ENGINEERING COLLEGE

BIKANER

2009-10

SUMMER TRANING REPORT

SAFETY EVALUATION OF AUDIO/VISUAL AND IT PRODUCTS
at

ELECTRONICS REGIONAL TEST LABORATORY (WEST), MUMBAI

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
OF
RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, KOTA

Submitted to: Submitted By:

Mr. M.L. Meena Vinita Bhalla

Assistant professor IV Year
ECB (ECE, ECB)

1
 Acknowledgement

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any
task would be but incomplete without the mention of the people who made it
possible, whose constants guidance and encouragement crowned my efforts with
success.

I consider it my privilege to express my gratitude and thanks to following persons

for their help, encouragement and intellectual influence during the course of the
summer training.

I convey thanks to my guide Shri. Dhanroopmal, additional director, Shri.

Shrikant Dingore, scientific officer ’SB’ for their invaluable guidance
throughout the entire training.

I express our sincere gratitude to Shri. P.K.Srivastav (director, ERTL), for

providing me with the necessary facilities. Last but not least, we are greatly
indebted to my parents, lectures and friends for standing by us throughout the
training.

VINITA BHALLA

2
 PREFACE

An engineer is a person who applies the knowledge of science for the

welfare of society. Teaching technical studies can’t be perfect without
project work. Hence, the project work is great valuable for the
engineering students. This report contains basic knowledge of safety lab,
which includes why safety testing of appliances is necessary.

The scientists working in safety lab are trained and certified by National /
International Institutes in their respective work areas. Facilities at safety
lab are augmented every year keeping in view the regional industry
requirements and technological transitions
This safety-testing lab is designed to test and protect user from six
potential hazards such as shock, fire, energy, injury, radiation and
chemical. Equipment is tested thoroughly by all the means such as
power input/output measurement, temperature rise measurement,
insulation resistance measurement, electric strength measurement, fault
condition measurement, clearance & creepage distance measurement,
leakage current measurement, touch current measurement, abnormal
test, mechanical strength measurement, supply connection and external
flexible cords measurement, etc.

Test Laboratories provide feedback on design of the product in order

to improve products to meet safety standards. Safety investigation of
products for hazards like Electric shock, energy, fire, radiation, personal
injury etc., can be done with the help of Jigs and Fixtures developed by
the Laboratory.

3
1.Introduction:

Electronics regional test laboratory (WEST), was setup under standardization,

testing & quality certification (STQC) directorate, department of information
technology, Govt. of India, in the year 1985 as one of the national institutes to
fulfill the needs of Indian industries with regard to test, calibration, training &
quality improvement services. The laboratory situated at MIDC industrial area,
Andheri (E) is well equipped with state of –art-facilities, dedicated, professionally
qualified & trained scientists/engineers.
The quality system of laboratory complies with international standard- ISO/IEC-
17025:2005 and has received number of national and international
accreditations.
The laboratory services have enabled customers to improve their product quality
and reliability which enhanced their domestic and export market share. Client
range varies from typical small-scale industries to MNCs.
Their mission is to facilitate improvement of quality and reliability of Indian
electronics & information technology products so as to enhance their
acceptability in the domestic and international markets.
Upgraded testing facilities are provided to industries in compliance with global
standards and requirements.

2.SERVICES AT A GLANCE:

2.1 Testing:
 Components, sub-systems, equipment & systems
 Environmental / reliability
 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
 Safety

2.2 Calibration:
 Electrical & electronic (electro-technical) parameters
 DC/AC Voltage
 DC/AC current
 DC/AC resistance
 Inductance, capacitance
 Frequency
 RF power & level
 Power/ energy
 PT/CT Ratio
 Optical power

4
2.3 Non-electrical parameters:
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Pressure
 Dimension
 Mass
 Torque
 Volume
 Calibration services
 In-house & On-site

2.4 Certification:

 ISO 9000 QMS Registration

 Safety certification (‘S‘ MARK)
 EMI / EMC Certification (‘ EMC‘ Mark)
 Environmental management system certification (ISO 14000)
 Performance Assessment scheme (IEC standards)

3.TESTING:

3.1 Electronic Components:

Components are building blocks of any system/equipment/product. ERTL

has comprehensive testing facilities for testing electrical, electronics, &
electromechanical components accredited by NABL and recognized by
BIS.
 Active & passive components
1. Resistor
2. Inductor
3. Capacitor
4. Transistors
5. Ics

 Electromechanical components
1. Switches
2. Cable & wires
3. Fuse & fuse holders
4. Plugs & sockets
5. Appliance coupler
6. Circuit breaker

5
  Insulator material testing
1. Surface & volume resistivity
2. Dielectric constant
3. Glow wire test
4. Flammability
5. High voltage test
6. Ball pressure test

 Battery test
1. Capacity test
2. Storage test
3. Initial life test
4. Leakage
5. Endurance

3.2 Equipment & sub-system testing:

Major category of product tested is:

 Static & electro magnetic- single and 3 phase energy meters

 Electronic ballasts
 Luminaries

3.3Environmental/reliability testing:

This lab checks the performance of products at varying

environmental conditions. It has testing facility which functions
round the clock. The environmental facilities in ERTL(W) simulate
the following:

 High temperature
 Low temperature
 Corrosion
 Low air pressure

Lab has following facilities for durability testing:

 Vibration (both sine wave & random)
 Impact- resistive & non-repetitive
 Bump
 Shock

6
  Climate
1. Dry heat test
2. Damp test
3. Cold test
4. Thermal shock

 Mechanical durability capability

1. Bump
2. Vibration
3. Mechanical shock
4. Acceleration
5. Drop, toppling & freefall

3.4 Compliance testing:

 EMC testing
Electro magnetic compatibility addresses emission and immunity
phenomenon of devices and systems.
It is classified into:

1. Conducted emission
2. Radiated emission
3. Conducted Immunity
4. Radiated Immunity

 Safety testing (equipment)

Product is said to be safe if it is designed to protect user from six potential

hazards such as shock, fire, energy, injury, radiation and chemical.

3.5 Services offered:

 »  TMI Safety

 »  Power/Energy Safety
 »  IT Safety
 »  Critical Component
 »  Medical
 »  Consumer/ Household

7
 4.Principles of safety:
Safety testing is essential so that safe apparatus can be designed and
manufactured.

4.1 Hazards:

Safety testing is done to prevent injury or damage due to the following hazards:

 Electric shock
 Excessive temperatures
 Radiation
 Implosion
 Mechanical hazards
 Fire

4.2 Electric shock:

 Electric shock is due to current passing through the human body.

 Currents of the order of a milliampere can cause a reaction in persons in
good health.
 To provide protection against the possibility of higher voltages appearing
on parts, which may be touched or handled, such parts are either earthed
or adequately insulated.
 For parts, which can be touched, two levels of protection are provided.
Thus a single fault and any consequential faults will not create a hazard.
The provision of additional protective measures, such as supplementary
insulation or protective earthing, are not considered a substitute for, or a
relief from, properly designed basic insulation.

CAUSE PREVENTION
Contacts with parts normally at Prevent access to parts at hazardous
hazardous VOLTAGE voltage By fixed or locked covers,
interlocks, and etc. discharge capacitor at
hazardous voltage.

Breakdown of insulation between  Use double or reinforced insulation

parts Between parts normally at
Normally at hazardous voltage and hazardous voltages and accessible
Accessible parts. parts so that Breakdown is not
likely to occur.

8
  Connect accessible conductive
parts to protective earth so that the
voltage, which develops, is limited
to a safe value.
The insulations shall have adequate
mechanical and electrical strength.
Breakdown of insulation between Segregate hazardous and non-hazardous
parts normally at hazardous voltage Voltage circuits either by double or
and circuits normally at non- reinforced insulation so that breakdown is
hazardous voltages, thereby not likely to occur, or by a protective
Putting accessible parts and earthed screen, or connects the circuit
terminals at hazardous voltage. normally at non-hazardous voltage to
protective earth, so that the voltage which
can develop is limited to a safe value.

Touch current from parts at Limit touch current to a safe value or

hazardous voltage through the provide
human body. A protective earthing connection to the
(Touch current can include current Accessible parts
due to RFI filter components
connected between mains supply
circuits and accessible parts or
Terminals.)

4.3 Excessive temperatures:

 Prevent injury due to excessive temperatures of accessible parts

 Prevent damaging of insulation due to excessive internal temperatures
 Prevent mechanical instability due to excessive temperatures developed
inside the apparatus.

4.4 Radiation:
 Prevent injury due to excessive energy levels of ionizing and Laser
radiation.
For example: - by limiting the radiation to non-hazardous values.
Implosion
 To prevent injury due to implosion of picture tubes.

4.5 Mechanical hazards:

 Avoid presence of sharp edges

 Provide guarding or interlocking of dangerous moving parts.

9
4.6 Fire:

Fire can result from: -

 Overloads
 Component failure
 Insulation breakdown
 Bad connections
 Arcing

The following preventive measures are recommended: -

 Use of suitable components and subassemblies;

 Avoidance of excessive temperatures which might cause ignition under
normal or fault conditions;
 Use of measures to eliminate potential ignition sources such as
inadequate contacts, bad connections, interruptions;
 Limitation of the quantity of combustible material used;
 Control of the position of combustible materials in relation to potential
ignition sources;
 Use of materials with high resistance to fire in the vicinity of potential
ignition sources;
 Use of encapsulation or barriers to limit the spread of fire within the
apparatus;
 Use of suitable fire retardant materials for the enclosure.

10
5. General requirement:
 Rated voltage<=250 for single phase appliances
 Others up to 480 volts

5.1 General terms:

 RMS voltage and current
 Rated voltage: - specified by manufacturer
 Rated voltage range: - specified limits by manufacturer
 Working voltage: - at working/ maximum applied voltage
 Rated power input
 Rated power range
 Rated current
 Rated frequency
 Rated frequency range
 Normal operation: - appliance operated in normal use, when connected to
supply mains.
 Rated impulse voltage: - withstand capability of its insulation against
transient over voltages
 Dangerous malfunction: - unintended operation of appliances that may
impair safety

5.1.1 Cords:

o Detachable cord: - flexible cord, intended to be connected to

appliances by suitable appliance coupler
o Interconnection cord: - external flexible cord not connected to
mains
o Supply cord: - fixed cord, fixed to appliance
o Type X attachment: - easily replaced
o Type Y attachment: - not easily replaced; available only from
manufacturer
o Type Z attachment: - supply cord can’t be replaced without
breaking or destroying appliances.

5.1.2 Supply leads: set of wires, connecting appliance to fixed wiring

5.1.3 Insulation:
o Basic: - applied to live parts to provide basic protection against
electrical shock

11
 o Supplementary: - provided in addition to basic; in case basic
fails, to provide protection against electric shock
o Double: - basic + supplementary
o Reinforced: - single insulation, equivalent to double insulation
o Functional: - insulation between conductive parts of different
potential
o Protective: - impedance connected between live parts and
accessible conductive parts of class II construction; so in case of
fault/ normal condition; current limited to safe value
 Protective impedance

5.1.4 Appliances:

o Class 0 appliances: - appliances in which electric shocks relies

only on BI
o Class 01 appliance: - at least BI, throughout, earthing terminal
incorporated, supply cord without earthing conductor and plug
without earthing contact
o Class 1: - BI+ conductive accessible parts connected to protective
earthing conductor in such a way conductive accessible parts are
not live in case of BI failure
o Class II: - BI+DI/RI. No provision for protective earthing
o Class 1/01 = DI/RI +provision for earthing
o Class II construction: - parts of appliance for insulation depends
on DI/RI
o Class III appliances: - protection against electric shock relies on
supply at safety extra-low voltage
o Class III construction: - part of appliances protection against
electric shock relies on supply at safety extra-low voltage
 Clearance: - shortest distance in air between conductive part or
conductive parts and accessible surface
 Creepage distance: - shortest distance between surface of insulation
between two conductive parts or between conductive parts and accessible
surface

5.1.5 Voltage:

o Extra low voltage: - when appliances supplied at rated voltage;

source inside appliance supplied voltage between conductors or
between conductors and earth which doesn’t exceed 50V
o Safety extra-low voltage (SELV): - V<42V between conductor
and conductor and earth

12
 o SELV: - mains coming from safety transformer/ converter with
separate windings

5.2 Safety isolating transformer:

Transformer input windings are separated from output windings by double

insulation or reinforced insulation.

5.3 Protective extra low voltage circuit:

Earthed circuit operating at SELV, which is separated from other circuits by basic
insulation, double insulation, reinforced insulation and protective screening.

*Protective screening is separation of circuits from other live parts by means of

earthed screen.

13
6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS:

6.1 Clearance And Creepage Measurement Of Split

Bobbin Power Transformer:

Figure 6.1 : Transformer

6.1.1 Creepage Distance:

Creepage is the shortest path between two conductive parts (or between a
conductive part and the bounding surface of the equipment) measured along
the surface of the insulation. A proper and adequate creepage distance
protects against tracking, a process that produces a partially conducting path
of localized deterioration on the surface of an insulating material as a result of
the electric discharges on or close to an insulation surface. The degree of
tracking required depends on two major factors: the comparative tracking
index (CTI) of the material and the degree of pollution in the environment.
Used for electrical insulating materials, the CTI provides a numerical value of
the voltage that will cause failure by tracking during standard testing. IEC 112

14
provides a fuller explanation of tracking and CTI.1 Tracking that damages the
insulating material normally occurs because of one or more of the following
reasons:

1.Humidityin the atmosphere

2.Presence of contamination
3.Corrosive chemicals
4.Altitude at which equipment is to be operated

6.1.2 Clearance Distance:

Clearance is the shortest distance between two conductive parts (or between
a conductive part and the bounding surface of the equipment) measured
through air. Clearance distance helps prevent dielectric breakdown between
electrodes caused by the ionization of air. The dielectric breakdown level is
further influenced by relative humidity, temperature, and degree of pollution in
the environment.

Figure 6.1.2 Split Bobbin

15
 4 layers of insulation
7 layers of insulation (10mm)
(10mm)

Primary windings
sleeve
(230V)

(220V)

Secondary windings 1 layers of insulation (40mm)

(22V)

(210V)
1 layers of insulation (40mm)

3 layers of insulation
(15 micron) (0V)

Core

Figure 6.1.3 Cross-sectional view of split bobbin transformer

Measurement Distance
Clearance
Creepage

16
7. Power measurement test of mixer/Amplifier:

7.1 Plena Mixer Amplifiers:

The Plena mixer amplifier is a versatile, high-performance Unit with four mono
microphone inputs and a music input. It fulfills a wide variety of public address
requirements at a surprisingly low cost.

7.2 Functions:

All input channels have a phantom power supply to provide power to

condenser microphones and selectable speech filters for improved
intelligibility. Input channels 3 and 4 can also be switched to line
sensitivity. Separate music inputs
Are available with their own input selector and volume control. Input
channel 1 can take priority over all other microphone and music inputs.
Contact closure on the 5-pin DIN connector, or if the signal level on
channel 1 exceeds a predefined value (VOX) will activate priority. A 2-tone
chime can be configured to precede a priority announcement. A telephone
or emergency input with VOX activation and its
Own preset volume control overrides all other input. Loop through input
and output connections enable external sound processing equipment,
such as an equalizer or the
Plena feedback suppressor, to be connected between the preamplifier and
the power amplifier
stages. An LED VUmeter
monitors the master
output. The unit also has
a tape output channel.
The Plena mixer
amplifiers come in a
range of
Figure 7.2 Plena feedback suppressor

maximum output power. This power is directly available on 70 V and 100

V constant voltage connections and on a low Impedance connection for an
8-ohm load. Moreover, the amplifiers have a separate 70 V / 100 V call-
only output channel for addressing areas where only priority
Announcements are required, and a 70 V / 100 V mix-only output channel
for areas where no priority announcements should be heard. The call-only

17
 output can also be used for 3-wire remote, volume control override. For
more output power than the built-in power stage can deliver, additional
Plena power amplifiers can be connected to the balanced line output in a
loop-through arrangement. The LBB 1914/10 offers the same functionality
as the LBB 1912/10 but also has two front-panel switches to direct the
amplifier output to two separate zones. This is useful when certain
announcements or background music should not be heard in part of a
building. Priority calls, however, are always routed to both zones .

7.2.1 Controls and indicators :

Front
• LED power meter
• Power on LED
• Master volume control knob
• Four volume control knobs for mic inputs
• Three knobs for BGM volume, treble, and bass levels
• BGM source selection knob
• On/off switch
• Two zone selection buttons (LBB1914/10 only)

Back
• EMG input volume control
• Two mic/line switches
• Chime on/off switch
• Mains voltage switch

7.2.2 Interconnections:

Front
• Headphone jack

Back
• Priority mic input (DIN/6.3 mm jack)
• Mic input (XLR/6.3 mm jack)
• Two mic/line inputs (XLR/6.3 mm jack)
• Three audio inputs (2 x cinches)
• EMG input (screw)
• Line output (XLR)
• Tape output (2 x cinches)
• Insertion input/output (2 x cinches)
• 24 VDC input
• Three (five for the LBB 1914/10) loudspeaker outputs
(Screw)

18
7.3 Power measurement test:

If appliance is marked with rated power input, power at normal operating

temperature shall not deviate from rated power input by more than following
deviation: -

Power input: -

Rated
Type of appliance power Deviation
All appliance <=25 20%
Heating appliance & combined >25 &
appliance <=200 ±10%
  >200 5%
>25 &
Motor-operated appliance <=300 20%
  >300 50%

Rear panel of mixer/amplifier

Load(83Ω)
Functional generator

AC Power source
DC power meter

Figure 7.3.1 Block diagram of Power measurement test

19
 70V
100v

24 V
~ 0 ~

DC IN
8Ω
4Ω
0V
12345678

Rear panel of amplifier

Fr
e
Vrms
q.
V A
Irms

~~
~~
Functional generator DC power meter AC power source

Figure 7.3.2 Block diagram of Power measurement test

20
 70V
100v

24 V
~ 0 ~

DC IN
8Ω
4Ω
0V
12345678

Load=83Ω
Rear panel of amplifier

Fr
e
Vrms
q.
V A
Irms

~~
~~
Functional generator DC power meter AC power source

Figure 7.3.3 Block diagram of Power measurement test (Load= 83Ω)

Power measurement test at load = 83Ω (AE120W,

83E±5%)

Voltage (V) Frequency (Hz) Current (A) Power (kW) Power Factor

207 50 1.34 0.257 0.78

230 50 1.73 0.31 0.77

253 50 1.76 0.37 0.78

207 60 1.53 0.362 0.74

230 60 1.62 0.306 0.74

253 60 1.59 0.328 0.78

21
 100v
70V

24 V
~ 0 ~

DC IN
8Ω
0V

4Ω
12345678

Rear panel of amplifier Load =8Ω

Fr
eq
Vrms
.
V A
Irms

~~
~~
Functional generator DC power meter AC power source

Figure 7.3.4 Block diagram of Power measurement test (load=8Ω)

Power measurement test at load = 8Ω (AE250WW,

8E±5%)
Frequency Current Power
Voltage (V) (Hz) (A) (kW) Power Factor

207 50 1.79 0.311 0.836

230 50 1.97 0.378 0.8306

253 50 2.07 0.4397 0.8278

207 60 1.8 0.313 0.8377

230 60 1.98 0.379 0.8326

253 60 2.08 0.433 0.8285

22
 100v
70V

24 V
~ 0 ~

DC IN
8Ω
4Ω
0V
12345678

Rear panel of amplifier Load=4 Ω

Fr
e
Vrms l q.
V A
Irms

~~
~~
Functional generator DC power meter AC power source

Figure 7.3.5 Block diagram of Power measurement test (load 4Ω )

Power measurement test at load = 4Ω (AE250W,

4E±5%)
Frequency Current Power
Voltage (V) (Hz) (A) (kW) Power Factor

207 50 0.31 0.045 0.62

230 50 0.32 0.04 0.61

253 50 0.33 0.04 0.61

207 60 0.31 0.04 0.62

230 60 0.32 0.04 0.61

253 60 0.32 0.05 0.61

23
 70V
100v

24 V
~ 0 ~

DC IN
8Ω
4Ω
0V
12345678

Rear panel of amplifier

Fr
e
Vrms
q.
V A
Irms

~~
~~
Functional generator DC power meter AC power source

Figure 7.3.6 Block diagram of Power measurement test (load =44Ω)

7.4 Conclusion:

All the parameters mentioned by manufacturer are correct and in limit.

24
8.Temperature Rise Measurement using K-Type thermocouple:

Temperature rise other than windings are determined by Fine-wire thermocouple

positioned so that they have minimum effect on temperature of part under test.
Temperature rises of electrical insulation; other than that of windings; is
determined on surface of insulation at places where failure could cause

 Short Circuit
 Contact between live parts and accessible parts
 Bridging of insulation
 Reduction of clearance distance / creepage distance.

Temperature rise of windings are determined by RESISTANCE METHOD; in

case of non-uniform, temperature rise by means of thermocouple

Δt = ((R2-R1)/R1)(k+T1)-(T2-T1)

10 9
4 5
8
2
7

Figure 8.1 K-type Thermocouple

25
 Output
connector

Outpu
t

transfor
mer

A
SMPS heat sink

Interface PCB
R186
PCB

r
me
ns n
tra Mai
for

Figure 8.2 Temp. rise measurement

Temp (after 20mins) Temp (after

Sr.No. Thermocouple (°C) 20mins)(°C)
1 Ambient at 230V26.3 27.3
2 Heat sink 65.1 66.1
3 O/p Transformer61.8 62.8
4 SMPS heat sink 78.9 79.9
5 R186 85.5 86.5
Main
6 transformer 105.3 106.3
7 O/p connector 52.4 53.4
Appliance
8 coupler 44.2 45.2
9 PCB 56.1 57.1
10 PCB interface 32.1 33.1

9.Abnormal test of amplifier/ mixer:

26
1. Secondary is short-circuited, when output is short circuited; power switch dB
goes off.
2. When fan is blocked, it takes 7-8 mins to heat up and then automatically power
switch dB goes off. This is due to inbuilt thermistor.
3. When fan is unblocked, it takes 3-4 mins to get started.
4. When output of rectifier circuit is short circuited, fuse is blown. This is because
current flowing through circuit is high.
5. When full loading of main transformer is done, trip after two hours.
2,3

1 5

Figure 9.1 Amplifier

Δt = ((R2-R1)/R1)(k+T1)-(T2-T1)

Initial resistance of primary windings =7.705Ω

Initial resistance of secondary windings=117.69mΩ
Final resistance of primary windings =9.9Ω
Final resistance of secondary windings =162mΩ

Δt = 74.5°C

10.Power measurement test and abnormal test

of Torodial transformer:

27
10.1 Toroidal Transformer:

Doughnut shaped toroidal transformers are used to save

space compared to EI cores, and sometimes to reduce
external magnetic field. These use a ring shaped core,
copper windings wrapped round this ring (and thus threaded
through the ring during winding), and tape for insulation.

Fig. 10.1 Toroidal Transformer

10.2 Toroidal transformers compared to EI core transformers:

 Lower external magnetic field

 Smaller for a given power rating
 Higher cost in most cases, as winding requires more complex and slower
equipment
 Less robust
 Central fixing is either
o bolt, large metal washers and rubber pads
o bolt and potting resin
 Over-tightening the central fixing bolt may short the windings

Greater inrush current at switch on-

Fig. 10.2.1 Power Measurement test of main Transformer

28
 2layers of insulation
Sleeve
2layers of insulation

Blue (19.4V (S))

Black (0V(S))

2layers of insulation

Red (14.55 V(S)) Gray (0V(S))

2layers of insulation

Red (100 V (P))

Orange (70 V (P))

1layers of insulation
Brown (31 V(P))

Gray (22 V(P))

Black (0 V(P))

4layers of insulation

Red (14.55V(S)) Orange (14.55 V (S))

Gray (0 V (S))

CORE
Figure 10.2.2 Cross-sectional view of torodial transformer

Secondary ----[Red (100V), orange (70V), Brown (31V), Gray (22V), black (0V)]

Primary---- [orange (14.55V), gray (0V), red (14.55V), black (0V), blue (19.4V)]

11. Proficiency testing of Switched mode power supply

29
11.1 SMPS:
Switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply/SMPS, or
simply switcher) is an electronic power supply unit (PSU) that
incorporates a switching regulator in order to provide the required
output voltage. A SMPS is a power converter that transmits power
from a source to a load. The function of the converter is to provide a
regulated output voltage usually at a different level from the input
voltage.
Unlike a linear power supply, the pass transistor of a switching mode
supply switches very quickly (typically between 50 kHz and 1 MHz)
between full-on and full-off states, which minimizes wasted energy.
Voltage regulation is provided by varying the ratio of on to off time. In
contrast, a linear power supply must dissipate the excess voltage to
regulate the output. This higher efficiency is the chief advantage of a
switch-mode power supply.
Switching regulators are used as replacements for the linear regulators
when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight are required.
They are, however, more complicated, their switching currents can
cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and simple
designs may have a poor power factor.

11.2 Theory of operation:

Figure 11.2 Block diagram of a mains operated AC–DC SMPS with

output voltage regulation

30
 time ambient transformer capacitor dry temp. wet temp humidity
12:00 29.6 36.7 36.7 28 22 42
12:30 29.4 69.3 58.1 27 22 50
13:00 29.3 75.6 62 28 22 42
13:30 29.1 77.1 62.8 28 22 42
14:00 29.2 77.4 62.8 28 22 42
14:30 29.2 77.6 63.1 28 22 42
15:00 29.2 77.1 63.5 28 22 42
15:30 29.1 77.7 63.5 28 22 42
16:00 29.2 77.6 63 28 22 42
16:30 29.2 77.8 63.1 28 22 42

Figure 11.3 TEMPERATURE RISE MEASUREMENT (USING THERMOCOUPLE)

Input =100/120 V AC, 3.2 A

(88V-132V AC), 50/60Hz

Figure 11.4 Complete setup of SMPS temperature rise measurement

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 Bibliography

 International electro technical commission

Household & similar electrical appliance-safety, ISIEC 60335
 International electro technical commission
Audio/video electrical appliance-safety, ISIEC 60065
 www.Wikipedia.org

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