NETWORK SYNTHESIS

PRESENTATION

TOPIC- GIRLING-GOOD FORM OF LEAPFROG

 Analog Filters

⮚ Historically, electric signal processing started with

analog circuits. Signal analysis and filter design
methods first based on these kinds of circuits. Later
came the avent of digital systems. The first digital
filters relied on the techniques used for their analog
parents. Still today, some digital filters rely on the
simulation of analog filters in order to profit from some
of their interesting properties.

⮚ Analog filters are mainly divided in two categories:

A) Passive Filters-
1) Lumped Elements Filters
2) Ladder filters
3) Filters with Distributed Elements

B) Active Filters-
1) Canonical Filters
2) Chain of Second Order Sections
a) State Variable Filters
b) Sallen and Key circuits
3) Leapfrog Filters

LEAPFROG FILTERS
● Filter structure-
⮚ Leapfrog filters are based on the simulation of passive ladder
filters. The incentive for this choice is to inherit from the excellent
passband sensitivity properties of the original circuit. Taking the
example of the following 4th order all-pole lowpass ladder filter,

o the filter can be implemented with a chain of 4 integrators

with:
state variables having the form of wi=Ui or wi=RIi
time constants having the form of ti=RCi

The resulting circuit is an integrator chain where each integrator

output is brought back to the preceeding integrator input. Hence
the name Leapfrog.
A leapfrog filter is a type of active circuit electronic filter that
simulates a passive electronic ladder filter. Other names for this
type of filter are active-ladder or multiple feedback filter. The
arrangement of feedback loops in the signal flow-graph of the
simulated ladder filter inspired the name leapfrog filter, which
was coined by Girling and Good. The leapfrog filter maintains
the low component sensitivity of the passive ladder filter that it
simulates.

A low-pass ladder filter and its signal flow graph

 EXAMPLES-

1. Generic Filter- The design starts out with a known ladder

filter of one of the typologies shown in the previous figure.
Usually, all the elements of the ladder filter are lossless
except the first and the last which are lossy. Using a four
element voltage input, voltage output ladder filter as an
example, the equations that relate the element voltages and
currents are as follows:
I1=(V0-V2) Y1
V2=(I1-I3) Z2
I3=(V2-V4) Y3
V4=(I3) Z4

Four element ladder filter with voltage input and voltage

output
⮚ The signal-flow graph for these equations are shown in
the second figure to the right. The arrangement of
feedback loops in the signal flow-graph inspired the name
leapfrog
filter.The signal flow graph is manipulated to convert all

current nodes into voltage nodes and all the impedances

and admittances into dimensionless transmittances. This
is equivalent to manipulating the equations either by
multiplying both sides by R or by multiplying one side by
R/R and distributing the R terms across the subtraction
operation. This manipulation changes the equations as
follows:
V1=(V0-V2) H1
V2=(V1-V3) H2
V3=(V2-V4) H3
V4=(V3) H4
;where H1 = RY1, H2 = GZ2, H3 = RY3, H4 = GZ4, G
= 1/R, V1 = RI1, V3 = RI3
 Three stages of signal-flow graph development of a four-element
ladder filter with voltage input and voltage output.

⮚ The signal flow graph is further manipulated so that the

gains into each summing node is +1. The result of all the
manipulation is shown as the bottom signal-flow graph in
the figure. The equations represented by the resulting
signal flow graph are as follows:
-V1=(V0-V2) (-H1)
-V2=(-V1+V3) H2
V3=(-V2+V4) (-H3)
V4=(V3) H4

⮚ The awkward annotation of -V1 and -V2 as labels of nodes

in the signal flow graph indicates that these nodes present
a 180° phase inversion with respect to the signals in the
prototype filter.
 ⮚ This manipulation is can be accomplished by a simple procedure:
1. Make all the odd numbered or all the even numbered
transmittances negative. The overall phase shift with respect to
the prototype will be 0° if the total number of inversions is even.
2. Change all feedback gains to +1.
3. Determine the sign of each node label by counting the number of
inversions to that node from the input. If the number of inversions
is odd, then the node label is negative.

⮚ The signal-flow graph is suitable for implementation. State

variable filters that are available in both inverting and non-
inverting typologies are often used.

2.Band pass Filter-

Passive Circuit- The circuit for a band pass,
passive ladder filter is first determined.
The individual components in parallel or series can be
combined into general impedances or admittances.

A schematic for a passive band pass electronic filter

Signal-flow graph- The current and voltage
variables can be put into cause and effect
relationships as follows.
V1=(I0 - I2)Z1
I2=(V1 - V3)Y2
V3=(I2 - I4)Z3
I4=(V)3Y4
Vout=(I)4R4

→ A signal flow graph for these equations is shown

below:

The signal flow-graph representation of the ladder

filter equations

Scaled signal-flow graph- For implementation

reasons, the current variables may be multiplied
by an arbitrary resistance to convert them into
voltage variables which also converts all gains to
dimensionless values.
This is accomplished by either multiplying both
sides of an equation by R of by multiplying one
side by R/R and then distributing the R term over
the currents.
 The signal flow-graph representation of the ladder
filter equations with impedances scaled by R, an
arbitrary resistance.

Manipulated signal-flow graph-

It is
convenient for implementation if the gains feeding
the summing nodes all have the same sign. In that
case, summation can be achieved with a junction
of two resisters.

The signal flow-graph representation of the ladder filter

equations with impedances scaled by R, an arbitrary
resistance. The signs of the gains have been
manipulated so that all gains feeding into a node have
the same signs.

Implementation:

All the transmittances H1 - H4, in this example, are

bandpass filters. They can be implemented with the
modified Tow-
 Thomas active biquad filter. This biquad has both
positive and negative bandpass outputs so that it can
realize any of the transmittances. This biquad also has
summing inputs so it can also implement the summing
nodes.

Modified Tow-Thomas active biquad filter with summing

inputs and complimentary band pass outputs suitable for use
in a leapfrog filter. VBP is the bandpass output, VBPI is the
inverted bandpass output, VLPI is the inverted lowpass output.

Tuning:

A leapfrog filter can be difficult to tune because of the

complicated feedback. One strategy is to open the
feedback loops so that the remaining filter structure is a
simple cascade design. Each section can then be tuned
independently. The inner sections, H2 and H3 have
infinite Q and may be unstable when the feedback
loops are opened. These stages may be designed with
a large, but finite Q so that they can be tuned while the
feedback loops are open.
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