Firefighter Orientation and Safety 5

Chapter 1
Firefighter Orientation and Safety
INTRODUCTION are expected to calmly evaluate the problem and
[NFPA 1001: 3-1.1.1] bring it to a successful conclusion. Firefighters are
not extraordinary — they are ordinary people who
Fire fighting is one of the world’s most honored
often find themselves in extraordinary situations.
but hazardous occupations. It is the duty of every
They cannot do everything at once, and they and
fire department to practice life safety, incident
the public must accept this fact. Bringing any
stabilization, and property conservation. The
emergency situation to a safe conclusion requires
firefighter’s job is not comfortable or easy; it is a
knowledge, ability, and skill.
profession that exposes an individual to a high
level of personal stress and danger. Fire fighting The purpose of this chapter is to acquaint the
requires a high sense of personal dedication, a reader with the organization of the fire depart-
genuine desire to help people, and a high level of ment, including the various positions and jobs
skill. found in a fire department. The chapter also covers
New firefighters enter into one of three catego- the regulations governing the activities of
ries: career, paid on call, or volunteer. Fire depart- firefighters and the Incident Management System
ments with career personnel (salaried firefighters) (IMS). A discussion of interacting with other orga-
primarily protect larger towns and cities. Fire nizations will familiarize the reader with the types
departments may also use paid-on-call firefighters of agencies they may work with at an emergency
to support their departments. These firefighters scene. Finally, the chapter covers firefighter safety
receive reimbursement for each call they attend. in the fire station, in training, on the apparatus,
Volunteer fire departments are found in all sizes of and at emergency scenes.
communities. Volunteer fire departments and their
FIRE DEPARTMENT ORGANIZATION
firefighters greatly outnumber career departments
[NFPA 1001: 3-1.1.1; 4-1.1.1]
and their firefighters.
An organizational chart shows the structure of
Whenever there is an emergency, the fire de-
the fire department and its chain of command.
partment is one of the first entities called to the
Small fire departments have a relatively simple
scene. Emergencies involve not only fires but inci-
chain of command, while large departments have a
dents such as cave-ins, building collapses, motor
considerably more complex chart. Figure 1.2 shows
vehicle accidents, aircraft crashes, tornadoes, haz-
an organizational chart for a medium-sized fire
ardous materials incidents, civil disturbances, res-
department. It is meant to serve only as a refer-
cue operations, explosions, water incidents, and
ence. Charts for local municipalities vary.
medical emergencies (Figure 1.1). The emergency
list is unlimited. Organizational Principles
Firefighters are involved with all types of people The firefighter should be aware of four basic
and are appreciated by some and scorned by oth- organizational principles in order to operate effec-
ers. Because firefighters are public employees, they tively as a team member:
6 ESSENTIALS

Figure 1.1 Firefighters

respond to many
different types of
emergencies. Photos
courtesy of Steve
George, Robert J.
Bennet, and Carl
Goodson.

Figure 1.2 An organizational chart shows the structure of the fire department and its chain of command.
 Firefighter Orientation and Safety 7
• Unity of command in the fire service is that an officer can directly
• Span of control supervise three to seven firefighters effectively,
but the actual number varies with the situation.
• Division of labor
DIVISION OF LABOR
• Discipline
Division of labor is dividing large jobs into
UNITY OF COMMAND small jobs. These small jobs are then assigned to
Unity of command is the principle that a specific individuals. Division of labor is necessary
person can report to only one supervisor. Di- in the fire service for the following reasons:
rectly, each subordinate reports to one boss; • To assign responsibility
however, indirectly, everyone reports to the fire
• To prevent duplication of effort
chief through the chain of command (Figure 1.3).
The chain of command is the pathway of respon- • To make specific and clear-cut assignments
sibility from the highest level of the department
DISCIPLINE
to the lowest.
Traditionally, discipline as applied to organi-
zations has been understood to mean a well orga-
nized, adequately structured, uniform operation.
However, in this instance discipline refers to an
organization’s responsibility to provide the direc-
tion needed to satisfy the goals and objectives it has
identified. In other words, discipline is setting the
limits or boundaries for expected performance and
enforcing them. This direction may come in the
form of rules, regulations, or policies, but regard-
less of the term used, it must define how the
department plans to operate. The rules of the
organization must be clearly written and presented.

Fire Companies
The standard operating unit of a fire depart-
ment is the company, a group of firefighters as-
signed to a particular piece of fire apparatus or to
a particular station. A company consists of a com-
pany officer(s), a driver/operator(s), and one or
more firefighters (Figure 1.4).
A fire company is organized, equipped, and
trained for definite functions. The functions and
duties of similar fire companies may vary in differ-
ent localities because of the inherent hazards of the
area, the size of the department, and the scope of
the department’s activities. A small fire depart-
ment may have only one fire company to carry out
Figure 1.3 This simple organizational chart shows the department’s
chain of command.
the functions that normally would be performed by
several companies in a larger city. The following
SPAN OF CONTROL
lists the general descriptions of fire companies:
Span of control is the number of personnel one • Engine company — Deploys hoselines for
individual can effectively manage. A rule of thumb fire attack and exposure protection
8 ESSENTIALS

and cramped surroundings (Figure 1.5). Although

fire fighting and rescue work are the most demand-
ing tasks, a significant portion of time is spent on
inspections, training, and station duties.
FIREFIGHTER I AND FIREFIGHTER II
A firefighter must be an individual who can
perform many functions. To function effectively, a
firefighter must have certain knowledge and skills
including:
• Meet the requirements of National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) Standard
1001, Standard for Fire Fighter Professional
Qualifications (Figure 1.6).
• Know department organization, operation,
and standard operating procedures (SOPs)
(see Standard Operating Procedures sec-
tion).
Figure 1.4 The members of a company must work together.
• Know the district or city street system and
physical layout.
• Truck (ladder) company — Performs forc-
ible entry, search and rescue, ventilation, • Meet minimum health and physical fitness
salvage and overhaul, and provides access standards.
to upper levels of a structure
• Rescue squad/company — Typically is
responsible for the removal of victims from
areas of danger or entrapment
• Brush company — Extinguishes wildland
fires and protects structures in the urban-
interface
• Hazardous materials company — Re-
sponds to and mitigates hazardous materi-
als incidents
NFPA 1001
• Emergency medical company — Provides Standard for
emergency medical care and support to pa- Fire Fighter
tients Professional
Figure 1.5 Firefighters work under
Qualifications strenuous conditions. Courtesy of
Fire Department Personnel Joe Marino.
1997 Edition
Fire fighting requires skill in preventing, com-
bating, and extinguishing fires; answering emer-
gency calls; and operating and maintaining fire
Figure 1.6 Firefighters must meet
department equipment, apparatus, and quarters. the requirements of NFPA 1001.
The work involves extensive training in fire fighting,
rescue activities, hazardous materials, and emer-
gency medical care. Firefighters must operate ap- The following are some of the typical duties of
paratus and perform dangerous assignments un- a firefighter I and a firefighter II:
der emergency conditions, all of which require • Attend training courses; read and study
strenuous exertion amid hazards such as smoke assigned materials related to fire fighting,
 Firefighter Orientation and Safety 9
fire prevention, hazardous materials, and OTHER FIRE DEPARTMENT PERSONNEL
emergency medical care (Figure 1.7). Depending on local requirements and customs,
• Respond to medical emergencies and other other specialized fire service personnel may be
patient care requests. used. Their duties and requirements vary depend-
ing on local needs and procedures. Following is a
• Respond to fire alarms with the company,
list of other positions among fire suppression per-
operate fire fighting equipment, lay and
sonnel, their primary roles, and the NFPA stan-
connect hose, maneuver nozzles and direct
dard covering their professional qualifications:
fire streams, raise and climb ladders, and
use extinguishers and all fire fighting hand • Fire apparatus driver/operator — Safely
tools. drives assigned fire apparatus to and from
fire and emergency scenes, operates pumps,
• Ventilate burning buildings by opening win-
aerial devices, or other mechanical equip-
dows and skylights or by cutting holes in
ment as required (NFPA 1002, Standard
roofs or floors.
for Fire Department Vehicle Driver/Opera-
• Remove people from danger and administer tor Professional Qualifications)
first aid.
• Fire department officer — May fulfill any
• Perform salvage operations, which include of the following responsibilities, depending
placing salvage covers, sweeping water, and upon the size and structure of the fire de-
removing debris. partment (NFPA 1021, Standard for Fire
• Complete overhaul operations with the goal Officer Professional Qualifications):
of ensuring total fire extinguishment. — The fire chief is ultimately responsible
• Relay instructions, orders, and informa- for all operations within the fire depart-
tion, and give locations of alarms received ment.
from the telecommunicator. — Fire department officers supervise a fire
• Exercise precautions to avoid injury while company in the station and at the fire
performing duties. scene. They may also supervise a group
• Exercise loss control measures (reducing or of fire companies in a specified geo-
eliminating loss and damage during and graphical region of the city.
after a fire) to avoid unnecessary damage to — Other roles assigned include operations,
or loss of property. personnel/administration, public infor-
• Ensure safekeeping and proper care of all mation, fire prevention, resources, and
fire department property. planning (Figure 1.8).
• Perform assigned fire inspections and checks
of buildings and structures for compliance
with fire prevention ordinances.

Figure 1.8 Fire department officers

have both administrative and
operational responsibilities.
Figure 1.7 Training is a very important aspect of the firefighter’s career.
10 ESSENTIALS

• Fire department safety officer — Over- • Information systems personnel — Man-

sees a fire department’s occupational safety age the collection, entry, storage, retrieval,
and health program and monitors the op- and dissemination of electronic databases
erational safety of emergency incidents such as fire reporting
(NFPA 1521, Standard for Fire Department
Safety Officer) (Figure 1.9) Special Operations Personnel
If fire departments only provided standard
structural fire protection to their communities, the
positions discussed to this point in the chapter
would cover all the bases. However, many fire
departments today provide a wide variety of ser-
vices to their jurisdictions. These special services
require specially trained personnel. In many cases,
these individuals serve as both regular firefighters
and specialists in a particular discipline. The fol-
lowing list addresses some of the special operations
found in many fire departments:
• Airport firefighter
— Protects life and
property, controls
fire hazards, and
performs general
duties related to
Figure 1.9 On the emergency scene, the safety officer serves as an
advisor to the incident commander. airport operations
and aircraft safety
In order to carry out the mission of the fire (known as aircraft
department, other personnel are also required. rescue and fire
The following list describes some of these person- fighting [ARFF])
nel: (NFPA 1003, Stan-
• Communications/telecommunications dard for Airport Fire
personnel — Take emergency and Fighter Professional
nonemergency phone calls, process the in- Qualifications) (Fig-
formation, dispatch units, maintain and ure 1.10)
provide communications link to companies • Hazardous mate-
that are in service, and complete incident rials technician —
reports (NFPA 1061, Standard for Profes- Handles hazard-
sional Qualifications for Public Safety ous materials and Figure 1.10 Airport firefighters
Telecommunicators) wear special equipment and
nuclear, biological, are trained to handle incidents
• Fire alarm maintenance personnel — and chemical (NBC) involving all types of aircraft.
Maintain municipal fire alarm systems emergencies (NFPA
• Apparatus and equipment maintenance 472, Standard on
personnel — Maintain all fire department Professional Competence of Responders to
apparatus and portable equipment Hazardous Materials Incidents)
• Fire police personnel — Assist regular • Self-contained underwater breathing
police officers in emergency operations with apparatus (SCUBA) diver — Performs
traffic control, crowd control, and scene se- both topside and underwater rescues and
curity recoveries
 Firefighter Orientation and Safety 11
• Special rescue technician — Handles
special rescue situations such as high-
angle (rope) rescue, trench and structural
collapse, confined space entry, extrication
operations, and cave or mine rescues

Fire Prevention Personnel

An effective fire prevention program decreases
the need for suppression activities and thereby
reduces the costs and risks of extinguishing fire.
The fire prevention division of a fire department is
typically headed by an assistant chief of the de-
partment. Depending on local customs, this person
may be called the assistant chief in charge of fire
prevention or the fire marshal. This individual has
Figure 1.11 Inspectors may work with companies or work on their own.
subordinate officers to fill the various roles within
the division. The fire prevention division generally
includes four major positions:
• Fire prevention officer/inspector — Con-
ducts technical and supervisory work in the
fire prevention program (Figure 1.11) (NFPA
1031, Standard for Professional
Qualifications for Fire Inspector)
• Fire and arson investigator — Conducts
the investigation of the fire area and makes
analytical judgments based on the remains
at the fire scene to determine the origin and
cause of a fire (NFPA 1033, Standard for
Professional Qualifications for Fire Investi-
gator)
Figure 1.12 Fire companies are commonly assigned to medical calls.
• Public fire and life safety educator —
Informs the public about fire hazards, fire the first responder, emergency medical technician
causes, precautions, and actions to take (EMT), or paramedic levels. The ambulance that
during a fire (NFPA 1035, Standard for responds to transport the victim also has trained
Professional Qualifications for Public Fire crew members on board.
and Life Safety Educator)
The following list highlights the roles of person-
• Fire protection engineer/specialist — nel who are trained to the first responder, emer-
Acts as a consultant to the upper admin- gency medical technician, or paramedic levels. In
istration of the department in the areas of most cases these duties are in addition to those of
fire department operations and fire pre- a firefighter.
vention
• First responder — Sustains the patient’s
Emergency Medical Services (EMS) Personnel life until more competent medical person-
Departments that provide first response to EMS nel arrive
incidents have trained first-aid responders on regu- • Emergency medical technician — Is
lar fire companies such as engines, trucks, or squads trained to provide basic life support (BLS)
(Figure 1.12). These personnel may be trained to for those whose lives are in danger
12 ESSENTIALS

• Paramedic — Handles incidents similar aside their differences and work for the benefit of
to those handled by EMTs, but is able to the department. To ensure that department mem-
provide advanced life support (ALS) bers cooperate effectively, the methods of doing so
are outlined in policies and procedures. When a
Training Personnel
firefighter joins a fire department, he is familiar-
The training that new firefighters receive is
ized with the department’s policies and proce-
one of the most important aspects of job indoctri- dures. If a firefighter has questions about these
nation. A firefighter’s training never ends. New activities, he should contact a supervisor to clarify
ideas, equipment, and tactics present new meth- any misunderstanding that could cause trouble
ods that must be learned. New materials and later. This section introduces some of the policies
technology present challenges that never before and procedures that most departments generally
existed. It is imperative that the fire service re- follow.
main abreast of these changes. This is accom-
plished by the following training personnel who Policies and Procedures
constantly improve and update the training pro- It is important to understand the difference
gram (Figure 1.13): between policy and procedure. Policy is a guide to
decision making within an organization. Policy
• Training officer/chief of training/drill-
originates mostly with top management in the fire
master — Administers all fire department
department and points to the kinds of decisions
training activities (NFPA 1041, Standard
that must be made by fire officers or other manage-
for Fire Service Instructor Professional
ment personnel in specified situations.
Qualifications)
Procedure is a kind of formal communication
• Instructor — Delivers training courses closely related to policy. Whereas policy is a guide
to the other members of the department to thinking or decision making, a procedure is a
(NFPA 1041, Standard for Fire Service detailed guide to action. A procedure describes in
Instructor Professional Qualifications) writing the steps to be followed in carrying out
organizational policy for some specific, recurring
problem or situation.
Both orders and directives are essential for
implementing the formal procedures of the depart-
ment. They may be either written or verbal. An
order is based upon a policy or procedure, whereas
a directive is not based on a policy or procedure. On
the fireground, fire officers issue many instruc-
tions, directives, and requests (Figure 1.14). How-
ever, because of the seriousness of the situation, all
of these utterances are generally considered or-
ders.
Standard Operating Procedures
Some fire departments have a predetermined
Figure 1.13 Instructors prepare firefighters to respond to emergencies.
plan for nearly every type of emergency that they
can conceive of occurring. These plans are known
FIRE DEPARTMENT REGULATIONS
as the department’s standard operating procedures
[NFPA 1001: 3-1.1.1; 4-1.1.1] (SOPs). These procedures provide a standard set of
A fire department is composed of individuals actions that are the core of every fire fighting
with different backgrounds and different ideas incident plan. The SOP may vary considerably in
about life. The success of a fire department de- different localities, but the principle is usually the
pends on the willingness of its members to put same.
 Firefighter Orientation and Safety 13
tective clothing and self-contained breathing ap-
paratus (SCBA).
1. The first unit on the scene assumes com-
mand.
2. The first-arriving engine attacks the fire.
3. The second-arriving engine lays a supply
line(s) to the first engine.
4. The first-arriving ladder truck performs
necessary forcible entry, search, rescue, and
ventilation.
The SOP should follow the most commonly
accepted order of fireground priorities:
• Life safety
• Incident stabilization
• Property conservation
The need to save lives in danger is always the
first consideration. Once all possible victims have
been rescued, attention is turned to stabilizing the
incident. Last, firefighters should make all pos-
sible efforts to minimize damage to property. This
can be accomplished through proper fire fighting
tactics and good loss control techniques.
Following standard operating procedures re-
duces chaos on the fire scene. All resources can be
Figure 1.14 Officers must not hesitate to give orders on the emergency
scene. Courtesy of Joe Marino. used in a coordinated effort to rescue victims,
stabilize the incident, and conserve property. Op-
Even though there are obvious variations in erational procedures that are standardized, clearly
fires, most fires have more similarities than differ- written, and mandated to each department mem-
ences. These similarities are the basis for standard ber establish accountability and increase command
operating procedures. The incident commander and control effectiveness. When the firefighters of
(person in overall command of an incident) knows individual units are trained properly in SOPs,
the SOPs and can base a plan of action upon them. confusion is lessened. Firefighters will understand
Procedures have a built-in flexibility that allows, their duties and require a minimum of direction.
with reasonable justification, adjustments when SOPs also help prevent duplication of effort and
unforeseen circumstances occur. The SOP is usu- uncoordinated operations because all positions are
ally initiated by the first fire companies that reach assigned and covered. The assumption and trans-
the scene. The SOP is primarily a means to start fer of command, communications procedures, and
the fire attack. It does not replace size-up, deci- tactical procedures are other areas that must be
sions based on professional judgment, evaluation, covered by the SOPs.
or command. In addition, there may be several Safety is a top priority when designing SOPs.
SOPs from which to choose depending on fire sever- Requiring SCBA for all crews is an example of a
ity, location, and the ability of first-in units to safety consideration. SOPs should be applied to all
achieve control. situations, including medical responses. They
Examples of SOPs are as follows. These SOPs should be designed to limit personnel exposure
are performed with crews wearing complete pro- to contagious diseases. For example, SOPs may
14 ESSENTIALS

require personnel to use pocket masks when • Integrated communications

performing mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. They • Unified command structure
may also require personnel to wear rubber gloves
• Consolidated action plans
and safety glasses to prevent contact with pa-
tients’ body fluids during medical emergencies • Manageable span of control
(Figure 1.15). • Predesignated incident facilities
Standard operating procedures do not have to • Comprehensive resource management
be limited to the emergency scene. Many depart-
ments prefer to carry out the administrative and Overview
personnel functions of the department through To understand the application of IMS,
SOPs. SOPs may include regulations on dress, firefighters should know the major operational
conduct, vacation and sick leave, station life and position descriptions within the IMS structure
duties, and other departmental policies. (Figure 1.16). These include Command, Opera-
tions, Planning, Logistics, and Finance/Adminis-
tration.

Figure 1.15 An SOP may dictate that firefighters responding to an EMS

call wear protective rubber gloves.

INCIDENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Figure 1.16 There are five major areas — command, operations,
[NFPA 1001: 4-1.1.1; 4-1.1.2] planning, logistics, and finance/administration — within the IMS system.
The Incident Management System (IMS) is
designed to be applicable to incidents of all sizes COMMAND
and types. It applies to small, single-unit incidents The person in overall command of an incident
that may last a few minutes and to complex, large- is the Incident Commander (IC) (Figure 1.17).
scale incidents involving several agencies and many The IC is ultimately responsible for all incident
mutual aid units that possibly can last for days or activities, including the development and imple-
weeks. mentation of a strategic plan. This process may
include making a number of critical decisions
Components of the IMS
and being responsible for the results of those
The Incident Management System has a num-
decisions. The IC has the authority both to call
ber of interactive components that provide the
resources to the incident and to release them
basis for clear communication and effective opera-
from it. If the size and complexity of the incident
tions:
requires, the IC may delegate authority to oth-
• Common terminology ers, who together with the IC form the Command
• Modular organization Staff. Positions within the Command Staff in-
 Firefighter Orientation and Safety 15

Figure 1.18 Canteen units provide food and drinks at extended incidents.

FINANCE/ADMINISTRATION
Finance/Administration has the responsibil-
Figure 1.17 The incident commander is located at a clearly identified
command post.
ity for tracking and documenting all costs and
financial aspects of the incident. Generally, Fi-
clude the Safety Officer, Liaison Officer, and nance/Administration will be activated only on
Public Information Officer. large-scale, long-term incidents. Day-to-day mu-
tual aid responses are usually considered to be
OPERATIONS reciprocal and do not require interagency reim-
The Operations Officer reports directly to the bursement.
IC and is responsible for managing all operations
IMS Terms
that directly affect the primary mission of elimi-
The IMS uses several terms that all firefighters
nating the problem. The Operations Officer directs
should understand.
the tactical operations to meet the strategic goals
developed by the IC. Operations may be subdivided COMMAND
into as many as five branches if necessary. Command is the function of directing, order-
ing, and controlling resources by virtue of explicit
PLANNING
legal, agency, or delegated authority. It is impor-
Planning is responsible for the collection, evalu- tant that lines of authority be clear to all involved.
ation, dissemination, and use of information con- Lawful commands by those in authority should be
cerning the development of the incident. Planning followed immediately and without question.
is also responsible for tracking the status of all
resources assigned to the incident. Command uses DIVISION
the information compiled by Planning to develop Division is a geographic designation assigning
strategic goals and contingency plans. Specific units responsibility for all operations within a defined
under Planning include the Resource Unit, Situa- area. Divisions are assigned clockwise around an
tion Status Unit, Demobilization Unit, and any outdoor incident with Division A at the front (street
technical specialists whose services are required. address side) of the incident. In buildings, divi-
sions are usually identified by the floor or area to
LOGISTICS which they are assigned: First floor is Division 1,
Logistics is responsible for providing the facili- second floor is Division 2, etc. In a one-story build-
ties, services, and materials necessary to support ing, the entire interior may be assigned as a divi-
the incident. There are two branches within Logis- sion (Interior Division) (Figure 1.19). All groups or
tics: the support branch and the service branch. functional sectors operating within that specific
The service branch includes medical, communica- geographic area report to that division supervi-
tions, and food services (Figure 1.18). The support sor. Organizationally, the division level is be-
branch includes supplies, facilities, and ground tween a strike team or other operational unit and
support (vehicle services). a branch.
16 ESSENTIALS

routine incidents usually do not require a written

plan, but large, complex incidents do. The plan
identifies the strategic goals and tactical objectives
that must be achieved to eliminate the problem.
INCIDENT COMMANDER
The Incident Commander (IC) is the officer at
the top of the incident chain of command and is in
overall charge of the incident. The IC is ultimately
responsible for everything that takes place at the
emergency scene. The Incident Commander is pri-
marily responsible for formulating the Incident
Action Plan and for coordinating and directing all
incident resources to implement the plan and meet
its goals and objectives.
RESOURCES
Resources are all personnel and major pieces of
apparatus on scene or en route on which status is
maintained. Resources may be individual compa-
nies, task forces, strike teams, or other specialized
units. Resources are considered to be available
when they have checked in at the incident and are
not currently committed to an assignment. It is
imperative that the status of these resources be
tracked so that they may be assigned when and
where needed without delay.
Implementing the System
IMS should be initiated by the first person
Figure 1.19 Examples of IMS divisions.
arriving on the scene of an emergency. This indi-
vidual begins to evaluate the situation in order to
answer the following questions:
GROUP
Groups are functional designations (forcible • What has occurred?
entry, salvage, ventilation, etc.). When their as- • What is the current status of the emer-
signed function has been completed, they are avail- gency?
able for reassignment.
• Is anyone injured or trapped?
SECTOR • Can the emergency be handled with the
A sector is a geographic or functional assign- resources on scene or en route?
ment that is equivalent to a division or a group or
• Does the emergency fall within the scope of
both.
the individual’s training?
SUPERVISOR If no life-threatening situation demands im-
A supervisor is someone in command of a divi- mediate action, the IC should begin to formulate
sion, a group, or a sector. an Incident Action Plan. The plan should reflect
the following priorities:
INCIDENT ACTION PLAN
The written or unwritten plan for managing 1. Ensuring personnel safety and survival
the emergency is the Incident Action Plan (IAP). A 2. Rescuing or evacuating endangered occu-
plan should be formulated for every incident. Small, pants
 Firefighter Orientation and Safety 17
3. Eliminating the hazard trol. A smooth and efficient transfer of command
4. Conducting loss control will contribute greatly to bringing the incident to a
timely and successful conclusion.
5. Cleaning up and protecting the environ-
ment The person relinquishing command must pro-
vide the person assuming command as clear a
Whenever the IMS is implemented, there should picture of the situation as possible. This can be
be only ONE Incident Commander except in a accomplished by giving a situation status report,
multijurisdictional incident when a unified com- which is an updated version of the incident evalu-
mand is appropriate. A multijurisdictional inci- ation performed on arrival. The person assuming
dent involves agencies beyond the jurisdiction of command should acknowledge receipt of the infor-
one department or agency. Even when a unified mation by repeating it back to the other person. If
command is used, the chain of command must be the reiteration is accurate, the recipient is ready to
clearly defined. All orders should be issued by one accept control of and responsibility for the manage-
person through the chain of command to avoid the ment of the incident. The former IC can then be
confusion caused by conflicting orders. reassigned to an operating unit or retained at the
With advice from the Operations Officer, the IC Command Post (CP) as an aide or as a member of
will gather enough resources to handle the inci- the Command Staff. The IC can call for any addi-
dent and organize information to ensure that or- tional resources that might be needed.
ders can be carried out promptly, safely, and Situation status report. The situation status
efficiently. Having sufficient resources on scene report should include the following information:
will help to ensure the safety of all involved. The
• Description of what happened
organization must be structured so that all avail-
able resources can be utilized to achieve the goals • Whether anyone was/is injured or trapped
of the Incident Action Plan. If necessary, the Inci- • What has been done so far
dent Commander can appoint a Command Staff to
• Whether the problem has stabilized or is
help gather, process, and disseminate information.
getting worse
All incident personnel must function according • What resources are on scene or en route
to the Incident Action Plan. Company officers or
sector officers should follow standard operating • Whether it appears that current resources
procedures, and every action should be directed are adequate for the situation or that more
toward achieving the goals and objectives specified resources need to be called
in the plan. When all members (from the Incident It is imperative that the information given be
Commander to the lowest ranking member of the current and that it be clearly understood by the
team) understand their positions, roles, and func- recipient. If a report of a fire in a trash container
tions in the Incident Management System, the causes the new IC to picture a fire in a wastebasket
system can serve to safely, effectively, and efficiently when it is actually in a fully loaded Dumpster®, the
use resources to accomplish the plan. resulting orders might be inappropriate. An ex-
ample of a complete situation status report might
TRANSFER OF COMMAND
be as follows:
The first-arriving fire department member
must be prepared to transfer command to the A fire is burning in a Dumpster® inside the
next-arriving person with a higher level of exper- warehouse, at the northeast corner. No one is
tise or authority. If the transfer cannot take hurt, and the fire appears to be confined to the
place face-to-face, it can be accomplished over container, but it is close to the wall, and the
the radio, but command can only be transferred smoke is pretty heavy.
to someone who is on scene. As an incident grows Acknowledge information. The new IC re-
larger, command may be transferred several peats the information back to verify that he under-
times before the problem is brought under con- stands the situation. For example:
18 ESSENTIALS

I understand that the fire is confined to a

Dumpster® in the northeast corner. It hasn’t
spread but has the potential to, and it’s
putting out a lot of smoke. No one has been
hurt.
At this point, any miscommunication can be
corrected, or the person being relieved of com-
mand can simply reply, “That’s correct.”

COMMAND AND CONTROL OF THE INCIDENT

Command and control of the incident does not
transfer automatically when the information has
been exchanged. If the problem does not exceed the
level of training of the first IC and the senior
Figure 1.20 How a typical organizational structure may expand to deal
member is satisfied with the manner in which the with a growing incident.
first IC is handling the situation, he may choose to
leave the first IC in command. If not, the senior TRACKING RESOURCES
member assumes command and control of the One of the most important functions of an IMS
incident. is to provide a means of tracking all personnel and
equipment assigned to the incident. Most units
NOTIFICATION THAT COMMAND HAS TRANSFERRED
responding to an incident arrive fully staffed and
If command is transferred, the former IC ready to be assigned an operational objective; other
should announce the change to avoid any pos- personnel may have to be formed into units at the
sible confusion caused by others hearing a differ- scene. To handle these and other differences in the
ent voice acknowledging messages and issuing resources available, the Incident Action Plan must
orders. If everyone involved follows the chain of contain a tracking and accountability system with
command and uses correct radio protocols, they the following elements:
should not be calling anyone by name, rank, or
job title, so it should not matter who answers • Procedure for checking in at the scene
their radio messages. Because the early stages of • Way of identifying the location of each unit
an emergency can be chaotic, anything that can and all personnel on scene
should be done to reduce the confusion. An- • Procedure for releasing units no longer
nouncing a transfer of command is one way of needed
accomplishing that objective.
TERMINATING THE INCIDENT
BUILDING THE ORGANIZATION Once the incident has been brought under
Emergency situations can be either as simple control and the size and complexity of the situa-
as a fire in a trash can or as complex as an tion diminishes, the resources that are no longer
explosion and fire of massive proportions. De- needed should be released to return to their
pending on both the nature and the scope of the respective locations. This release is especially
incident, different levels of incident manage- important when mutual aid units have been
ment will be needed. The IMS should only be as called, perhaps from considerable distances.
large as is necessary to handle the incident safely Having an IMS in place will greatly assist in
and efficiently (Figure 1.20). When a complex demobilizing methodically and efficiently. Ad-
emergency occurs, command may be transferred hering to a formal demobilization plan helps to
several times as the organization grows. It is recover loaned equipment, such as portable ra-
important that the transitions be made as dios, and to identify and document any damaged
smoothly and as efficiently as possible. or lost equipment.
 Firefighter Orientation and Safety 19
INTERACTING WITH OTHER ORGANIZATIONS Hospitals
[NFPA 1001: 3-1.1.1] In some unusual incidents, hospital personnel
may be called to the scene of an emergency (Figure
During the course of his career, a firefighter
1.22). This situation is most likely to occur during
will be affected by and exposed to many different
a mass casualty incident. In such cases, hospital
organizations that are a part of, or related to, the
personnel are needed on-scene to assist in perform-
fire service. The purpose of this section is to ac-
ing triage (sorting victims by the severity of their
quaint the reader with these organizations.
injuries) or conducting primary treatment of more
Emergency Medical Services seriously injured victims. An incident does not
Fire department personnel should establish a necessarily have to be large to require hospital
close working relationship with emergency medi- personnel on the scene. Although quite rare, in
cal services (EMS) personnel. In some areas, fire some areas where EMS personnel are not trained
departments work very closely with private ambu- to provide advanced life support, hospital person-
lance companies. Because one of the major func- nel may be called to the scene to perform such
tions of the fire department is the removal (and functions as starting intravenous (IV) solutions
sometimes the initial treatment) of people trapped while extrication operations are in progress. An-
in wrecked vehicles and similar situations, it is other example where hospital personnel are needed
important for firefighters to have an appropriate is a serious industrial or agricultural equipment
level of first-aid training (Figure 1.21). The level of entrapment where major medical procedures (such
training needed depends on the local EMS system as amputation of a limb) may be the only way to
and the department’s standard operating proce- free the victim.
dures. In many jurisdictions, the main purpose of
fire department personnel is to perform rescue and
extrication functions. Beyond that, they provide
only first responder medical treatment.
In most jurisdictions, once fire and EMS units
are on the scene, EMS personnel are responsible
for treating patients, and rescue personnel are
responsible for freeing trapped victims and for
scene safety. Close coordination between the two
groups is very important to avoid working against
each other, wasting valuable time, and perhaps
further endangering victims and rescuers.
Figure 1.22 Hospital personnel may sometimes respond to the scene.
Courtesy of Mike Wieder.

Law Enforcement
It is important for law enforcement and fire
personnel to understand each other’s functions
and what to expect from each other at the scene.
Firefighters may be called upon to assist law en-
forcement agencies in a variety of ways. These may
include forcible entry to assist an investigation,
emergency lighting to illuminate a crime scene, or
a body recovery operation.
Law enforcement personnel may be present at
Figure 1.21 Firefighters can be an essential part of the EMS delivery
the fire scene and may be part of the operation;
system. however, they have their responsibilities just as
20 ESSENTIALS

any other unit does. They are responsible for main- Other Agencies
taining the flow of traffic during rescue operations In addition to the agencies mentioned, the fire
on highways, roads, and streets and for investigat- department may come in contact with a number of
ing traffic accidents on public roadways (Figure other entities. These include public health depart-
1.23). When victims are either unconscious or oth- ments, coroner/medical examiner’s offices, and the
erwise unable to provide needed information, law Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), to name
enforcement personnel can often secure the infor- a few. Any possible contacts should be identified
mation by using resources such as computer data- and a relationship established so that these agen-
bases. cies will be able to work more effectively with the
fire department when an incident occurs.
Utility Companies
Many incidents involve utilities (electric, gas, FIREFIGHTER SAFETY
and water) in some way, so it is important for fire [NFPA 1001: 3-1.1.1; 4-1.1.1]
personnel to have a good working relationship with Fire fighting is one of the world’s most danger-
local utility company personnel. It is also impor- ous jobs, and accidents in this profession can result
tant for responding fire units to coordinate with the in costly losses — the greatest loss being the death
utilities on mutual responses and to know what to of a firefighter (Figure 1.25). Other losses may
do until the utility crews arrive. In addition, utility include lost manpower (due to injuries), damaged
companies may have specially trained and equipped equipment (which is expensive to repair or re-
emergency response teams that can greatly assist place), and legal expenses. In order to prevent
in rescue efforts (Figure 1.24). these losses, it is necessary to prevent the acci-
dents that cause them. Reducing accidents will
save lives and money.

Figure 1.23 Traffic control

is usually left to law
enforcement.

Figure 1.25 A firefighter receiving medical attention.

Two basic factors motivate accident control

efforts within the fire fighting profession: life safety
and economy (Figure 1.26). The life safety factor,
while interrelated with economics, stems from the
natural desire to prevent needless suffering from
Figure 1.24 A public utility
physical pain or emotional stress. The economic
emergency response team. factor includes legal expenses and expenses caused
by the loss of manpower, apparatus, equipment,
tools, property, or systems.
 Firefighter Orientation and Safety 21
(Figure 1.27). The administration’s attitude to-
ward safety is invariably reflected in the attitude of
the supervising officers, which in turn affects
firefighters. The main goals of any good safety
program should be as follows:
• Prevent human suffering, deaths, injuries,
illnesses, and exposures to hazardous at-
mospheres and contagious diseases.
• Prevent damage/loss of equipment.
• Reduce the incidence and severity of acci-
dents and hazardous exposures.

Figure 1.26 Safety is motivated by humane and economic factors.

Firefighters have traditionally accepted inju-

ries and related losses as part of their vocation.
Knowing their job to be one of the most hazardous,
many firefighters are resigned to occupational ac-
cidents, injuries, and fatalities; this is compounded
by the stereotypical image of the firefighter as
heroic and fearless in the face of danger. Most
firefighter injuries, however, are a direct result of
preventable accidents. The firefighter should be
too smart and too professional to take unnecessary
risks.
Safety Standards for the Fire Service
NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department
Occupational Safety and Health Program, con-
tains the minimum requirements and procedures
Figure 1.27 Safety begins at the top of the fire department command
for a safety and health program. The standard may structure.
be applied to a fire department or similar organiza-
tion, public or private. It calls upon the fire depart- An effective safety program becomes a matter
ment to recognize safety and health as official of developing, promoting, and practicing an ongo-
objectives of the department and to provide as safe ing attitude of involvement throughout the organi-
and healthy a work environment as possible. The zation.
basic concept of NFPA 1500 is to apply the same
Safety requires effort on the part of everyone.
degree of safety throughout the fire service regard-
If one person does not participate or abide by the
less of individual status or type of organization.
rules of the program, chances are that others will
Because it is a minimum standard, none of the
follow this bad example. Because of their leader-
objectives are intended to restrict a department or
ship role, officers must provide a good example
jurisdiction from exceeding the requirements
and must follow all safety rules. It is not enough
specified.
to teach safety practices; they must be practiced
Employee Interest and enforced. Breaking bad habits will not be
The success of a safety program will begin at easy for some, and once the new procedures
the top of the fire department administrative chain are established, they must be maintained by
22 ESSENTIALS

everyone. If not, people will revert back to the old • Maintain a regular exercise program to
procedures. sustain physical fitness.
Firefighter Health Considerations • Maintain a diet that reduces cholesterol,
Fire fighting is one of the most physically de- fat, and sodium intake.
manding and dangerous of all professions. • Be aware of cardiovascular and cancer risks
Firefighters must be in good physical condition to such as smoking, high blood pressure, and
handle the physical demands of the profession. high cholesterol levels.
Firefighters need strength to perform such tasks as
• Have regular physicals and medical check-
rescuing victims, placing ladders, handling
ups.
hoselines, and forcing entry with heavy tools (Fig-
ure 1.28). Aerobic endurance is required to move Firefighter physical fitness should be an ongo-
rapidly down hallways, climb ladders, or combat ing maintenance program. The department is re-
fires. Flexibility is needed to reach for equipment, sponsible for ensuring that measures are taken to
tilt a ladder, and move a victim onto a ladder. The limit the number of stress-related accidents and
following list contains information essential to a illnesses. Physical fitness and health programs are
firefighter’s personal health: a good way of fulfilling this responsibility. For more
information on firefighter fitness and health con-
• Stay informed about job-related health is-
siderations, refer to IFSTA’s Fire Department
sues.
Occupational Safety manual.
• Follow recommendations for vaccination
against hepatitis B. Employee Assistance Programs
An Employee Assistance Program (EAP) is one
• Use precautions to avoid exposure to the way the fire department can help its members and
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). their families. An EAP offers confidential assis-
• Learn proper lifting techniques to avoid tance with problems that could adversely affect job
muscle strains and other related injuries. performance. Some of the areas in which an EAP
• Use tools designed to assist in lifting heavy can assist are as follows:
objects. • Alcohol abuse
• Properly clean and store tools and equip- • Drug abuse
ment used in patient care. • Personal and interpersonal problems
• Stress
• Depression
• Anxiety
• Divorce
• Career development
• Nutrition
• Hypertension
• Smoking cessation
• Weight control
The program should be readily available to all
members and their families. It should provide
referrals to appropriate health care services, alco-
Figure 1.28 Moving a victim onto a ladder is an extremely physically
hol treatment services (i.e., Alcoholics Anonymous),
demanding task. community services, self-help groups, and other
 Firefighter Orientation and Safety 23
professionals. The program should provide coun- process wherein the firefighters who are about to
seling and education on health concerns. It should enter the scene are told what to expect so that they
allow members easy, yet confidential, access to can prepare themselves.
counseling and professional help for any problems If firefighters are required to work more than
or concerns that may be interfering with their daily one shift in these conditions, they should go through
well-being. Pamphlets and flyers detailing ser- a minor debriefing, sometimes called defusing, at
vices can be distributed to make the program and the end of each shift. They should also participate
information about the program accessible. Any in the full debriefing process within 72 hours of
service provided for departmental personnel should completing their work on the incident.
also be made available to family members.
Another significant area of employee assis- SAFETY ON THE APPARATUS
tance is debriefing individuals suffering from criti- [NFPA 1001: 3-1.1.1; 4-1.1.1]
cal incident stress. Because the injuries suffered by The most common danger that the firefighter
the victims in fire and rescue incidents sometimes experiences is riding the apparatus to and from
can be extremely gruesome and horrific, firefighters emergency calls. Passengers and driver/operators
and any others who had to deal directly with the of emergency vehicles shall not dress while the
victims should participate in a critical incident apparatus is in motion. Preferably, all firefighters
stress debriefing (CISD) process (Figure 1.29). should ride within a fully enclosed portion of the
Because individuals react to and deal with extreme cab (Figure 1.30). Firefighters who are not riding in
stress in different ways — some more successfully enclosed seats should wear helmets and eye protec-
than others — and because the effects of unre- tion. If sirens and noise levels exceed 90 decibels,
solved stresses tend to accumulate, participation firefighters should also wear hearing protection
in this type of process should not be optional. (Figure 1.31). All firefighters must be seated with
The process should actually start before their seat belts fastened when the vehicle is in
firefighters enter the scene if it is known that motion. Fire apparatus should have seat belts
conditions exist there that are likely to produce large enough to accommodate a firefighter in full
psychological or emotional stress for the firefighters protective clothing. Firefighters should NOT stand
involved. This is accomplished through a prebriefing anywhere on the apparatus.

WARNING
Do not ride on the tailboard. Many
firefighters have been killed falling from
tailboards. This practice must be
discontinued.

If it is absolutely necessary to ride in an unen-

closed jump seat, safety bars are available that
may prevent a firefighter from falling (Figure 1.32).
These bars are not a substitute for safety proce-
dures that require firefighters to ride in safe, en-
closed positions wearing their seat belts; however,
they do have value as an additional barrier be-
tween the firefighter and the road.
Firefighters should always use handrails when
Figure 1.29 Firefighters in a CISD session. mounting or dismounting the apparatus (Figure
24 ESSENTIALS

Figure 1.31 Firefighters riding in

open jump seats should wear
Figure 1.30 All new apparatus appropriate ear and eye protection
must have fully enclosed cabs. as well as their seat belts.

Figure 1.33 Use handrails when entering or exiting the apparatus.

Figure 1.32 Safety bars provide very limited protection to occupants of

the jump-seat area.

1.33). Using handrails reduces the chance of

firefighters accidentally slipping and falling from
the apparatus. One exception to this rule is that
firefighters should not use the handrail when dis-
mounting an apparatus that has an aerial device
extended close to electrical wires. If the aerial
device contacts the charged lines and the firefighter
is in contact with the apparatus and the ground at
the same time, the firefighter might be electro-
cuted. Always jump clear of an apparatus that
might be electrically energized (Figure 1.34).

SAFETY IN THE FIRE STATION

[NFPA 1001: 3-1.1.1; 4-1.1.1]
Most firefighters’ duties and activities center
around the station, and a significant portion of
their on-duty time is spent there. Hazards in the Figure 1.34 Jump clear of aerial apparatus that may be in contact with
fire station not only endanger firefighters but can energized electrical wires.
 Firefighter Orientation and Safety 25
also endanger visitors who enter the station. Visi- accidents. A slip, trip, or fall generally results from
tors are the responsibility of the fire department poor footing. This can be caused by slippery sur-
while they are in the building. Therefore, safe faces, objects or substances on surfaces, inatten-
conditions must exist to limit the possibility of tion to footing on stairs, uneven surfaces, and
accidents and injuries (Figure 1.35). similar hazards. These accidents can easily result
in minor and serious injuries as well as damaged
equipment. To prevent such accidents, it is impor-
tant to stress good housekeeping. For example,
floors must be kept clean and free from slipping
hazards such as loose items and spills (Figure
1.37). Aisles must be unobstructed and stairs should
be well lighted. In addition to walking surfaces
(floors, stairs, and aisles), items such as handrails,
slide poles, and slides must also be maintained in
a safe condition.

Figure 1.35 Safety is a primary concern when visitors are in the station.

Personal Safety
Certain safety hazards are common to any fire
station. Also, certain types of accidents are not
limited to any specific location within a station.
Improper lifting techniques and slip-and-fall acci-
dents are two of the most common causes of injury.
Although back strains are the most common
injuries related to improper lifting and carrying
techniques, bruises, sprains, and fractures can Figure 1.36 When working around the station, use plenty of help to lift
also result. Improper lifting techniques not only heavy loads.
cause personal injury, but they may also end in
damage to equipment if it is dropped or improperly
handled. Back injuries have been statistically
proven to be the most expensive single type of
accident in terms of worker’s compensation, and
they occur with surprising frequency.
Every firefighter should be instructed in the
correct method of lifting. A firefighter should not
attempt to lift or carry an object that is too bulky or
heavy for one person to safely handle but should
get help to lift or carry it (Figure 1.36). Lifting and
carrying heavy or bulky objects without help can
result in unnecessary strains and injuries.
Other common accidents are slips, trips, and/or
falls. Numerous factors contribute to these types of Figure 1.37 Eliminate tripping hazards around the station.
26 ESSENTIALS

Tool and Equipment Safety prevent an accident caused by tool failure. Home-
Tools and equipment are vital to a firefighter’s made tool-handle extensions, or “cheaters,” are
job. However, accidents can happen if the firefighter sometimes incorrectly used to provide extra lever-
is not properly trained in the use and care of tools age for wrenches, pry bars, and similar tools (Fig-
and equipment. Poorly maintained tools and equip- ure 1.38). The use of a cheater can overload the tool
ment can be very dangerous and can result in beyond its designed capabilities. This overloading
costly accidents to firefighters in the station and at is unsafe and can cause the tool to break suddenly,
the emergency scene. NFPA 1500 stresses the not only while the cheater is attached but also later
importance of safety in every aspect of tool and when the weakened tool is being used normally.
equipment design, construction, purchase, usage,
maintenance, inspection, and repair.
When working in a station shop or on the
emergency scene, firefighters must use appropri-
ate personal protective equipment (PPE). Using
PPE is fundamental for safe work practices. Al-
though PPE does not take the place of good tool
engineering, design, and use practices, it does
provide personal protection against hazards.
The most widely used tools in the station shop
are hand tools and small power tools. Observe the
following procedures when using hand and power
tools:
• Wear appropriate personal protective equip- Figure 1.38 Misusing tools, such as adding a cheater bar to this
wrench, may result in tool failure and/or injury to the user.
ment.
• Remove jewelry, including rings and POWER TOOLS
watches. Grinders, drills, saws, and welding equip-
• Select the appropriate tool for the job. ment are commonly found in fire stations (Figure
• Know the manufacturer’s instructions and 1.39). Improperly used, these tools can cause a
follow them. serious or life-threatening injury. Whether the
tool is driven by air or electricity, it has a specific,
• Inspect tools before use to determine their safe method of operation that must be under-
condition. If a tool has deteriorated or is stood and followed. Only those firefighters who
broken, replace it. have read and who understand the tool
• Provide adequate storage space for tools, manufacturer’s instructions should be allowed
and always return them promptly to stor- to use power tools. It is important for instruc-
age after use. tions to be accessible to firefighters.
• Inspect and clean tools before storing. Repairs should always be made by someone
trained and authorized to properly repair the dam-
• Consult with and secure the approval of the
aged tool. Depending on the department, this per-
manufacturer before modifying the tool.
son may be someone within the fire department or
• Use spark-resistant tools when working in an outside equipment dealer and repair agent.
flammable atmospheres such as around a Keeping accurate records of repairs can help spot
vehicle’s fuel system. misuse before the tool causes an accident.
HAND TOOLS Any electrical tool not marked “double insu-
Inspect all tools before each use to ensure that lated” should have a three-prong plug (Figure 1.40).
they are in good condition. This inspection may For firefighter safety, the third prong must connect
 Firefighter Orientation and Safety 27

Figure 1.41 Rotary saws

used in the station are
usually mounted on a table
or bench.

Figure 1.39 Power tools, such as a

grinder, are found in most fire stations.

Figure 1.40 A three-prong plug should

be used when a tool is not double Figure 1.42 A rotary
insulated. rescue saw.

to a ground while the tool is in use. Bypassing the • Have hoselines in place when forcing entry
ground plug in any way opens the door to injuries into an area where fire is suspected or when
or deaths from unpredictable electrical shorts. performing vertical ventilation. Hoselines
are also essential when cutting materials
POWER SAWS
that generate sparks.
The most common types of power saws used by
firefighters are rotary saws and chain saws. When • Avoid the use of all saws when working in a
improperly operated or maintained, a power saw flammable atmosphere or near flammable
can be the most dangerous type of tool a firefighter liquids. Sparks generated by the saw or the
saw’s hot muffler are ignition sources for
will use.
the vapors.
Rotary saws may be found in the station or on
• Keep unprotected and unessential people
the emergency scene. Rotary saws found in the
out of the work area.
station are usually bench- or table-mounted (Fig-
ure 1.41). Rotary saws used on the emergency • Follow manufacturer’s procedures for proper
scene are generally of the rescue or forcible entry saw operation.
design (Figure 1.42). • Use caution to avoid igniting gasoline va-
pors when refueling a hot, gasoline-pow-
Following a few simple safety rules when
ered saw. It is best to allow the saw to cool
using power saws will prevent most typical acci-
before refueling.
dents:
• Keep blades and chains well sharpened. A
• Match the saw to the task and the material
dull saw is far more likely to cause an
to be cut. Never push a saw beyond its
accident than a sharp one.
design limitations.
SAFETY IN TRAINING
• Wear proper protective equipment, includ-
ing gloves and eye protection. Avoid wear- [NFPA 1001: 3-1.1.1; 4-1.1.1]
ing loose, dangling clothing that may be- NFPA 1500 requires that all personnel who
come entangled in the saw. may engage in structural fire fighting participate
28 ESSENTIALS

in training at least monthly. Ideally, this monthly ing program that does not allow everyone to see the
training will reinforce safe practices until they demonstration or to participate in the activities
become automatic. Other types of training are because of the size of the group.
required on an “as-needed” basis. For example,
training is required when new procedures or equip- Maintaining and Servicing Equipment
ment are introduced. There should be at least two Equipment used for fire training evolutions
training sessions of this type per year. must be in excellent condition. Items used fre-
quently for training often wear out sooner than
Maintaining Personal Safety those used routinely in the fire station. Examples
All personnel participating in training at a drill of frequently used training items are ropes, straps,
site should be fully clothed in protective gear. buckles, and other harness parts that must be tied,
Raising ladders, laying hose, or performing any fastened, and unfastened repeatedly. Tools with
other activity that simulates actual fire scene con- wooden handles can quickly become worn and
ditions requires the use of protective gear. splintered when used repeatedly by trainees. All
If trainees have colds, severe headaches, or tools and equipment should be inspected before
other symptoms indicating physical discomfort or each drill to ensure their reliability. Records must
illness, they should not continue training until a also be maintained on all equipment used for train-
medical examination can determine their fitness. ing. Training equipment, like all fire fighting equip-
Some trainees might feel uncomfortable telling an ment, should be tested according to manufacturer’s
instructor they are physically unable to continue instructions and applicable standards.
training. Older trainees and trainees who appar-
EMERGENCY SCENE SAFETY
ently are not in good physical condition should be
watched closely for signs of fatigue, chest pains, or [NFPA 1001: 3-3.4(a); 4-4.2(b)]
unusually labored breathing during heavy exer- Upon arriving at the scene, the officer in charge
cise. Physical discomfort or illness can lead to has to decide whether it is safe and/or feasible to
accidents; however, accidents can be prevented by attempt an emergency operation. The IC must
determining the physical condition of all partici- decide whether the operation about to be under-
pating personnel before training. taken requires rescuing victims or stopping prop-
Horseplay during training must be forbidden erty loss. The IC must decide when the risks in-
because it can lead to accidents and injuries (Fig- volved in either are great enough to warrant limit-
ure 1.43). If the trainees want to play pranks, the ing the actions of fire fighting personnel. This may
instructor needs to find out why. Boredom often be a difficult decision to make, and the firefighters
causes trainees to fidget and release their energy in may feel frustrated because they cannot help a
horseplay. Boredom can develop easily in a train- victim as much as they would like. It is necessary
to weigh these feelings against the potential for
firefighters becoming additional victims and the
likelihood of the operation being successful.
All firefighters must remember that they did
not cause the emergency incident; they are not
responsible for the victim being in that situation;
and they are not obligated to sacrifice themselves
in a heroic attempt to save the victim — especially
not in an attempt to recover a body. In fact, it is
irresponsible and unprofessional for firefighters to
take unnecessary risks that might result in their
being incapacitated by an injury and therefore
unable to perform the job for which they have been
Figure 1.43 Horseplay must not be tolerated. trained. The function of the fire/rescue service is
 Firefighter Orientation and Safety 29
not to add victims to the situation. The IC’s first rope or fireline tape tied to signs, utility poles,
priority must be firefighter safety; the second pri- parking meters, or any other objects readily avail-
ority is the victim’s safety. The IC should never able (Figure 1.44). Once the area has been cor-
choose a course of action that requires firefighters doned off, the boundary should be monitored to
to take unnecessary risks. make sure people do not cross the line.
Crowd Control
Proper scene management reduces congestion
and confusion by reducing the number of personnel
within the perimeter of the emergency scene. Crowd
control is essential to proper scene management.
This function is usually the responsibility of the
law enforcement agency on the scene, but it may
sometimes have to be performed by firefighters or
other rescue personnel. It is the responsibility of
the IC to ensure that the scene is secured and
properly managed.
Even in the most remote locations, bystanders
or spectators are often drawn to the scene. Some
may be people who were involved in the accident
but are not injured. They are often quite curious
and try to get as close to the scene as possible. All
bystanders should be restrained from getting too
close to the incident for their own safety and for
that of victims and emergency personnel.
Emergency scenes tend to involve emotional
situations that should be handled with care. This is
particularly true when friends or relatives of the
victims are at the scene. These particular bystand-
ers are often difficult to deal with, and firefighters
must treat them with sensitivity and understand-
ing. Relatives and friends of victims should be
gently but firmly restrained from getting too close. Figure 1.44 The hazardous areas are cordoned off.
They should be kept some distance from the actual
incident but still within the cordoned area. While Personnel Accountability System
they may console each other, they should not be left Each department must develop its own system
entirely on their own. A firefighter or other respon- of accountability that identifies and tracks all per-
sible individual should stay with them until the sonnel working at an incident. The system should
victims have been removed from the scene. be standardized so that it is used at every incident.
All personnel must be familiar with the system and
Cordoning off the area will keep bystanders a
participate when operating at an emergency inci-
safe distance from the scene and out of the way of
dent. The system must also account for those indi-
emergency personnel. There is no specific distance
viduals who respond to the scene in vehicles other
from the scene or area that should be cordoned off.
than fire department apparatus.
The zone boundaries should be established taking
into account the area needed by emergency person- Accountability is vital in the event of a serious
nel to work, the degree of hazard presented by accident or structural collapse. If the IC does not
elements involved in the incident, and the general know who is on the fireground and where they are
topography of the area. Cordoning can be done with located, it is impossible to determine who and how
30 ESSENTIALS

many may be trapped inside or injured. Flashover apparatus and has a properly fitting facepiece.
(simultaneous ignition of room contents) and Upon entering a building, personnel give their tags
backdraft (fire explosion) may trap or injure to a designated supervisor (Figure 1.46). The su-
firefighters (see Chapter 2, Fire Behavior). SCBAs pervisor records time of entry and expected time of
can malfunction or run out of air. Firefighters can exit. This supervisor also does a brief check to
get lost in mazes of rooms and corridors. Too many ensure that all protective equipment is properly
firefighters have died because they were not dis- used and in place. This provides complete account-
covered missing until it was too late. ability for those inside the structure and ensures
that they are in proper gear. Firefighters leaving
TAG SYSTEM
the danger area take back their tags so that the
A simple tag system
control officer knows who is safely outside and who
can aid in accounting
is still inside the structure or danger area. Relief
for personnel within
crews are sent in before the estimated time of the
the fireground perim-
sounding of the low-pressure alarms.
eter. Personnel can be
equipped with a per-
sonal identification tag
(Figure 1.45). Upon en-
tering the fireground
perimeter, firefighters
leave their tags at a
given location or with a
designated person
(command post, appa-
ratus compartment,
company officer, control
officer, or sector officer). Figure 1.45 Identification badges
Tags can be attached to may be worn on both the station
uniform and the turnout clothing.
a control board or per-
sonnel identification
(ID) chart for quick reference. Upon leaving the
fireground perimeter, the firefighters collect their
tags. This system enables officers to know exactly
who is operating on the fireground.
SCBA TAG SYSTEM
An SCBA tag system provides closer account-
ability for personnel inside a structure. All person-
nel entering a hazardous atmosphere must be
required to wear full protective clothing with SCBA.
These firefighters must be trained and certified for
SCBA use. Each SCBA is provided with a tag
containing the name of the user and the air pres-
sure. Having individually assigned breathing ap-
Figure 1.46 A firefighter checks in with the Accountability Officer.
paratus ensures that the user is familiar with the