See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/257878835

On Fibonacci functions with Fibonacci numbers

Article  in  Advances in Difference Equations · December 2012

DOI: 10.1186/1687-1847-2012-126

CITATIONS READS

21 5,231

3 authors:

Jeong Soon Han Hee Sik Kim

Hanyang University Hanyang University
20 PUBLICATIONS   95 CITATIONS    231 PUBLICATIONS   2,044 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

J. Neggers
University of Alabama
121 PUBLICATIONS   1,195 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Fibonacci Theory View project

NeutroAlgebra & AntiAlgebra View project

All content following this page was uploaded by J. Neggers on 21 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Han et al. Advances in Difference Equations 2012, 2012:126
http://www.advancesindifferenceequations.com/content/2012/1/126

RESEARCH Open Access

On Fibonacci functions with Fibonacci

numbers
Jeong Soon Han1 , Hee Sik Kim2* and Joseph Neggers3
*
Correspondence:
heekim@hanyang.ac.kr Abstract
2
Department of Mathematics,
Research Institute for Natural In this paper we consider Fibonacci functions on the real numbers R, i.e., functions
Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul, f : R → R such that for all x ∈ R, f (x + 2) = f (x + 1) + f (x). We develop the notion of
133-791, Korea Fibonacci functions using the concept of f -even and f -odd functions. Moreover, we
Full list of author information is √
1+ 5
available at the end of the article show that if f is a Fibonacci function then limx→∞ f (x+1)f (x)
= 2
.
MSC: 11B39; 39A10
Keywords: Fibonacci function; f -even (f -odd) function; Golden ratio

1 Introduction
Fibonacci numbers have been studied in many different forms for centuries and the lit-
erature on the subject is, consequently, incredibly vast. One of the amazing qualities of
these numbers is the variety of mathematical models where they play some sort of role
and where their properties are of importance in elucidating the ability of the model un-
der discussion to explain whatever implications are inherent in it. The fact that the ratio
of successive Fibonacci numbers approaches the Golden ratio (section) rather quickly as
they go to infinity probably has a good deal to do with the observation made in the pre-
vious sentence. Surveys and connections of the type just mentioned are provided in []
and [] for a very minimal set of examples of such texts, while in [] an application (obser-
vation) concerns itself with a theory of a particular class of means which has apparently
not been studied in the fashion done there by two of the authors of the present paper.
Recently, Hyers-Ulam stability of Fibonacci functional equation was studied in []. Sur-
prisingly novel perspectives are still available and will presumably continue to be so for
the future as long as mathematical investigations continue to be made. In the following,
the authors of the present paper are making another small offering at the same spot many
previous contributors have visited in both recent and more distance pasts. The present
authors [, ] studied a Fibonacci norm of positive integers and Fibonacci sequences in
groupoids in arbitrary groupoids.
In this paper we consider Fibonacci functions on the real numbers R, i.e., functions f :
R → R such that for all x ∈ R, f (x + ) = f (x + ) + f (x). We develop the notion of Fibonacci
functions using the concept of f -even and f -odd functions. Moreover, we show that if f is
√
a Fibonacci function then limx→∞ f (x+)
f (x)
= + 

.

© 2012 Han et al.; licensee Springer. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribu-
tion License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Han et al. Advances in Difference Equations 2012, 2012:126 Page 2 of 7
http://www.advancesindifferenceequations.com/content/2012/1/126

2 Fibonacci functions
A function f defined on the real numbers is said to be a Fibonacci function if it satisfies the
formula

f (x + ) = f (x + ) + f (x) (.)

for any x ∈ R, where R (as usual) is the set of real numbers.

Example . Let f (x) := ax be a Fibonacci function on R where a > . Then √

ax a = f (x +
x  + 
) =
√
f (x + ) + f (x) = a (a + ). Since a > , we have a = a +  and a =  . Hence f (x) =
(  ) is a Fibonacci function, and the unique Fibonacci function of this type on R.
+  x

If we let u = , u = , then we consider the full Fibonacci sequence: . . . , , –, , –, , ,

, , , , , . . . , i.e., u–n = (–)n+ un for n > , and un = Fn , the nth Fibonacci number.

Example . Let {un }∞ ∞

n=–∞ and {vn }n=–∞ be full Fibonacci sequences. We define a func-
tion f (x) by f (x) := ux + vx t, where t = x – x ∈ (, ). Then f (x + ) = ux+ + vx+ t =
u(x+) + v(x+) t = (u(x+) + ux ) + (v(x+) + vx )t = f (x + ) + f (x) for any x ∈ R. This
proves that f is a Fibonacci function.

Note that if a Fibonacci function is differentiable on R, then its derivative is also a Fi-
bonacci function.

Proposition . Let f be a Fibonacci function. If we define g(x) := f (x + t) where t ∈ R for

any x ∈ R, then g is also a Fibonacci function.

Proof Given x ∈ R, we have g(x + ) = f (x +  + t) = f (x + t + ) + f (x + t) = g(x + ) + g(x),

proving the proposition. 
√ √ √
For example, since f (x) = ( +  )x is a Fibonacci function, g(x) = ( +  )x+t = ( +  )t f (x) is
also a Fibonacci function where t ∈ R.

Example . In Example ., we discussed the function f (x) := ux + vx t, where t =
x – x ∈ (, ). If we let vx := u(x–) , then f (x) is a Fibonacci function. We compute
f (–.) and f (–.) as follows: f (–.) = f (– + .) = u– + u– (.) = –. and f (–.) =
f (– + .) = u– + u– (.) = –..

Theorem . Let f (x) be a Fibonacci function and let {Fn } be a sequence of Fibonacci num-
bers with F = , F = F = . Then f (x + n) = Fn f (x + ) + Fn– f (x) for any x ∈ R and n ≥ 
an integer.

Proof If n = , then f (x + ) = f (x + ) + f (x) = F f (x + ) + F f (x). If n = , then we have

f (x + ) = f (x + ) + f (x + )

= F f (x + ) + F f (x) + F f (x + ) + F f (x)

= (F + F )f (x + ) + (F + F )f (x)

= F f (x + ) + F f (x).
Han et al. Advances in Difference Equations 2012, 2012:126 Page 3 of 7
http://www.advancesindifferenceequations.com/content/2012/1/126

If we assume that it holds for the cases of n and n + , then

f (x + n + ) = f (x + n + ) + f (x + n)

= Fn+ f (x + ) + Fn f (x) + Fn f (x + ) + Fn– f (x)

= (Fn+ + Fn )f (x + ) + (Fn + Fn– )f (x)

= Fn+ f (x + ) + Fn+ f (x),

proving the theorem. 

Corollary . If {Fn } is the sequence of Fibonacci numbers with F = F = , then

 √   √ 
+  n + 
= Fn +Fn– . (.)
 
√ √
Proof As we have seen in Example ., f (x) = ( +  )x is a Fibonacci function. Let a := +  .
By applying Theorem ., we have ax+n = f (x + n) = Fn f (x + ) + Fn– f (x) = Fn ax+ + Fn– ax ,
proving that an = Fn a + Fn– . 

Theorem . Let {un } be the full Fibonacci sequence. Then

ux+n = Fn u(x+) + Fn– ux (.)

and

u(x+n–) = Fn ux + Fn– u(x–) . (.)

Proof The map f (x) := ux + u(x–) t discussed in Example . is a Fibonacci function. If
we apply Theorem ., then we obtain

ux+n + u(x+n–) t = f (x + n)

= Fn f (x + ) + Fn– f (x)

= Fn [ux+ + u(x+–) t] + Fn– [ux + u(x–) t]

= Fn [u(x+) + ux t] + Fn– [ux + u(x–) t]

= [Fn u(x+) + Fn– ux ] + [Fn ux + Fn– u(x–) ]t,

proving the theorem. 

Corollary . If n ≥ , then

Fx+n = Fn F(x+) + Fn– Fx (.)

and

F(x+n–) = Fn Fx + Fn– F(x–) . (.)

Corollary . Fn+ = Fn F + Fn– F .

Han et al. Advances in Difference Equations 2012, 2012:126 Page 4 of 7
http://www.advancesindifferenceequations.com/content/2012/1/126

Proof Let x :=  in (.) or x :=  in (.). 

3 f -even and f -odd functions

In this section, we develop the notion of Fibonacci functions using the concept of f -even
and f -odd functions.

Definition . Let a(x) be a real-valued function of a real variable such that if a(x)h(x) ≡ 
and h(x) is continuous then h(x) ≡ . The map a(x) is said to be an f -even function (resp.,
f -odd function) if a(x + ) = a(x) (resp., a(x + ) = –a(x)) for any x ∈ R.

Example . If a(x) = x – x, then a(x)h(x) ≡  implies h(x) =  if x ∈/ Z. By continuity

of h(x), it follows that h(n) = limx→n h(x) =  for any integer n, and hence h(x) ≡ . Since
a(x + ) = (x + ) – x +  = (x + ) – (x + ) = x – x = a(x), we see that a(x) is an f -even
function.

Example . If a(x) = sin(πx), then a(x)h(x) ≡  implies h(x) =  if x

= nπ for any inte-
ger n. By continuity of h(x) it follows that h(nπ) = limx→nπ h(x) =  for any integer n, and
hence h(x) ≡ . Since a(x + ) = sin(πx + π) = sin(πx) cos(π) = – sin(πx) = –a(x), we see
that a(x) is an f -odd function.

Theorem . Let f (x) = a(x)g(x) be a function, where a(x) is an f -even function and g(x)
is a continuous function. Then f (x) is a Fibonacci function if and only if g(x) is a Fibonacci
function.

Proof Suppose that f (x) is a Fibonacci function. Then a(x)g(x + ) = a(x + )g(x + ) =
f (x + ) = f (x + ) + f (x) = a(x)[g(x + ) + g(x)]. Hence a(x)[g(x + ) – g(x + ) – g(x)] ≡  and
g(x + ) – g(x + ) – g(x) ≡ , i.e., g(x + ) = g(x + ) + g(x) and g(x) is a Fibonacci function.
On the other hand, if g(x) is any Fibonacci function, then a(x + ) = a(x + ) + a(x) implies
that f (x) = a(x)g(x) is also a Fibonacci function. 
√
Example . It follows from Example . that g(x) = ( +  )x is a Fibonacci function.√
Since
a(x) = x – x is an f -even function, by Theorem ., f (x) = a(x)g(x) = (x – x)( +  )x is a
Fibonacci function.

Example . If we define a(x) =  if x is rational and a(x) = – if x is irrational, then

a(x + ) = a(x) for any x ∈ R. Also, if a(x)h(x) ≡ , then h(x) ≡  whether or not h(x) is
continuous.√Thus a(x) is an f -even function. In Example ., we have seen that f (x) =
(x – x)( +  )x is a Fibonacci function. By applying Theorem ., the map defined by
⎧ √
⎨(x – x)( +  )x if x ∈ Q,

a(x)f (x) = √
⎩–(x – x)( +  )x otherwise,


is also a Fibonacci function.

Now, we discuss f -odd functions with Fibonacci functions. Let a(x) be an f -odd func-
tion and g(x) be a continuous function. Let f (x) be a Fibonacci function such that f (x) =
Han et al. Advances in Difference Equations 2012, 2012:126 Page 5 of 7
http://www.advancesindifferenceequations.com/content/2012/1/126

a(x)g(x). Then a(x)[g(x + ) + g(x + ) – g(x)] = .√In this situation, the characteristic equa-
tion r +√r –  =  yields solutions
√
of the type –±  , and thus for r > , the solution type is
g(x) = ( –

)x , whereas ( ––  )x is not a real number except for special values of x.
A function f defined on R satisfying f (x + ) = –f (x + ) + f (x) for all x ∈ R is said to be
an odd Fibonacci function. Similarly, a sequence {an }∞ n= with an+ = –an+ + an is said to
be an odd Fibonacci sequence.

Example . A sequence {, , , , –, , –, , . . .} is an odd Fibonacci sequence.

Corollary . Let f (x) = a(x)g(x) be a function, where a(x) is an f -odd function and g(x)
is a continuous function. Then f (x) is a Fibonacci function if and only if g(x) is an odd
Fibonacci function.

Proof Similar to the proof of Theorem .. 

√
Example . The function g(x) = ( – 
)x is an odd Fibonacci function. Since a(x) =
is an f -odd function, by Corollary ., we can see that the function f (x) =
sin(πx) √
sin(πx)( –

)x is a Fibonacci function.

4 Quotients of Fibonacci functions

In this section, we discuss the limit of the quotient of a Fibonacci function.

f (x+)
Theorem . If f (x) is a Fibonacci function, then the limit of quotient f (x)
exists.

Proof If we consider a quotient f (x+) f (x)

of a Fibonacci function f (x), we have  cases:
(i) f (x) > , f (x + ) > ; (ii) f (x) < , f (x + ) > ; (iii) f (x) > , f (x + ) < ; (iv) f (x) < ,
f (x + ) < . Consider (iii). If we let α := f (x) > , β := f (x + ) < , then f (x + ) = α – β,
f (x + ) = α – β, f (x + ) = α – β = F α – F β and f (x + ) = F α – F β. In this fashion,
we obtain f (x + n) = Fn α – Fn+ β for any natural number n ∈ N. Given x ∈ R, there exist
x ∈ R and n ∈ Z such that x = x + n. Hence

f (x + ) f (x + n + )

=
f (x ) f (x + n)
Fn+ α – Fn β
=
Fn α – Fn– β
Fn+
Fn
α –β
=
α– Fn
Fn–

α – β
→ β
= ,
α– 

√
Fn+ f (x+)
where limn→∞ Fn
== + 

. Thus limx→∞ f (x)
= . Case (ii) is similar to the case (iii).
Consider the case (i): f (x) > , f (x + ) > . We may change f (x+)
f (x)
by f (δ+n+)
f (δ+n)
, since any real
number x (> ) can be written x = δ + n for some δ ∈ R and n ∈ N. Consider a sequence
{ f (δ+n+) }∞ .
f (δ+n) n=

f (δ + n + ) f (δ + n) + f (δ + n – ) f (δ + n – )
= =+ < ,
f (δ + n) f (δ + n) f (δ + n)
Han et al. Advances in Difference Equations 2012, 2012:126 Page 6 of 7
http://www.advancesindifferenceequations.com/content/2012/1/126

since f (δ+n–)
f (δ+n)
< . We claim that { f (δ+n+) }∞ is monotonically increasing. Since ff (δ+n+)
f (δ+n) n= (δ+n+)
–
f (δ+n+) f (δ+n+)f (δ+n)–f (δ+n+)f (δ+n+)
f (δ+n)
= f (δ+n+)f (δ+n)
, we show that the numerator part of the quotient
is positive.

f (δ + n + )f (δ + n) – f (δ + n + )f (δ + n + )

 
= f (δ + n + ) + f (δ + n + ) f (δ + n) – f (δ + n + )f (δ + n + )
 
= f (δ + n + ) f (δ + n) – f (δ + n + ) + f (δ + n + )f (δ + n)
 
> f (δ + n) f (δ + n) – f (δ + n + ) + f (δ + n + )f (δ + n)
 
= f (δ + n)

≥ ,

which shows that the sequence is monotonically increasing. By the Monotone Conver-
gence Theorem, there exists limx→∞ f (δ+n+)
f (δ+n)
= limx→∞ f (x+)
f (x)
. The case (iv) is similar to
the case (i). This proves the theorem. 

Corollary . If f (x) is a Fibonacci function, then

√
f (x + )  + 
lim = .
x→∞ f (x) 

Proof If we let α := f (x) > , β := f (x + ) > , then

f (x + n + ) Fn+ α + Fn+ β
=
f (x + n) Fn α + Fn+ β
Fn+
Fn+
β
= α+ Fn
Fn+
+β
α + β
→ α = .

+β

It is shown already in the proof of Theorem . for the case of α := f (x) > , β := f (x + ) < 
that the limit of the quotient f (x+n+)
f (x+n)
converges to , proving the corollary. 

Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors’ contributions
All authors conceived of the study, participated in its design and coordination, drafted the manuscript, participated in the
sequence alignment, and read and approved the final manuscript.

Author details
1
Department of Applied Mathematics, Hanyang University, Ahnsan, 426-791, Korea. 2 Department of Mathematics,
Research Institute for Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul, 133-791, Korea. 3 Department of Mathematics,
University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0350, USA.

Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the referee’s valuable suggestions and help.

Received: 16 May 2012 Accepted: 11 July 2012 Published: 25 July 2012

 Han et al. Advances in Difference Equations 2012, 2012:126 Page 7 of 7
http://www.advancesindifferenceequations.com/content/2012/1/126

References
1. Atanasov, K, et al.: New Visual Perspectives on Fibonacci Numbers. World Scientific, Hackensack (2002).
2. Dunlap, RA: The Golden Ratio and Fibonacci Numbers. World Scientific, Hackensack (1997)
3. Han, JS, Kim, HS, Neggers, J: The Fibonacci norm of a positive integer n-observations and conjectures. Int. J. Number
Theory 6, 371-385 (2010)
4. Han, JS, Kim, HS, Neggers, J: Fibonacci sequences in groupoids. Adv. Differ. Equ. 2012, 19 (2012).
doi:10.1186-11847-2012-19
5. Jung, SM: Hyers-Ulam stability of Fibonacci functional equation. Bull. Iran. Math. Soc. 35, 217-227 (2009)
6. Kim, HS, Neggers, J: Fibonacci means and golden section mean. Comput. Math. Appl. 56, 228-232 (2008)

doi:10.1186/1687-1847-2012-126
Cite this article as: Han et al.: On Fibonacci functions with Fibonacci numbers. Advances in Difference Equations 2012
2012:126.

View publication stats