SCU 800: RESEAERCH METHODOLOGY (for SPAS)

INTRUDUCTION

What is research?
According to Wikipedia, research is"creative work undertaken on a systematic basis to increase
the stock of knowledge”. Research is a very general term for an activity that involves finding out,
in a more or less systematic way, things you did not know. A more academic interpretation is
that research involves finding out about things that no-one else knew either. It is about advancing
the frontiers of knowledge.

Why conduct research?

Basically there are two main reasons for conducting scientific research. We can conduct research
either to understand the universe (basic research) or to apply the knowledge so gained to solve
problems affecting mankind. However, the approaches applied may be the same it is only the
ultimate aim that may be different. Regardless of the ultimate aim, research is an ongoing
process of refining hypotheses leading to acceptance of certain scientific truths.

At individual level there are specific reasons for conducting research:

 As a requirement for higher university degree.
 May be what one is employed to do.
 To gain respect from society.
 Solve society problem.
 Satisfy personal interest.
 An organization may contract you to get answers for a specific problem.

Regardless of why one needs to conduct research, he/she needs to conduct credible research
using the most appropriate techniques. The course on research methodology is designed to give
you an understanding of the whole research process.

The research process

Research involves a number of steps as outlined below

PHASE I: deciding what to research

 Step I Formulatinga research problem

PHASE II:planninga research study

 Step II Conceptualizing a research design
 Step III Constructingan instrument for data collection
 Step IV Selecting a sample
 Step V Writinga research proposal

PHASE III:conducting a research study

  Step VI Collectingdata
 Step VII Processingand displayingdata
 Step VIII Writinga research report

In this course we will deal with all the steps except STEP VII which is the subject of SCU 801.

Before we go into the course it is important that we differentiate two terms used in research:
research methods and research methodology.

What is research methodology?

A research methodology provides an all-encompassing theoretical and philosophical framework
that is used at the beginning of a research project to explain the functioning and reasoning behind
chosen research methods, as well as to guide the research process.
Methods are the techniques used to collect data in research

What are research methods?

Research methods are the techniques you use to do research. They represent the tools of the
trade, and provide you with ways to collect, sort and analyze information so that you can come to
some conclusions. If you use the right sort of methods for your particular type of research, then
you should be able to convince other people that your conclusions have some validity, and that
the new knowledge you have created is soundly based.

Summary of the differences between the terms research methods and research methodology
Methods Methodology
Methods or techniques used to collect data. Explanation and rationale behind the methods
employed in said research.

Involves conducting surveys, interviews, Involves the acquisition of knowledge

experiments, etc surrounding various techniques used to
conduct research such as surveys, interviews,
experiments, etc.

The main objective is to discover solutions to The main objective is to use the correct
research problems. procedures to discover solutions to research
problems.

Used in later stages of research. Used in the beginning stages of research

Types of research
Research can be classified in many different ways. The following is classification based on
purpose.
 Categorical.
This is research carried out so that one can be able to explain which ‘things’ belong
together and how.
 Descriptive
 Descriptive research relies on observation as a means of collecting data. It attempts to
examine situations in order to establish what is the norm, i.e. what can be predicted to
happen again under the same circumstances.
 Explanatory
This is a descriptive type of research designed in such a way that the results help in
understanding a complex situation.
 Evaluative
This involves making judgments about the quality of objects or events. Quality can be
measured either in an absolute sense or on a comparative basis. To be useful, the methods
of evaluation must be relevant to the context and intentions of the research. (pasture)
 Comparative
Two or more contrasting cases can be examined to highlight differences and similarities
between them, leading to a better understanding of phenomena.
 Correlative
The relationships between two phenomena are investigated to see whether and how they
influence each other. (extra teaching and performance in examination)
 Predictive
This can sometimes be done in research areas where correlations are already known.
Predictions of possible future behaviour or events are made on the basis that if there has
been a strong relationship between two or more characteristics or events in the past, then
these should exist in similar circumstances in the future, leading to predictable outcomes.
(grass hoppers, army worms)
 Control
Once you understand an event or situation, you may be able to find ways to control it.
For this you need to know what the cause and effect relationships are and that you are
capable of exerting control over the vital ingredients. All of technology relies on this
ability to control. (Pests)

Research can also be classified by the type of data

 Quantitative research

This type of research involves collecting quantifiable information recorded in numbers

and analyzed using statistical techniques. The goal of quantitative methods is to
determine whether the predictive generalizations of a theory hold true encouragement.

Assumptions underlying quantitative methods

Some general assumptions are characteristic of quantitative research:

 reality is objective, “out there,” and independent of the researcher

 reality is something that can be studied objectively
 researchers should remain distant and independent of what is being researched
 research is value-free--the values of the researcher do not interfere with, or become part
of, the research
 research is based primarily on deductive forms of logic and theories
 hypotheses are tested in a cause-effect manner
  goal is to develop generalizations that contribute to theory
 enables the researcher to predict, explain, and understand some phenomenon.

Three general types of quantitative methods

 Experiments 
True experiments are characterized by random assignment of subjects to experimental
conditions with the use of experimental controls.
 Quasi-Experiments  
Quasi-experimental studies share almost all the features of experimental designs except
that they involve non-randomized assignment of subjects to experimental conditions (for
example paired treatments).
 Surveys  
Surveys include cross-sectional and longitudinal studies using questionnaires or
interviews for data collection with the intent of estimating the characteristics of a large
population of interest based on a smaller sample from that population.

 Qualitative research

This type of research is based on qualitative process of inquiry. The aim is understand
social or human problems from multiple perspectives. Data is analyzed using social….

Assumptions underlying qualitative methods

Some general assumptions of qualitative research

 multiple realities exist in any study - the researcher’s, those of the individuals being
investigated, and the reader or audience interpreting the results
 multiple perspectives including voices of informants are included in the study
 researchers interact with those under study and actively work to minimize the distance
between the researcher and those being researched
 researchers explicitly recognize and acknowledge the value-laden nature of the research
 research is context-bound
 research is based on inductive forms of logic
 categories of interest may emerge from informants (internal) or be used to frame the
understanding (external)
 uncovering patterns or theories that help explain a phenomenon of interest  is the goal
 Determining accuracy involves verifying the information with informants or
"triangulating" among different sources of information.

Types of qualitative methods

A qualitative "approach" is a general way of thinking about conducting qualitative research. It
describes, either explicitly or implicitly, the purpose of the qualitative research, the role of the
researcher(s), the stages of research, and the method of data analysis. Several approaches
generally are considered when undertaking qualitative research.

Case studies 

In a case study the researcher explores a single entity or phenomenon and collects detailed
information through a variety of methods. The case study is a descriptive record of an
individual's experiences and/or behaviors kept by an outside observer.

Ethnographic studies

In ethnographic research the researcher studies an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a
specific period of time.  A cultural group can be any group of individuals who share a common
social experience, location, or other social characteristic of interest. The most common
ethnographic approach is participant observation as a part of field research. Typically the
ethnographer becomes immersed in the culture as an active participant and records extensive
field notes.

Phenomenological studies   

Phenomenological studies emphasize a focus on people's subjective experiences and

interpretations of the world. The phenomenologist wants to understand how the world appears to
others. In a phenomenological study, human experiences are examined through the detailed
description of the people being studied

Field research

The researcher goes "into the field" to observe the phenomenon in its natural state. The field
researcher typically takes extensive field notes that are subsequently coded and analyzed in a
variety of ways.