? Will the book interest one particular demographic or
psychographic group, or will it have different types of readers? How do you know?

Main competitors
This is a very important section, because it shows that you have researched the topic
and know what is available in the market. If the book has direct competitors, you must
justify why there would still be a market for your proposed book. Select two or three
competing books and describe them in some detail. Explain how your book is different
and why this difference is valuable.

Qualifications of applicant
Attach a CV, or give a biographical sketch, highlighting the qualities that enable you to
write a book on the proposed topic.

Summary/outline of chapters
Give an outline of the proposed chapters, with a description of each chapter, usually of
about half a page. If you have a sample chapter, attach it to the proposal as an
example of your approach and style.
174 Professional Writing

Table 7.4 shows the components of a proposal to the editor of a magazine.

Table 7.4  Feature Article Proposal Components

Description of topic
Describe your topic and its scope, explaining the angle, slant or point of view that you
will take. Remember to mention the proposed title (although the editor might change it).

Significance and innovation

Explain why your article will interest the target audience of this particular magazine.
Why would the magazine benefit by including such an article in its repertoire?
Remember that you need to convince the editor that your article will contribute to
readers’ interest in buying the magazine. Make sure you have investigated the
magazine to see if they have already published on the topic.

Sources
List and briefly describe five sources of information that you will use. Justify your
choices by explaining the importance of the sources in the relevant field of research.
Will you be conducting interviews or primary research, or will your article be based on
secondary sources?

Personal information
Describe your qualifications for writing this article, including any special expertise or
knowledge in the subject area. Explain also what has spurred your interest in the topic.

Convincing evidence in proposals

The main function of proposals is to persuade. Selecting the most appropriate
evidence or reasoning, therefore, is vital. The best way to achieve this is to
analyse the funding agency’s mission, values, policies and expectations, and to
present your project in response to these. A project is acceptable and
worthwhile or not depending on particular contexts of reception. Merits of the
project are evaluated according to different sets of standards, and knowing
these standards maximizes your chances of being successful. Internal proposals
have a different scope and impact than external proposals, which may involve
the welfare of the public at large. The range and duration the project’s impact,
and the cost, are decisive elements in the persuasive force of a proposal, and
you should take these into account when planning your strategy.
Argumentation theorist Stephen Toulmin (2003), for example, found that
“logical” arguments are not universal, and different communities have their
own expectations of the reasoning process. What is convincing evidence for
natural scientists, for instance, may not be convincing for marketing experts,
and what is convincing for marketing experts may not be convincing for
 Reports and Proposals 175

engineers. This is corroborated by rhetoric specialists. For example, Gerard

Hauser points out that,
When we seek a project extension, argue for a raise, interview for a job […]
we are involved in acts that require good reasons. Good reasons allow our
audience and ourselves to find a shared basis for cooperating […]. You can
use marvellous language, tell great stories, provide exciting metaphors, speak
in enthralling tones, and even use your reputation to advantage, but what it
comes down to is that you must speak to your audience with reasons they
understand. (Hauser, 1986, p. 71)
In addition to learning as much as possible about the funding organization,
there are two ways to increase your chances of producing a persuasive
document. One is to run your proposal by peers and mentors, who are
knowledgeable on the issues covered, especially if they have been successful in
obtaining funding by the organization to which you are applying. Since many
projects in business and industry are collaborative, it should be easy to
exchange ideas and get feedback. The second way is to consider your project
from the recipient’s point of view, and to brainstorm as many possible
objections as you can. Play the “devil’s advocate”, or get someone to play it for
you, and criticize the proposed project from different angles. Table 7.5 lists
some common objections to business proposals.

Table 7.5  Common Objections to Proposals

The proposed project is not necessary or is not valuable.
The project is unrealistically ambitious or not well thought out.
The requested budget is not well justified so the result doesn’t seem to justify the cost.
The methods are not carefully thought out or are not suited to the objectives.
The applicant doesn’t seem well suited to undertake the project.

Table 7.6 lists some common objections to book proposals.

Table 7.6  Common Objections to Book Proposals

The topic is not in the publisher’s range of interests.
There are enough books on the market that deal with this topic (or the publisher has
enough books on this topic).
The target market is not well defined.
The topic is too specialized to interest a wide audience.
The scope (proposed content) is too broad or too narrow.
176 Professional Writing

Table 7.7 shows the layout of a business proposal.

Table 7.7  Layout of Business Proposals

Title page
Executive summary (for longer proposals)
Table of contents (for longer proposals)
Description of project
Objectives of project
Benefits of project
Proposed method
Evaluation of project (for projects with long-term goals)
Facilities and personnel
Budget
Proposer’s CV (for external proposals)

Business plans
When starting your own business, you need to attract investors, high-quality
employees, collaborators and other desired relationships. To achieve this, you
must persuade those groups that you are well organized, have a clear, realistic
and ambitious vision, and are aware of competitors and market needs. The 
business plan, which many see as a subgenre of the proposal because of its
persuasive approach, articulates these elements and reflects your drive and
professional competence. Like other important business documents, a business
plan involves identifying the target audience, gathering accurate and convincing
data, and carefully sectioning and organizing the information in an accessible
way (see also Kawasaki, 2011; Nesheim, 2000). The key sections of the body of
a business plan are as follows:
Company and product/service description: This covers the company’s
mission, history, current situation, strategies and plans for the future.
The start-up, or new company, is intrinsically linked with the products and/or
services that it offers and which define it. Therefore, discuss the vision of the
company in relation to what it produces. Divide this into subsections for
clarity.
The market and competition: This section defines the company’s target
market, the industry as a whole, current and potential clients/buyers, and
competitors. The section should explain how buying decisions are made,
 Reports and Proposals 177

how the market is segmented, what your intended market position is and
what your defensive strategy will be to deal with competitors. Show that you
are aware of how your product or service is positioned in the local and/or
international market, and that you have a clear vision of how it will be
distinctive in relation to competitors. Try to formulate your product in terms
of a Unique Selling Point (USP), a feature or quality that defines it and
distinguishes it from others. Develop a marketing plan and indicate your
advertising strategy.
Management and organization: This section describes members of the
management team, their backgrounds and qualifications, as well as needs for
new recruits. In this section, discuss also key outside advisors and
collaborators. Here you are showing how your executive team reflects the
vision and mission of the company and the intended stricture of the
company. For example, if your product is progressive, it wouldn’t help to
envision a hierarchical or traditional company structure, as this would conflict
with the ideals of the product. Modern, cutting-edge companies are known
for their experimental and informal company structure and work
environment.
The future and risk management: Show vision for the future by anticipating
possible risks and indicating you have contingency plans and ways to avoid
these risks. Include some information on investors’ exit strategy, showing that
you have thought of the best interests of your investors.
Financial information: This presents financial forecasts and is often the most
carefully scrutinized section. Here, include detailed balance sheets and
statements of cash flow and income. Include a funding request that states
how much money is needed and for what purposes. The more organized
and well thought out this section is, the more likely it is that investors and
potential collaborators will develop respect for your foresight and
judgment.
Entrepreneurial “guru” Guy Kawasaki (2004) lists the following points in his
advice to those starting out in business plan writing:
 Do not exceed twenty pages in length: As noted elsewhere in this book,
conciseness is attractive in business contexts.
 Select one person to write the plan: Although the plan should reflect the
spirit of the management team, the writing of the business plan should be
coherent and not patchy.
 Bind the plan with a staple: Ornamental presentations do not add any
value to the plan. Most readers will be looking for content, not window-
dressing. When submitting a hard copy, use simple paper stapled at the top.
178 Professional Writing

 Simplify your financial projections to two pages: Investors and other

interested parties want to know your financial plans, but not in extreme
detail, nor for more than the first five years.
 Include the key metrics, such as the number of customers, locations, and
resellers: For Kawasaki, this is even more important than actual financial
projections because they give a better view of the organization’s plans.
 Include the assumptions that drive your financial projections: This gives
more substance to the projections, because it explains the rationale on which
you based them (pp. 70–71).
Table 7.8 shows the layout of a business plan.

Table 7.8  Layout of Business Plan

Title page
Executive summary
Table of contents
List of figures
Company description
Market and marketing plan
Competition and positioning
Management team
Risk management and exit strategy
Financial information
Appendices (optional)

Problem-solving reports
As opposed to a research report, which is usually written to document and
publicize research to peers, a problem-solving, consulting or investigative report
may be written by a specialist or group of specialists to a non-expert audience.
Situations leading to a problem-solving report include consultancies, where an
expert, or team of experts, is recruited by an organization to identify issues
involved in a problem and to recommend solutions, and commissioned
investigations, where an authority puts together an impartial board of
investigators to ascertain the reasons of an issue of public concern. Investigative
reports may be written internally, when the investigators are members of the
organization, or externally, when the investigators are recruited from a
“neutral zone”.
 Reports and Proposals 179

An investigation follows the specifications of a brief or terms of reference, and

leads to the writing of a report. Like other analytical reports, an investigative
report is divided into three main parts, the front matter, the body and the end
matter.

Front matter
The front matter includes these components:
Letter/memo of transmittal
The letter or memo of transmittal indicates that the report is being formally
delivered to the person or organization that requested it. Write a letter if the
report is for someone outside your organization, and a memo for someone
within your organization. The letter or memo of transmittal identifies the report
topic and scope or extent of the investigation, and communicates key findings.
Title page
This is a single page stating the title of the report, the name and organization of
the author and the date of delivery.
Acknowledgements (optional)
This lists the names of people who helped with the investigation of the report
and gives a brief description of their contributions.
Executive summary
Most business reports of more than 1500 words include an executive summary.
This summarizes the whole report and should be written as a self-contained
piece: readers of the executive summary should get a clear idea of the contents
of the report. Executive summaries may be written in a block paragraph but
may also include bullet points depending on context. Executive summaries are
one of the most important and widely read sections in a report. It is important
not to confuse the executive summary with the introduction, which introduces
but does not summarize the report, and is part of the body. Include these
elements in the executive summary of an investigative report:
 A description of the scope and objectives of the report
 A summary of the main results
 An outline of recommendations or solutions.
Table of contents
This lists the sections and subsections of the report with their page numbers.
The table of contents acts as an outline of the report.
180 Professional Writing

List of figures
This lists the titles of the visuals (tables, figures, charts, etc.) included in the
report and the page numbers where the visuals are to be found in the report.

Body of report
The body of the report is divided into these components:

Introduction
This should lead readers from information they already know to information
they need to acquire. The introduction may be only a paragraph long, or it may
be a major section in itself, depending on the length of the report. Start with an
overview statement indicating the general subject matter and context of the
report. Then answer the following questions, adapted as necessary for the
specific nature of your report:
 Background: why was the report requested in the first place? What was
the change, problem or issue that led people to believe a report was
needed?
 Purpose: what are the specific objectives of the report?
 Scope: what issues are covered in the report? Refer to the brief given
when the report was requested. Indicate the criteria used for evaluating
the problem.
 Research methods: how were the data in the report obtained? What
primary and/or secondary data were used? (If your methods were
experimental and complicated, a separate section should be devoted to
them, after the introduction.)
 Structure: preview the report structure.
 Limitations (optional): what issues are not covered in the report? What are
the limitations of the research methods selected? What assumptions have
been made?

Discussion
The middle part of the report is the largest and most time-consuming section,
and is further subdivided into subsections with headings. Use any one of the
following methods, or a combination of methods, for organising the discussion
section. Make sure that the method you choose is the most appropriate for
presenting and explaining information to the target audience, and that it
adheres to the expectations and logical patterns associated with that audience:
 General to specific
 More important to less important
 Reports and Proposals 181

 Comparison and contrast of points

 Classification and analysis of points
 Problems and solutions
 Cause and effect
 Cost and benefits (advantages and disadvantages)
 Chronological
 Spatial

Block and point by point format

When discussing aspects of a topic, issues in a debate, or possible solutions to
problems, you can use a block form or point by point presentation. In the block
form, you combine all aspects, issues or problems together, and then analyse
them or propose solutions. In the point by point form, you take each aspect,
issue or problem and analyse it or propose a solution to it, before proceeding to
the next. Table 7.9 shows the two formats.

Table 7.9  Discussion Writing Formats for Reports

Block form Point by point form
Factor A Factor A
Item 1 Item 1
Item 2 Factor B
Item 3 Item 1
Factor B Factor A
Item 1 Item 2
Item 2 Factor B
Item 3 Item 2

Conclusion
This interprets the facts set out in the discussion. It answers the question “So
what?” Do not introduce new material here; instead, lead straight on to the list
of recommendations. In fact, in some reports, conclusion and recommendations
are included in one section. In shorter reports, you can omit this section.

Recommendations
Recommendations suggest specific actions. Again, no new material should
appear in this section, and recommended actions need not be justified (their
182 Professional Writing

justification should be clear from the discussion part of the report). Number
recommendations and place them in priority order. This facilitates referring to
individual recommendations in subsequent discussions. The executive summary
and the recommendations are arguably the most important report sections, so
extra attention should be paid to them. Recommendations must be realistic,
taking into account factors such as cost, location and current policy or practice
within the organization.
Effective recommendations not only state what action ought to be taken, but
also specify who should be responsible for implementing it and within what
time frame. Recommendations should address what, where, when, who and how
(the why having been examined in the discussion section). Make sure all
recommendations are grammatically parallel.

End matter
The end matter of the report is divided into these components:
References or Bibliography
These list the sources cited in the report. If a source has been influential, but
you have not quoted from it or referred to it, list it under the heading
“Bibliography”, which should immediately follow the list of references. Use a
referencing style suited to your field (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).
Glossary (optional)
This defines technical and specialized terms that are not likely to be
familiar to readers of the report. Use audience adaptation methods to
determine which terms will need to be defined and which will already be
known by target readers. Items in the glossary are listed in alphabetical
order.
Appendices (optional)
An appendix is a part of your report that is relevant to the main theme of the
report, but is not essential. An appendix may include material that is too
complex, specialized or detailed to be included in the body of the report.
Material that supplements or illustrates points made in the body of the report is
also suitable for an appendix. Keep in mind that the reader should be able to
understand the main points of the report without needing to read the
appendices. At the same time, appendices are useful in cases of primary and
secondary audiences that may not have the same level of technical knowledge.
In such cases you could include in an appendix specifications or explanations
targeted to specific groups.
 Reports and Proposals 183

Examples of documents and data printed as appendices include:

 A copy of a questionnaire used in field research
 A list of questions used in interviews
 Copies of letters or pamphlets
 Maps, particularly if they take up a whole page
 Detailed lists of raw data.
Always refer to the appendix in the body of the report and indicate its relevance
to the reader. Letter appendices consecutively (Appendix A, Appendix B,
Appendix C, and so on) and start each one on a separate page.
Table 7.10 shows the layout of investigative reports.

Table 7.10  Layout of Investigative Reports

Letter or memo of transmittal

Front Matter
Title page
Acknowledgements (optional)
Executive summary
Table of contents
List of figures
Body
1. Introduction
2.  Heading One
1.1.  Subheading One
1.2.  Subheading Two
2.  Heading Two
2.1.  Subheading One
2.2.  Subheading Two
3.  Heading Three
3.1.  Subheading One
3.2.  Subheading Two
4. Recommendations

End Matter
References
Glossary (optional)
Appendices (optional)

Brief, executive summaries and recommendations

Below is the brief to a problem-solving report. This is followed by the executive
summary of the actual report written in response to this brief and the list of
recommendations. Notice how each is connected to the others.
184 Professional Writing

Brief
Law Limited, a legal company, has been having difficulties retaining its junior
and intermediate level lawyers. This is an industry-wide problem with law
firms generally losing more than half of their junior lawyers before they reach
an intermediate level (three to four years’ experience). The Chief Executive of
Law Limited has asked you to prepare a report investigating the problem
both within the company and inter-company. Write a report that identifies
pertinent issues while taking into account the interests of the company as
well as the views of the junior lawyers. Outline a few alternative solutions,
evaluate them and propose the best solution justifying your
recommendation.

Executive summary
This report examines why Law Limited loses approximately 40% of its junior
solicitors before their fourth year at the firm. The results are based on an analysis
of current employment practice at the firm, a survey carried out on 80% of
junior staff, and comparative material that documents a similar situation within
the law industry in other English-speaking countries. The report demonstrates
that, for purposes of retention, the solicitors can be classified into three classes:
those who will leave regardless of the action taken (30%), those who will stay if
action is taken (65%) and those who will stay regardless of whether action is
taken or not (5%). Based on these findings, the report suggests that retention
strategies should be aimed at making the solicitors feel valued and challenged.
Methods proposed include a bonus scheme, a mentoring scheme and a
professional development programme.

Recommendations
Following the results of the surveys discussed above, this report recommends
the following actions:
1 Implement a bonus scheme rewarding lawyers that surpass a given level of
performance. The level of performance and the bonus should be decided by
management in consultation with appointed junior lawyer representatives.
Both type of bonus and level of performance should be reviewed every three
years to ensure their relevance to changing industry standards.
2 Organize a mentoring scheme where senior lawyers are paired with junior
counterparts to discuss problems, aspirations and plans.
3 Organize formal briefing meetings with management and junior staff to
discuss problems or concerns. These meetings should take place at least
twice a year.
 Reports and Proposals 185

4 Make changes to the budget to ensure that enough funds are available to
maintain a regular orientation/professional development programme.
The recommended time allocated to this programme is 15 hours per year for
each staff member.

Examples of reports

Example One: Business Plan

This is a business plan written by the owner of a Fitness Club, Life, to obtain funds in
order to expand his business. The plan ends with financial information, and a three-
year projection of profit, which is not included here.

Life fitness club

1 Company Description
Life is Berman Park’s premier destination for private training, group fitness and
functional training programmes. We specialize in offering private training from
certified personal trainers in a well-designed, clean, well-maintained and safe
facility. Life offers yearly and monthly membership packages, a variety of cardio
machines, free weights, selectorized machines, locker rooms with private
showers, convenient parking that is steps away from the entrance, towel service
and flat screen TVs.
Life prides itself on keeping overhead costs low. We have no employees or staff,
opting instead to utilize personal trainers on a contract basis, which is standard
for the industry. Our only major overhead costs are for rent, equipment leases,
utilities and part-time bookkeeping.
Life is a boutique health club with 1,200-­plus open memberships and between
20 and 35 private trainers who bring their clients (numbering between 4+ and
20+ clients per trainer) to the facility for private workouts. Life’s retention rate is
high – more than 90% renew their memberships annually. Altogether, there are
between 400+ and 700+ private workout sessions at the facility per week, in
addition to 100+ individuals per week who use the facilities on their own.
The average age of the health club member is 40.7 years with an average
income of $75,000. Most members at Life are between 32 and 60 years old.
The difference between the demographic of the average health club member
and the Life member is our retention rate. People who work out at Life are
serious about working out; they expect a high-­energy, social experience.
186 Professional Writing

Now, Life is looking to expand and increase our monthly income by offering
multiple classes per day, to be taught by highly-qualified instructors. This expansion
plan is the result of new-client and continuing-client interest. We get near-daily
requests from current members, prospective members and trainers to expand our
services into classes. Currently, Life offers one boot camp class per week, which is
always filled to capacity, and smaller semi-private classes taught by individual
private trainers during the week. Because of the success of these offerings, we not
only see the need for expansion but feel confident that expanding in this area will
create more income and a higher profit margin for the facility.

2 Market Analysis
The International Health, Racquet and Sportsclub Association (IHRSA), a
nonprofit trade association serving the global health club and fitness industry,
states that the country has 200 health clubs that serve more than two million
people. More locally, there are 10 health clubs in the Berman Park area, where
Life is located, representing nearly 10% of total health clubs in the region.
In Berman Park, there are three large national health club facilities. All are large
facilities with spas, classes, child care and state-of-the-art machines. One is open
around the clock and is conveniently located in a major retail mall at the corner
of Gardenia and Tulip Boulevards. Parking is free but not easily accessible
(requiring a long walk, and a lift and/or escalator ride). The second is not quite
as large, is in need of remodelling and has limited parking. The third, on the
border of Berman Park, is brand new, recently built on a major street, and is the
only Berman Park health club to offer a pool. However, all of these facilities are
oversold and crowded during primetime workout hours, necessitating wait
times for popular machines.
Meanwhile, Life attracts a more select clientele than those who frequent the
large national health club chains. Life members are upwardly mobile
professionals living and working in Berman Park. Our members have disposable
income and open schedules during the day. Berman Park has among the higher
household incomes in the city (rated as $125,000 and up). The average
household in Berman Park has a net worth of nearly $1 million and almost 50%
of residents have a university degree.
Our plan to offer daily classes would be a success from the start. For
example, Barry’s Bootcamp, located about a half-mile east of Life, at the Queen
Centre near the corner of Gardenia and Willow Avenue, offers 64 classes
on weekdays, beginning at 5:00 am and continuing to 9:00 pm; and
14 classes at weekends. The cost is $25/class but packages are available (that is,
10 classes for $200.00; 20 classes for $350.00; 50 classes for $700.00).
We have already established the loyalty of the members at Life (with a 90+%
retention rate) and feel that adding classes taught by expert fitness instructors
 Reports and Proposals 187

and private trainers known to the clientele will set us apart from other boutique
health facilities in the area. We are not a chain franchise that depends on
numbers, and therefore our competitive advantage in this area is the ability to
provide smaller, more personalized classes that will give our members the
opportunity for higher success.
We anticipate that within six months from renting a new space and marketing
classes, we would be offering a significant number of classes. Assuming we
initially rented space in July 2020, we would expect to gain a majority of our
revenue from classes by 2021. For 2021, on the conservative end, if Life offers 5
classes per day @ $20/class, our additional revenue would be as follows:

5 classes/day x 10
people/class x 6 days/week
x $24,000/month $288,000/year
$20/class =
$6,000/week

A medium estimate would be as follows:

8 classes/day x 10
people/class x 6
$38,400/month $460,800/year
days/week x $20/class =
$9,600/week

A high estimate would be as follows:

10 classes/day x 10
people/class x 6
$48,000/month $576,000/year
days/week@ x $20/class =
$12,000/week

3 Organization & Management

Barry Bates
Owner

Bookkeeper Front Desk

Trainers
(part-time) (on trade)
188 Professional Writing

The Life Fitness organizational structure is elegantly simple: there is the owner
(Barry Bates), a part-time bookkeeper and private trainers.

4 Organizational Structure
Barry Bates is the sole creator and 100% owner of Life. He utilizes the services of
a part-time bookkeeper and there is a trainer who watches the facility at night,
answering the phones and selling memberships and/or private training. Beyond
that, there are 20 to 30 private trainers who pay the facility “rent” to bring their
clients in to train at Life.

5 Ownership
Information
Barry Bates has been involved with sports and athletics since the age of seven.
He was a junior league golfer and an avid wrestler in high school. In 1989, at
the age of 17, he began working at Gold’s Gym and after accumulating
experience working at that facility, he spent the next ten years managing gyms
and serving as Fitness Director for many of them.
From 1998 to 2005, Barry owned and operated a successful martial arts training
school in Berman Park, which he sold for $500,000 in order to devote his time
to Life.
Barry is a licensed personal trainer and is certified by many accredited
personal training organizations. In addition, he is certified in CPR and other
emergency field training techniques. He is also trained for medical emergencies
and has educational background in kinesiology, biomechanics, rehabilitating
injuries and martial arts. He excels in gym management, gym and fitness
consultation, gym and class setup and layout, membership retention, private
training organization, gym build-out, equipment purchasing, private training
and day-to-day operation of clubs.
In October, 2004, Barry opened Life with two trainers and 15 members.
Those numbers have climbed considerably in the past 11 years, as Life now has
between 20 to 35 private trainers and 1,200+ members. In addition, Life
currently has a database numbering over 7,000 individuals.

6 Service and product lines

Barry would like Life to offer fitness classes in Aerobics, Yoga, Spinning, Pilates,
Kickboxing and Strength Training. With the success of such facilities as Barry’s
Bootcamp (see above), and the number of such classes available online through
subscription services, we know the demand for classes is there. Life would
expand conservatively – with five classes a day – and, when interest and demand
grows, we will expand to eight classes a day and then to ten classes a day.
 Reports and Proposals 189

7 Marketing & Sales

Life is prepared to hire an outside consultant to help us promote the gym and
our new expansion of classes. This consultant will have expertise in best
practices for social media. In addition, we will embark on a regional print
advertising campaign. We have always had strong word of mouth and we
expect this to continue and even grow when we expand to offering classes.

8 Requested Funds
Life requests a five-year loan of $100,000. This amount will allow Barry to lease
additional space of approximately 2,600 square feet. Initially, Life will need roughly
$85,000 for start-up costs. These include a build-out in the new facility for the new
fitness classes. New flooring, mirrors, a sound system and other build-out expenses
will cost roughly $70,000. During the time of the build-out (approximately two
months), Life will be paying approximately $6,000 per month in rent.
Barry would like to have roughly $40,000 on top of the initial start-up costs
because this represents approximately six months of rent for the new space.
This will help alleviate concerns about any delays in getting the build-out
completed, obtaining any needed permits and accounting for any other
unforeseen delays to running fitness classes.
As you can see in the next section, “Financial Projections”, we anticipate that
we can build strong returns from this initial $100,000.

Example Two: Consulting Report

This report analysed the market situation of BlackBerry, which, while once the
leader in mobile phone technology, was surpassed by competitors Apple and
Android in recent years. The report assesses the strategy of BlackBerry, leading
to a set of recommendations on how the company could improve its profile. The
extract included here begins with the executive summary and ends with the
recommendations. The reference list is not included.

BlackBerry: Choosing the vision for a secure future

Executive Summary
This report examines BlackBerry Limited, a mobile communications company
founded in 1984 that enjoyed success until 2011 before deteriorating under the
pressure of strong competition. BlackBerry provides smartphones and additional
technological services and solutions to consumers globally. It has a strong online
following but has been unable to translate its social media reach into company
190 Professional Writing

sales. The company has operated at a loss since 2012 and needs to make a
change in order to survive going forward. BlackBerry’s inability to compete with
Apple and Google (Android) in the smartphone space calls for a re-focus of
company initiative. The company must alter its brand and establish an online
presence that properly represents its competitive advantage. By reinventing a
mission statement that emphasizes security and device protection, the company
can build a brand with a purpose. Once this is determined, BlackBerry can
specifically target those who value its strengths, and align its message to
enhance its online presence. Ultimately, the company must recreate its identity
in order to attract business and secure a future in the industry.
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
Research in Motion Limited (RIM) released its first product in 1999, the same
year that the Canadian-headquartered company entered America on the
NASDAQ stock market. The product, RIM 850, was one of the first wireless
devices capable of sending messages and emails, and effectively connecting
users to their corporate lives outside of the office. Three years later, they
released the BlackBerry; it was the first in a series of mobile devices that soon
expanded to provide cellular phone, wireless email and Internet capabilities
(Woods, 2013, n.p.). The BlackBerry phone is widely seen as a pioneer in the
“smartphone” market, an industry that has since consumed the world.
Recognizing the root of its popularity and successes, the company eventually
renamed itself in 2013 to BlackBerry Limited (“BlackBerry” or the “Company”).
BlackBerry revolutionized the mobile industry upon its smartphone release at
the turn of the century. It quickly established itself as an industry leader, but
has been unable to retain its market share since the introduction of the
iPhone and Android services in 2007 and 2008 respectively. The strong
competition has threatened to run BlackBerry out of business. In 2019,
BlackBerry continues to release new phones, but is incapable of drawing the
traction that Apple and Google have secured. The loyal following BlackBerry
once had is fading, and the message they continue to deliver is not
resonating with consumers. In order to survive, the Company needs to make
a change.

1.2  Scope & Objectives

The primary focus of this report is to suggest reasons for BlackBerry’s recent
financial struggle and recommend a plan of action. I chose to focus on the
messages spread to consumers, recognizing a failure in translation of
marketing outreach to company sales. Space limitations prevent the report
 Reports and Proposals 191

from analysing consumer preference and demand. Consumer surveys could

provide a better understanding surrounding the public desire for more secure
devices and help to establish a more specific target audience. Furthermore, a
geographical understanding of the global need for increased security and
device protection could be beneficial in determining a worldwide approach
for a future marketing campaign.

2 BlackBerry, Then & Now

2.1  Rise of BlackBerry
BlackBerry virtually introduced the smartphone. With its email capabilities and
trademark QWERTY keyboard, the phones became an icon in the business
world. The devices gained popularity with corporate enterprises and
government agencies, as companies offered standardized work phones with
practical functions. Increasing its focus towards individual consumers, the
brand became a status symbol. With competition still relatively new to the
space in January 2010, BlackBerry enjoyed a 43% share in the U.S. smartphone
market (De Cagna, 2014, p. 16). Sales grew alongside this market penetration,
and in 2011, BlackBerry reported revenues of nearly $20 billion, the highest in
company history (Research in Motion Limited, 2012, p. 120). Unfortunately,
this trend did not persist, as consumers began to switch preference.
2.2  Financial Fallout
Apple, Google and Microsoft all compete with the BlackBerry platform. It
became clear in 2007 that BlackBerry’s “first-to-market” advantage was not
sustainable. Apple released the first generation iPhone, and the media quickly
dubbed it the “BlackBerry killer”. BlackBerry tried to respond with its first
touchscreen device, The Storm, but its planned release was delayed several
months. When it finally entered the market, the public bashed it as inferior to
the iPhone’s technology. At that time, rather than listen to consumer requests
for features similar to the iPhone – “faster browser, more responsive
touchscreen, or more diverse applications” – the Company’s management
suggested they would only lead to more expensive data and a shorter
battery life (De Cagna, 2014, p. 24).
Another major challenge that BlackBerry faced was a divide between its two
distinct groups of buyers: those who valued design and “coolness” as found
in the iPhone and Android, and the “corporate and government technology
executives” who did not want unnecessary features, such as a camera or
applications that could compromise security (De Cagna, 2014, p. 35).
BlackBerry still increased revenues due to international sales to 2011, but
because management failed to identify a preferred strategy, the continuing
192 Professional Writing

operations lost effect on consumers. As competing devices gained

momentum, BlackBerry’s share of smartphone subscribers fell drastically (see
Figure 7.1).

U.S. Share of Smartphone U.S. Share of Smartphone

Subscribers, May 2010 Subscribers, May 2015
Palm
Android 5%
13%

BlackBerry Android Apple

43% 52% 44%
Microsoft
14%

Microsoft
3%
Symbian
Apple BlackBerry
0%
25% 1%

Figure 7.1 Comparison of Smartphone Subscribers by Company, 2010–2015

Financial performance declined along with the share of subscribers. Once a

20-billion dollar company (and still $18 billion in 2012), BlackBerry dropped to
a measly $3.3 billion in revenue by 2015. The Company reported a net loss in
each of the last three years including a devastating $5.8 billion loss in fiscal year
2014. In order to mitigate these losses, in 2018 BlackBerry cut Research &
Development by over $400,000 and decreased advertising and marketing
spending by 55.4% (BlackBerry Limited, 2018, p. 73). To make matters worse,
Apple recently released its new generation iPhone and continues to drive
consumer demand.
3 Marketing
In order to determine the proper response to a series of net losses, and develop
a strategy for the Company’s future, it is important to first understand the
relationship between BlackBerry and its consumers.
3.1  Online Presence
In 2019, BlackBerry is active on most forms of social media. Over their years
of success, they have amassed a significant following that they can reach on
a daily basis. While it is useful to have a strong following, BlackBerry must
recognize their current situation. BlackBerry posts on Facebook, Twitter and
LinkedIn every day. Typical posts include company news, phone and product
reviews, and occasional industry trends and concerns. YouTube is utilized
 Reports and Proposals 193

when videos are available. Several videos allow consumers to view features of
a new phone or benefits of a BlackBerry product.
If BlackBerry posts frequently and reaches a strong consumer base, why are
they underperforming? One explanation might be that they are reaching the
wrong audience. While the social media following is large in number,
28,037,751 on Facebook and 4,520,000 on Twitter in April 2019, perhaps it
consists of those who considered BlackBerry in the past, but lost interest long
ago and ignore all updates coming from the Company. Another explanation
could be that BlackBerry is sending the wrong message.
3.2 Message
As management expert J. Rampton (2014) notes, “everything that you do, or
want to accomplish, on social media should be based on the values of your
business” (p. 3). If a marketing strategy does not align with the company’s
mission statement, or match its objectives, it is less likely to engage
consumers. Simon Sinek (2014) echoes the importance of having a strong
brand that sends a clear message to consumers. He describes how great
leaders inspire action, explaining that “people don’t buy what you do, they
buy why you do it” (p. 48). He uses Apple as an example. Apple begins with
why: everything that they do, they believe in challenging the status quo.
That is why they function as a company. He argues that consumers are more
comfortable buying Apple products because they understand the purpose
behind its function, rather than just hearing about the features of the
product without a strong company message (Sinek, 2014, p. 23). This idea
speaks to the importance of branding and determining the reason a
company exists before trying to deliver a message.
The BlackBerry website (2019) states that “Today, BlackBerry aims to
inspire the success of our millions of customers around the world by
continuously pushing the boundaries of mobile experiences” (BlackBerry,
2019, n.p.). While BlackBerry appears to have a mission, we must assess
whether they have the strength and ability to produce a product/service
that aligns with their mission, and if they do better than the competition.
Has BlackBerry been the leader in pushing the boundaries of mobile
experiences?
The last time that BlackBerry launched major products was in 2015. In
fiscal year 2015, BlackBerry launched four new smartphones. The resulting
revenues were less than half of the previous year. A company that wants to
establish itself as a leader in mobile experiences, which dedicates time and
money towards a focus on smartphone development, must have
consumers awaiting the release of a new phone. The sales numbers
194 Professional Writing

indicate that this is not the case. Because of this, I suggest BlackBerry
consider re-branding altogether.
4 Differentiation
4.1  Competitive Advantage
In the early 21st century, several technology companies have the funding and
resources to hire top talent and access technological insight. Most are
capable of producing comparable technologies if willing to research and
spend. Because of the technological similarities, consumers are more likely to
allow intangibles to influence purchasing choices.
In the mobile technology space, a company’s brand and the emotional
feelings it invokes can drive consumer spending. BlackBerry has failed to
change its mission statement or branding outlook, amid major decreases in
sales. The Company currently expects a continued decline in BlackBerry
users, yet retains its claim as “a global leader in mobile communications”
(BlackBerry Limited, 2019, p. 126). It is clear that BlackBerry needs a new
direction and a stronger identity. The Company needs to determine its
strengths, accept its position, target the appropriate audience, and then
market itself.
Aside from smartphones, BlackBerry offers Enterprise solutions, BlackBerry
Messaging (BBM), Internet of Things (IoT) platform and applications, and
various types of software. As advertised:
 Enterprise solutions – includes 70+ certifications and helps lead to
“productivity built on experience and proven security”.
 “BBM Protected” – provides an enhanced security model for
messaging that “protects corporate data end-to-end with additional
encryption”.
 IoT platform – manages applications and devices in a “secure, efficient,
and scalable way”.
 “Business Software” – offers solution “built on the trusted security and
reliability we’re known for” (BlackBerry, 2019, n.p.).
4.2 Re-Branding
A constant trait among the advertised offerings is protection, security and
privacy. Almost every description includes reference to a secure or safe
solution. In fact, the latest smartphone, released in November 2015 is a
“BlackBerry secure smartphone powered by Android.” Its name, “Priv,” is
short for privacy.
The idea of connecting BlackBerry with the concepts stated above would not
be new to consumers. The Company began by selling to corporations,
 Reports and Proposals 195

government agencies and healthcare companies, targeting those who value

privacy and security. President Barack Obama even had a BlackBerry as late as
2015 because the Secret Service could not secure the iPhone as well as they
can a BlackBerry. The Company’s advantage has been its identity from the
onset. The problem is simply that management has failed to advertise the
company for what it truly is.
BlackBerry need not remind consumers of their past accomplishments of
introducing the smartphone. They should not celebrate the fact that they too
sell innovative devices with user-friendly features. Instead, BlackBerry should
highlight its ability to secure private information. They should advertise their
ability to support the interconnectedness of protected devices. They should
move beyond just smartphones and make it apparent that BlackBerry is a
leading technology company with a mission to secure and protect data in a
data-reliant world.
Once BlackBerry is able to re-brand itself, then it can focus on establishing
a target market. As BlackBerry promotes all of its security-driven
functionalities, they can approach professionals and businesses that most
highly value confidentiality. Furthermore, by aligning the marketing message
with the company mission, consumers will begin to recognize the BlackBerry
brand and understand the purpose of the business.

5 Recommendations
After analysing the history and recent financial struggles of BlackBerry, it is
apparent that the brand and marketing messages do not embody the
strengths and identity of the corporation. I recommend that the Company
take the following steps:
1 Recognize that company strengths and capabilities revolve around
security and protection. Allocate R&D and employee power into building
and maintaining these strengths.
2 Refocus the Company mission statement to align the BlackBerry brand
with the future of the Company. Establish an identity as a company that is
continuously pushing the boundaries of mobile experiences, while
strengthening those boundaries to protect and secure the sharing of
information.
3 Utilize BlackBerry’s social media following, and attract more potential
customers by targeting a desired market and sharing the re-enforced
BlackBerry brand.
4 Partner with Google/Android (like with the Priv) to cultivate future options
for partnerships or a potential merger.
196 Professional Writing

aCtivities

1 You are documentation manager for XXX Software, a growing company, and you
supervise preparation and production of all user manuals. The present system for
producing manuals is inefficient because three different departments are involved
in (1) assembling the material, (2) word-processing and designing, and (3)
publishing the manuals. After studying the problem, you decide that greater
efficiency would result if the company started using another system for the
production of manuals, which would enable everyone involved to contribute
during all stages. To achieve this, you must write a proposal to be read by the
General Manager, as well as by the three Department Managers.

Brainstorm some reasons that you think these readers would find convincing for
your proposal, remembering that they would have different concerns and
interests. What would be your persuasive strategy in this proposal?
2 Here is an extract from a report on the development of a computer game, written
by one of the developers to the project manager. The writer follows a “write as you
think” approach, which gives the text a muddled and wordy presentation. Also,
the style combines specialist techniques (extensive use of technical terminology)
with journalistic elements (chatty tone). Revise and edit the text both on a
structural and sentence level. Break up paragraphs, include sections, headings
and bullet points where appropriate, and reorganize information to make it clearer.

The game was a drag-and-drop style board game involving one person directing
another person’s actions using a set list of verbal commands. The game also
recorded moves made during a game for reviewing, either as a textual description
or as real-time playback. As well as implementation, documentation of the
system was a big part of the project with documents on five major aspects of the
system produced. P1, the project plan, described the overall project, what was
involved in the current system and our plans to implement a new system. P2, the
requirements document, detailed the current system and our proposed solution
to the problem presented to us by the client. P3, the architecture document,
presented how we intended to develop the system and how it met the
requirements determined in the previous document. P4 detailed the user interface
of the document and also how it met the requirements of P2. P5, the detailed
design document, contained the specifics of the implementation of the system
and was intended to be used when coding the system. The documentation was
intended to guide the implementation process in order to produce better quality
software. I think that the software produced during the project was superior to
previous software used for the same reason and I think this can be entirely
attributed to following the project software development process.
 Reports and Proposals 197

When I say that the software produced during the project was superior to the
software previously used I don’t mean that the software produced was a
superior piece of software. I think the overall design of our project was a good
design that could’ve been implemented successfully but I do think it was lacking
in some areas due to not enough time spend during this phase. It was initially
intended that the interfaces would respond to users’ commands and pass the
responsibility of performing the operations on to various other modules. Little
consideration was given to how a textual review would be displayed with regard
to getting the information from the storage system to the interface so we ended
up with the interface extract the information from a stored round object.

3 Below are some verbal descriptions of actions, relationships, steps and trends.
Read the description and decide what kind of visual would present this
information graphically. Draw the visual to illustrate. There could be more than
one option for each description.

Verbal description Visual

The budget was divided as follows:

supplies 20%, salaries 40%,
advertising 25%, shipping, 10% and
reserve 5%.

The fuel-mixture container is located

on the top-right corner of the engine,
and the main valve is located below
the injector plug.

Measured values from the X, Y, and Z

plants were 41.2, 50.8 and 20.5
respectively.

First, check. Then, open. Next, move.

The engine is composed of A, B, C

and D components.
198 Professional Writing

Verbal description Visual

The error rate for online help menus

was about half of the rate for printed
instructions.

Profits rose continuously in the last

five years, even though the number of
investors remained constant.

If X happens, we should do Y; on the

other hand, if B happens, we should
do A.

References and further reading

Bargiela-Chiappini, F., & Nickerson, C. (eds.) (1999) Writing business: Genres, media and
discourses. London: Longman.
Bazerman, C., & Paradis, J. (eds.) (1991) Textual dynamics of the professions. Maddison:
University of Wisconsin Press.
Bell, A. H., & Smith, D. M. (2010) Management communication. New York: John Wiley.
Cornelissen, J. (2017) Corporate communication: A guide to theory and practice, 5th edition.
London: Sage.
Freed, R. C., Romano, J., & Freed, S. (2010) Writing winning business proposals, 3rd edition.
New York: McGraw Hill.
Hauser, G. (1986) Introduction to rhetorical theory. New York: Harper.
Johnson-Sheenan, R. (2002) Writing proposals: Rhetoric for managing change. New York:
Longman.
Kawasaki, G. (2004) The art of the start: The time-tested, battle-hardened guide for anyone
starting anything. London and New York: Penguin Portfolio.
Kawasaki, G. (2011) Enchantment: The art of changing hearts, minds and actions. London
and New York: Penguin Portfolio.
Kolin, P. C. (1998) Successful writing at work, 5th edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Nesheim, J. L. (2000) High tech start-up. New York: Free Press.
Taylor, N. (2009) Brilliant business writing: How to inspire, engage and persuade through
words. Harlow: Pearson.
Toulmin, S. (2003) The uses of argument, updated edition. Cambridge: Cambridge
­University Press.
 Chapter

8
Critical Thinking for
Management

Focus:
 Principles of critical thinking
 Common fallacies in reasoning
 Uses and misuses of statistics

The ability to reason logically and objectively is considered vital for professional
success. In fact, “objectivity”, “critical thinking” and “problem-solving” are key
words in management positions. Together with skills in leadership, teamwork
and communication, a demonstrated ability in dispassionate analysis of critical
issues is highly sought after in most professional positions. This chapter
addresses this need by describing the main problem areas, especially as they
relate to the communication tasks of professional fields.
The terms and ideas presented here form the backbone of all forms of
research, investigative writing and objective interpretation of arguments and
statements. They also form the basis for professional involvement in corporate
policy and public relations. The main value of objective reasoning, as opposed
to subjective, or self-focused, opinion, is that it can lead to decisions that benefit
a group of people or the wider public. The first part of the chapter describes the
cognitive skills related to critical thinking, and follows with a review of the
thought processes that lead to faulty reasoning in all forms of communication
and decision-making. The second part focuses on a major area of manipulative
persuasion, statistical data.

199
200 Professional Writing

Principles of critical thinking

Critical thinking is not an innate gift or talent: it develops with perseverance and
dedication. To sharpen your critical thinking skills, try these strategies (see also
Burger & Starbird, 2012; Cottrell, 2011; Hirschberg, 1996; Sagan, 1995):
1 Think independently
Listen to other points of view, but do not follow any particular viewpoint
without examining it first from different angles. Especially be cautious not to
blindly accept claims and statements just because they are issued by an
authority or expert. Everybody can be wrong, and facts can change as
knowledge develops. Therefore, develop your own informed opinion.
2 Think objectively
Try to see situations from another person’s point of view, beyond your own
personal concerns. Do not become too attached to a theory or hypothesis because
it is yours, or because you have believed it to be correct up to now. Examine why
you believe this theory or hypothesis to be accurate and compare it fairly with
alternatives. Play the devil’s advocate and find reasons for rejecting it. If the theory
survives the test, you will be more prepared to defend it when the occasion arises.
3 Develop intellectual perseverance
Show that you have the persistence to think through all the aspects of a problem.
Do not be tempted to give up because a problem is too challenging. Consider more
than one hypothesis. If there is something to be explained, think of different ways it
could be explained. Then think of how you would test each of the alternatives.
4 Develop observation skills
When you read or listen critically, make sure that you clarify and understand
key words, ideas and conclusions. Generate questions about what you read and
remember to place the information you read and hear in context, using audience
analysis skills. For example, find out about the audience that the information is
directed towards, and identify how the needs of the audience influence the selection
of information and the manner in which it is presented. Find out who generated the
information, and by what methods. From this, ascertain how credible and reliable
the information is. In many contexts, such as science, a hypothesis can be accepted
only if it is falsifiable. Something that cannot be disproved can also not be proved.
Also, when reading, try to go beyond merely understanding what the writer has
said, by asking yourself questions such as:
 What information is missing from the text?
 If I could meet the writer face to face, what questions would I like to ask?
 What further information do I need to know in order to accurately evaluate
the information?
 Critical Thinking for Management 201

5 Trace analogies
How does what you learn in one context apply to other contexts? For example,
if you are a computer engineer, you could notice the similarities between
computer code syntax and the rules of sentence construction in English. Pay
attention to similarities and differences. Many groundbreaking discoveries were
made by tracing an analogy between a phenomenon and an idea, or by
serendipity, that is, by recognizing connections between seemingly different
topics.
6 Establish precision
Precision requires you to be focused and specific in both your ideas and
your expression. In your own writing, make a conscious effort to refine
generalities and avoid oversimplifications. Distinguish between relevant
and irrelevant facts and use technical terminology correctly. If you are
considering an argument, remember that all elements must work, not just
most of them.

Fallacies of reasoning
One way to study the process of persuasion is to focus on what can go wrong.
Many judgements and decisions are based on assumptions made from previous
experience, and preconceptions that may be irrelevant to the purposes at hand.
Although much innovative thinking also makes use of assumptions, guard
against constructing arguments that are based totally on unacknowledged
claims and weak reasoning. In the final analysis, persuasion and reasoning
depend on the rhetorical conventions of particular discourse communities. What is
valid evidence for one group may not be so for another, so you maximize your
chances of producing a convincing case if you know what the expectations and
conventions of your audience are.
In addition to audience expectations, ethics is another area that should
occupy your thoughts. For example, you may have a workable idea for a new
form of plastic, and you may also have convincing evidence that this
development will benefit your organization, for example, by increasing its
competitive advantage and by reducing costs of production. However, this new
form of plastic may produce toxic pollution in its manufacturing, and the
organization does not yet have the facilities to recycle such toxic waste. In such
a situation, you need to very carefully weigh the organization’s advantages with
the negative effects on the wider community, and decide if and how the new
product should be developed.
Some of the main tactics that lead to fundamentally illogical arguments are
outlined below. In rhetorical theory, these are known as fallacies of reasoning.
202 Professional Writing

They are extremely common in mass media documents, but also occur in
professional and academic contexts:

Appeal to tradition: This occurs when the reason given for following or not
following a course of action is that it has always been done this way. This
tactic relies on a fundamental psychological trait – the need to trust the
legitimacy of a habit. However, as with all forms of persuasion, it can be
misused by concealing inherent flaws in the arguments proposed.
Appeal to authority: This occurs when a claim or statement is considered
“true” because its source is an expert in the field, or has a respectable and/or
popular position in the community. For example, there is an anecdote about
a textbook used in a country’s universities for many years, even though
teaching staff were aware it contained some serious errors. The author was a
famous professor whom nobody thought they should correct. In this case,
the decision to continue on an erroneous path was based on the assumption
that respect for authority should override objective evaluation.
Appeals to tradition and authority are more prominent in some cultures which
have a hierarchical structure and a past orientation. However, most people
follow such reasoning occasionally.
Appeal to common sense, “everybodiness” and universals: This occurs when,
instead of providing a methodical argument that develops specific issues
systematically, the writer/speaker proposes a course of action because it “is
the right thing to do” or “everybody knows that it is so”. Sometimes what
appears as “common sense” or “universally acceptable” is nothing but an
entrenched belief that has remained unquestioned for such a long time that
it has become tradition. This strategy is based on the human need to belong
to a group. Many people would be persuaded to follow a course of action
because it appears to fall into established but unquestioned universals, such
as “justice” or “morality”.
Appeal to opposition: This occurs when, in order to support a point of view,
the writer/speaker relies on the fact that the opposite point of view has been
disproved or is unsubstantiated. For example, some claim that laws
prohibiting the use of drugs should be abolished, because there is no
substantial evidence to suggest that such laws actually prevent people from
using drugs. Although this claim could be a step in the reasoning process, it
cannot be the determining criterion for reaching a definite conclusion.
A similar example is that of the existence (or not) of God: arguing that there
is a God because attempts to disprove his existence have failed (or vice versa)
is a claim based on an appeal to opposition. As Carl Sagan aptly puts it,
“absence of evidence is not evidence of absence” (Sagan, 1995, p. 213).
 Critical Thinking for Management 203

Appeal to emotion: Very common in consumer advertising, this occurs when a

writer/speaker uses an emotive style when presenting an argument, adding
evaluative words and phrases or metaphors that are actually irrelevant to the
piece of information presented but that have a strong sensory or emotive
effect. Usually adopted to sway opinion on a matter, or to generate a feeling
of guilt in the receivers that will induce them to take some form of action,
this is what happens when perpetrators of crime are described as “hideous
monsters” and their victims as “innocent citizens”.
Because of its strong persuasive impact, this is a common device in the mass
media. It is also a widespread tactic in some forms of legal reasoning, especially
when a lawyer tries to sway the jury’s opinion by drawing attention to the
defendant’s emotional state (traumatic childhood, agitated state, etc.) as a
justification of his/her action. This relies on the human capacity for empathy
(“What if this happened to you?”) and not on logic.
Appeal to extremes and false dichotomies: This occurs when only two options
are offered for a complex issue, undermining a balance. A choice between
dictatorship or anarchy would reflect this kind of fallacy. This “either–or”
device often occurs in emergencies where people need to act urgently and
do not have the time to analyse an issue in depth. It tends to occur in very
simplistic arguments, for example when an element of physical force or
immediate urgency overrides the logical aspects of the argument (“Give me
your money or I’ll kill you”). “Terrorist tactics” are based on this kind of
appeal, reflecting a situation where such a state of disarray has been reached
that there are not many choices open for action. This is known as the fallacy
of the excluded middle in classical argumentation.
Appeal to generalities: This occurs when a writer/speaker abstracts certain
properties from some specially selected entities and applies them to a larger
number of entities. A typical example is stereotyping (“Politicians are liars”).
Another example is when an argument is based on universal terms (“love”,
“progress”) that have not been defined in terms of the requirements of the
project at hand. The argument is consequently hidden behind abstract
notions. The major problem with this pitfall is that it disregards the specifics
of particular circumstances and situations.
Appeal to personal aspects: This occurs when a writer/speaker’s ideas are
rejected because of this person’s status, sex, profession, past record, etc.,
rather than because of weaknesses inherent to the ideas themselves. Very
common in the mass media and in politics, this appeal disregards the issues
at hand and, instead, attempts to draw attention away from a claim and
onto the personal qualities of the presenter of the claim. This is what
204 Professional Writing

happens, for example, when a promising and reasonable idea is rejected by a

committee because it was proposed by a junior or inexperienced member.
In classical argument, this is known as ad hominen (Latin for “to the man” –
attacking the arguer, not the argument).
Appeal to the straw man: Related to the previous, this occurs when a writer/
speaker caricatures a position by oversimplifying it, exaggerating it or taking
it out of context, so that it is easier to attack and demolish. This happens
when it is easier to misrepresent an opponent’s reasoning in order to dispute
it, than to understand it and then present clearly developed objections.
A similar tactic is the use of inappropriate humour. “Straight” humour is a
positive aspect of all communication. However, it can become inappropriate,
and even sarcastic, when it is used to encourage laughter or ridicule towards
an issue that deserves serious attention. If directed at those holding
opposing views, this type of humour may reduce their chances of being
heard.
Slippery slope: This occurs when a writer/speaker jumps to a conclusion that is
not justified by the premises. Associated with paranoid reasoning, this is
illustrated by a statement such as “If the government imposes restrictions on
the petrol used for cars, what stops them from preventing us from driving
cars altogether?” Slippery slope exists when a relatively insignificant event
is seen as gaining momentum by inevitably leading to increasingly
more serious events.
Special pleading: This occurs when a writer/speaker responds to an objection
or observation by claiming that it overlooks some special circumstances. This
is usually an evasive or defensive tactic. For example, responding to the
observation “Despite the measures we have in place to prevent accidents,
accidents have increased in the last month” by the special plea “You don’t
understand people: they don’t follow rules” would be such an appeal.
A more logical response would be to examine the measures and the claim
that accidents have increased. Special pleading also occurs when the
speaker/writer believes that certain individuals, objects or beliefs are exempt
from a general rule. This happens, for example, when one is religious but
considers other people’s religion as superstition.
Begging the question, or assuming the answer: This occurs when the writer/
speaker bases an argument on premises that should in fact be the
conclusion, thus producing a circular reasoning. For example, saying that
“We must institute the death penalty to discourage violent crime” would fall
in this category. This is based on the assumption that the death penalty does
in fact discourage violent crime. The logical form of this fallacy, also known
as petitio principii, is: Claim X assumes X is true; therefore claim X is true.
 Critical Thinking for Management 205

Card stacking or observational selection: This occurs when the writer/speaker

omits what does not support his or her view and concentrates on facts that
enhance his or her position. This is a “cherry-picking” fallacy, which is
generally associated with propaganda.
False extrapolation: This occurs when a writer/speaker extrapolates a claim
from observed facts without considering alternative possibilities. An example
would be the statement “We will be successful because we are innovative
and law-abiding.” This is known in classical argument as non sequitur (Latin
for “it does not follow”).

Statistics and public opinion

Politician Benjamin Disraeli is reputed to have said that there are three kinds of lies:
lies, damned lies and statistics (popularized by Mark Twain, 1906). This section
focuses on a major trouble area of reasoning: the use of statistical or quantitative
information in arguing for or against a course of action, and for justifying decisions.
Interestingly, in the history of science, the study of statistics is a recent phenomenon,
with origins in the “Enlightenment” era of the 17th century. Prior to that period, the
notion that knowledge could be quantified or counted had no substantial hold.
Now, however, virtually every facet of nature and society can be expressed in
quantitative terms, that is, in terms of numbers, amounts and percentages.
When discussing an issue, people often give statistics to seal an argument
and close off any further debate. Also, managers in business and finance, social
policy and education routinely support their policies and decisions with numbers
and statistics. Statistics can give the appearance of solidity and “hard” evidence;
numbers are often thought of as irrefutable, or undeniable. But, actually, the
appeal to statistics sets off a whole new set of questions. Where did the statistics
come from? What groups in society are excluded from the statistics? If the
statistics are accurate, then what decision or action should follow from them?
And how can statistical relations and effects be translated into plain English, so
that decision makers in business and government can understand them? After
all, numbers are meaningless unless they are interpreted.
This section overviews and briefly describes six major areas where statistical
support to reasoning is abused in order to manipulate attitudes (Freund &
Simon, 1992; Huff, 1993; Paulos, 1996; Sheldon, 1994).

1 Not describing the source of statistics

Statistics are undocumented if the writer does not state their source. Possibly
the most common problem with statistical information in the mass media, it
makes it very difficult to ascertain whether the conclusions drawn from the
206 Professional Writing

statistical analysis are credible, plausible or applicable only to selected cases that
cannot lead to general conclusions. Documenting statistics means stating clearly
where the statistics came from, where they are published and if they are
available to the public.
2 Not describing how statistics were generated
Even if the source of the statistics is documented, we still need to investigate
further to verify that the data is valid. Questions to ask in this regard include:
What kind of study was done to establish the statistics? What was the size of the
sample? How was the sample selected? Is the sample representative of the general
population? Were statistics gathered by interview or questionnaire? If they were
gathered by questionnaire, was it filled in face-to-face or by self-reporting? What
was the response rate? Who commissioned the study, who financed it and who
conducted it? When polling results are compared with results from previous years,
have key definitions remained the same? Has the margin of error been specified?
3 Not distinguishing between absolute rate and rate of incidence
The absolute rate indicates how many items are affected by the issue in question,
expressed as a number. By contrast, the rate of incidence shows what proportion
of the population is affected, expressed as a percentage. The rate of incidence,
therefore, gives some indication of statistical significance. On the other hand, the
absolute rate sometimes may sound more impressive, but is not as statistically
relevant. For example, consider the effect of the statement that 100,000 people
died from a kind of cancer in a specific country last year. Scary news? What if you
now learn that this number accounts for 0.05% of the whole population of the
country? Which rate would alarm readers and which would reassure them?
4 Not making sure that trends are real
Sometimes very slight correlations or changes in occurrence of an event can be
blown up to misleadingly huge dimensions. This is sufficient to set off fears or
hopes of a trend, particularly in emotional or volatile aspects of human
behaviour. In some cases, a typical example being that of financial markets, the
perceived trend can become a self-fulfilling prophecy: if small declines in the
market are taken to be evidence of a larger trend, panic selling will indeed cause
the market to slump or crash.
5 Not distinguishing between quantities given in length or in volume
Expressing quantities in terms of length often sounds more impressive than
using volume as a measure. The example given by Paulos (1996, p. 79) is that
of a tower and a box: Which contains more five-cent coins, a tower the
diameter of a coin rising from sea level to the height of Mount Everest, or a
six-foot cubical box? The answer is the box.
 Critical Thinking for Management 207

6 Not specifying the measure of central tendency

When noting the average of a series of numbers, the writers must indicate
whether they have used the mean, median or mode. For data that falls into a
normal distribution, such as human height, these three methods of averaging
will produce similar results. However, for other kinds of data spread, mean,
median and mode vary markedly. For example, assume a country’s average
income is $40,000. Does this sound like an affluent and fair-to-all society? What
if the range occurs between a high of $200,000 and a low of $10,000?
7 Confusion between causality and correlation
This occurs when a hasty conclusion is drawn from a fact, or when a causal
relation is artificially traced between two events that simply co-exist or that
follow one another sequentially. This is known in classical argument as post hoc,
ergo propter hoc (Latin for “it happened after, so it was caused by”). In fact, a
major source of misinformation in the use of statistical evidence lies in the
frequent confusion between causality and correlation. Two related events that
occur simultaneously are said to be in correlation. This does not mean that one
event caused the other. For example, consider the high positive correlation
between the sale of alcohol and the incidence of crime. This in itself cannot
prove that alcohol causes crime. There could be a third factor involved that
influences both alcohol sales and crime, for example population growth. Tyler
Vigen’s humorous book (2015) and website “Spurious Correlations” gives some
other examples of the absurdity that can arise when we seek causal relations in
coinciding events (http://tylervigen.com/old-version.html). This includes such
spurious correlations as per capita consumption of cheese correlating with the
number of people who died by becoming tangled in their bedsheets!
In a causal relationship, one factor (the cause or reason) produces another (the
result or outcome) only if these three factors are present:
1 There is a clear chronological sequence. A must occur before B does.
2 There is a clear pattern of repetition. To establish that A causes B, there
must be proof that every time A is present, B occurs – or that B never
occurs unless A is present.
3 There are no multiple causes and/or effects. For example, many factors
influence reported crime rates: population distribution (age, wealth, race),
crime reporting by citizens, changes to laws and regulations, and changes
to police procedures for gathering and reporting statistics. A seeming
drop in crime reporting, therefore, would not mean there is less crime.
4 There is agreement in definitions. Often a fact or event seems to cease to
exist; however, closer scrutiny reveals that what has in fact changed is the
definition of this fact or event.
208 Professional Writing

8 The prosecutor’s fallacy

Problems with causality extend to probability. Probability examines the
chances of an event occurring, using mathematics and statistics. If not
performed expertly, probability errors can cause serious mistakes in policy and
action – as well as much heartache for those affected. These errors are called
“prosecutor’s fallacy” because they underlie faulty reasoning that can lead to
legal indictments and prosecutions. If someone happens to be in the vicinity
of a crime, for example, in some cases the prosecutor’s fallacy can turn them
into the culprit. The prosecutor’s fallacy is based on the hesitation to accept a
sequence or repetition of events as coincidence or random, as well as on the
positive value that contemporary culture places on statistical evidence
(Mlodinow, 2008).
A famous example is the case of Lucia de Berk, a nurse who was accused of
murdering her patients in 2003 (Goldacre, 2010). De Berk was found guilty of
four murders and three attempted murders of patients under her care at Dutch
hospitals, and sentenced to life in prison. The arguments brought against her
were based on probability and statistics. Her accusers, expert witnesses on
statistics, claimed that the chances of a nurse working in the same hospitals
where unexplained deaths took place, and being present at the scene, are one
in 342 million. After her sentencing, other statisticians who were not convinced
took up her cause and re-evaluated the evidence. Richard Gill and Piet
Groeneboom recalculated the chances that a nurse could experience a similar
situation as one in 48, or one in five, depending on the method used
(Buchanan, 2007). The case was reopened, a new trial was held and Lucia de
Berk was acquitted.

Argument in management
It is often believed that business writing favours numbers and profit rather than
complicated argument structure. However, although practical outcomes are
indeed a major concern in many management decisions, business ventures are
also at the forefront of innovation, cultural change and social justice. Careful
consideration of decision implications and ethical consequences of actions is
pivotal in the success and social acceptance of business projects. In fact,
successful proposals and business plans (documents with a high degree of
persuasive impact) demonstrate evidence of what is known as the three Cs of
management communication – credibility, the writer’s foresight, integrity and
judgement, creativity, the novelty of ideas, and compliance, the willingness to
 Critical Thinking for Management 209

follow industry or company regulations and procedures. All three are expressed
in writing through stylistic factors, such as choice of words, sentence structure
and forms of cohesion.

The Toulmin and stasis models

Argumentation and persuasion theorists have created models of argument
structure to show the methods used in constructing systematic arguments. Here
we consider two useful models for management professionals: Stephen
Toulmin’s model and the stasis approach.
According to Stephen Toulmin (2003), particular contexts, purposes and
audiences require a different form of argument. These forms of argument are
based on different kinds of claims, a claim being the statement that requires
evidential support. Being aware of the kind of claim your argument is based on
helps in following appropriate persuasion strategies. According to this model,
we have the following types of claims:
 Claims of fact are statements of proposed truth about a person, place, or
thing.
 Claims of worth propose judgements on the merit of an idea, course of
action, or position over a competing set of alternatives.
 Claims of policy are statements that set criteria or standards, directly
expressing what one ought to do.
 Claims of concept either define or describe a proposition or an idea.
 Claims of interpretation provide a frame of reference for understanding
an idea.
In many ways, this model builds on the ancient rhetorical model of stasis
(ancient Greek word for “stance” or “position”). According to the stasis
approach, we have four main types of argument:
Definition: This looks at the components of the object or issue examined. What
is the nature of the problem being investigated? What are its parts and how
are they connected? A definitional argument would be based on the
question “What is the issue/object?”
Conjecture: This concerns the facts of the situation and the sources used to
obtain information. It examines what happened, events and people.
A conjectural argument would be based on the question “How did the issue/
object get this way?”
Quality: This is evaluative and concerns the value of an object or issue. It looks
at how serious an issue is and the strengths and weaknesses of possible
210 Professional Writing

solutions. A quality argument would be based on the question “What is the

issue/object’s quality?”
Policy: This looks at suitable actions needed to solve a problem or to address
an issue. Proposal arguments are based on the question, “How to solve this
problem?”
As an example, consider these paragraphs from a research article in
organizational communication, which looks at naming organizations:

Example One: Developing an Argument

Naming signifies an important step in an organization’s
Presents the existence because it is through various incarnations that
claim of the ‘it’ can then be made present. For example, there was a
argument. time when the Microsoft Company did not officially exist. Gives an
By inventing the name ‘Micro-Soft’ in 1976, Bill Gates example of the
and Paul Allen could start to act in the name of their claim and gives
organization. Obviously, the organization had started to some facts
exist informally through various activities carried out by around it.
these two founding fathers, such as the creation of a
BASIC interpreter for the MITS platform. Gives a
concession
Nevertheless, in 1976 the organization became a “legal to show
Resumes fiction”, that is, a juristic person or artificial entity (what understanding
elaboration of Hobbes [1651/1997] called an “artificial person’ in of possible
the argument Leviathan), when the trade name “Microsoft” was objections to
after the registered. Even more interesting is that by naming the argument.
concession something that initially did not exist (at least officially),
sentence. conditions were created that enabled many different
human and nonhuman agents (products, logos, people,
Adds more etc.) to represent it, make it present or incarnate it, showing
support to the the close connection between the process of incarnation
claim by and naming. Naming thus allows a social collectivity to
developing the refer to itself through its representatives and enables the
example. experience of being united under the same signifier; it
creates a “we” that allows people to act or speak in the Draws a
name of the organization. When Bill Gates speaks nowadays conclusion
Concludes based on the
(for example, to announce Microsoft’s new strategy to the
the paragraph claim presented
media), for example, it is not only he who speaks, but also
by linking to above.
his company (Cooren et al., 2008, p. 1345).
the beginning.

These two paragraphs contain a mini argument based on the claim that
naming affects the existence of an organization and signals its existence. This
mini argument gives a historical example and elaborates on it to support the
claim. Therefore, the claim is one of fact (Toulmin) – what things are – or
conjecture (stasis) – how they got to be this way. It does not evaluate or
propose solutions.v
 Critical Thinking for Management 211

tIp

A useful writing strategy for constructing an argument in a management context

is this:
1  Summarize objectively the opposing argument to show that you have understood it.
2  Acknowledge ways in which the opposing viewpoint is correct.
3  Use a transitional word, phrase, sentence or paragraph indicating contrast or a
shift in point of view.
4  State your claim or the different point of view as an alternative to the opponent’s
proposition.
5  Give evidence supporting your claim, remembering that the value of evidence
should be assessed from the audience’s perspective.

aCtivities

1 Decide which types of fallacy the following statements would fall under. Some of
these are borderline, and some contain more than one fallacy.
1 I suggest that we buy Adidas products, as we have been a loyal customer
since they produced their first sports shoes.
2 As it cannot be proved that our new work policy in X country caused the
resignations, it should be implemented by other countries.
3 Intelligent shareholders are against the takeover as it is obvious that such
mining results in disastrous problems.
4 Given that he is the President of Amnesty International, his opinions on capital
punishment should not be published.
5 He enjoys travelling, cooking and mountain climbing. Therefore, he would be
suitable for work in public relations.
6 Because you expect to be looked up to by others, you are likely to be
preferred in work situations.
7 During WWII, about 375,000 civilians died in country X and about 408,000
members of the armed forces died overseas. On the basis of those
figures, it can be concluded that it was not much more dangerous to be
overseas in the armed forces during that time than it was to stay at home as
a civilian.
2 A current area of debate, where emotions, vested interests and objective evidence
meet, is legislation over gun control. Although this is prevalent in the United States,
212 Professional Writing

where the growing number of mass shootings in recent years has exacerbated the
situation, the debate has international relevance. Therefore, it provides a fertile
ground for the analysis of reasoning strategies and the use of statistics.
One reason for the controversy over the effects of strict regulations on the
availability of guns is that no conclusive evidence exists directly linking high crime
rates with gun possession. Researchers who study the relation between gun
control and homicide rates have not, as yet, come up with any convincing proof
that strict gun control laws actually lessen the number of gun killings.
Find an argument against and one for gun control and analyse them using the
following questions:
1 How convincing is the reasoning presented here?
2 How credible is the use of statistics?
3 What more information would you need to reach more conclusive results?
3 Give a critical evaluation of the following news article on beans and bowel cancer,
by answering the following questions (the article is fictitious, so no need to stop
eating beans!)
1 What do you think of the amount and type of information selected in this
article?
2 Does the article leave out important data? Does it “dumb down” or over-
simplify scientific research? If so, how does it do this, and how could it
perhaps avoid doing so?
3 What other information would you need to gather to form an informed opinion
of the correlation between beans and bowel cancer?
Then, find another article in the media that presents scientific findings and analyse
it following this example.

Beans seen as factor in bowel cancer

Beans, celebrated as the “meat substitute” for vegetarians and the health conscious,
could do you more long-term harm than good, says a French study.
The National Institute on Cancer Research in Paris has warned people in middle
age to stay off the pulse product or increase their risk of contracting cancer of the
bowel.
Vegetarians cherish beans as a non-animal source of protein and iron, and it is
sometimes recommended as a health food because it is rich in healthful plant
oestrogens and iron. But phytoestrogens do not act like natural oestrogens,
especially in our digestive system, nor are they good for us as once believed, say the
French researchers into cancer.
 Critical Thinking for Management 213

Scientists followed the fortunes of 3,500 French men since 2000 to see who
developed the disease. They found no positive connection between the disease and
alcohol intake, smoking, education or professional status.
Instead, they found that those men who reported eating beans at least twice
weekly when first interviewed were 28 times more likely to have developed cancer of
the bowel than those that never ate beans. That could be because phytoestrogens
are blocking the effect of natural oestrogens in the digestive system, and preventing
normal digestive processes, say the scientists.

References and further reading

Buchanan, M. (2007) Conviction by numbers. Nature, 445, 254–255.
Burger, E. B., & Starbird, M. (2012) The 5 elements of effective thinking. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Cooren, F., Brummans, B., & Charrieras, D. (2008) The coproduction of organizational
presence: A study of Médecins Sans Frontières in action. Human Relations, 61(10),
1339–1370.
Cottrell, S. (2017) Critical thinking skills: Developing effective analysis and argument,
3rd edition. London: Red Globe Press.
Freund, J. E., & Simon, G. A. (1992) Modern elementary statistics, 8th edition. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall.
Gardner, H. (2004) Changing minds. Boston: Harvard Business School.
Goldacre, B. (2010) Conviction for patients’ deaths does not add up. The Guardian
(9 April).
Hirschberg, S. (1996) Essential strategies of argument. New York, NY: Allyn and Bacon.
Huff, D. (1993) How to lie with statistics, 2nd edition. New York: Norton and Company.
Mlodinow, L. (2008) The drunkard’s walk: How randomness rules our lives. New York:
Pantheon.
Paulos, J. A. (1996) A mathematician reads the newspaper. New York: Anchor.
Sagan, C. (1995) The demon-haunted world. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Sheldon, R. (1994) First course in probability. New York: Macmillan.
Toulmin. S. (2003) The uses of argument, updated edition. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press.
Twain, M. (1906) Chapters from my autobiography. Chapter Ten. The North American
Review, 184 (607), 113–119.
Vigen, T. (2015) Spurious correlations. New York: Hachette.
 Chapter

9
Working in Teams

Focus:
 The role of teamwork in business
 Project management
 Cooperation and conflict

Many projects in business and industry require collaboration for their

completion. In fact, teamwork is rapidly becoming the norm in many business
projects, especially those that entail the cooperation of specialists in different
fields. Therefore, a discussion of the concepts and terms that underlie teamwork
and collaboration has an important role in a guide to business communication.
As regards the writing component of team projects, two trends are common.
One trend, generally the most successful one, is for the team to have a writer,
usually the team member with the best communication skills. This person
gathers information from other team members and produces the documents
that record and report on the project. The other trend, a more problematic
option, is for all team members to contribute to the writing component of
projects. This trend tends to be effective if all team members have equal
communication skills. Even in those cases, however, it is difficult to build
coherence in a document that is made up of styles of different writers.

tIp

Where possible, select a writer in a team project to avoid a “cut and paste”
appearance. To share accountability, however, ensure that all team members read the
document and agree on its content and organization, before submission.

214
 Working in Teams 215

This chapter overviews major elements of teamwork, especially team dynamics,

the allocation of team tasks, project management and conflict management.
The chapter ends with some real-life testimonials of members of team projects,
evaluating their strengths and weakness of their teamwork.

Team dynamics
At their best, teams can produce excellent results by combining the specialized
skills that individual team members bring. At their worst, teams produce delays,
misunderstandings and conflicts. For this reason, the ability to deal productively
with other people, peers, juniors and superiors is a highly valued skill that
contributes greatly to the smooth and successful management of an organization.
The success of a team project is largely due to such skilled procedures as effective
negotiation, duty allocation and conflict management.
In business, as in other contexts, teams can be effective problem-solvers for
many reasons, including the following:
 Teams bring together experts from different specializations and skill sets.
 More extensive information is available in a team than an individual may
have alone.
 Individuals bring different approaches to a problem within the team. This
allows for a wide range of options to be considered.
 Improved understanding of the problem and possible solutions is possible,
because team members are aware of the reasoning used in problem
analysis.
 Risks can often be managed more effectively in teams. What can be a high-
risk decision for an individual could actually be a moderate-risk decision for a
team, because different team members bring new knowledge to the issue,
and because risk is often a function of knowledge.
 Motivation and confidence are likely to increase in decisions made in team
situations, because individual team members feel supported by others.
Major disadvantages of reaching important decisions as part of a team include
the following:
 Decisions can be made too soon: teams that feel uncomfortable with conflict
may decide on the first option which meets with some support from the
team members, regardless of whether this would be the best option.
 On the other hand, decisions can take too long, if the team cannot agree on
a topic.
 If the team structure has no hierarchy or leader, there may be a lack of
initiative and responsibility.
216 Professional Writing

 Teams may be influenced by one person, whose charismatic or persuasive

strengths may induce members to overlook pertinent factors in the problem
involved.
 If there is too much conflict in a team, the team may become inoperable or
ineffective.
 Teams may displace responsibility so that it may be difficult to hold a team or
an individual member accountable for a negative outcome.
Generally, good team dynamics are achieved in three main ways:
1 members are attracted to the team’s purpose
2 members share similar values, needs and interests
3 members fulfil for each other important interpersonal needs, such as
recognition (acknowledging each other’s point of view), inclusion (allowing
each member to play a role in activities) and ownership (allowing each
member to determine certain actions pertinent to the member’s role).

Task allocation
In order for teamwork to be productive more is needed than just faith in the
goodwill and competence of individual members. What is more essential is a
formally implemented system for duty allocation, negotiation, delegation of
duties, monitoring of progress and feedback.

tIp

Divide the project into tasks and allocate the tasks to each team member. Also,
ensure that everyone knows and agrees to his/her allocated tasks at the beginning of
the project.

Three common and effective models for organizing team projects are the
sequential, the functional and the mix-and-match. These are broad categories that
can be adapted and modified for particular situations.

The sequential model

In this type, each department/section in a company, or person in a group for
smaller projects, is assigned a specific, non-overlapping responsibility in the
project. Each department must finish its job before passing the material to
another department for the next stage.
 Working in Teams 217

The sequential type of collaboration can be effective at times, especially

when the work of each segment is specialized and each stage is self-sufficient.
However, projects completed sequentially take longer than when other methods
are employed, and a project manager is often necessary to coordinate the
project and to ensure that deadlines are kept, all parties understand requirements
and transitions from one stage to the next are smooth.

The functional model

This type is organized according to the skills or job function of the members. All
stages of a project are undertaken concurrently, and all parties can monitor
procedures at each stage. For example, a four-person team carrying out a user
documentation project for software might be organized as follows:
 A manager schedules and conducts meetings, assists team members, issues
progress reports to management, solves problems by proposing alternatives
and generally coordinates efforts to keep the project on schedule.
 A researcher collects data, conducts interviews, searches the literature,
administers tests, gathers and classifies information, and then prepares notes
on the work.
 A writer/editor receives the researcher’s notes, prepares outlines and drafts,
and circulates them for corrections and revisions.
 A graphics expert obtains and prepares all visuals, specifying why, how and
where visuals should be placed and designing the document layout. S/he
might even suggest that visuals replace certain sections of text.
All parties work on the project at the same time and interact regularly through
meetings and other forms of communication.

The mix-and-match model

In this type of collaboration, team members agree on shared objectives, and
then work independently on separate sections of the project by undertaking all
tasks. The team members meet at specified times to compare their work and
choose the best samples from each other’s work. This approach is constructive
in smaller-scale projects, when team members have similar skills but cannot
meet regularly.
A different version of this approach occurs when all members share the same
interactive software and can work on the same project concurrently, each
contributing according to their own skills which may or may not overlap. This
would most likely cut costs and reduce time, compared with the sequential
model, but it would necessitate that all members work cooperatively, and that
project milestones and outcomes are very clearly set out and agreed by all in
advance (to reduce the risk of “You’re treading on my toes” situations).
218 Professional Writing

The leader
In any kind of collaboration model, the role of a leader is vital. Even in cases
where, seemingly, the team works on egalitarian principles, and all team
members know their duties, liberties and constraints, the presence of a leader
can act as a unifying force that helps to maintain cohesion and stability. It is a
good idea to select a team leader to avoid the situation where the most
dominant personality takes over unofficially. Regardless of whether their focus is
to maintain cohesion or to initiate tasks, effective team leaders share certain
characteristics. According to Qubein (2008), these common characteristics are
that:
 They value people: they acknowledge the importance and contribution of
others
 They listen actively: they make an effort to understand the needs and desires
of others
 They are tactful: they criticize sparingly, constructively and diplomatically
 They give credit: they praise others and their contributions publicly
 They are consistent: they control their personal moods and are fair in their
exchanges with others
 They admit mistakes: they take the blame for errors they committed
 They have a sense of humour: they maintain a pleasant disposition and
pleasant manner
 They set a good example: they follow their own regulations.
Effective leaders are not only personally ambitious and well-organized, but
should also be people-oriented, willing to assist and direct subordinates, and
able to improvise and innovate in their field within ethical parameters.

Project management
A project in business and industry consists of a series of activities leading to one
major goal or purpose. Project management refers to the planning necessary to
complete a major project on time, within budget, according to specifications,
and with the consultation and consent of all relevant parties. Projects tend to
be undertaken by a project team, a group of people responsible for managing a
project. Projects usually begin with a proposal and end with a completed
outcome, and a final report showing how the initial goals were reached or not.
During the progress of a project, the team is generally required to submit
progress reports at specified times in order to keep management informed of
what has been achieved and what still remains to be done.
 Working in Teams 219

The components of effective project management are definition, planning

and direction. Briefly, project definition involves describing the envisioned final
product and its place in the market; planning involves identifying and
prioritizing the tasks necessary for the completion of the product; and
direction involves allocating roles to team members and setting a timeline for
the execution of tasks. Consider each component more carefully.
Definition: As the first step, a project is carefully defined. Aspects of project
definition include:

 Project overview: is the project attempting to solve a problem? If so, for

whom is this a problem? How is the problem defined? Is the project
creating a new product? What are the characteristics of this product?
What types of markets will it target?
 Scope: what issues, topics or features will the project cover? How much
detail will it provide? What are the parameters that project team members
must work within?
 Outcome: what will the result of the project be? For example, if a
computer system is being developed, what functions should it perform
and to what standard?
Planning: Each step in the process is planned before further action is taken.
Tasks undertaken in the planning stage include:
1 Identifying the steps required to complete the project
2 Listing the priorities: what should be done first, second, third?
3 Identifying dependent and independent tasks: which tasks need to be put
aside while other tasks are being completed? Which tasks are urgent, and
which may be delayed without damaging the project?
4 Creating a timeline for task completion and allocating roles to project
team members.
Project Managers usually divide tasks into three categories:
1 A critical task must be completed on time for the entire project to be
completed on time.
2 A milestone is an event that signifies the accomplishment of a series of tasks
during a project. A milestone often signals the ending of a stage or section in
the development of the project.
3 A deliverable is a concrete object produced at specific stages in the project
(and usually delivered to a manager or client). Deliverables are used in some
types of project management, like, for instance, software design and
engineering. For example, the systems requirements report, produced near
220 Professional Writing

the beginning of the project and describing what the projected software will
achieve, is a deliverable.

Direction: Each project is directed according to a line of responsibility. Project

managers are responsible for monitoring and controlling progress and
activities. Members of the project team report to managers, who in turn
report to upper level management and clients. Team members who are able
to meet all the requirements of the project at a minimum cost and on time
are highly valued.
The direction of a project also involves issues of resources, constraints and
risks, which may propel the project forward or inhibit its development:
 Resources: what advantages do the team have in undertaking the project?
Are they highly skilled? Do they have a large budget? Do they have
adequate time to complete all the tasks? Is up-to-date technology
available to them?
 Constraints: is the budget modest? Is the staff limited, in numbers or in
knowledge? Are there tight deadlines? Is there a lack of appropriate
technology?
 Risks: what are the possible dangers of the project and what can be done
to minimize them?
Two particular dangers that often arise in project management are known as
scope creep and feature creep. Both of these can lead to delays, incomplete
projects and conflicts within the project team.
Scope creep is exemplified by the tendency of stakeholders and project
participants to expect increasingly more from the outcome of the project as
it progresses. For example, businesses and users might expect increasing
functionality and performance from a computer system as the process of
developing the system unfolds.
Feature creep refers to the tendency to add more features and details to the
expected product of the project without bearing in mind that the
incorporation of these features will take extra time and money. The type of
project determines what kind of feature creep may exist. In software design,
for example, feature creep leads to the uncontrolled addition of technical
features to the software under development.
One way to keep the project under control and monitor progress is to have a
clear plan at the beginning, agreed upon by all members, to implement a
feedback process where any conflicts or miscommunication can be aired and
resolved, and to discuss progress at regularly organized meetings.
 Working in Teams 221

Team roles
Understanding the roles that are required for projects to progress smoothly can
help to allocate duties to individual team members and to select members who
are most likely to contribute positively to the successful completion of the
project. These are the concerns that led organizational psychologist Meredith
Belbin to formulate his inventory of team roles. Belbin distinguished nine roles
that team members tend to play in high-performing teams. These roles refer to
behaviours that team members exhibit, and they relate to individual
personalities but also to contextual factors such as the interactional exchanges
that take place during team projects. Belbin’s roles are:

Action-oriented roles
Shaper
Shapers urge the team to improve. They are dynamic and enthusiastic and
challenge others to find solutions to problems. They keep the team moving and
challenge the other members, keeping them from becoming too complacent.
Their potential weaknesses are that they can be aggressive and are not very tactful.

Implementer
Implementers have good organizational skills and get things done. They can
turn ideas into actions and are product- and results-oriented. Their potential
weakness is that they can be stubborn and adverse to change.

Completer–finisher
Completer–finishers finish projects. They are good at checking for errors and
delivering high-quality final results. They are detail-oriented and disciplined. Their
potential weaknesses are that they worry too much and can be control freaks.

People-oriented roles
Coordinator
Coordinators have good leadership skills and they know how to organize others
and delegate duties. They can identify objectives and select appropriate people
to meet them. Their potential weaknesses are that they can delegate too much
and, although they are excellent listeners, they can be manipulative.

Team worker
Team workers bring people together and cheer people up. They are supportive
and make good negotiators. They can be diplomatic and flexible. Their potential
weakness is that they can be indecisive.
222 Professional Writing

Resource investigator
Resource investigators are inquisitive and resourceful. They know how to
find information and bring together resources. Their potential weaknesses
are that they can be over-optimistic and may lose their enthusiasm if
discouraged.

Thought-oriented roles
Plant
Plants are the eccentrics in the team. They can be creative geniuses, who keep
the ideas coming. They are good at innovating. Their potential weaknesses
are that they can be hard to work with and may be impractical and
uncommunicative.

Monitor–evaluator
Monitor–evaluators are good at analyzing and evaluating ideas. They can be
shrewd and they have good judgement. They have a balanced approach and
are good critical thinkers, able to evaluate possibilities objectively. Their
potential weaknesses are that they can be detached and too critical.

Specialist
Specialists provide expert knowledge in the team and are skilled and
competent. They have a professional attitude and can focus on technical details
easily. Their potential weaknesses are that they might lose sight of the big
picture in favour of details and might overload people with information (www.
belbin.com).

Conflict
Conflict is embedded in human relations. It arises when there is incompatibility
of orientation between individuals or groups, and it can form in such situations
as when people have incompatible goals and behaviours, when resources need
to be allocated, and when decisions need to be made. Conflict is
associated with:
 Value: underlying values are different. This is arguably the most important
and serious type of conflict because values are entrenched in social
interaction and behaviour and are very difficult to change.
 Interests: what promotes one’s self-interest opposes another’s. For example,
when two colleagues compete for the same promotion, inevitably some
degree of conflict will arise.
 Working in Teams 223

 Policy: existing regulations do not reflect current needs. This often manifests
in cases where conflict leads to employees’ strikes or group protests. This is
what happens, for example, when prices increase but salaries remain static,
leading to a strike, or when women have achieved breakthroughs in social
equality, but legislation regulating gender issues remains at a primitive level,
leading to demonstrations or legal proceedings. Policy is very closely aligned
with value.
 Goals: there is controversy or disagreement about where a project is
heading. In a project, for example, some members may think the goal is to
produce routine results, whereas others may want to produce a radical
breakthrough.
 Method: there is controversy or disagreement about how to arrive at the
desired outcome. Such conflict may arise when one side is more optimistic
about the future, while the other side wants more control over a situation,
leading them to choose high-risk methods (such as war over negotiation, for
instance).

Similarly, conflict can be structural or substantive. In structural conflict, it is the

actual structure of the organization that creates the conflict. In substantive
conflict, the conflict exists in the issues associated with particular problems or
situations.
Managed properly, conflict can be constructive and result in growth
because it allows for different points of view to be aired and considered.
Managed badly, it can be destructive and costly – in resources and
relationships. Groups can suffer from two opposite evils: too little conflict,
and too much conflict. A little conflict can be a good thing for change and
rejuvenation of outmoded structures and beliefs. A lot of conflict, however, can
destroy a project and in serious cases even lead to costly lawsuits and official
investigations.
When teams are not working well, it can be a very serious matter, costing the
organization money and time. While the reasons that make a team
unproductive are not fixed or universal, there are some guidelines regarding
what could not be working right that can be used to clarify the situation:

 The team may lack a leader, or be burdened by an incompetent leader,

making it disorganized and dysfunctional as a result
 The team may be lacking the required specialist skills to tackle a project
expertly and confidently
 Members may feel their personal skills are not appreciated and they may lose
motivation (often the result of weak leadership or bad management)
224 Professional Writing

 The team may feel their efforts will not be supported by authorities and
funding agencies, especially if they are working under budget constraints
and/or on obscure or unpopular projects
 A conflict of values or expectations may exist where some team members
may expect different results from the project or the team may be expecting
different results from the management
 The objectives and scope of a project may be unclear, leading to
confusion
 Personal conflicts may hinder the achievement of goals. This is especially true
of competitive environments where people are not accustomed to working
cooperatively.

Managing conflict
As it probably has become clear from the preceding discussion, managing
conflict is no easy matter. In most aspects of interpersonal communication,
contextual factors, such as the setting of the interaction, the background of the
participants and the nature of the interaction, are important in pointing to the
most appropriate reactions, and conflict management is no exception to this.
However, as regards teamwork, a general process for managing conflict could
take this form:
1 Define the problem: The definition of the problem is the most important
step in finding a solution. In many cases there is low morale and a lack of
commitment by team members because there is a problem that has not
been voiced or made conscious within the group dynamics. An effective
method of discussing the problem that caused this conflict is to describe it in
writing. Each conflicting side should describe their perspective on the matter
as clearly and as objectively as possible, avoiding “I said/he said” type
criticism. It is also important to avoid generalizations, such as “they”,
“always”, “never”, etc., and to determine if the reaction is proportional to
the situation. In describing the issue, consider if it had objective grounds to
escalate into conflict, or if it is likely to have been caused by
misunderstanding.
2 Analyse the problem: Once the group agrees on the nature of the problem,
the next step is to analyse it in terms of size, causes and criteria of evaluation.
At this stage, it is important not to succumb to the temptation of listing
possible solutions before having analysed the problem thoroughly. Before
answering the question “What can be done to solve the conflict?”, team
members should answer “Why is this a conflict?” and “For whom is it a
conflict?”
 Working in Teams 225

3 Generate possible solutions: Brainstorming is usually an effective way

to generate ideas that could lead to the resolution of the conflict. At
this stage, evaluation or nitpicking criticism of ideas should be avoided,
and team members should produce as many possible solutions as they
can.
4 Evaluate and test the various solutions: After the brainstorming stage,
each possible resolution should be examined to ascertain its merits and
drawbacks. Factors to consider carefully include if the solutions are likely to
work, if they are fair to all and if they can be implemented easily. This should
eliminate the solutions that are not worthwhile and leave a reduced number
of options.
5 Choose a mutually acceptable solution: From the reduced number of
possible solutions the one that seems to be the most effective can be chosen
for a trial period. The best way to articulate this would be, once again, in
writing. At times choosing an option is a risky act, with no guarantees that
the selected solution will work. However, if the decision was reached by
(relative) consensus, all the parties involved will be responsible for testing it
and providing feedback.
One way to maximize the chances for keeping conflict under control is
to institute a feedback process, through which all team members air
complaints, express satisfaction and propose changes to the team structure
at specified intervals. During such feedback sessions, consider evaluating
your own and others’ contributions and participation with the criteria in
Table 9.1:

Table 9.1  Criteria for Evaluating Team Member Contributions

1 Team members are available when needed and are punctual and reliable
2 Team members communicate clearly and constructively – they provide feedback
3 Team members contribute equally to the project and carry out their tasks as
assigned
4 Team members help each other to manage conflict and act as intermediaries in
negotiations with other team members
5 Team members are serious about deadlines, protocols and constraints of the
project.

Effective listening
Effective listening contributes enormously to group dynamics and conflict
resolution. In interpersonal communication, poor listening skills are at fault in
226 Professional Writing

many cases of misunderstanding. Being a good listener makes one not only an
effective communicator but also a strong leader.
Listening involves the whole physical presence. When working with others,
much of the communication that takes place when suggesting, instructing,
requesting, criticizing, praising and negotiating is non-verbal. Listening actively
by making a physical and mental effort to understand what someone else is
saying engages the whole body, not just ears. It is a way of communicating that
signifies that you understand the feelings of the speaker and are interested in
their position, and that you are available and willing to consider the situation
impartially without judging or laying blame.
Here are six tips for active listening:
1 Stop talking: Many people talk too much because they feel uncomfortable
with silence. However, you cannot listen if you are talking.
2 Remove noise as much possible. “Noise” is used in the communication
sense of distractions to the unhindered transmission of the message.
Therefore, it refers not only to external factors such as street noise, but
also other factors, such as excessive heat or cold, and distracting
mannerisms. Common distracting mannerisms include clicking pens,
shuffling papers, checking clothing or fingernails and gazing around the
room. If you need to talk to a team member or colleague about something
serious, it is advisable to arrange a meeting in pleasant and relaxed
surroundings.
3 Ask open questions which begin with the 5Ws and 1H: what, when, why,
where, who and how. This helps to keep the conversation on the topic and
to obtain as much information as possible on it. When people answer W and
H questions, they must reply in full sentences, and so their replies are more
factual than they would be if the questions were of the “Do you…” type,
which elicits, simpler “yes-no” answers.
4 Be supportive. Let the other person know that you want to know what they
are talking about. It is well attested that most people will talk if they get
attention and interest from the listener. Sensing indifference or impatience
discourages a constructive response.
5 Respond to feelings. If the situation at hand has an emotional
investment by one or all the participants, it is best to acknowledge this.
Hidden or “bottled” feelings may cloud or sabotage the information you
require.
6 Summarize to check mutual understanding. A summary ensures that
both parties have the same understanding of what has been said and helps
to create closure to an issue or topic of discussion. In business, for example,
 Working in Teams 227

a summary is formalized in a Statement (or Memorandum) of

Understanding, which lists the points that have been agreed upon in a
previous discussion.

Avoiding Groupthink
The absence of conflict, although at first sight a good thing, can be problematic
if it indicates a phenomenon known as Groupthink. Groupthink was explored by
Yale sociologist Irving Janis, who was interested in understanding historical
cases where teams reached disastrous decisions because of Groupthink. Janis
found that in many of these cases the free voicing of concerns and dissent was
not encouraged, leading to parochialism and reluctance to express
disagreement, even when team members knew problems existed. This
uniformity of thought leads to stagnation and should be avoided in team
projects. Janis’s study identified some factors which can lead to Groupthink
(Table 9.2).

Table 9.2 Groupthink
•  Belief in being invincible: excessive optimism and unnecessary risk-taking.
•  Attempts to rationalize all issues: explaining away warnings or threats.
•  Belief in inherent morality: the belief that the team can do nothing wrong.
•  Stereotyping: the belief that others are too evil, stupid or weak to take seriously.
•  Direct pressure: forcing everyone in the team to conform.
•  Self-censorship: preventing oneself from voicing concern so as to maintain
consensus.
•  Belief in unanimity: the belief that everyone in the team agrees because no one raises
objections.
•  Imposing mind-guards: setting some team members as gatekeepers to keep external
influences at bay.
Adapted from Janis, 1982: 174–175.

Testimonials on teamwork
Below are extracts from evaluations of engineering team projects. These extracts
describe problems in unclear task allocation, inadequate structure of meetings,
lack of leadership and inadequate planning.
228 Professional Writing

Skills, tasks and roles

One good rule in forming a team is to pick members who have a nice
distribution of skills. A group whose members all specialize in the same
field may be very strong in that one area but lacking in many others.

Considering the allocation of roles, it took us some time to organize

ourselves. Our roles were overlapping and after some time we decided
to attribute ourselves some more precise functions. We realize that a
better way to do this would have been to have a clear definition of our
roles from the start, which would have optimized the time spent
during meetings by preventing significant overlap. For future teams,
we would recommend that the attribution of roles be done with
common accord and discussion between team members as early as
possible.

Defining roles and responsibilities at the beginning of the project

would have led to better distribution of work. More clear
responsibilities would also have been a good motivation for team
members to contribute to the project.

Agendas and structure of meetings

Agendas and schedules are helpful. Project groups cover many issues in
a meeting, and it is difficult to keep track of them all. Making a list
ensures that all points will be addressed and not forgotten. Schedules
help in time management. The large task of tackling a big design
project is much more manageable when broken down into smaller
tasks that can be knocked off one by one.

Our meetings were first planned electronically through email and

initiated by any member. During this preliminary organization stage,
an agenda could have been delivered, which would have added
structure and routine to our meetings.

Another way to enhance team efficiency is better routine. If we always

had the same meeting time on the same day, it would prevent
confusion and wasted time. The meetings would have more value since
people would always be conveniently prepared.
 Working in Teams 229

The lack of agendas and minutes also led to inefficiencies during team
meetings. This problem combined with the lack of clearly defined
roles, led to uncertainties during meetings as to what work needs to
be done. Without the project brief, which set milestones and
deliverable dates, little progress would have been made d­ uring
meetings.

Intra-group communication
A group should be flexible. It should be able to account for mistakes
and accidents and be able to change plans in case of emergencies or
failures. A team should not be so set on one solution that the whole
group dissolves when something goes wrong.

Problems that one member encounters should be brought to the

entire team, to make everyone aware of the issues that need
resolution and possibly to allow the team to resolve the problem
during a meeting.

Leadership
We recommend having a leader. Leaders help organize a group which
could otherwise be chaotic from miscommunication or personal
conflict. It is good to have someone who can mediate when there is a
problem or make executive decisions when the group cannot decide
together. The leader can also impose schedules to continue pushing
the project towards its goal in a timely manner.

Planning
Planning ahead and not procrastinating is key. Although teams can
complete a divided workload more quickly than an individual,
gathering and organizing the completed work takes extra time.
Procrastination is always bad, but with a group it can be even worse. It
is more difficult to gather a group, and not everyone may be available
at the same time.

Planning ahead allows more flexibility in schedules and allows for

unexpected conflicts. It also prevents the whole burden of the
project from being dumped on one responsible individual at
the last minute.
230 Professional Writing

Team charter
Here is a team charter template that you can use or adapt to plan and monitor
team projects.

Project title Objectives

Deliverables Milestones

Team Member Roles and Responsibilities

Name Role Tasks Deadline

Communication Protocol

Team rules Meeting dates Mode of communication

 Working in Teams 231

aCtivities

1 Assume you are the Founder and CEO of a new business. You have an executive
team of five people and are now preparing to write a business plan to gain
investments and funding. Organize the tasks leading to the business plan in
project management fashion, and allocate roles and responsibilities to all team
members. Set your project out using the templates and guidelines proposed in
this chapter.
2 What would you say are the organizational problems that the following statements
signify? Some statements may indicate more than one communication problem.
 “Our team could tell you how to achieve this in half the time and cost, but if
this became public, they’d probably dismantle the team.”
 “I could have told management this would happen, but I didn’t think they
would listen, and I wasn’t asked anyway.”
 “There’s a better way to do this, but I doubt the project manager would want to
learn about it.”
 “The design team originally made this suggestion, and it eventually made
millions for the company. But the design team got nothing out of it.”
 “I didn’t know this was the correct procedure.”

References and further reading

Belbin, M. (2012) Team roles at work, 2nd edition. London: Routledge.
Cobb, A. (2013) Leading project teams: The basics of project management and team leader-
ship, 2nd edition. London: Sage.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2003) Good business: Leadership, flow and the making of meaning.
London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Dowling, G., & Moran, P. (2012) Corporate reputations. California Management Review,
54(2), pp. 25–42.
Janis, I. L. (1982) Groupthink: Psychological studies of policy decisions and fiascoes,
2nd edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Joshi, A., Lazarova, M. B., & Liao, H. (2009) Getting everyone on board: The role of inspi-
rational leadership in geographically dispersed teams. Organization Science, 20(1),
pp. 240–252.
Northouse, P. G. (2012) Leadership: Theory and practice, 6th edition. New York: Sage.
Qubein, N. R. (2008) How to be a great communicator. Oxford: Wiley.
Walker, R., & Aritz, J. (2014) Leadership talk: A discourse approach to leader emergence. New
York: Business Expert Press.
 Chapter

10
Revising and Editing

Focus:
 Revising a document
 Editing a document
 Sentence structure
 Grammar

This chapter provides guidelines on revising, editing and sentence structure. It

aims to give an awareness of the communicative effects of grammatical structures
and enable you to gain control over the “mechanics” of writing. The chapter
begins with an overview of sentence structure, and proceeds by explaining some
common language troublespots – active and passive voice, participial phrases,
subject–verb–pronoun agreement, punctuation and relative clauses. The chapter
ends with a discussion of revising and editing considerations.
The guidelines presented here should help you to produce grammatically
correct prose, whatever the context and purpose of the document. Knowing
rules and conventions of writing confers confidence and credibility, even in
cases where a writer decides to deliberately ignore these rules and conventions.
In the famous words of T.S. Eliot, “it is not wise to violate the rules until you
know how to observe them” (cited in Ivers, 2010, p. 46).

Sentence structure
A. Sentences and phrases
The minimal definition of a sentence is a word group that contains a subject
(someone or something that carries out an action – the agent of an action) and
a verb (the action carried out). This minimal word group is called a clause. Many

232
 Revising and Editing 233

sentences also contain an object (the recipient of the action, or the thing or
person acted upon).

The report recommended changes

Subject Verb Object

If the word group has no subject or no verb, but still makes some basic sense by
evoking an image, it is a phrase. This is not a complete sentence; it is a
fragment. Fragments do have their place in writing: they create colourful and
imagistic effects. However, although their use is justified and often even
expected in creative writing and many kinds of journalism, fragments are
basically ungrammatical and should be avoided in formal or specialist style.

Phrase: Trying to come to a decision.

Sentence: Trying to come to a decision, the project members considered all
options.

To write complete sentences, make sure you have these elements:

1 A verb that shows time: something happens or is described in the past,
present or future. If the word group has no verb at all, it is a fragment,
because nothing happens. Also, make sure your verb has a tense (time
element). Even if a word group contains a verb, it fails as a complete
sentence if the verb has no tense.

Fragment: The committee considering the proposal.

Sentence: The committee considered the proposal (past tense).
Sentence: The committee considers the proposal (present tense).
Sentence: The committee will consider the proposal (future tense).

Some verbs have no tenses, for example, infinitives (to do words) and gerunds
(-ing words).
-ing words can function in different ways in a sentence:

1 A participial form of a verb: Having agreed to collaborate on the project,

the engineers formed their teams. This is actually a reduced subordinate
clause: After they had agreed to collaborate on the project, the engineers
formed their teams.
2 A verb in a continuous tense: The excavation continued while it was
raining. In this case, the -ing word is preceded by the verb be (was, were,
am, will be, etc.).
3 A gerund: Walking is good exercise. A gerund can be the subject of a
sentence, and functions as a noun.
234 Professional Writing

4 An adjective: It is tedious to attend boring meetings. In this case, the -ing

word qualifies a noun by describing its attributes (interesting, exciting,
frustrating, amusing, etc.).
2 The absence of a subordinating conjunction: a word group ceases to be a
complete sentence if a subordinating conjunction is placed in front of it.
Subordinating conjunctions include:

after if until
although in case when
as provided that whenever
as if since whereas
as though so that whether
because that which
before unless while

Consider, for example, this:

While common law has long implied that there is a requirement for mutual
respect and fair dealings in the employment relationship.
The word “while” at the beginning of the sentence implies that there is a
second part to this sentence, which contrasts the information given in the
first. Without this second part, the sentence is not complete. To correct this
problem, either put a comma after “relationship” and add another clause or
remove “while”.

B. Types of sentences
Sentences are classified into four categories:

Simple sentences contain one main clause.

The report recommended changes.

Compound sentences contain two or more main clauses connected with

conjunctions.
The report recommended changes and established deadlines.

Complex sentences contain one main clause and one or more subordinate
clauses (clauses that would be fragments if disconnected from the main clause).
(a) The report, which will form the basis of our decision, recommended
changes.
(b) The report recommended changes because these are the only way to
solve the problem.
 Revising and Editing 235

Compound-complex sentences contain two or more main clauses and one or

more subordinate clauses.
The report recommended changes and established deadlines, because that is
the only way to solve the problem.

Note that sentence types are more about the prioritization of information than
about length. In fact, a simple sentence can be much longer than a complex
one, as seen in these examples:

Complex sentence: The applicants who were rejected were permitted to apply
for the other position.
Simple sentence: After much deliberation and a lot of debate over several
meetings, the project members decided reluctantly to accept the committee’s
proposal to re-design the bridge.

The first stage where you begin your crafting of style is the sentence.
Therefore, the more practice you give yourself in constructing different types
of sentences and observing their effects, the more aware you become of
writing style.

C. Coordinating, subordinating and adverbial conjunctions

These words are important because they show if the information you write can
be put in one sentence or two. Using different conjunctions brings variety to
your writing and also allows you to distribute information in different ways, with
a different rhythm and effect. To use these correctly, you must be aware of some
grammatical rules.

Coordinating conjunctions can connect two clauses in one sentence, which

becomes a compound sentence, giving equal value to both clauses.
Coordinating conjunctions are known by the mnemonic FANBOYS – for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, so.
The weather was treacherous but the project team did not postpone the
expedition.

Subordinating conjunctions connect a subordinate clause to a main one and

create a complex sentence. The information placed in the subordinate clause is
of secondary importance, even if it comes first in the sentence. Subordinating
conjunctions include although, because, whereas.

Although the weather was treacherous, the project team did not postpone
the expedition.
236 Professional Writing

Adverbial conjunctions are actually adverbs that qualify the relationship

between two sentences. They always link two sentences and require appropriate
punctuation (see section on punctuation below). Use these conjunctions when
you want to elaborate on two points and develop them into two separate
sentences. Adverbial conjunctions include however, nevertheless, furthermore,
therefore, consequently.

The weather was treacherous. However, the project team did not postpone the
expedition.

Relative clauses: which and that

Subordinate clauses can be adverbial, showing contrast, cause or result
(although, because), or they can be relative, showing detail about a person,
event or thing (who, which). Grammatically, both which and that are
subordinating conjunctions, signalling a subordinate clause. However, they
are not used interchangeably and some thought is needed on their use.
The clause that begins with which gives information about the noun that
directly precedes it. If the which clause in a sentence is necessary to define the
identity of the noun that precedes it, do not separate the noun from the which
clause with a comma. In such cases, the which clause is called a defining or
restrictive clause. The sentences below illustrate this.
1 The committee accepted the proposal which the project team had been
working on for months.
2 The committee accepted the proposal, which the project team had been
working on for months.
In the first sentence, the word proposal is relative. That is, the sentence literally
means that the project team submitted several proposals and the committee
accepted the one that the team had been working on for months. In this case,
the which clause is defining and does not require a comma preceding it. It
defines which of the proposals was accepted. In a defining clause, which could
be replaced with that.
In the second sentence, on the other hand, the word proposal is absolute.
That is, the sentence literally means that there is just one proposal in question
here. In this case, the which clause is non-defining, meaning that it is not
necessary in order to determine the identity of the noun that precedes it. In a
non-defining clause, it could not be replaced with that, and always requires a
comma to set it off from the main clause.
 Revising and Editing 237

tIp

Because of this double use of which, it has become common practice in professional
contexts to avoid it in defining clauses. Use that in defining clauses, and which in
non-defining clauses.

1 Entrepreneurs, who have an adventurous spirit, need to be resilient and

adaptable.
– All entrepreneurs have an adventurous spirit.

2 Entrepreneurs who have an adventurous spirit need to be resilient and

adaptable.
– Only the entrepreneurs who have an adventurous spirit need to be
resilient and adaptable, not the rest.

Global which
You can also use a which clause to refer to the whole statement that precedes it.
In such cases, do not use that. In these cases, always put a comma before the
clause that begins with which.
1 The troops surrendered their weapons, which surprised the army command.
2 The candidate did not get the position, which was a mistake.
However, because a global which is often ambiguous, it is best to avoid it where
possible in formal writing. For example, the above sentences would be more
precise as below.
1 The army command was surprised that the troops surrendered their weapons.
2 Not giving the candidate the position was a mistake.

Relative clauses activity

Rewrite these sentences to avoid ambiguity.
1 The interest rates fell by 5%, that is interesting.
2 The equipment which we ordered arrived on time which was a great relief.
3 There is only one solution to the problem, which is the course of action,
which we must take.
4 Here is a program which eliminates many of the problems which the team
has had with previous models.
5 Methodologies which are a formalized approach to implementing the system
vary in their approach which involves both analysis and design.
238 Professional Writing

6 One major problem in science is that no matter how extensively a subject is

researched, there will still remain the unknown variable of “time”, which
often reveals something which was not considered.

Active and passive voice

The active and passive voices are a major concern for writers, as they can colour
a text profoundly by disclosing or revealing information and by highlighting
different elements of the sentence. The active voice emphasizes the agent and
the action of a sentence. The passive voice, on the other hand, emphasizes the
object, person or thing acted upon. Therefore, using one or the other should be
a strategic choice. For example:

Active: The manager signed the contract.

Passive: The contract was signed by the manager.
Word order of active voice: subject + verb + object.
Word order of passive voice: object + be + past participle [optionally + by +
subject].

Using active or passive voice is not just a matter of variety. As happens also with
other forms of sentence manipulation, it orders and prioritizes information and,
therefore, has an evaluative function. Some people (and grammar checkers)
harbour deep suspicions about the passive voice. They will tell you to use the
active where possible. There are three reasons for this:
1 The passive voice emphasizes the object, which does not carry out any action
(it is acted upon). Therefore, the verb of the sentence becomes weaker. The
information content of the sentence appears to be static rather than
dynamic. This may be required in some cases (as discussed below). However,
if it is not a deliberate choice, the passive may better be avoided to prevent
weakening the sentence.
2 Often, the passive voice conceals the agent of the action, or at least
subordinates it. This may be unacceptable in certain cases where stated
responsibility for an action is required for clarity or ethics.
3 Conciseness is valued in many contexts, especially in business and public
writing, and the passive voice adds words to sentences.
However, the passive voice has a definite role for these purposes:
1 The agent is unimportant and, in fact, mentioning the agent may make the
sentence awkward:
Awkward active: I/we use the passive voice to move components around
in a sentence.
 Revising and Editing 239

Preferred passive: The passive voice is used to move components around

in a sentence.
Awkward active: Trucks take the logs to the factory for processing.
Preferred passive: The logs are taken to the factory for processing.

This purpose of the passive is most evident in scientific writing, where processes
and procedures are important because of the results and observations they lead
to, rather than because of the personal role of the scientists themselves in
carrying out the process. Notice also that, in this case, the agent is not
mentioned at all in the sentence.

2 The agent is unknown:

Awkward active: Someone stole the computer from the lab.

Preferred passive: The computer was stolen from the lab.

In this case, the agent is unknown and emphasis falls on the event. In fact, in
some cases, such as in police reports, it would be misleading to include an
agent as perpetrator of a deed, if the identity of this agent is unknown or
uncertain.

3 The agent is collective:

Awkward active: People/Farmers grow tea in India.

Preferred passive: Tea is grown in India.

In this case, the subject is not an individual, and the result or process is more
important.
There are occasions where using the active voice is a far more advisable
choice. As noted above, one occasion is when you want to produce a sharp,
energetic and concise style. Another occasion is when your writing involves
assuming or attributing responsibility for decisions and making these decisions
more personal. In many occasions, the passive voice is used to conceal the
agents responsible for certain actions, and this can give a harsh and impersonal
impression. For example, the impersonal nature of the following sentence gives
it bad audience dynamics:

Awkward passive: Your proposal has been considered and it has been
decided to reject it.
Preferred active: The Housing Board considered your proposal and the
executive committee decided to reject it.

In important writing, such as proposals, formal business reports and official

documents, the readers want to know who they are dealing with in order to
ascertain who is responsible for different actions. In such cases, use the passive
240 Professional Writing

voice with the utmost care to avoid misunderstandings and conflict. The same
situation occurs when you write about plans, decisions and reactions to events.
Using the passive in such cases mystifies the topic, since the agents remain
unknown, and produces a generalized and vague effect unsuited to professional
writing.
Consider this extract. The first sentence is acceptable because it sets the
scene and focuses on a process. Notice, however, how the use of the passive
voice in the other two sentences puts the writer in a distant and detached
position that leaves the reader with a general impression of the situation but
with no specific, factual information. Who raised questions? Who questioned
the ethical viability of GMF procedures?
Genetically Modified Foods (GMF) have been used commercially in food
products available to the general public since 1996. This was met with
general outcry, and many questions were raised about the safety of the
products. The ethical viability of such procedures and the impact that GMF
would have on the environment were also questioned.

Passive sentences in the active voice

Sometimes a sentence is considered passive because its content is not dynamic
even though the sentence might be written in the active voice. A passive
sentence is not necessarily a passive voice sentence.
Passive voice sentence with dynamic content: One third of the country’s
population was killed by the hurricane.
Active voice sentence with passive content: There is tranquillity and peace
in the tropical island lifestyle.

Active and passive voice activities

1 Convert these sentences into the passive, if possible, and discuss their effects.
1 The experts that the CEO invited confirmed the gravity of the situation.
2 The terrorist squad disarmed the bomb that threatened to destroy the
building.
3 The project team leader could not organize the meeting because he broke
his leg.
4 The manager decided to extend the deadline by a week to allow the team
to finish the first part of the project.
5 Astronomers have discovered a bizarre planet, which is said to orbit our
sun in the opposite direction, far beyond Pluto.
 Revising and Editing 241

Now convert these sentences into the active and discuss their effects.
1 The chemicals are sealed in containers and taken to the laboratory for tests.
2 The analyst felt sure that the files had been tampered with.
3 The plan was approved and permission has been granted to begin
implementing it.
4 Your report should be revised carefully before it is submitted for
consideration.
5 The discovery of the double helix of DNA was announced by James
Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.

2 This extract is written mostly in the passive. Rewrite it using active structures
and making any other necessary changes. Then observe and discuss the
effect of the two versions.
The Employment Contracts Act 1991 has been controversial since it came
into force. Generally, it has been opposed by trade unions and supported
by employers’ organizations, although different views might have been
held by individual unions and employers. In this Act, the machinery of
Industrial Conciliation as the primary means of wage fixing was abolished.
Also, state sponsorship of the trade union was ended, and protected
status taken away from employees. Trade Unionism has been affected
substantially by the 1991 Act, and the power in industrial relations was
tilted towards employers.
In contrast, in the Employment Relations Act 2000 unions are given the
right to represent their members in bargaining for collective employment
agreement with employers. This is particularly significant because only
union members can be covered by collective agreement. Collective
bargaining may be undertaken by non-union members, but any
agreement that is reached will be individual.

Participial phrases
Participial phrases contain the past participle of a verb (generally, verbs ending
in -ing, -en and -ed) and no subject. Participials reduce clauses that show a
temporal (before, after), or a causal (because, so) relationship. They add variety
and, often, formality to your writing, and are useful stylistic choices. Study these
sentences and their participial alternatives, and notice how using this
construction can introduce variety in your writing:

Compound sentence: The CEO agreed to support the proposal, so she

attended this month’s meeting.
242 Professional Writing

Sentence beginning with participial phrase: Having agreed to support the

proposal, the CEO attended this month’s meeting.
Sentence with subordinate clause: Many investors are turning to mutual
funds this year, because they think that interest rates will fall even further.
Sentence beginning with a participial phrase: Thinking interest rates will
fall even further, many investors are turning to mutual funds this year.

Participial phrases generally serve the following functions:

(a) they help keep your writing concise by reducing words
(b) they provide you with a tool to give your writing more variety
(c) they can make your writing more formal.

Frequent error with participial phrases

Using participial phrases incorrectly may lead to the common error known as
dangling modifier. This occurs when the verb of the participial phrase does not
agree with the noun immediately following the participial phrase:
Dangling modifier: While inspecting the nuclear reactor, a loud crash
alarmed the supervision team.
– was the loud crash inspecting the nuclear reactor?
Corrected: While inspecting the nuclear reactor, the supervision team was
alarmed by a loud crash.
– note that to correct the relation while keeping the participial phrase, the
sentence has to change from active to passive voice.
Corrected: The loud crash alarmed the supervision team, while they were
inspecting the nuclear reactor.
– this removes the participial phrase and adds a full subordinate clause
Dangling modifier: Having solved the problem, it was easy for him to get
any job he wanted.
Corrected: Having solved the problem, he could get any job he wanted.

Participial phrases activity

Combine the following sentences by turning one of them into a participial
phrase.
1 The Managing Director allocated an extra $2 million to our department. He
was pleasantly disposed towards our supervisor’s project.
2 The General Manager was faced with numerous accusations of misconduct.
He was forced to resign in June.
 Revising and Editing 243

3 Small business owners can give too little attention to choosing a good
location for their business. This results in lower profits or even bankruptcy.
4 She attained a good reputation and the admiration of her colleagues in the
corporation. Because of this status, she had no problem finding a new job.
5 The Employment Relations Act is based largely on the presumption that the
employment relationship is a human relationship. With this attitude, it has
been possible to solve successfully many disputes.
6 The unexpected settlement money that the company won in the court case
gave them the opportunity to expand their business internationally. This resulted
in a surge in confidence and increased optimism among all company members.

Subject–verb–pronoun agreement
A common troublespot in writing is misusing a singular verb with a plural
subject and vice versa, or a plural verb with a singular pronoun and vice versa.
This sentence, for example, comes from a professional document:
Incorrect: The facts in the case and all the evidence provided has been
considered in the final decision.
Correct: The facts in the case and all the evidence provided have been
considered in the final decision.
In the incorrect version of the sentence, the verb “has been” does not agree with
the subject, which is “the facts in the case and all the evidence provided”. The writer
wrongly assumed that the word closest to the verb, “evidence”, is the subject.
Some general guidelines for correct subject–verb–pronoun agreement are:
1 Collective nouns (such as police, family, government, team, audience, etc.) can
take a singular or a plural verb. Your choice depends on whether you want to
emphasize their collective nature or the fact that they are composed of
individuals. However, ensure that if you use a pronoun to refer to a collective
noun, it has the same number as the verb:
Incorrect: The audience showed its appreciation. They gave the speaker a
standing ovation.
Correct: The audience showed their appreciation. They gave the speaker a
standing ovation.
2 Correlative conjunctions (either-or, neither-nor, not only-but also) have two
subjects. In this case, the verb must agree with the subject closest to it:
Incorrect: Not only the workers but also the supervisor were affected by
the fumes.
244 Professional Writing

Correct: Not only the workers but also the supervisor was affected by the fumes.
Incorrect: Not only the supervisor but also the workers was affected by
the fumes.
Correct: Not only the supervisor but also the workers were affected by
the fumes.
3 Phrases separating the subject and the verb do not affect the number of the
verb or pronoun:
Incorrect: The scientist, together with his troupe of devoted followers and
supporters, have occupied the second floor of the building.
Correct: The scientist, together with his troupe of devoted followers and
supporters, has occupied the second floor of the building.
However, subjects joined by “and” or “both-and” are plural and take a plural
verb:
Incorrect: The scientist and his troupe of devoted followers has occupied the
second floor of the building.
Correct: The scientist and his troupe of devoted followers have occupied the
second floor of the building.
4 The pronouns “each”, “every”, “anyone”, “everyone” “no one” are singular
and should take singular verbs and pronouns.
Incorrect: He stated that anybody is welcome to apply for membership; as
for applications, each is to be assessed according to their own merit.
Correct: He stated that anybody is welcome to apply for membership; as for
applications, each is to be assessed according to its own merit.
In informal writing, as in speaking, this rule is often bypassed to avoid
cumbersome sentences.
Informal: Everyone brought their books.
Formal: Everyone brought his/her books.

Subject–verb–pronoun agreement activity

Select the correct verbs in the following sentences:
1 The mob (was, were) mindless of the consequences of their actions.
2 Neither the general nor his men (was, were) prepared for the sudden attack;
not only the men but also their leader (were, was) ready to retreat.
3 Assessments of essays and the exam (is, are) expected to be completed
tomorrow.
 Revising and Editing 245

4 An estimation of profits and losses (are, is) advisable before deciding.

5 The lecturer, together with her tutors (are, is) going to attend the meeting.
6 Confidence and initiative and courage to take risks (lead, leads) to
promotion in that field.
7 The issue most on his mind (are, is) efforts to negotiate a settlement.
8 The audience (were, was) conscious of its power to influence the course of
the performance.
9 The decision to install the new computers and to update the
software programs (has been, have been) finalized by the
executive committee.
10 Sharks, because of their secretive nature, and potentially aggressive
behaviour, (has been, have been) a difficult topic of study.

Punctuation
Punctuation marks introduce rhythm and pace to the written text. Although
they do serve to reflect in written form the dynamic aspects of speech, it would
be misleading to equate them with the breathing patterns of speaking because
punctuation follows syntactic (that is, grammatical), and not phonetic or
physical aspects of language. Therefore, reading a text aloud is not an accurate
means of deciding where to insert a punctuation mark nor what this mark
should be. In this respect, punctuation is one of the most misunderstood
aspects of writing. There are some grammatical rules that writers should know.
This section overviews these rules.
A comma is the weakest pause mark. Others, in order of increasing duration
or suddenness of the pause, include:
semicolon – ;
colon – :
ellipsis – …
en dash – –
quotation marks – “…”
full stop (period) – .
exclamation mark – !
question mark – ?
Correct use of punctuation has changed over the years. Older texts often
use punctuation quite differently from modern texts. The following guide
gives you an overview of punctuation usage that is the current international
standard.
246 Professional Writing

Comma
Three main categories cover most of the cases when a comma is required:
1 Inserting words, phrases or clauses into a sentence
We often add extra information to the basic core of sentences by adding
phrases that give more detail, help to keep the reader on track or just generally
add more variety to sentence structure. When adding phrases to a sentence, or
moving phrases out of place to add variety, set off these additions and
interjections with commas. These changes are made in three places:

a)  Sentence openers

Adverbial conjunctions: However, I ...
Interjections: Well, I ...
Adverbs: Often, I ...
Prepositional phrases: In board meetings, I ...
Participial phrases: Having completed the project, I ...
Adverbial clauses: Whenever I try to think, I ...
Appositives: A successful entrepreneur, Steve Jobs ...
A frequent question is if a comma is always needed after a prepositional phrase
that begins the sentence. The ideal answer is yes: you cannot go wrong by
including a comma after a phrase, to set it off from the sentence that it
modifies. However, if the sentence is easily read and understood without the
comma, and there are typographical space limitations, omit it.
Easily understood sentence: At present (,) the company does not have a
financial manager.
Confusing sentence: After moving the tenants, who inherited one million
dollars, bought their own mansion.
Corrected: After moving, the tenants, who inherited one million dollars,
bought their own mansion.
b)  Sentence insertions
These have the same function as the openers but produce a less emphatic
effect. For example:
Inserted participial phrase: The executive, having completed the project,
decided to take a break.

tIp

If you use insertions, remember to use commas at both ends.

 Revising and Editing 247

c) Sentence enders
Inserting a phrase or clause at the end of a sentence gives the least emphasis to
the information contained in that phrase or clause. For example:
Participial phrase ending the sentence: Give this to the President, the
woman sitting next to the door.

2 Joining two clauses with for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (coordinating
conjunctions).
Two sentences can be joined with a coordinating conjunction:
Simple sentences: I took part in the competition. I came first.
Compound sentence: I took part in the competition and I came first.
A frequent question is if a comma is needed before a coordinating conjunction.
Grammatically, the conjunction is enough to combine two clauses and no
comma is needed. The comma before a coordinating conjunction, also
known as Oxford comma or, more disturbingly, as serial comma, is attributed to
Horace Hart, printer of the Oxford University Press from 1893 to 1915, who
recommended using it for clarity. Some style guides, such as the American
Psychological Association (APA), endorse its use, while others, including,
paradoxically, the University of Oxford style guide, propose using it only in cases
of ambiguity. The best advice is to be guided by context and clarity in this.
3 Listing items in a series
A comma is used to list items in the same category in one sentence.
Listing items: The position requires writing annual reports, internal
memoranda, newsletters and online documentation.

Frequent errors with the comma

A. Comma Splice
Comma Splice occurs when you join two full sentences with a comma. This is
corrected by inserting a period (or full stop in UK), a semicolon or a
coordinating conjunction in the place of the comma.
Comma Splice: The committee contributed to the project by sending
delegates to the meeting, however, these delegates were not adequately
informed of recent developments in software design.
Corrected using full stop: The committee contributed to the project
by sending delegates to the meeting. However, these delegates were
not adequately informed of recent developments in software design.
Corrected using semicolon: The committee contributed to the project by
sending delegates to the meeting; however, these delegates were not
adequately informed of recent developments in software design.
248 Professional Writing

Corrected using coordinating conjunction: The committee contributed to

the project by sending delegates to the meeting but these delegates were
not adequately informed of recent developments in software design.
B. Subject–Verb Disjunction
Subject–verb disjunction occurs when the subject is separated from its verb with a
comma. Subjects may be separated from verbs only with phrases and subordinate
clauses. In these cases, commas are inserted at either end of the phrase or clause.
This way, the phrase or clause is set off from the rest of the sentence.
Incorrect: Authorized to seal the agreement, the company representatives,
will meet with each board member individually during their visit.
Correct: The company representatives, who are authorized to seal the
agreement, will meet with each board member individually during their visit.
Incorrect: Designers, play a pivotal role in the success of marketing
products, through their skills in attractive presentation.
Correct: Designers play a pivotal role in the success of marketing products,
through their skills in attractive presentation.
Correct: Designers, through their skills in attractive presentation, play a
pivotal role in the success of marketing products.

Semicolon
The semicolon is used in the following cases:
1 It joins together two independent sentences. It indicates a stronger pause
than a comma, but a shorter one than the full stop, and shows that there is a
close relationship between the two joined sentences. For instance, the first
example below consists of two sentences that distribute information equally.
The second example below consists of one sentence with two clauses joined
with a semicolon. This suggests that the second clause is directly related to
the first as an explanation or result.
Two sentences: Branding is a major stage in the marketing process. It determines
how consumers will visualise and relate to the product through its name.
Two clauses joined with semicolon: Branding is a major stage in the
marketing process; it determines how consumers will visualize and relate to
the product through its name.
2 It separates items in a list, when one item or more in the list already contain
a comma. The sentence below illustrates this.
Listing with semicolons: Attendees from overseas should submit a copy of
their passport, showing the photo page; a certified cheque or money order,
payable in local currency; and a completed application form.
 Revising and Editing 249

Frequent errors with the semicolon

A. Connecting a phrase to a sentence
This error occurs when a semicolon is used to connect a phrase to a clause. The
correct punctuation mark for this case is the comma.
Incorrect: The project team could not continue with the intended plan;
having encountered unexpected opposition from major stockholders.
Correct: Having encountered unexpected opposition from major
stockholders, the project team could not continue with the intended plan.
Correct: The project team could not continue with the intended plan,
having encountered unexpected opposition from major stockholders.
Correct: The project team, having encountered unexpected opposition
from major stockholders, could not continue with the intended plan.
B. Introducing a list
This error occurs when a semicolon is used to introduce a list of items or bullet
points. The correct punctuation mark for this case is the colon.
Incorrect: With your application include the following;
 A complete CV with contact details of three referees
 Transcripts of academic qualifications
 A completed application cover form.
Correct: With your application, include the following:
 A complete CV with contact details of three referees
 Transcripts of academic qualifications
 A completed application cover form.

Colon
The colon has the following uses:
1 It introduces quotations a sentence or longer in length. If the quotation
consists of a few words, a comma will suffice.
No use of colon before quotation: The CEO made it clear that “only under
exceptional circumstances” will the plan change.
Use of colon before quotation: The CEO made it clear that “only under
exceptional circumstances” will the plan change. He said: “The situation is
pretty clear-cut. The majority of stockholders have voted for the new system
to be implemented on an experimental basis for three months. Until this
trial period passes, there is nothing more to be done.”
250 Professional Writing

2 It introduces a list of things, whether the list is written in-line or vertically.

Three groups may attend the meeting:
 Members of the executive committee
 Press representatives
 Stockholders
3 It shows the outcome or effect of an action. In this case, the colon plays a
similar role to a semicolon. However, it has a more visual, and, therefore,
more dramatic effect than a semicolon.
He looked at an amazing sight: the house had totally collapsed.

Ellipsis
Ellipsis marks are much rarer in business writing than in creative or informal writing,
because they reflect an incompleteness that is inconsistent with the purposes of
professional documents. Ellipsis marks are mainly used for the following purposes:
1 To show hesitation or interruption. This is the most conversational use of the
ellipsis, very rare in business writing. The extract below, from one of Ian
Rankin’s Inspector Rebus novels, exemplifies this in the representation of
Rebus’ meandering train of thought:

Rebus commiserated for a couple of minutes, thinking of his own doctor’s

appointment, the one he was missing yet again by making this call. When he put the
phone down, he scribbled the name Marr on to his pad and circled it. Ranald Marr,
with his Maserati and toy soldiers. You’d almost have thought he’d lost a daughter…
Rebus was beginning to revise that opinion. He wondered if Marr knew how
precarious his job was, knew that the mere thought of their savings catching a cold
might spur the small investors on, demanding a sacrifice … (Rankin, 2001, p. 352).

2 In quotations, to show that a part of the speaker’s statement has been

omitted, usually because it was irrelevant to the writer’s main concern. This is
the most common use of ellipsis in business and academic writing. To show
that the ellipsis is not part of the quotation, enclose it in square brackets. For
example, in the quotation below I have included the introductory sentence
to a section, then omitted the remainder of that paragraph going straight on
to the next paragraph, from where I have also omitted a few words that refer
to a diagram that is irrelevant to my discussion:
“All researchers must support contestable claims with evidence, but they
must then explain that evidence, treating each major bit of evidence as a
 Revising and Editing 251

claim in a secondary argument that needs its own evidence. […] If you
like doing things visually, put this on a wall-sized chart. Pin up index
cards […], then try different combinations of secondary arguments.”

Dash
Dashes have the following uses:
1 They enclose information that is secondary to the main point of the sentence
and that can be omitted or skipped – similar to brackets (parentheses). In this
case, a dash goes at each end of the additional information. Avoid this in
sentences that contain important information or when you want the readers’
undivided attention, because, like brackets, dashes show a divergence from
the main issue and can be distracting. Also, keep in mind that they can make
a sentence unnecessarily long, so, where conciseness or directness are your
aim, avoid them.

1 She would have liked to see those letters. Chances were, they couldn’t be
recovered, either because they’d perished – been disposed of with Lovell’s effects
when he’d died – or had gone overseas. An awful lot of historical documentation
had found its way into collections overseas – mostly Canada and the US – and
many of these collections were private, which meant few details of their contents
were available (Rankin, 2001, p. 228).
2 Both developers were away from the meeting – one at home sick, the other
attending a trade fair – so no major decisions were made that would affect the
outcome of the project.

2 They have a similar function to the colon in introducing a set of items, and to
the comma in setting off a comment on the information presented in the
main clause. As opposed to the colon or comma, however, the dash makes
the information it sets off more emphatic. In this case, the dash can actually
make the sentence more concise by enabling the omission of introductory
phrases or subordinate clauses. Place the dash before the additional
information at the end of the sentence.

1 The CEO’s decision to support the proposal was welcomed by stockholders – an

unusual reception given the controversial nature of the proposal.
2 An unprecedented number of professionals attended the meeting – most of them
engineers.
252 Professional Writing

Apostrophe
Apostrophes are used for two purposes:
1 They show possession or ownership. In this case, they come before the
possessive s. If the word already ends with an s, such as in plurals (pen-pens),
in some names (Mars, Ross) or in some nouns (boss, albatross), the
apostrophe comes after the s.

– the dog’s tail (one dog)

– the dogs’ tails (more than one dog)
– the student’s grade (one student)
– the students’ grades (more than one student)
– the boss’ plan (one boss)
– the bosses’ plans (more than one boss)

2 They make contractions (combine two words into one). In this case, the
apostrophe shows that there is a word, like is, has or not, missing. This is not
a frequent use of apostrophes in professional writing, because contractions
are avoided in formal documents.

isn’t it a nice day!

don’t say it!
it’s important
they’ve arrived

Frequent errors with the apostrophe

A. Incorrect apostrophe in plurals
This error occurs when an apostrophe is inserted before a plural s, as it would be
before a possessive s. Distinguish between the possessive s (which requires an
apostrophe) and the plural s (which does not).
Incorrect: The information is in two video’s.
Correct: The information is in two videos.
Incorrect: The presidents move was foreseen by many.
Correct: The president’s move was foreseen by many.
 Revising and Editing 253

B. Omission of apostrophe in contractions or incorrect inclusion in a pronoun.

This error occurs when two words are contracted into one without an
apostrophe to indicate the contraction.
Incorrect: In all, its an interesting idea.
Correct: In all, it’s an interesting idea.
Incorrect: The deadline has arrived for students to submit they’re
assignments (this is a contraction of “they are”).
Correct: The deadline has arrived for students to submit their assignments
(this is the pronoun “their”).

Quotation marks
Quotation marks are used when reporting the exact words of a speaker or writer. Like
the Oxford comma and spelling, they are another confusing part of punctuation.
The confusion is compounded by the fact that British, Commonwealth and American
texts use quotation marks differently. The best advice is to select a method and be
consistent, and, if your organization has a style guide, to adhere to it.
Here are some general guidelines:
1 If the quotation takes up more than three lines, indent it in a block paragraph
and set it off the rest of the text. In this case, do not use quotation marks –
the indentation signals that the text is a quotation.
2 Use double quotation marks for the beginning and ending of quotations, and
single quotation marks for words or phrases that are quoted within a quotation.
3 Use double quotation marks when you want to show that a word or phrase
should be taken figuratively or is out of context.
4 Place full stops, commas, semicolons, colons, exclamation marks and
question marks outside quotation marks, unless the quotation itself contains
them. In American publications, periods and commas are placed inside
quotation marks, whereas colons and semicolons are placed outside.
Question marks and exclamation marks are placed inside quotation marks
unless they apply to the whole sentence.

aCtivities

Punctuation activities
1 Insert suitable punctuation marks in the following sentences, if necessary:
1 Proposals a common business document are a major problem for writers.
2 The hotel chain provides its customers with affordable reliable and
comfortable service.
254 Professional Writing

3 Travel is educational it broadens your horizons.

4 The operator ran the program the disk drive was faulty.
2 Discuss and correct the punctuation errors in these sentences.
1 In addition to cleaning the assistant janitor must safeguard building keys.
2 In some cases students have doubled their reading speed; effectively halving
their time spent in researching for assignments.
3 Everything seemed so different, the buildings were all made of red brick and
were all very new.
4 The government “red tape” has hindered business operations therefore it is
important to assist these businesses in such issues.
5 The majority of young shareholders voiced opposition to the proposed plan,
this shows that what older generations took for granted is unacceptable for
the younger generations who are better informed on alternative options.
6 If you are tired of three-dimensional reality of the laws of physics and of cause,
and effect; then virtual reality games will be congenial for you. As here you can:
continually defy the odds, encounter firsts, and lasts, and perform miracles.
7 Martial arts training brings many benefits to stressed professionals; it is good
for self-rehabilitation in the health of body mind and spirit. An excellent
method for the ailing to energize themselves in the search for well-being,
vitality is enhanced and can lead to the confidence required for professional
success; in any field.

Spelling
Unfortunately, English has no specific rules that you can learn to improve your
spelling. The best way to improve your spelling is to read, read, read. A more
systematic method is to focus on words that you repeatedly misspell, memorize
their spelling and practise writing sentences with these words. For example, set
yourself a weekly limit of about 30 words and give yourself 15 minutes a day
every day for a specific period (from three to six months, or even a year
depending on how bad your spelling is). Every couple of weeks or so test your
learning to see if your programme is working. There are no quick-fix schemes
for spelling.
As a writer, it is important not to underestimate spelling. Bad spelling is not a
minor problem for writers. It shows that you are, at best, sloppy, at worst,
illiterate. Also, relying on spellcheckers is not a good idea, as they do not always
 Revising and Editing 255

identify the context a word is used in. For example, they do not distinguish
between homophones (words that sound the same but are spelled differently
and have a different meaning). Sun and son, I and eye, there and their, so and
sew, weather and whether are all pairs containing homophones with radically
different meanings.
Table 10.1 contains a list of commonly confused words to practise.

Table 10.1  Commonly Confused Words

accept receive (verb)

except with the exclusion of (preposition)

advice recommendation (noun)

advise to recommend (verb)

affect to produce an influence on (verb)

effect consequence of an action (noun)

already by this time

all ready fully prepared

altogether thoroughly

all together everyone or everything in one place

brake device for stopping

break destroy, make into pieces

canvas material (noun)

canvass solicit, ascertain, survey (verb)

choose to pick

chose past tense of choose

complement round out, add to, complete

compliment praise, flatter

council administrative body (noun)

counsel advise, consult (verb)

device a plan, an implement

devise to create
256 Professional Writing

eminent distinguished, notable

imminent impending, about to happen

ensure make certain of

insure take out an insurance policy

envelop to surround (verb)

envelope container for a letter (noun)

formally conventionally, with ceremony

formerly previously

lead heavy metal; to guide

led past tense of lead

loose unbound, not tightly fastened (adjective)

lose to misplace (verb)

personal intimate

personnel employees

precede to come before

proceed to continue

principal foremost; chief, leader

principle moral conviction, basic truth

quiet silent, calm

quite very

stationary standing still

stationery writing paper

wave surf

waive to relinquish, give up

weather climatic condition

whether if

which one of a group

witch female sorcerer

 Revising and Editing 257

aCtivities

General proofreading activity

These sentences contain errors in grammar, style, accuracy, clarity, spelling or
punctuation.
1 Having approved the project, the necessary staff was recruited.
2 The basic principal of good writing is clarity.
3 Today pneumatic tyres are fitted to almost all road vehicles, originally they were
developed for use on bicycles.
4 One has to be aware of all the facts before you reach an opinion.
5 The decision to introduce computers have already been made.
6 It is estimated that more than a thousand people were effected by the radiation leak.
7 In advertising the brand information includes not only information about the
product but also the image related to the product.
8 Although the situation required expert advice, however they attempted to solve it
on their own.
9 The refinement process has already started when the minerals will be sealed in
the special containers.
10 The report was logical, short, and reading it was easy.
11 In the last couple of years, a pattern has emerged on campus that shows an
increase in student enrolments.
12 Everybody must agree for the recommendations to be implemented. This being
the standard course of action for implementing recommendations.
13 Through public education, controlling manipulation techniques by making all
testing of Genetically Modified Food (GMF) products compulsory, and increasing
government funding, safety and acceptance of GMF can be established.
14 The objectives of this report are to establish and strengthen the relationship
between small business and government organizations.
15 Judging from the growth rate in small business at 1.4 %, it shows that the
country’s economy is in good shape.
16 The government “red tape” has hindered business operations therefore it is
important to assist these businesses in such issues.
17 With the change in government policy there represents many potential problems
that translate to higher costs for employers and a less flexible work force.
258 Professional Writing

18 Having an information system that is not integrated and cohesive could result in
X company’s inability to effectively capture business information about its
operations and customer base, which will in turn affect its competitiveness in the
market and have a negative effect on its reputation as a company that produces
cutting edge products valued by international business world-wide.
19 The Museum offers people a general range of activities, whether as members of
the audience, attending events, being part of a guided tour group, retail therapy,
enjoying the restaurants and bars or simply taking a stroll.
20 The using of function keys by a user allows the user to carry out some specific
functions within the program.

Revising and editing

For many writers, revising is the most important stage of the writing process.
Although some creative writers, for example science fiction novelist Isaac
Asimov (1993), claim that they spend minimal to no time revising, most others
emphasize the value of revision in taking a draft to its final stage. In fact many of the
problems associated with written communication are due to a lack of revision:
inexperienced writers often jump straight from writing to proofreading without
going through the revising process – with unfortunate results.
Revision is the process of seeing the text anew (which is, in fact, the literal
meaning of “revise”), so that you gain some distance from it and are able to make
extensive changes, if necessary. Revision is not correcting errors in spelling and
grammar – the task of proofreading – but rather, a reconsideration of the whole
text, its meaning, flow and significance, from the readers’ perspective. When
revising you must decide, honestly, whether the writing is really effective in relation
to audience and purpose. If it is not, it takes creativity and vision to figure out what
needs to be changed and how. Revising can also be brutal; sometimes the best
way forward is to delete material that may have taken hours or days to draft.
An important part of revision is making sure you have a sustained focus and
purpose throughout the document. Focusing encourages you to establish what
the main point of your document will be. Every document, from the shortest
memo to the most intricate report, must contain one overriding point – the
main message of the text. Make sure this point stands out, by stating it in a
complete sentence at several different stages of the writing process.
Editing is the process of ensuring that a text complies with company house
styles, and that it follows the conventions of its genre. Editing can be substantive
and mechanical.
 Revising and Editing 259

Substantive editing involves deleting and reorganizing sections, and adding or

rewriting content. During substantive editing, you may need to do some more
research and to rewrite sections of the document.
Mechanical editing involves checking for style consistency, genre formatting
and grammar. During mechanical editing, you proofread for sentence structure
and punctuation problems and you check for compliance with house styles.
Editing can be done by the writer or by another person. In collaborative
writing in business contexts, for example, one team member acts as an editor
to the team’s reports, compiling and synthesizing material from different
members’ work. Also, the publishing industry has professional editors, who
ensure consistency and appropriate formatting of all texts published by a
particular publishing company.
The following guidelines are relevant for both revising and editing:
When you have a complete document, start revising from the big picture or
conceptual content to the details: have you included all necessary
information? Did you respond to the brief appropriately and effectively?
Don’t begin with mechanical editing because this would draw your attention
away from logic, meaning and clarity.
After checking for overall meaning, look at the organization of the document:
is this the most appropriate ordering of information, or should you
reorganize paragraphs? Remember that, in addition to a “logical”
sequencing of information, there is also a “conventional” sequencing that
depends on the genre of your document. Some journalist genres, for
example, would begin with the most important information first, Inverted
Pyramid style, and would have a catchy lead instead of a formal introduction.
Then rethink the audience: is the style appropriate? Do you need to define
terms or give more information? Have you given too many details on a
subject your audience is expected to be fluent in? Look at examples and
explanations: are they specific, clear and interesting, and not exaggerated,
vague, repetitive or contradictory?
Afterwards move to paragraphs and check for unity and cohesion: is each
paragraph about one main point? Is all information included in the paragraph
relevant to this main point? Does each paragraph flow from the previous one, so
that the reader can understand the transition between one point and another?
Finally, proofread the text for grammar, word-choice, punctuation and spelling:
do your sentences and words provide the appropriate “rhythm” for the type
of document and audience? Are all sentences grammatically correct, clear
and concise? Have you avoided unnecessary repetition or wordiness?
Table 10.2 is a chart to guide you in asking the right questions, which will lead
to the delivery of a polished and professional final copy.
260 Professional Writing

Table 10.2  Revision Chart

Context
•  Am I writing to the right person?
•  Have I learnt as much as I can about my readers?
•  Will there be an immediate and secondary audience and have I catered to them?

Content
•  Is all the information I intended to convey there?
•  Do I need to reformulate my argument or main message?
•  Do I need to deepen or extend my analysis?
•  Do I have irrelevant information? Should I narrow the scope?
•  Do I need to reorganize information?
•  Do I need to add information to strengthen a point?

Organization
•  Do I need to reproportion the amount of space given to particular topics to reflect
their importance or complexity?
•  Have I used informative headings that reflect the content of the sections?
•  Have I used sectioning and point-listing so as to highlight important points?

Style
•  Do I need to simplify anything or make it more complex?
•  Is my degree of formality appropriate?
•  Is my tone acceptable for the purpose and content?
•  Are my sentences active and concise?
•  Have I used enough sentence variety to make the writing less monotonous and more
compelling?
•  Have I used enough flow and transitions to make the writing coherent?
•  Have I ensured that my expression is gender-neutral?

Layout
•  Have I formatted paragraphs correctly and consistently?
•  Do I need to add, delete or adjust graphics (tables, graphs, charts, drawings, photos)?
•  Do I need to adjust the visual aspects (font size, style and consistency, white space,
formatting)?
•  Is my referencing appropriate and correct? Have I cited sources for all information?

Style guides
Many corporations, large organizations and government agencies have style
guides or manuals that describe the stylistic and formatting conventions
followed. This is a very useful item, since it directs writers on how to structure
their documents. If your company does not follow the conventions set out in a
style manual, consider creating such a manual, proposing that one be created
 Revising and Editing 261

or suggesting that an available manual be adopted. Existing manuals include

the APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Languages
Association), and Chicago Style manuals.
Even in cases where you only need to produce one document, it is useful to
create a style sheet documenting the spelling, formatting and other choices that you
made. This not only helps you when revising the document, it also helps others who
may take over writing the document, or who may wish to write a similar document.
Style guides and style sheets help to maintain consistency within a document
and in a set of documents produced by the same source. They also answer
writers’ questions about how they should present their writing. Table 10.3 lists
some sections to include when designing a style guide.

Table 10.3  Style Guide Sections

Spelling: do you use American or British spelling? Or are both acceptable as long as
consistency is maintained?

Fonts: what are the rules about size and type of font?

Formatting: how much space will you allow between lines? How much margin? How
will you section and how will you number sections? How will you organize sections in a
report?

Numbers: when do you use figures and when words? The standard convention is to
use words up to ten and figures after that, returning to words when you reach
thousands, millions and billions. Will you keep this standard or use another?

Abbreviations: what will you abbreviate and how? For example, will you write Mr or
Mister? Dr or Doctor? How will you punctuate abbreviations?

Punctuation: how will you punctuate? Will you use any punctuation at the end of
bullet points? Will you include punctuation marks inside quotation marks or outside?

Visuals: what rules will you have for visuals? Will you have any restrictions on size of
visuals in a document? How will you title visuals?

A final note...
The book ends with an overview of some major reasons for difficulties or failures
in communication in professional contexts. These are taken from specific cases
where miscommunication led to disasters or serious damage. Having worked
your way through this book, you are now equipped to handle such situations
expertly.
262 Professional Writing

Major reasons for faulty communication, on both conceptual (thinking and

planning) and writing (drafting and revising) levels, are:

Ignoring the company or project’s role distribution: in many cases, time is

wasted, with documents being exchanged between parties that will not be the
final decision makers. When dealing with important projects, involve the right
people in the chain of communication, and speak (or write) to them in ways
they can understand. For example, in engineering projects, administrators, and
possibly even marketing managers, are most often involved in the lifecycle of a
product. They may not be engineers themselves, so they would require
technical concepts to be interpreted.
Not following the rule of “one document – one message”: if you have many
pieces of information to communicate, write different documents. Do not
attempt to cut corners by cramming as much data as possible in one document.
Documents that lack a main message, or “bottom line”, fade in significance,
and the important issues they may contain are lost if they are burried in a maze
of facts presented indiscriminately. For example, when delivering PowerPoint
presentations, do not clutter slides with all the information that you want the
audience to know. Use the slides to complement, not contain, your oral
explanations, and supplement the talk with written documents, such as
technical and progress reports.
Adopting an unsuitable style: readers are offended if their “attitude” (the
frame of mind in which they receive the document) is not respected. Do not be
overly friendly and casual with readers who may expect more respect and
formality and do not adopt a lighthearted approach with topics that the reader
treats with gravity. Remember that your sentence structures emphasize different
elements, and construct them deliberately and with a clear intent. Remember
that after having lost a client or alienated a manager, it will be very difficult to
regain their trust.
Not being clear, accurate and concise: if you are vague, confusing and
inaccurate you come across as unprofessional and untrustworthy. Plan your
writing carefully so that you can collect appropriate and adequate data to make
it informative for your readers. Revise well to avoid repetitions and what may
come across as self-indulgent verbosity. Remember that time is precious for
business readers.
Not having enough signposting, highlighting and closure: readers are not in
your mind, so direct their reading by signalling changes in direction (such as
contrast, exemplification, additional point, etc.), distinguishing data according to
its order of importance, and indicating where one chunk of information ends and
 Revising and Editing 263

another begins. Readers in professional contexts do not have the disposition to

work laboriously through stream of consciousness-type writing, trying to trace the
important points. Preview the structure and purpose of your documents in a clear
executive summary and introduction, sum up points in appropriate places in the
text and make sure you make clear what action you require the reader to take.
Being unconvincing or irrelevant: people respond more positively to those
who communicate on their “wavelength”. Also, they pay more attention to
information that is relevant to their needs, desires and expectations. If you want
your advice or warning to be heeded, make sure it is pertinent to the values and
goals of your audience. To achieve this, do your “homework” by learning as
much as you can about your readers, and relate your descriptions and
explanations to situations that are familiar to them.
Not acknowledging the “big picture”: documents concerning projects with a
public relevance may become public at any time. Even if you are an engineer
working on technical equipment, your correspondence and notes could come
under public scrutiny, if, say, the users of your equipment are harmed because
of malfunctions. Therefore, always write documents about professional projects
with the idea that more than just your intended readers may end up reading
them. An example is email. If a message you send to a particular person
includes information that is pertinent to others, your recipient may distribute
the email. Be careful how you phrase emails that may be distributed. Have you
insulted someone who may receive it? Have you written something that may be
misunderstood by some readers? Use foresight when writing.
Not paying enough attention to deadlines: this is a very common problem in
all types of writing tasks. The best advice is to not be over-optimistic about how
much time you have to complete a task. Plan your time carefully and at different
times during the task. Have contingency plans: if you get stuck during a task
move to something else that you can do more easily. Train yourself to multitask.
And always remember to leave some time for revision and for unexpected delays.

References and further reading

Asimov, I. (1993) Revisions. Dozois, G. et al (Eds.) Writing science fiction and fantasy.
New York: St. Martin’s Press, pp. 221–225.
Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Finegan, E. (1999) Longman grammar of
spoken and written English. London: Longman.
Dwyer, J. (1997) The business communication handbook, 4th edition. Sydney: Prentice-Hall.
Faigley, L. (2012) The little Penguin handbook, 2nd edition. Boston: Pearson.
264 Professional Writing

Greenbaum, S., & Quirk, R. (1990) A student’s grammar of the English language. Harlow:
Longman.
Hacker, D. (2007) The Bedford handbook, 7th edition. New York: Bedford St. Martins.
Ivers, M. (2010) Random House guide to good writing. New York: Ballantine Books.
Jones, D. (1999) The technical communicator’s handbook. New York: Allyn and Bacon.
Kennedy, G. (2014) Structure and meaning in English. London: Routledge.
Rankin, I. (2001) The falls. London: Orion.
Rude, C. (1998) Technical editing, 2nd edition. New York: Allyn and Bacon.
Stott, R., & Chapman P. (2001) Grammar and writing. London: Longman.
Sword, H. (2016) The writer’s diet, 2nd edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Appendix

Job applications

Focus:
 Career values
 Curriculum vitae formats
 Covering letters

The shape of the workforce and the idea of a “career” have changed
dramatically over the last few decades worldwide. Since the 1990s, rapid
changes in technology, the globalization of the workforce, competitive
international markets and the growth of short-term contract work have made
the contemporary workplace anxious and fast-paced.
In some instances, people setting out in the workforce today are likely to
change careers several times over the span of their working life. Accordingly,
employers now look for graduates who can demonstrate transferable skills,
particularly in communication, leadership and teamwork. Such skills are
transferred from one job to another, indicating a willingness and ability to
adapt to new business procedures and new technology.
To survive in this quickly-changing environment, you must be flexible and
ready. This chapter will prepare you to “market yourself” in the workforce by
illustrating successful methods of compiling a job application consisting of a
CV and a covering letter. Although many of the tips given here will interest
all jobseekers, the main target readers are those starting out in the workplace.

265
266 Appendix

Knowing your values

Your chances of being good at what you do increase if you actually enjoy what you
do. If your job is just a set of gruelling tasks, it is highly unlikely you will excel or
stand out in any way. And you can only really be successful in what you value. In
fact, successful professionals are unanimous on this. Advice given to new generation
professionals by both corporate CEOs and adventurous entrepreneurs emphasizes
the importance of enjoyment at work for success. For such reasons, before setting
out on a new career, or before changing your current career, you should assess your
values. Table App1 lists some questions to guide you on your career quest:

Table App1  Career Values

What do you want to achieve in your life?
Determine your goals and ambitious. Do you value wealth? Fame? Spirituality?
Independence? Do you want a centre stage position in life or would you prefer to work
behind the scenes?

What are your skills and talents, and can you make best use of them in your career?
Think of all your talents, interests and abilities. How can you adapt them so that they
will be functional in your work? Break down all the work you have done into
constituent skills and reshuffle them. For example, if you have been successful in
sports, this could indicate endurance, high energy, collaborative skill, fast thinking, etc.
There are plenty of other contexts where these skills would be useful.

How good a communicator are you?

Are you good at writing? Speaking in public? Explaining? Have you ever taught?
Do you prefer one-to-one communication or would you rather address a large
number of people?

Are you project- or process-oriented?

Do you like doing short-term projects that you can finalize quickly and move on
to something else, or do you prefer being part of a chain, contributing to an
ongoing process?

Do you prefer to lead or to follow?

Do you prefer following others’ instructions, or would you rather instruct others? Do
you work best in a corporate, hierarchical environment, or does self-employment
appeal to you more?

What sort of culture would you prefer to work in?

Do you like strict guidelines or a more liberal way of achieving goals? Do you want to
be given specific goals or would you rather work with broad parameters? How closely
do you want to be managed? Would you rather be left alone to find solutions your own
way? Do you want strict hours of work or more autonomy to choose your timetable?
 Appendix 267

What drives you?

Do you want status? Recognition? Money? Independence? A combination?

What location suits you?

Are you happy in a high-rise building in the centre of town, or would you prefer a
suburb, or a specialized location like Silicon Valley? Do you want to have the option of
working at home? Travelling? Working in two or more different places?

Adapted from Morgan and Banks, 1999, pp. 28–30.

CVs, résumés and cover letters

A curriculum vitae (CV) lists your education, work skills and work experience.
A CV is often glanced at or skimmed rather than carefully read. In many cases,
potential employers spend about 30 seconds on a first viewing of a CV, before
deciding whether the candidate is worthy of further consideration. Thus, you
should structure your CV in such a way that the potential employer can tell at a
glance if you are suitable for a job.
A résumé is similar to a CV but shorter. Résumé is the French word for
“summary”, so a résumé summarizes the items included in a CV, which includes
full life details (vita=life).
A cover letter addressed to the prospective employer accompanies the CV.
In the letter, introduce yourself and draw attention to your achievements
relevant to the position. The cover letter gives you the opportunity to
“showcase” your talents, including your ability to write convincingly and
correctly. A covering letter is also called a “letter of application”.

Job searching
When looking for a job, make an action plan using this four-step framework to
guide you.
1 Assess yourself
Examine your goals, and make sure you understand what motivates you, what
your values are, what your strengths and what your priorities. Ask yourself the
questions listed earlier in the Knowing your values section. Think about where
you would like to be in five years, and what you would like to have achieved.
What are your lifestyle preferences, and what role do work and professionalism
play in these preferences?
2 Research your career goals
After the first, introspective stage, open up to the world and see what is available to
assist you in reaching your goals and achieving your desired lifestyle. The obvious
268 Appendix

way to look for a job is to peruse the classifieds in major newspapers and visit
employment websites. In addition, major recruitment consultants have their own
databases where you can access information on professional job vacancies.
Another major way to find out what your options are and what opportunities
are available is through networking. Tips for networking are:
 Get to know people at courses and through business, trade and professional
associations
 Subscribe to a business, trade or professional magazine or newsletter; or join
online discussion groups and forums
 Join online social networking sites devoted to professionals, such as www.
LinkedIn.com and participate in the blogs and activities posted
 Establish mentors. A mentor is a senior colleague whose work and personal
character you respect. A mentor takes an interest in your career and is willing
to advise you. If you leave a company or a programme, keep in touch with
your mentor. For example, if you know your mentor is working on a
particular project or has a special interest, send clippings or other relevant
information
 Contact career professionals, such as recruitment consultants and
“headhunters”, and discuss your options with them
 Do voluntary work in a related field. This can help you to meet people in the
field and achievements performed as a volunteer can go in your CV.
When networking, take care to:
 Send a thank-you note to people who give you helpful leads and stay in touch
 Never ask directly for a job! Asking directly puts people on the spot and can
make you seem desperate or pushy.

3 Develop a self-marketing strategy

Market yourself as if you were a product (which, in fact, you are, in relation to
the employment market). Use the five Ps of marketing:
 Product: what do you have to offer? What key skills and qualities can you
offer to potential employers?
 Price: what is your value in the marketplace? What value do your educational
background, experience and professional strengths give you?
 Promotion: what themes, signs, phrases or messages can you use to
communicate what you have to offer?
 Place (distribution): how will you “circulate” yourself? For example, will you
focus on advertised positions, rely on your networking, send your CV to a
 Appendix 269

senior member of a targeted company (known as cold contact or speculative

job searching) or post your CV online? Start a blog?
 Positioning: what distinguishes you from other candidates? Do you have a
Unique Selling Point (USP)?

4 Prepare some versions of your CV for different purposes

Have two or three versions of your CV ready. Each version should highlight
different qualities, but they should also be relevant to the job profile that you
will have created using the previous three steps.

Finding information about a company

Before applying to a company – and particularly before attending an interview –
find out details such as share price, company structure, annual turnover and
product lines. Take advantage of the following resources:
 Visit the company website. Most companies recruit through their websites
 Browse through magazines relevant to the industry in which you hope to
work and to which the company belongs
 Browse through company literature, such as brochures, newsletters and
annual reports
 If possible, visit the company itself and get a feel for its culture and
atmosphere.
Find out as much as possible about the industry of a company, by asking these
questions:
 What products or services does this industry offer?
 Who are the major players and up-and-comers?
 What are the critical success factors for a company in this industry?
 What is the outlook and hiring potential for this industry?
 What type of talent does this industry attract, hire and need?
Find out as much as possible about the particular company you are interested in
applying to, by asking these questions:
 What distinguishes this company from others in the industry?
 What are the company’s culture, values and priorities?
 Who are its leaders and what do they stand for?
 How does this company treat its employees?
 What is the company’s reputation?
 What would it be like to work there?
270 Appendix

CV formats
CVs tend to be classified into three main categories: chronological, functional
and targeted. All types of CVs should satisfy certain general standards. They
should:
 Provide information that is relevant, clear and concise
 Highlight and provide evidence for your strengths and achievements
 Inspire confidence
 Form an agenda for the interview.

Chronological CVs
The chronological format lists education and work experience in reverse
chronological order (most recent items listed first). Chronological CVs are
useful if you have a steady work history, and/or all or most of your recent work
experience is relevant to the position.
Do not use a chronological CV if only one or two jobs in your work
history are relevant to the position sought, or you have a complicated or
diverse work history that may raise doubts as to your reliability, or you have
many gaps in your work history that are difficult to explain, or you are
pursuing a career change and wish to highlight transferable knowledge
and skills.

Functional CVs
Functional CVs focus on knowledge and skills, rather than on dates or places of
employment. They are useful if you are changing careers and some of your
previous experience is not relevant to your target job or want to highlight
specific skills rather than list your employment history.
In a functional CV, the most marketable information is presented at the front
of the document. The functional format allows for selective organization of
information and enhances your ability to customize the CV for the particular
position.
To become aware of all the knowledge you have gained in your experience,
list all the responsibilities you had for each job. Think of everything that you
did each day at work, including all the small tasks or the tasks that were so
routine that you hardly noticed them. If your list gets too long, edit it by
deleting activities that may not be directly relevant to the job you are
applying for. Table App2 contains some action words to help you compile
your list:
 Appendix 271

Table App2  Action Words to Describe Skills

Accomplish Define Inform Provide
Act Delegate Initiate Publicize
Adapt Demonstrate Innovate Publish
Adjust Design Inspect Recommend
Administer Detail Install Record
Advertise Determine Institute Rectify
Advise Develop Integrate Relate
Affect Devise Interview Review
Analyse Direct Investigate Report
Anticipate Distribute Invent Represent
Approach Draft Lead Research
Approve Edit Maintain Resolve
Arrange Educate Manipulate Revise
Assemble Enlarge Market Scan
Assess Establish Mediate Schedule
Assist Evaluate Modify Select
Assign Examine Moderate Serve
Budget Exchange Monitor Speak
Build Execute Motivate Standardize
Calculate Expand Negotiate Staff
Catalogue Facilitate Obtain Stimulate
Chair Formulate Operate Summarize
Clarify Fundraise Order Supervise
Collaborate Generate Organize Survey
Communicate Govern Originate Synthesize
Conceive Guide Participate Systemize
Conceptualize Handle Perform Teach
Conciliate Hire Persuade Team-build
Consult Identify Plan Train
Contract Implement Present Transmit
Control Improve Preside Utilize
Cooperate Increase Produce Write
Coordinate Index Promote
Counsel Influence Propose

Always use verbs in the active voice to describe the activities you perform or
performed in your work experience. Use the present tense for positions currently
held, and the past tense for positions previously held. Omit “I”.
272 Appendix

Where possible, use the STAR (Situation, Task, Achievement, Result) method
to highlight your successes, either in the CV itself, or in the cover letter. First,
state the situation where you had to perform a task; second, describe the
task; third, go to the outcome of your effort; and fourth, state how your
employer, or profession as a whole, benefited from the way you carried out
the task.

Targeted CVs
Targeted CVs follow the specifications or templates given in an application
package or job advertisement. They are often similar to functional CVs but
concentrate on skills that are directly relevant to the requirements listed in the
position description. When writing a targeted CV, answer the question or follow
the formatting directions given by the recruiting company.

Optional features
These features are not necessary. Analyse your audience, context and
professional culture, and decide whether or not you wish to include them. If in
doubt, leave them out.
 Personal information. In most Western societies, gender, religious
beliefs, age, ethnicity and marital status are irrelevant to many kinds of
employment, and, in fact, are considered confidential by law. You are
not obliged to state any of these in your CV. Find out about cultural
practice in the particular job contexts that interest you for a decision on
this point.
 Photograph. Employers in certain countries and in certain sectors of the
economy, such as public relations, may favour photographs on CVs. Others
find them irrelevant or even misleading, because they de-focus objective skills
and capabilities. For example, in the information technology sector or in
education, a photograph is generally not necessary.
 Hobbies/Interests. Include a brief list of hobbies and interests if they
indicate knowledge or skills relevant to the job, such as leadership,
teamwork, resilience or determination. You can also set your CV apart from
others if you specify unusual hobbies, or if you demonstrate excellence in a
particular pursuit. If your hobbies are humdrum or irrelevant, leave this
section out altogether.
 Career objective. A career objective states the applicant’s goals and
ambition within a specific industry. If you are unsure or undecided about
your long-term goals, or if you want to project versatility and resilience, leave
this section out (unless, of course, it is specifically requested in a targeted
 Appendix 273

CV). If you do decide to include an objective, make it short but focused. It

should inform the employer that you are moving in a certain direction,
specify your work preferences and serve as a focal point from which to
review your CV.
 Referees. You do not need to include names of referees or references unless
they are specifically requested. However, since referees will play a role if you
are shortlisted, it is wise to include a statement such as “Referees are available
on request”, either at the end of the CV or in the cover letter.
 Nationality or residential status. This is only relevant if it affects
your availability for employment – for example, if you are on a working
visa. Include this if you have an international background, and the
potential employer may wonder if you are eligible to work in the particular
country.

Presentation of CV
How the CV is set out depends on the medium of communication. For example,
if posting the CV on a website, where it might be read off a screen, use more
highlighting, such as bullet points and headings, and minimize the information
on each page. If sending out a hard copy, where you were specified to limit the
CV to one page, obviously you need to set it out differently to maximize the
limited space. Adapt the following guidelines in relation to the specific
circumstances of each application:
 Ensure readability by leaving as much white space as specifications allow, and
by using a clear font, size 11–12.
 Align points down the page and preferably indent them.
 Do not use more than two fonts, perhaps one type for the main text and
another for headings. Consider using only one font unless creativity is
required by the job and you have flair for design.
 Do not use more than one highlighting technique: Bold or Underline or
Italics – not all three.
 As with other business documents, include a header or footer on each page,
and page numbers, in case pages get mixed up when printed.

CV templates
It is not wise to copy a standard CV format from a book to which countless
others also have access. Instead, by making your CV as individual as a signature,
you increase your chances of attracting the attention of those that can further
your career. So use these templates as a guide or inspiration, but tailor them to
suit your individual aspirations and strengths.
274 Appendix

Template for chronological CV

Name Your full name

Address Your current residential or business address
Phone numbers Home and/or business numbers
Email address Your business or personal email address
Education List your educational qualifications with most recent first
Employment History Name of employer, Position (job title), Period of
employment, Duties, Achievements. Begin with current
or most recent position and work backwards.
Professional Memberships Briefly list them, if relevant
Computer skills List your skills of operating systems and software
packages
Languages State the languages that you know and degree of
fluency
Interests List, only if relevant

Template for functional CV

Name Your full name

Address Your current residential or business address
Phone numbers Home and/or business numbers
Email address Your business or personal email address
Skills and abilities List the major skills you have acquired from your
experience. List only those skills that you can demonstrate
but be creative in highlighting their relevance for the job you
seek.
Education List your educational qualifications with most relevant first.
Include all professional development and short courses that
you attended.
Computer skills Depending on the kind of job you seek and the kinds of skills
you have, you could list your computer skills separately to
highlight them. Include operating systems and software
packages.
Languages State the languages you know and degree of fluency
 Appendix 275

Professional Memberships Again, briefly list them, if relevant

Awards and Achievements List, only if relevant to the new job
Employment History Name of employer, Position (job title), Period of
employment
Interests List, only if relevant

Table App3 lists some commonly used phrases to summarize and highlight skills.

Table App3  Skill Phrases

General
Works well under pressure
Able to adapt to new situations
Ability to learn quickly
Capable of accepting responsibility
Works well without supervision
People Skills
Ability to work as a team member
Good sense of humour
Ability to deal effectively with clients
Handles people with patience and understanding
Works well with people from different cultures
Communication Skills
Ability to communicate effectively with clients
Capable of initiating and completing projects
Trained and supervised new staff
Able to communicate effectively with others
Excellent communicator
Organization Skills
Excellent organization skills
Ability to plan, organize and supervise projects
Capable of working on different projects
Completes projects accurately and on schedule
Punctual
Dependable in all situations
Leadership
Excellent leadership skills
Accepts responsibility
Dealt efficiently with emergencies
Comfortable with taking the initiative
Supervised activities of team members
Successful project manager
Successfully organized staff/team members to attain goals
276 Appendix

Look at the following chronological CV and notice how the writer summarizes
their skills at the beginning and then demonstrates how they used these skills in
particular work situations.

Lee B. Wilson

Address, Phone number, Email address

Summary
Accounting Professional/Payroll Administrator combining cross-functional
competencies in all phases of accounting, information systems, and staff supervision
and management. Proficient in managing and developing financial reports and
controls using staffing and technology efficiencies. Ability to contribute as a team
player and interface with professionals on all levels. Expertise includes:

*  Payroll administration
*  Quarterly & Year-End Reporting
*  Automated Accounting Information Systems
*  Inventory Control & Purchasing
*  Financial Reporting
*  Corporate Tax Compliance
*  Corporate Accounting
*  Job Costing

EDUCATION
2017: Masters in Business Administration, Y University
2015: Bachelor in Business Management, X University

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE
2015–present: Controller, Platinum Choice Corporation, City, Country

Plan, manage and provide leadership for accounting department including payroll,
budgeting, cost accounting, managerial accounting, financial reporting, financial
analysis and purchasing. Scope of responsibility spans both the corporate and
divisional level. Provide financial expertise to outside firms, including banks, auditors,
and government authorities.

 Managed $4 million in annual operating budgets allocated for personnel, facilities,

and administrative expenses
 Appendix 277

 Established improved accounts receivable that reduced outstanding receivables

by 25% during the first quarter
 Implemented automated cost accounting systems to analyse profit improvement
opportunities
 Worked in cooperation with management teams to restructure corporate pricing
on all major product lines, resulting in a 14% profit improvement
 Successfully guided the company through annual outside audits.

2010–15: Accounting Consultant, XYZ Consultants, City, Country

Recruited to provide diverse finance, accounting, payroll and tax preparation

functions for one of the largest international consulting firms.

 Responsible for preparation of financial statements: payroll, sales and property tax
returns, and income tax return.
 Streamlined accounting processes to reduce workpaper and document
requirements
 Worked closely with clients in structuring general ledgers and evaluating their
software needs.

COMPUTER SKILLS
 Experienced with the following software for payroll preparation: QuickBooks/
QuickBooks Pro, Peachtree, PenSoft Payroll
 Skilled in most accounting software programs including Impact Encore,
Peachtree, Preform Plus, ProSystems and Quicken.
 Proficient in Excel, Word, Access SPSS and Lotus.

The cover letter

A cover letter must be professionally presented in format, grammar, and
spelling. It generally is one to two pages long and should have a “bottom-line”
organization – that is, it should go straight to the point. Remember, employers
may be reviewing hundreds of applications and may spend as little as 30
seconds reviewing each one. You covering letter should have something that
stands out.
There are three main kinds of cover letter:
 A letter written in response to a job advertisement.
 A ‘cold contact’ letter, written unsolicited (without being requested in
advance) to a senior member of a targeted company. This should not be
278 Appendix

more than one page, so as not to take the recipient’s time. Always follow up
a cold contact letter with a phone call after a week to ten days.
 A referral letter, mentioning a contact within the company or a previous
conversation held with a staff member. A referral letter may open with a line
such as, “I am attaching my CV, as you requested during our recent
conversation regarding the Human Resources counselling position opening
up at your firm.”
The cover letter generally has four paragraphs, covering the following
material:
Opening paragraph  indicate the purpose of writing
Second paragraph  state relevant skills and experience
Third paragraph  demonstrate your knowledge of the company or organization
Fourth paragraph  close with confidence and request an interview
When sending a “cold contact” letter, it is best to address it to the manager of
the section you want to work in (rather than to the HR Department). The
advantages of this are that, even if you are not employed, the manager will at
least know your name and may remember you if you apply for an advertised
position within the company later. People who are eager and take initiative
make a good impression professionally. Also, if the manager is dedicated to his/
her area of specialty, chances are that he/she would be willing to help
newcomers to join the industry. Therefore, he/she may refer you to someone or
give you some very useful advice, if you approach him/her directly. It is unlikely
that the HR Officer would have the same commitment.

Cover letter tips

Here are some general tips for writing an effective cover letter:
 Keep paragraphs short (2–4 sentences)
 Adapt the content to the particular organization and job position for which
you are applying. That is, show that you are an insider to the industry
 Include contact details (name, address, phone number, fax, email), either in
a letterhead or in the concluding paragraph
 Do not point to any of your weaknesses. Instead, match your skills and
experience to the requirements of the position
 Do not refer to personal interests or hobbies unless they are directly relevant
to the position, or you share an interest with the recipient of the letter
 Do not use sarcasm or irony
 Do not criticize a former employer.
 Appendix 279

Watch out for…

How bad can your writing get on your CV? We end the chapter with some real-
life examples of CV “howlers” (Table App4):

Table App4  Bad writing in CVs

Education: Curses in liberal arts, curses in computer science, curses in accounting.
I am a rabid thinker.
Proven ability to hunt down and correct erors.
My intensity is at supremely high levels, and my ability to meet deadlines is
unspeakable.
Personal details: Married, 1992 Chevrolet.
Personal interests: Donating blood. 15 gallons so far.
Covering letter: Thank you for your consideration. Hope to hear from you shorty!

Sources: Gordon, B. (2008) The Apprentice: When your CV contains no information to misconstrue.
Monday Morning Funnies, http://www.families.com/blog/monday-morning-funnies-mistakes-to-avoid-
on-your-résumé

References and further reading

Carter, C., & Izumo, G. (2013) The career tool kit: Skills for success. New York: Pearson.
Littleford, D., Halstead, J., & Mulraine, C. (2004) Career skills: Opening doors into the job
market. London: Red Globe Press.
Morgan, G., & Banks, A. (1999) Getting that job: How to establish and manage your career
into the new millennium. Sydney: HarperCollins.
Index
Accuracy  37, 111, 140, 145, 257, 159, Bullet points  6, 53, 54, 62, 67, 68, 69,
260 103, 179, 196, 249, 261, 273
Accurate  2, 3, 34, 38, 39, 46, 57, 85, Business plan  70, 161, 176, 177, 178,
99, 103, 111, 130, 176, 200, 205, 185, 208, 231
245, 262, 276
Advertising  10, 47, 58, 70, 91, 99, 133, Career  60, 265, 266, 267, 268, 270,
143, 145 272, 273
Agenda  9, 55, 56, 228, 229, 270 Citizen journalism  148
Ambiguity  16, 38, 65, 78, 90, 237 Clarity  5, 29, 31, 32, 35, 36, 37, 74, 140,
Argument  201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 207, 144, 148, 164, 165, 168, 176, 238,
208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 260 247, 257, 259
Audience  1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, Clause  28, 29, 31, 148, 232, 233, 234,
14, 16, 22, 27, 28, 29, 35, 42, 43, 44, 235, 236, 237, 242, 247, 248, 249,
46, 47, 48, 62, 65, 70, 71, 72, 73, 77, 251
78, 82, 86, 87, 90, 94, 99, 100, 108, Cohesion  25, 31, 33, 34, 50, 74, 130,
111, 113, 115, 121, 123, 128, 132, 148, 165, 209, 218, 259
133, 134, 135, 141, 142, 145, 146, Collaboration  56, 89, 137, 143, 148,
152, 153, 161, 167, 174, 175, 176, 214, 217, 218
178, 180, 182, 191, 193, 194, 200, Comma  234, 236, 237, 245, 246, 247,
201, 239, 243, 245, 258, 260, 262, 248, 249, 251, 253
263, 272 Comma splice  247
Complicity (writer-reader)  6
Bad news message  7, 151, 156, 258 Conciseness  35, 140, 148, 177, 238, 251
Blog  33, 89, 90, 148, 149, 150, 151, Conflict  177, 214, 215, 216, 222, 223,
161, 259 224, 225, 227, 229, 240
Boilerplate text   95 Conjunctions  31, 33, 234, 235, 236, 243,
Bottom line  54, 73, 95, 152, 262, 277 246, 247
Bottom up writers  2, 95 Consistency  5, 37, 69, 131, 148, 259,
(see also top down writers) 260, 261
BP  151, 157 Consistent  5, 45, 54, 69, 72, 110, 147,
Brainstorming  2, 14, 15, 16, 157, 225 166, 218, 253
Brochure  96, 133, 141, 170, 269 Copyright  92–97
Budget  10, 56, 162, 170, 171, 172, 175, Corporate memory  82, 95
176, 185, 197, 218, 220, 224, 271, 276 Correlation  16, 207, 212

280
 Index 281

Creative  2, 14, 21, 26, 43, 47, 70, 96, Feature article  3, 22, 101, 104, 105, 106,
104, 106, 107, 108, 118, 140, 143, 108, 115, 124, 173, 174
161, 222, 233, 250, 258, 274 Feature creep  220
Creative industries  96 (see also scope creep)
Credibility  84, 88, 89, 90, 113, 125, 145, Feedback  22, 62, 74, 78, 79, 89, 149,
153, 208, 232 154, 156, 170, 175, 216, 220, 225
Crisis  10, 82, 113, 114, 152, 153, 154, Focus group  11, 77–79
155, 156, 157 Fragment  21, 26, 45, 47, 233, 234
Crisis communication  152, 154–157 Funding  9, 10, 11, 53, 86, 95, 96, 99,
Culture  3, 43, 59, 61, 115, 127, 129, 162, 166, 170, 171, 174, 175, 177,
142, 171, 208, 266, 269, 272 194, 224, 231, 257
Company culture  59
National culture  43 Generalization  86, 114, 224

Deadline  10, 11, 18, 21, 56, 217, 220, Hard news  100
225, 234, 235, 263, 279 (see also soft news)
Demagogic style  45, 46 House style  5, 22, 57, 61, 69, 170, 258,
Demographic  7, 8, 162, 173, 185 259
Digital  15, 17, 21, 48, 59, 64, 65, 70, 89,
92, 121, 133, 134, 138, 140, 142, IBM  14, 137
143, 147, 152, 159 Innovation  72, 102, 107, 118, 121, 136,
Discourse  43, 114 174, 208
Discourse community  85 Internet  22, 28, 62, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92,
Draft  2, 17, 18–19, 21, 22, 108, 217, 95, 109, 118, 132, 136, 138, 139,
258, 262 142, 148, 149, 190, 194
Interview  11, 68, 77, 78, 79, 101, 102,
Email  2, 3, 5, 9, 11, 28, 44, 45, 48, 49, 149, 153, 154, 174, 183, 217
53, 54, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 73, 74, Inverted pyramid  101, 134, 141, 259
78, 84, 86, 91, 95, 136, 138, 139,
148, 149, 190, 191, 228, 263, 274, Leader(ship)  189, 190, 193, 194, 199,
276, 278 215, 218, 221, 223, 226, 227, 229,
Essay  3, 26, 41, 86, 102, 161, 164, 165, 240, 244, 256, 265, 272, 275, 276
244 Linker   26, 50
Ethics  79, 93, 201, 238
Evidence  18, 19, 20, 44, 107, 113, 123, Manual  3, 5, 13, 119, 260, 261
125, 174, 201, 202, 205, 206, 207, Marketing  7, 8, 45, 65, 66, 77, 132, 140,
208, 211, 212, 243, 250, 251, 270 174, 177, 178, 187, 189, 190, 191,
Exaggeration  45, 88, 106, 138 192, 193, 195, 248, 262, 268
Executive summary  163, 176, 178, 179, Metaphor  45, 107, 123, 130, 135, 138,
182, 183, 184, 189, 263 175, 203
Milestone  217, 229, 230
Facebook  84, 133, 148, 151, 192, 193 Mind-map  15, 21
Fallacy (logical)  203, 204, 205, 208, Money  39, 50, 108, 152, 177, 193, 203,
211 220, 223, 243, 248, 267
282 Index

Motivation  20, 115, 152, 215, 223, 228 Scope creep  110, 220
Multimedia  17, 139, 140, 141, 142, 146, (see also feature creep)
150 Sentence structure  4, 26, 35, 74, 110,
209, 232, 246, 259, 262
NASA  11, 12, 138 Shareholder  9, 26, 55, 157, 217, 254
Newsletter  4, 43, 53, 99, 268 Social media  27, 32, 53, 84, 88, 100,
Newspaper  45, 48, 82, 83, 87, 88, 118, 133, 148, 149, 150, 151, 189 192,
127, 268 193, 195
Soft news  100
Objectivity  26, 55, 199 (see also hard news)
Space shuttle  4, 11
Parallel structure  29, 30, 68, 69, 166 Stakeholder  3, 10, 11, 31, 32, 43, 53, 67,
Participial  232, 233, 241, 242, 246, 247 68, 74, 133, 220
Plagiarism  92–97 Statistics  205–208, 212
Plain English  34, 87, 205 Storyboard  17
Policy  38, 40, 63, 87, 133, 137, 157, 182, Subjectivity  26, 199
199, 205, 208, 209, 210, 211, 223 Subordinate clause  28, 29 233–236, 242,
Popular science  45, 46, 86, 89, 111 248, 251
PowerPoint  4, 5, 11, 70, 262 Survey  63, 68, 77, 78, 79, 80, 140, 145,
Press release  9, 53, 66, 82, 84, 87, 96, 154, 184, 191, 255, 271
97, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, Synonym  31
152
Privacy  22, 65, 83, 92, 94, 95, 194, 195 Template  5, 9, 61, 102, 161, 231, 272, 273
Promotion  58, 68, 152, 222, 245, 268 CV templates  273
Promotional  45, 87, 96, 134, 135, 136, Tone  4, 5, 26, 27, 30, 40, 43, 44, 45, 46,
138, 145, 146 64, 99, 105, 107, 129, 151, 196, 260
Pronoun   31, 32, 33, 51, 232, 243, 244, Top heavy writing  54, 104, 136
253 Top-down writers  2, 17
Proofreading  257, 258 (see also bottom-up writers)
Psychographic  8, 173 Transition  31, 34, 165, 259
Publicity  60, 99, 138 Twitter  14, 84, 133, 148, 150, 192, 193
Push/pull media  134, 157 Typography  48, 141, 143, 144, 147
Typology of style  42–43
Quantitative  43, 205 Typology of sources  86–88

Referent  31 Unique selling point  135, 138, 177, 269

Revision  1, 2, 28, 62, 66, 109, 258, 260,
263 Wiki  89, 90, 143, 148
Rhetoric  3, 23, 25, 175
Rhetorical questions  46, 110, 130 YouTube  84, 133, 148, 152, 192