Holt Biology

AUTHORS
George B. Johnson, Ph.D. Peter H. Raven, Ph.D.

Professor of Biology Engelman Professor of Botany
Washington University Washington University
St. Louis, Missouri St. Louis, Missouri
Director
Missouri Botanical Garden
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

About the Authors
George Johnson, Ph.D.
Dr. George Johnson is a professor of biology at Washington
University in St. Louis, where he has taught general biology and
genetics to undergraduates for 30 years. Dr. Johnson is also a
professor of genetics at Washington University School of
Medicine. He is the author of more than 50 scientific publica-
tions and has published several successful college biology texts.
Peter Raven, Ph.D.

Dr. Peter Raven is the director of the Missouri Botanical Garden
and a professor of botany at Washington University in St. Louis.
Dr. Raven is a MacArthur Fellow, a member of the National Academy
of Sciences, a recipient of the National Medal of Science, and the
author of 20 other books and several hundred scientific articles.
Copyright © 2006 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston

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ii Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments
Contributing Writers
Ann Bekebrede
Science Writer
Sherborn, Massachusetts
Mary Dylewski
Science Writer
Kassel, Germany
Frances Jenkins
Science Writer
Sunburg, Ohio
Matt T. Lee, Ph.D.

Science Writer
Coos Bay, Oregon
Annette Ratliff
Science Writer
Austin, Texas
John A. Solorio Linda K. Gaul, Ph.D.
Multi-Technology Lab Facilitator Epidemiologist
Feature Development Austin Independent School Texas Department of Health
District Austin, Texas
Linda K. Gaul, Ph.D. Austin, Texas
Epidemiologist Erik Hahn
Texas Department of Health Naturalist
Austin, Texas Hartley Nature Center
Duluth, Minnesota
Matt T. Lee, Ph.D. Teacher Edition
Science Writer Development Kevin L. Moore
Coos Bay, Oregon Science Writer
Linda K. Blumenthal
Science Writer Denver, Colorado
Columbus, Ohio
Inclusion Specialists JoAnne Morgan Mowczko,
Alan Eagy Ed.D.
Joan A. Solorio Biology Teacher Educational Consultant
Special Education Director The Dalles High School Gaithersburg, Maryland
Austin Independent School The Dalles, Oregon
District Tyson Yager
Austin, Texas Science Instructor
Wichita High School East
Wichita, Kansas
Acknowledgments iii
Acknowledgments continued
Academic Reviewers
David M. Armstrong, Ph.D. David Futch, Ph.D.
Professor Department of Biology
Environmental, Population, and San Diego State
Organismic Biology University
University of Colorado San Diego, California
Boulder, Colorado
Linda K. Gaul, Ph.D.
Nigel Atkinson, Ph.D. Epidemiologist
Associate Professor of Texas Department of
Neurobiology Health
Institute for Neuroscience Austin, Texas
The University of Texas
Austin, Texas Herbert Grossman,
Ph.D.
Jerry Baskin, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Botany
Professor and Biology
School of Biological Sciences Department of
University of Kentucky Environmental Sciences
Lexington, Kentucky Pennsylvania State
University
John A. Brockhaus, Ph.D. University Park,
Director of Mapping, Charting, Pennsylvania
and Geodesy Program
Department of Geography and William Guggino, Ph.D.
Environmental Engineering Professor of Physiology
United States Military Academy The Johns Hopkins University Leland Lim, M.D., Ph.D.
West Point, New York School of Medicine Year II Resident
Baltimore, Maryland Department of Neurology and
John Caprio, Ph.D. Neurological Sciences
George C. Kent Professor of David Haig, Ph.D. Stanford University
Biological Sciences Professor
School of Medicine
Louisiana State University Department of Organismic and Palo Alto, California
Baton Rouge, Louisiana Evolutionary Biology
Harvard University Iris F. Litt, M.D.
Cambridge, Massachusetts Marron and Mary Elizabeth Kendrick
Joe W. Crim, Ph.D.
Professor in Pediatrics
Professor and Head
Department of Cellular Biology David R. Hershey, Ph.D. Stanford University
The University of Georgia Education Consultant
School of Medicine
Athens, Georgia Hyattsville, Maryland Palo Alto, California
David Ho, M.D. V. Patteson Lombardi, Ph.D.

Roger J. Cuffey, Ph.D.
Research Assistant Professor
Professor of Paleontology Director and CEO
Human Biology and Medical
Department of Geosciences The Aaron Diamond AIDS
Physiology
Pennsylvania State University Research Center
New York, New York Department of Biology
University Park, Pennsylvania
University of Oregon
Joan E. N. Hudson, Ph.D. Eugene, Oregon
James Denbow, Ph.D.
Associate Professor Associate Professor
Sam Houston State University C. Riley Nelson, Ph.D.
Department of Anthropology
Huntsville, Texas Associate Professor
The University of Texas
Department of Integrative
Austin, Texas
Biology
Brigham Young University
Provo, Utah
continued on page 1136
iv Acknowledgments
Contents in Brief
UNIT 1 UNIT 5
Principles of Cell Biology Exploring Diversity
1 Biology and You 19 Introduction to the Kingdoms of Life
2 Chemistry of Life 20 Viruses and Bacteria
3 Cell Structure 21 Protists
4 Cells and Their Environment 22 Fungi
5 Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
6 Chromosomes and Cell Reproduction UNIT 6
Exploring Plants
UNIT 2 23 Introduction to Plants
Principles of Genetics 24 Plant Reproduction
7 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction 25 Plant Structure and Function
8 Mendel and Heredity 26 Plant Growth and Development
9 DNA: The Genetic Material
10 How Proteins Are Made UNIT 7
11 Gene Technology Exploring Invertebrates
27 Introduction to Animals
UNIT 3 28 Simple Invertebrates
Principles of Evolution 29 Mollusks and Annelids
12 History of Life on Earth 30 Arthropods
13 The Theory of Evolution 31 Echinoderms and Invertebrate Chordates
14 Classification of Organisms
UNIT 8
UNIT 4 Exploring Vertebrates
Principles of Ecology 32 Introduction to Vertebrates
15 Populations 33 Fishes and Amphibians
16 Ecosystems 34 Reptiles and Birds
17 Biological Communities 35 Mammals
18 The Environment 36 Animal Behavior
UNIT 9
Exploring Human Biology
37 Introduction to Body Structure
38 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
39 Digestive and Excretory Systems
40 The Body’s Defenses
41 Nervous System
42 Hormones and the Endocrine System
43 Reproduction and Development
Contents in Brief v
UNIT
1
CHAPTER 1
Principles of Cell Biology . . . . . . . . . 2
Biology and You . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1 Themes of Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Biology in Your World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3 The Scientific Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
CHAPTER 2 Chemistry of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

1 Nature of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2 Water and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3 Chemistry of Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4 Energy and Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
CHAPTER 3 Cell Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

1 Looking at Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2 Cell Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3 Cell Organelles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
CHAPTER 4 Cells and Their Environment . . . . 72

1 Passive Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2 Active Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
CHAPTER 5 Photosynthesis and

Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1 Energy and Living Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2 Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3 Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
CHAPTER 6 Chromosomes and

Cell Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
1 Chromosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2 The Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3 Mitosis and Cytokinesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
vi Contents
UNIT
CHAPTER
2 7
Principles of Genetics . . . . . . . . . 140
Meiosis and Sexual
Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
1 Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
2 Sexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
CHAPTER 8 Mendel and Heredity . . . . . . . . . . 160

1 The Origins of Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2 Mendel’s Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3 Studying Heredity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4 Complex Patterns of Heredity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
CHAPTER 9 DNA: The Genetic Material . . . . . 188

1 Identifying the Genetic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
2 The Structure of DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3 The Replication of DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
CHAPTER 10 How Proteins Are Made . . . . . . . . 206

1 From Genes to Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
2 Gene Regulation and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
CHAPTER 11 Gene Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

1 Genetic Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
2 Human Applications of Genetic Engineering . . . . . 233
3 Genetic Engineering in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Contents vii
UNIT
3
CHAPTER 12
Principles of Evolution . . . . . . . . 248
History of Life on Earth . . . . . . . . 250
1 How Did Life Begin? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
2 The Evolution of Cellular Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
3 Life Invaded the Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
CHAPTER 13 The Theory of Evolution . . . . . . . 274

1 The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection . . . . 276
2 Evidence of Evolution . . . . ................ . . . . 283
3 Examples of Evolution . . . . ................ . . . . 288
Standardized Test Prep . . . ................ . . . . 295
CHAPTER 14 Classification of Organisms . . . . 298

1 Categories of Biological Classification . . . . . . . . . . 300
2 How Biologists Classify Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
viii Contents
UNIT
CHAPTER
4 15
Principles of Ecology . . . . . . . . . 316
Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
1 How Populations Grow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
2 How Populations Evolve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
CHAPTER 16 Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

1 What Is an Ecosystem? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
3 Cycling of Materials in Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
CHAPTER 17 Biological Communities . . . . . . . . 360

1 How Organisms Interact in Communities . . . . . . . . 362
2 How Competition Shapes Communities . . . . . . . . . 365
3 Major Biological Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
CHAPTER 18 The Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

1 Global Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
2 Effects on Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
3 Solving Environmental Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Contents ix
UNIT
5
CHAPTER 19
Exploring Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Introduction to the
Kingdoms of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
1 Introduction to Kingdoms and Domains . . . . . . . . . 412
2 Advent of Multicellularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
3 Complex Multicellularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
CHAPTER 20 Viruses and Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . 432

1 Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
2 Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
CHAPTER 21 Protists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

1 Characteristics of Protists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
2 Protist Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
3 Protists and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
CHAPTER 22 Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

1 Characteristics of Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
2 Fungal Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
3 Fungal Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
x Contents
UNIT
CHAPTER
6 23
Exploring Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Introduction to Plants . . . . . . . . . 500
1 Adaptations of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
2 Kinds of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
3 Plants in Our Lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
CHAPTER 24 Plant Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . 528

1 Sexual Reproduction in Seedless Plants . . . . . . . . 530
2 Sexual Reproduction in Seed Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
3 Asexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
CHAPTER 25 Plant Structure and Function . . . 550

1 The Vascular Plant Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
2 Transport in Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
CHAPTER 26 Plant Growth and

Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
1 How Plants Grow and Develop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
2 Regulating Growth and Development . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Contents xi
UNIT
7
CHAPTER 27
Exploring Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . 590
Introduction to Animals . . . . . . . . 592
1 Characteristics of Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
2 Animal Body Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
CHAPTER 28 Simple Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . 616

1 Sponges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
2 Cnidarians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
3 Flatworms and Roundworms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
CHAPTER 29 Mollusks and Annelids . . . . . . . . . 640

1 Mollusks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
2 Annelids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
CHAPTER 30 Arthropods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662

1 Features of Arthropods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
2 Spiders and Other Arachnids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
3 Insects and Their Relatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
4 Crustaceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
CHAPTER 31 Echinoderms and

Invertebrate Chordates . . . . . . . 690
1 Echinoderms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
2 Invertebrate Chordates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
xii Contents
UNIT
CHAPTER
8 32
Exploring Vertebrates . . . . . . . . . 708
Introduction to Vertebrates . . . . 710
1 Vertebrates in the Sea and on Land . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
2 Terrestrial Vertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
3 Evolution of Primates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
4 The Genus Homo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
CHAPTER 33 Fishes and Amphibians . . . . . 744

1 The Fish Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
2 Today’s Fishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
3 Amphibians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
CHAPTER 34 Reptiles and Birds . . . . . . . . . 770

1 The Reptilian Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
2 Today’s Reptiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
3 Characteristics and Diversity of Birds . . . . . . 784
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
CHAPTER 35 Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798

1 The Mammalian Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
2 Today’s Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
CHAPTER 36 Animal Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822

1 Evolution of Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
2 Types of Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
Contents xiii
UNIT
9
CHAPTER 37
Exploring Human Biology . . . . . 842
Introduction to
Body Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
1 Body Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
2 Skeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
3 Muscular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856
4 Skin, Hair, and Nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
CHAPTER 38 Circulatory and

Respiratory Systems . . . . . . . . . . 870
1 The Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872
2 The Heart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
3 The Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
CHAPTER 39 Digestive and

Excretory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 898
1 Your Body’s Need for Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
2 Digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
3 Excretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
CHAPTER 40 The Body’s Defenses . . . . . . . . . . 922

1 Nonspecific Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924
2 Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
3 Disease Transmission and Prevention . . . . . . . . . . 930
4 Disorders of the Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
CHAPTER 41 Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942

1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944
2 Structures of the Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950
3 Sensory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
4 Drugs and the Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
xiv Contents
CHAPTER 42 Hormones and the
Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972
1 Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
2 How Hormones Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977
3 The Major Endocrine Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
CHAPTER 43 Reproduction and

Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
1 Male Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996
2 Female Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
3 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
4 Sexually Transmitted Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
APPENDIX Reference and Skills . . . . . . . . . . 1016

Reading and Study Skills Forensics Labs
Becoming an Active Reader . . 1016 Introduction to Forensics . . . 1048
Concept Mapping . . . . . . . . . 1018 Lesson on Identification . . . . 1051
Analyzing Word Parts . . . . . . 1021 Blood Typing . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
DNA Fingerprinting . . . . . . . . 1056
Laboratory Skills
Safe Laboratory Practices . . . 1024 Lesson on Chromatography . 1060
Using a Compound The Counterfeit Drugs . . . . . . 1062

Light Microscope . . . . . . . . . 1028 The Questionable Autograph .1064
Determining Mass Lesson on Density . . . . . . . . 1067
and Temperature . . . . . . . . . . 1030
The Parking Lot Collision . . . 1068
Math and Problem- The Sports Shop Theft . . . . . 1070
Solving Skills
Glossary
SI Measurement . . . . . . . . . . 1032
English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
Graphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034
Spanish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
Science Reference
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118
Classification in Kingdoms
and Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036 Acknowledgements . . . 1142
Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046
Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1144
Contents xv
Features
Biowatch features highlight the

impact of biology on health and
technology issues.
Foods as Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Eating Mollusks Safely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648

The Shifting Allegiance of HIV . . . . . . . . . . 86 Leeches Make a Comeback . . . . . . . . . . 656
Muscle Fatigue and Endurance Training . . 109 Monitoring Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Prenatal Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 The Amniotic Egg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
The Making of an Egg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Selecting Dairy Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
Gene Sequencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Tracking Animal Movements
Population Pyramids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 by Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
Sustainable Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Obesity and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Asthma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
The Real Costs of Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Spinal Cord Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953
Making a Malaria Vaccine . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 Anabolic Steroids Are Dangerous . . . . . . 981
Vegetarian Diets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 Hormones and Body Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987
Plant Tissue Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 Ultrasound Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
Life on a Coral Reef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Forensics Biowatch features

highlight the connection between
biology and forensic science.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) . . . . . . 236 If Bones Could Talk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729

Bioterror Detectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Courtroom Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
Telltale Pollen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Blood Witness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 878
Crawly Clues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 Dental Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
xvi Contents
Up Close
Up Close features provide detailed looks
at important organisms.
Escherichia coli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

Paramecium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Mushroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Kalanchoë . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Sugar Maple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Bread Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 Leopard Frog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
Planarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 Timber Rattlesnake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
Earthworm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 Bald Eagle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
Brown Recluse Spider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 Grizzly Bear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
Eastern Lubber Grasshopper . . . . . . . . . . 676
Sea Star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
Yellow Perch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
Exploring Further
Exploring Further features let you explore
key biological topics in greater depth.
Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Lichens as Environmental

Cloning by Parthenogenesis . . . . . . . . . . 153 Watchdogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Crosses That Involve Two Characters . . . 171 C3 Versus C4 Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Jumping Genes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 From Zygote to Gastrula . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Punctuated Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 DNA Dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
Cladograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 What Is a Heart Attack? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884
Using the Hardy-Weinberg Kidney Dialysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
SCIENCE • TECHNOLOGY • SOCIETY

Science, Technology, and Society features examine
the impact of new technologies on issues in biology.
Understanding Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Saving Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Disease Detectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Insect-Resistant Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
Controlling Diabetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
Contents xvii
Lab Program
Observing the Arrangement of

Quick Labs provide hands- Parts of a Flower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
on experience yet require
Comparing the Structures of
few materials.
Roots and Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Observing the Structures
Determining the pH of Common
Inside a Leaf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Investigating the Effects of
Observing Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Ethylene on a Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Identifying a Product of
Recognizing Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Observing Planarian Behavior . . . . . . . . . . 631
Modeling Chromosomal
Mutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Modeling an Open
Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
Observing Mitosis and
Cytokinesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Modeling a Closed
Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
Modeling Crossing Over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Evaluating Jointed
Observing Reproduction
Appendages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
in Yeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Comparing the Structures
Identifying Dominant or
of the Notochord and
Recessive Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Nerve Cord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
Observing Properties of DNA . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Modeling the Action of a
Modeling Transcription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Swim Bladder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
Modeling Introns and Exons . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Modeling Watertight Skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
Modeling Gel Electrophoresis . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Evaluating the Insulation
Modeling Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Value of Hair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
Modeling Coacervates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Recognizing Learned Behavior . . . . . . . . . . 828
Modeling Natural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Observing Territorial Behavior
Using a Field Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 in Crickets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
Demonstrating the Mapping the Valves in Veins . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
Hardy-Weinberg Principle . . . . . . . . . . 329 Modeling the Role of
Evaluating Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Bicarbonate in Homeostasis . . . . . . . . 889
Modeling Succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Modeling the Function of Bile . . . . . . . . . . 911
Investigating Factors That Simulating Antigen Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932
Influence the Cooling of Demonstrating Your Blind Spot . . . . . . . . . 958
the Earth’s Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Modeling the Greenhouse
Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Modeling True Multicellularity . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Observing Characteristics
of Diatoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Observing Bread Mold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Observing Behavior of
Stomata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Distinguishing Between Fruits and
Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Observing a Fern
Gametophyte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Observing the Gametophytes
of Pines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
xviii Contents
Identifying Parasites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
Data Labs allow you to
interpret data and draw Analyzing the Molluscan
0100010110
conclusions. Body Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
011101010
0010010001001
1100100100010
Analyzing the Effects of
0000101001001
1101010100100 Analyzing Experimental Design . . . . . . . . . . 20 Pesticide Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
0101010010010
Analyzing the Effect of pH on Relating Molting to
Enzyme Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Mortality Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
Analyzing the Effect of Electrical Determining How Predators
Charge on Ion Transport . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Affect Prey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Analyzing a Test Cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Using Timelines and
Phylogenetic Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
Evaluating a Pedigree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Comparing the Surface
Decoding the Genetic Code . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Areas of Gills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
Analyzing Signs of Endosymbiosis . . . . . . 259
Analyzing Ion Excretion in Fish . . . . . . . . . 749
Analyzing Taxonomy of Mythical
Identifying Ectotherms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Comparing Gestation Periods . . . . . . . . . . 811
Making a Cladogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Tracking the Spread of AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . 935
Predicting How Predation
Would Affect a Plant Species . . . . . . . 363 Analyzing Changes During a
Nerve Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
Predicting Changes in a
Realized Niche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Analyzing Hormone
Secretions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
Interpreting Competition
Among Protists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Analyzing the Effect of
Mycorrhizae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Analyzing the Effect of Climate
on Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Inferring the Rate of Transpiration . . . . . . . 561
Interpreting Annual Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Exploring the Animal Kingdom . . . . . . . . . 603
0
493 2
x2 +
5
<
6x -
7
Math Labs let you practice

real-world math skills as you
analyze biological problems.
Analyzing the Effect of Cold on
Calculating Surface Area and Volume . . . . . 56 Seed Germination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Calculating the Number of Cells Calculating Filtration Rate in the
Resulting from Mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Human Kidney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Calculating Mendel’s Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Estimating Size Using a
Predicting the Results of Crosses Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
Using Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Calculating Average Bone Density . . . . . . 792
Analyzing the Rate of DNA Replication . . . 199 Calculating the Amount of Air
Analyzing Change in Lizard Respired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886
Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Analyzing Blood Glucose
Building a Normal Distribution Curve . . . . 331 Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
Contents xix
Lab Program continued
Exploration Labs CHAPTER

allow you to investigate 12 Exploration Lab Making a
or model a phenomenon Timeline of Life on Earth . . . . . . . . . . 272
and draw conclusions
13 Exploration Lab Modeling
based on your work.
Natural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
14 Skills Practice Lab Making

a Dichotomous Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Skills Practice Labs 15 Exploration Lab Observing How Natural

Selection Affects a Population . . . . . . 336
teach you lab skills
used by biologists. 16 Exploration Lab Modeling
Ecosystem Change over Time . . . . . . 358
17 Skills Practice Lab Observing How

Brine Shrimp Select a Habitat . . . . . . . 382
18 Skills Practice Lab Studying

Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
CHAPTER 19 Skills Practice Lab Surveying

1 Exploration Lab Observing the Effects Kingdom Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
of Acid Rain on Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
20 Skills Practice Lab Staining and
2 Exploration Lab Observing Observing Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Enzyme Detergents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
21 Exploration Lab Observing
3 Skills Practice Lab Studying Animal Protistan Responses to Light . . . . . . . 478
Cells and Plant Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
22 Skills Practice Lab Observing
4 Exploration Lab Analyzing the Effect Yeast and Fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . 496
of Cell Size on Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
23 Skills Practice Lab Surveying
5 Skills Practice Lab Observing Plant Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Oxygen Production from
Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8 Skills Practice Lab Modeling

Monohybrid Crosses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

DNA Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Protein Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Recombinant DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
xx Contents
CHAPTER
the Effects of Nutrients on
Vegetative Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . 548
25 Skills Practice Lab Separating

Plant Pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
26 Skills Practice Lab Comparing

Bean and Corn Seedlings . . . . . . . . . . 588
27 Skills Practice Lab Surveying

Invertebrate Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614

Hydra Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638

Characteristics of Clams . . . . . . . . . . 660
30 Exploration Lab Observing CHAPTER

Pill Bug Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 37 Exploration Lab Analyzing the
Work of Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
31 Skills Practice Lab Analyzing
Sea Star Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 38 Exploration Lab Determining
Lung Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
32 Exploration Lab Comparing
Hominid Skulls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742 39 Exploration Lab Demonstrating
Lactose Digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
a Live Frog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768 40 Skills Practice Lab Simulating
Disease Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940
34 Exploration Lab Observing Color
Change in Anoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796 41 Exploration Lab Calculating
Reaction Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970
35 Exploration Lab Exploring
Mammalian Characteristics . . . . . . . . 820 42 Exploration Lab Observing
the Effect of Epinephrine
36 Exploration Lab Studying
on Heart Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
Nonverbal Communication . . . . . . . . . 840
Embryonic Development . . . . . . . . . 1014
Forensics Labs
allow you to explore the
techniques used by forensics
scientists in solving crimes and
mysteries of history.
Introduction to Forensics . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048 The Counterfeit Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062

Lesson on Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051 The Questionable Autograph . . . . . . . . . 1064
Blood Typing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053 Lesson on Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
DNA Fingerprinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056 The Parking Lot Collision . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
Lesson on Chromatography . . . . . . . . . . 1060 The Sports Shop Theft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
Contents xxi
How to Use Your Textbook
Your Roadmap for Success with Holt Biology
Get Organized
CHAPTER
Answer the Quick Review questions at the
3 Cell beginning of each chapter to assess your

recall of information important to the un-
Structure derstanding of new chapter topics. Then
complete the Reading Activity on the
same page to prepare you to read and or-
Quick Review Looking Ahead ganize new information.
Answer the following without referring to
earlier sections of your book. Section 3 Cell Organelles
Section 1 STUDY TIP Use the Looking Ahead outline
1. Distinguish between polar and nonpolar
Looking at Cells
molecules. (Chapter 2, Section 1)
2. Compare the structures of carbohydrates,
Objectives
Cells Under the Microscope
Types ofThe Nucleus
Microscopes
at the beginning of the chapter to organize
lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. (Chapter 2,
Section 3) ● Describe the role of
3. Describe the function of ATP. (Chapter 2,the nucleus in cell Sectionnucleus.
Most functions of a eukaryotic cell are controlled by the cell’s
2 As shown in Figure 13, the nucleus is surrounded by a
your notes on the chapter content in a way
activities. double membrane called the nuclear envelope, also called the
Section 3)
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the
membranes in protein
Cell Features
● Analyze the role of internal
The Cell
nuclear membrane. The nuclear envelope is made of two lipid
Theory
bilayers that separate the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
that you understand.
sections indicated. production. Prokaryotes Scattered over the surface of the nuclear envelope are many
Eukaryotic Cellschannels through the envelope called nuclear pores.
small
● Summarize the importance
The Cell Membranethat are made in the nucleus, including RNA-ribosomal
Substances
Read for Meaning

of mitochondria in eukaryotic
Reading Activity cells.

Section
● Identify three structures in
protein complexes, move into the cytoplasm by passing through
the3nuclear pores. Ribosomes are partially assembled in a region
plant cells that are absent of the nucleus called the nucleolus, which is also shown in Figure
Write down the title of this chapter and the titles
from animal cells. Cell Organelles
of its three sections on a piece of paper or in
13. Recall from Section 2 that ribosomes are the structures on
The Nucleus
which proteins are made. Read the Objectives at the beginning of
your notebook. Leave a few blank lines after Key Terms RibosomesThe andhereditary
the Endoplasmic Reticulum
information of a eukaryotic cell is coded in the
each section title. Then write down what you
endoplasmic reticulum
think you will learn in each section. Save vesicle
your
cell’s DNA, most of which is stored in the nucleus. Eukaryotic
Mitochondria
DNA
Structures is wound
of Plant Cellstightly around proteins. Most of the time, DNA
each section because they will tell you
exists as elongated and thin strands, which appear as a dark mass
list, and after you finish reading this chapter,
Golgi apparatus
check off everything that you learned thatlysosome
was
mitochondrion
under magnification. When a cell is about to divide, however, the
DNA strands, called chromosomes, wind up into a more compact
what you’ll need to learn. Key Terms are
on your list. chloroplast
central vacuole
form and appear as dense, rod-shaped structures. The number of
chromosomes in a eukaryotic cell differs between species.
Human body cells have 46 chromosomes, while the cells of gar-
also listed for each section. Each key term
den peas have 14 chromosomes. You will learn more about DNA
and chromosomes later in this book.
www.scilinks.org
is highlighted in the text. After reading
Figure 13 Nucleus
National Science Teachers Association sci LINKS Internet
The nucleus is surrounded by a double
resources membrane
are located calledthis
throughout thechapter.
nuclear envelope. each chapter, turn to the Chapter
Highlights page and review the Key
Most cells, including this one-celled organism Nuclear
pores
Paramecium, have all the equipment necessary to
perform the essential functions of life.
CHAPTER 3 Cell Structure 49 Concepts, which are brief summaries of

Nucleolus
the chapter’s main ideas.You may want to
do this even before you read the chapter.
STUDY TIP If you don’t understand a
Nuclear envelope
definition, reread the page on which the

62 CHAPTER 3 Cell Structure
term is introduced. The surrounding text

should help make the definition easier to
understand.
Be Resourceful, Use the Web

Internet Connect boxes in your textbook Visit go.hrw.com
take you to resources that you can use Find resources and reference
for science projects, reports, and materials that go with your
research papers. Go to scilinks.org textbook at go.hrw.com.
and type in the SciLinks code to get Enter the keyword HX6 Home
information on a topic.
to access the home page for
your textbook.
xxii How to Use Your Textbook

Prepare for Tests Structures of Plant Cells
Section Reviews and Chapter Reviews The organelles described in this section are found in both animal
test your knowledge of the main points cells and plant cells. However, plant cells have three additional
structures that are not found in animal cells, shown in Figure 17.
of the chapter. Critical Thinking items
Unique Features of Plant Cells
challenge you to think about the mater- Cell wall The cell membrane of a plant cell is surrounded by a thick
cell wall, composed of proteins and carbohydrates, including the
ial in different ways and in greater polysaccharide cellulose. The cell wall helps support and maintain the
shape of the cell, protects the cell from damage, and connects it with
depth. The standardized test prep that is adjacent cells.
Chloroplasts Plant cells contain one or
located after each Chapter Review helps more chloroplasts . Chloroplasts are
you sharpen your test-taking abilities. Figure 17 Plant cell. Plant cells have a cell
organelles that use light energy to make
carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and
wall, chloroplasts, and a large central vacuole water. Chloroplasts are found not only in
STUDY TIP Reread the Objectives and (shown in blue). plants but also in a wide variety of eukary-
otic algae, such as seaweed. Chloroplasts,
Chapter Highlights when studying for a Chloroplast
along with mitochondria, supply much of
the energy needed to power the activities
test to be sure you know the material. Central vacuole
of plant cells. Like mitochondria, chloro-
plasts are surrounded by two membranes,
contain their own DNA, and are thought
Use the Appendix to be the descendents of ancient prokary-

otic cells.
Your Reference and Skills section near Central vacuole As shown in Figure 17,
much of a plant cell’s volume is taken up
the end of the book contains a variety by a large, membrane-bound space called
the central vacuole (VAK yoo ohl). The
of resources designed to enhance your central vacuole stores water and may
contain many substances, including ions,
learning experience. Reading and nutrients, and wastes. When the central
vacuole is full, it makes the cell rigid. This
Cell wall
Study Skills provides helpful study rigidity enables a plant to stand upright.
aids; Math and Problem Solving Skills

Section 3 Review
sharpens your math skills. Laboratory
Describe the role of the nucleus in cell Critical Thinking Inferring Relationships
Skills summarizes essential safety infor- activities. What is the importance of a cell enclosing its
digestive enzymes inside lysosomes?
mation and basic laboratory techniques. Sequence the course of newly made proteins
from the rough ER to the outside of the cell. Standardized Test Prep Which organelle serves
Classification in Kingdoms and Describe the role of mitochondria in the metab-

as the packaging and distribution center of a
eukaryotic cell?
olism of eukaryotic cells.
Domains organizes living things A nucleus
B lysosome
C mitochondrion
D Golgi apparatus
Explain how a plant cell’s central vacuole and
according to modern principles of cell wall help make the cell rigid.
classification. 66 CHAPTER 3 Cell Structure
Visit Holt Online Learning

If your teacher gives you a special password to
log onto the Holt Online Learning site, you’ll
find your complete textbook on the Web. In
addition, you’ll find some great learning tools
and practice quizzes. You’ll be able to see how
well you know the material from your textbook.
How to Use Your Textbook xxiii

Principles of
UNIT 1 Cell Biology
Chapters
38
1 Biology and You
2 Chemistry of Life
3 Cell Structure
4 Cells and Their

Environment
5 Photosynthesis and
Cellular Respiration
6 Chromosomes and
Cell Reproduction
As the runner sprints

toward the finish line,
25 trillion red blood
cells carry oxygen
throughout her body.
2 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Blood: A River of Cells
In the winter of 1667, a

French physician named
Jean-Baptiste Denis
tried a daring new experiment. After examining
a man who exhibited fits of rage, Denis trans-
fused the patient with the blood of a gentle
calf. His actions reflected the beliefs of his
time—that blood carried the characteristics
of the creatures in which it flowed.
Illustration from a
1692 medical textbook
Biologists know that red blood cells contain a protein called

hemoglobin. Find out how proteins like hemoglobin form
their unique shapes.
In persons with sickle cell anemia, an incorrect form of hemoglobin is
made. When this happens, red blood cells become sickle-shaped and can-
not adequately perform their job. The shape of the hemoglobin molecule
is the key to its role—carrying oxygen throughout the body. Discover why
the cells of your body need oxygen.
Hemoglobin
Researchers are discovering

new treatments for sickle cell
anemia. New drugs that “turn
on” the body’s production of normal hemo-
globin have shown promise in easing the
symptoms of sickle cell anemia. www.scilinks.org
Topic: Sickle Cell Anemia
Keyword: HX4164
Sickled red blood cell
3
Orphaned rabbit

CHAPTER
1 Biology
and You
Looking Ahead
The Reading Activity that begins each chapter
will help you to comprehend more effectively what
you read. Study Tips in the margins will help you Section 1
to organize and review information. Word Origins Themes of Biology
notes in the margins will help you understand how Characteristics of Living Organisms
scientific terms are constructed from common root
Unifying Themes of Biology
words and suffixes. Real Life margin notes link
the study of biology to real-world phenomena.
Section 2
Biology in Your World
Reading Activity Solving Real-World Problems
Fighting Disease
Before you read this chapter, write the word
biology on your paper. Refer to a dictionary, and Section 3
write out the definition of the prefix bio– and the Scientific Processes
suffix –logy. Think of names of other branches of Observation: The Basis of Scientific Research
life science that include the suffix –logy, and Stages of Scientific Investigations
write them down. Use the Reading and Study Scientific Explanations
Skills appendix at the back of this book to define
the prefixes in the words you thought of.
www.scilinks.org
resources are located throughout this chapter.
Just as this orphaned rabbit needs food and water to
live and grow, it also depends on oxygen from plants
to survive. Our knowledge of biology helps us under-
stand how all life on Earth is interconnected.
CHAPTER 1 Biology and You 5

Section 1 Themes of Biology
Objectives Characteristics of Living Organisms
● Relate the seven properties You are surrounded by living things, which a scientist calls organisms.
of life to a living organism. Many organisms, such as people, plants, and animals, are obvious.
● Describe seven themes that
Other living things are so small that you cannot see them without a
can help you organize what microscope. How do we know if something is alive? What does it
you learn about biology. mean to be alive?
While most people are capable of distinguishing between living
● Identify the tiny structures
that make up all living
and nonliving, actually defining life can be quite difficult. Perhaps
organisms. you consider movement, sensitivity, development, and even death
as characteristics of living organisms. While present in all living
● Differentiate between
things, these properties are not enough to describe life.
reproduction and heredity
and between metabolism and Clouds, for example, move when stimulated by the wind and
homeostasis. develop from moisture that is suspended in the atmosphere. Clouds
grow and change shapes. Some might view the breakup of clouds as
Key Terms being similar to death. Disorder, however, is not the same as death.
Clouds may break up and vanish, but they do not die.
biology
Biology is the study of life. Biologists recognize that all living
cell
reproduction organisms, such as the cheetahs shown in Figure 1, share certain
metabolism general properties that separate them from nonliving things. As
homeostasis summarized in Figure 1, every living organism is composed of one
gene or more cells, is able to reproduce, and obtains and uses energy to
heredity run the processes of life. Living organisms also maintain a constant
mutation internal environment and pass on traits to offspring. Responding
evolution and adjusting to the environment as well as growing and developing
species
are other characteristics shared by all living organisms.
natural selection
ecology
As you read further, you will have an opportunity to think more
about the properties that help define life. Life is characterized by the
presence of all of these properties at some stage in an organism’s
life. Remember this fact as you attempt to determine what is living
and what is not.
Figure 1 What does it Properties of Life

mean to be alive? Life is
• Cellular organization
characterized by the pres-
• Reproduction
ence of all seven of these
• Metabolism
properties at some stage in
• Homeostasis
an organism’s life.
• Heredity
• Responsiveness
• Growth and development
6 CHAPTER 1 Biology and You

Unifying Themes of Biology
In the study of biology, certain broad themes emerge that
both unify living things and help explain biology as a sci-
ence. The word science comes from Latin for “to know.”
Science is a systematic process of inquiry. As you study
the science of biology by reading this textbook, you will
repeatedly encounter these themes.
Theme Cellular Structure and Function

All living things are made of one or more cells. Cells are
highly organized, tiny structures with thin coverings
called membranes. A cell is the smallest unit capable of
all life functions. The basic structure of cells is the same
in all organisms, although some cells are more complex
than others. Some organisms have only a single cell,
while others are multicellular (composed of many cells).
Your body contains more than 100 trillion cells. Figure 2 Figure 2
shows a single-celled organism called a paramecium. Single-celled paramecium
Theme Reproduction
All living things can reproduce. Reproduction is the
process by which organisms make more of their own kind
from one generation to the next. Some rapidly growing
bacteria divide into offspring cells approximately every 15
minutes, and bristlecone pine trees that are 5,000 years
old still produce seedlings. Because no organism lives
forever, reproduction, as represented in Figure 3, is an
essential part of living. Figure 3 Hatchling snakes
Theme Metabolism
Living organisms carry out many different chemical reac-
tions in order to obtain and use energy to run the
processes of life. All living things use energy to grow, to
move, and to process information. Without energy, life
soon stops. Metabolism is the sum of all of the chemical Figure 4
reactions carried out in an organism. Extracting energy from food
Almost all the energy used by living organisms is origi-
nally captured from sunlight. Plants, algae, and some
bacteria capture this solar energy and use it to make
complex molecules in a process called photosynthesis.
These molecules then serve as the source of energy, or
food, for other organisms. For example, paramecia,
such as the one shown in Figure 2, eat bacteria. Humans
eat plants or animals that, in turn, have eaten plants.
Energy flows from the sun to plants, from these plants
to plant-eating organisms, and from plant-eating organ-
isms to meat-eating organisms. The teens shown in
Figure 4 are extracting energy from the food they eat.
SECTION 1 Themes of Biology 7

Theme Homeostasis
All living organisms must maintain a stable internal
environment in order to function properly. Organisms
respond to changes in their external environment, and
their internal processes adjust accordingly. The mainte-
nance of stable internal conditions in spite of changes in
the external environment is called homeostasis (hoh
mee oh STAY sihs). An organism unable to balance its
internal conditions with its environmental conditions
could become ill and die. Arctic seals, such as the one
Figure 5 Harp seal
shown in Figure 5, are able to maintain a constant body
temperature in spite of their cold environment because
of their body shape and thick layer of body fat.
Theme Heredity
All living things are able to pass on traits to their
offspring through genes that are passed from parent to
offspring each generation. A gene is the basic unit of
heredity. Genes are coded in a molecule called deoxyri-
bonucleic (dee AHKS ee rie boh nu klay ik) acid (DNA)
and determine an organism’s traits. The passing of traits
from parent to offspring is called heredity . Heredity is
the reason children tend to resemble their parents, as
shown in Figure 6.
Sometimes damage causes genes to change. A change
in the DNA of a gene is called a mutation . Most muta-
tions are harmful, but sometimes mutations can help an
organism survive. For example, in humans a mutation
for the blood protein hemoglobin, which carries oxygen
to the body’s cells, has both a harmful effect and a posi-
tive effect. The harmful effect is that the mutated form of
the gene results in sickle cell anemia. Sickle cell anemia
is a disease in which the defective form of hemoglobin
Figure 6 Passing on traits causes many red blood cells to
bend into a sickled—that is, a
hooked—shape that reduces
the oxygen-carrying capability
of the cell. The positive effect
is that the mutation produces
resistance to malaria, a deadly
infectious disease.
Mutations that occur in sex
cells (egg and sperm) are
passed on to other genera-
tions. Mutations that occur in
body cells are not passed on,
but they can disrupt the con-
trol of cell reproduction and
result in cancer.

Theme Evolution
The great diversity of life on Earth is the result of a long
history of change. Change in the inherited characteristics
of species over generations is called evolution . A species
is a group of genetically similar organisms that can pro-
duce fertile offspring. Individuals in a species are similar,
but not identical. Those individuals with genetic traits that
better enable them to meet nature’s challenges tend to sur-
vive and reproduce in greater numbers, causing these
favorable traits to become more common. Charles Darwin,
the nineteenth-century British naturalist, used the term
natural selection for the process in which organisms with Figure 7 Bee
favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. pollinating flower
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection pro-
vides a consistent explanation for life’s diversity. Most sci-
entists believe that the many different species of animals,
plants, and other organisms on Earth today are the result
of a long process of evolution. Figure 7 shows an example Figure 8 Owl capturing
of a plant that has flowers modified for attracting insects. a rat
Theme Interdependence
The organisms in a biological community live and interact
with other organisms, as shown in Figure 8. A biological
community is a group of interacting organisms. Ecology is
the branch of biology that studies the interactions of organ-
isms with one another and with the nonliving part of their
environment. Organisms are dependent on one another and
their environment—that is, they are interdependent. Inter-
dependence within biological communities is the result of a
long history of evolutionary adjustments. The complex web
of interactions in a biological community depends on the
proper functioning of all of its members, even those too
small to be seen without a microscope.
Section 1 Review
Identify the seven properties that all living Critical Thinking Recognizing
organisms share. Verifiable Facts If you find an object
that looks like an organism, how might you
Relate three of the seven major themes of determine if your discovery is indeed alive?
biology to the life of a harp seal.
Standardized Test Prep The mutation that results
Name the very small, organized structure that is in sickle cell anemia produces effects that are
bound by a membrane and that is the basic unit A only harmful.
of structure and function in all organisms.
B only positive.
Define homeostasis and metabolism, and describe C both harmful and positive.
their differences. D unimportant.
SECTION 1 Themes of Biology 9

Section 2 Biology in Your World
Objectives Solving Real-World Problems
● Evaluate the impact of You are unlikely to read a newspaper or magazine today without
scientific research on the noticing issues that relate to biology. In this textbook, you will learn
environment. about many areas in which biologists are actively working to solve
● Evaluate the impact of today’s problems.
scientific research on society
with respect to increasing Preserving Our Environment
food supplies.
More than 6 billion people now live on Earth. The increasing human
● Explain the primary task of population has had a significant impact on other organisms with
the Human Genome Project. which we share this planet. For example, tropical rain forests are
● Describe the contributions home to one-half of the world’s species of plants and animals, such as
of scientists in fighting AIDS the bird shown in Figure 9. The rain forests are being destroyed at
and cancer. the rate of more than one acre every second. At this rate, tropical rain
● Define the term gene therapy. forests—and a million species—may be gone in 30 years. Who knows
what potential medicines and foods we are discarding? Like burning
Key Terms a library without reading the books, extinction on this large scale is
a tragedy. However, conservation biologists are now exploring ways
genome
HIV to achieve a balance between people’s growing need for land and the
cancer need to preserve the environment.
cystic fibrosis One of the great achievements of today’s biology has been to show
gene therapy the practical benefits of taking better care of our environment.
Consider, for example, the fast-food french fry. Because french fries
must be formed perfectly to be sold, about one-half of the potatoes
used to make french fries were lost as waste. Then a major supplier
found a way to use some of the
Figure 9 Scarlet macaw.
waste: mix it with grain to feed
The brilliantly colored scarlet
macaw, Ana macao, lives high cattle. Leftover potato particles
in the rain forest canopy in in the potato processing water
Central America and South are also used, serving as a
America. Its numbers are being source of methane gas for
reduced by habitat destruction power plants. Finally, the proc-
and poaching.
essing water, rich in nutrients,
is used to water and fertilize
agricultural crops. The envi-
ronmental concern that pro-
motes these sensible changes is
a major contribution of biology
to a better future. Conservation
and preservation are now
everyday activities of govern-
ment, industry, and individuals.

Improving the Food Supply
One of the greatest impacts of modern biol-
ogy on society in recent years has been the
genetic engineering of crop plants. As illus-
trated in Figure 10, biologists have learned
how to transfer genes from one kind of plant
to another, which changes the hereditary
information in its cells. Genetic engineering,
shown in Figure 10, has made some crop
plants resistant to herbicides (so that weeds
can be killed without harming the food crop).
Genetic engineering has also made some
crop plants poisonous to insect pests, but not
humans, and has produced new varieties of
crop plants with improved nutritional bal-
ance and protein content.
For example, rice, one of the world’s most Figure 10 Genetic
important food crops, lacks iron and vitamin A levels needed for a engineering. Genes for
balanced diet. These deficiencies affect the billions of people world- desirable traits can be
transferred from one
wide for whom rice is a daily food. The addition of genes from other organism to another.
plants to rice has increased the nutritional value of rice, thus
improving the diet of many of the world’s people. The long-term
safety of genetically engineered food crops is still being studied.
These crops may offer great promise, however, of improving the
world’s food supplies.
Understanding the Human Genome

Another great achievement of today’s biology was completed in
April of 2003. Government-funded and private research teams
from several countries had been racing to complete the sequenc- www.scilinks.org
Topic: Human Genome
ing of the human genome, and on that day they announced joint
Project
success. The task had been formidable. A genome is the complete Keyword: HX4193
genetic material contained in an individual. The human genome
contains an astonishing 3 billion
individual units! At the height of
the research, automated gene-
sequencing machines were
sequencing DNA fragments at a
rate of 1,000 units per second,
around the clock.
Biologists are now able to read
every human gene, providing
them with a detailed road map, Figure 11 DNA
as you see in Figure 11, of human sequencing. The identity of
each genetic unit, shown as
genes. It will be many years
repeating dark and light bars,
before this information is fully has been determined for all
analyzed, but it is already prov- human genes found in the
ing to be an invaluable tool in human body.
medical research.
SECTION 2 Biology in Your World 11

Fighting Disease
Progress in biology directly affects our lives through medicine, in
which scientific advances are curing disease and improving health
every day. New technologies have enabled biologists to combat dis-
ease in ways scarcely imagined only a few years ago. Among the
many diseases that you will study in this text, consider the following.
AIDS
For more than 20 years, biologists have been battling AIDS. AIDS is
a fatal disease caused by HIV, a virus that attacks and destroys the
human immune system. HIV, shown in Figure 12, is transmitted by
contact with body fluids from an infected person. While biologists
have been successful in developing a combination of drugs that slow
the progression of AIDS, it has proven very difficult to make a vac-
cine capable of halting its spread. The problem is that HIV changes
as it passes from person to person, altering itself too frequently for
any single vaccine to protect many people. This problem soon may
be solved. New vaccines now being tested target two or more parts
of the virus at the same time. While one part may change, it is very
Figure 12 HIV. Individual unlikely that two parts will change at the same time in the very same
HIV particles are shown virus particle. For the first time, there is hope of a successful vaccine
emerging from a white blood to control the worldwide outbreak of AIDS.
cell where they have been
assembled.
Cancer
When U.S. President Richard Nixon recruited biologists to join a “War
on Cancer” in 1972, we did not know very much about the causes of
cancer, although many Americans were dying of it. In the 30 years
since then, biologists have learned a lot. Cancer is a growth defect in
cells, a breakdown of the mechanism that controls cell division.
We now know that many cancers can be largely avoided. To
sharply reduce your risk of lung cancer, for example, don’t smoke.
Many other cancers can be treated successfully when detected early.
Colon cancer, for example, develops slowly from intestinal tissue
growths called polyps. A simple medical examination enables the
detection and removal of the polyps.
Great progress is being made in curing many cancers. More than
25 percent of breast cancers, for example, result from having too
many copies of a cell protein that starts cell division. As many as 70
percent of colon and prostate cancers have extra copies of a similar
protein. Anticancer drugs that stick to these extra cell proteins,
gumming them up so they cannot promote excessive cell division,
appear to offer great promise.
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Cancer Cells Emerging Diseases
Keyword: HX4030 The past few years have seen the emergence of new diseases not
known in the past and the incidence in the United States of diseases
from other parts of the world. West Nile virus is one such disease.
West Nile virus was not found in the United States until 1999, when

birds in the northeastern United States were found to
have died from it. The West Nile virus is transmitted
by mosquitoes and is known to infect humans as well
as birds, horses, and possibly other animals. In
humans, the illness that results from infection by the
West Nile virus may cause only mild symptoms in
some individuals. Other people who have contracted
a severe form of the disease, however, have died.
Another disease that has emerged in Europe is
commonly known as mad cow disease. Mad cow dis-
ease is a fatal disease of cattle caused by eating the
body parts of infected animals. Although cattle are
grazing animals, their food is sometimes supple-
mented with protein from parts of other cattle.
Humans, too, can be infected by eating meat or
other products of infected cattle. No cases of mad
Figure 13 Treatments for
cow disease have been reported in the United States, cystic fibrosis include respira-
but a similar disorder has been found to affect elk tory therapy and medication.
and deer herds throughout the United States.
Gene Therapy
Biologists have searched for many years for a way to introduce
“healthy” genes into people suffering from hereditary disorders. The
person shown in Figure 13 has cystic fibrosis, which is caused by an
inherited defect in a gene. Cystic fibrosis is a fatal disorder in which a
thick, sticky mucus clogs passages in many of the body’s organs.
Researchers believe that it is possible to use a virus to transfer a
normal copy of the defective gene into the cells of cystic fibrosis
patients. Early attempts failed because the virus used to transport
the healthy gene posed health problems. New attempts using a dif-
ferent virus are more promising. The replacement of a defective
gene with a normal version is called gene therapy . Other serious
genetic disorders, such as muscular dystrophy and hemophilia, are
also good candidates for gene therapy. Though still experimental,
the future of gene therapy seems bright.
Section 2 Review
Describe the relationship between scientific Critical Thinking Evaluating Viewpoints
research and the use of environmental Do you agree or disagree that a knowledge of
resources. biology is essential in the battle against diseases?
Explain your answer.
Explain how genetic engineering can improve
food supplies. Standardized Test Prep One goal of researchers
who transplant beneficial plant genes into other
Describe one problem that scientists must over- plants is to
come to develop a vaccine for HIV. A accelerate extinction. C halt the spread of AIDS.
Explain how gene therapy might be used to treat B cure cancer. D reduce pesticide use.
cystic fibrosis.
SECTION 2 Biology in Your World 13

Section 3 Scientific Processes
Objectives Observation: The Basis
● Describe the stages common of Scientific Research
to scientific investigations. Recognizing the properties of living organisms and knowing why
● Distinguish between forming biology is important in your world are good first steps in your explo-
a hypothesis and making a ration of biology. All scientists, including biologists, have a certain
prediction. way of investigating the world. Studying an actual scientific investi-
● Differentiate a control gation is an exciting way to learn how science is done. Our story
group from an experimental begins many years ago with two biologists, David Bradford and
group and an independent John Harte, but the story continues to develop even today.
variable from a dependent
variable.
Solving Scientific Puzzles
● Define the word theory as
In the summer of 1988, Bradford reflected on the silence that sur-
used by a scientist.
rounded him. He had spent the summer looking for a species of
small frog in the many lakes of Sequoia and Kings Canyon National
Key Terms
Parks. The frog species had lived in the parks’ lakes for as long as
observation anyone had kept records. In the last count of the frog’s populations,
hypothesis the frogs had been everywhere. Now, for some reason, they had dis-
prediction
appeared from 98 percent of the lakes.
pH
Observation is the act of noting or perceiving objects or events
experiment
control group using the senses. As Bradford reported his observations to other
independent variable biologists, he found that local populations of amphibians (frogs,
dependent variable toads, and salamanders) elsewhere were also disappearing.
theory Amphibians have been around for 370 million years. The disap-
pearance of amphibians from their natural homes sounded an
alarm among biologists that something was altering the environ-
ment. Amphibians are particularly sensitive to their environment;
their moist skin absorbs chemicals from water.
Between the years 1984 and 1988, John Harte, a professor at the
University of California, Berkeley, was also studying amphibians. He
was studying the tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum, shown in
Figure 14. Tiger salamanders live in ponds high on the western slopes
of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado. Harte had seen their numbers
Figure 14 Tiger salamander,
fall by 65 percent as he and his students had collected and analyzed
Ambystoma tigrinum
water samples from the ponds in the area over the years.
Harte wanted to discover the facts
surrounding the disappearance of the sala-
manders. Like other scientists, Harte began a
scientific investigation that combined knowl-
edge, imagination, and intuition to get a sense
of what might be true. Even though scientists
might expect certain results, they do not form
conclusions until they have enough evidence
to support them.

Stages of Scientific Investigations
Although there is no single “scientific method,” scientific investiga-
tions tend to have common stages: collecting observations, asking
www.scilinks.org
questions, forming hypotheses and making predictions, confirming Topic: Biology Careers
predictions (with controlled experiments when appropriate), and Keyword: HX4022
drawing conclusions. These stages are summarized in Figure 15.
Collecting Observations
The core of scientific investigation is careful observation. Harte had
studied the Colorado salamander population for years. He had
learned what they eat, how they behave, when they reproduce, and
what conditions they thrive in. His students had helped him collect
water samples from the ponds, as shown in Figure 15. Frequent
visits to the ponds helped him realize the salamander population
was decreasing in number. Keeping careful records of the lakes’ con-
ditions helped him find an explanation.
Asking Questions
Observations of the natural world often raise questions. Harte ques-
tioned why the number of salamanders was dropping. He talked to
other scientists, carefully observed the organisms and environment
in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, and read scientific reports. He
answered many of his questions through his observations, but some
key questions remained unanswered.
In the natural world, the moisture that falls as rain and snow is
very slightly acidic. In the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, however,
the moisture is high in sulfuric acid from power plants that burn
high-sulfur coal. This acidic moisture, called acid precipitation, is Figure 15 Testing the
released into mountain ponds each spring when the snow melts, acidity of water
causing the water in the ponds to become more acidic in late May. Asa Bradman, a student of
Most of the mountains’ annual moisture falls as snow. Harte John Harte, helps in Harte’s
thought acid precipitation was important in the puzzle of the declin- scientific investigation by col-
ing salamander population, but he needed evidence. lecting water samples from a
Colorado pond.
Scientific Processes
• Collecting observations
• Asking questions
• Forming hypotheses and
making predictions
• Confirming predictions
(with experiments when
needed)
• Drawing conclusions
SECTION 3 Scientific Processes 15

Forming Hypotheses and Making Predictions
A hypothesis (hie PAHTH uh sis) is an explanation that might be
Real Life true—a statement that can be tested by additional observations or
Scientists use the metric experimentation. In that respect, a hypothesis (plural form, hypothe-
system. ses) is not just a guess—it is an educated guess based on what is
In the metric (SI) system of already known. Harte formed two hypotheses that together he
measurement, the units of believed explained the disappearance of the amphibians:
measurement are based on
powers of 10. Conversion 1. Acids that were formed in the upper atmosphere by pollutants
between units is easily were falling onto the mountains in the winter snows.
done and only changes
2. Melting snow was making the ponds acidic and harming the
the prefix of the unit. For
example, a runner in a 5K salamander embryos.
race runs 5 kilometers, If Harte’s hypotheses were correct, he could expect several possible
5,000 meters, or 5,000,000 outcomes. A prediction is the expected outcome of a test, assuming
millimeters.
the hypothesis is correct. For his first hypothesis, Harte predicted he
Calculating
would find acid in the ponds after the snow melted. For his second
Calculate the length of a
5K race using the English hypothesis, he predicted that there would be enough acid in the
system of measurement ponds to harm salamander embryos. Using his predictions as a start-
in feet, yards, ing point, Harte set out to test his hypotheses.
and miles.
Confirming Predictions
Harte gathered data from many years of observations, including
measurements of the acidity of the ponds before, during, and after
snowmelt. Harte and his students had taken water samples at fre-
quent intervals from several ponds. Data for part of one year, after
snowmelt, are shown in Figure 16.
To describe how acidic a solution is, scientists use a number
between 0 and 14 to represent pH , which is a relative measure of the
hydrogen ion concentration within a solution. Solutions with a low
pH (below 7) are acidic, solutions above 7 are basic, and solutions at
pH 7 are neutral. Acid rain usually has a pH of between 2 and 6. A
solution with a pH of 2 is 10,000 times more acidic than one with a
pH of 6.
Figure 16 Pond pH after
snowmelt. The pH levels Pond pH and Salamander-Egg Development
in a pond in the Rocky
Mountains are acidic (low pH) 8.00
at the same time of the year
that salamander eggs 7.50
are developing. 7.00
6.50
pH
6.00
5.50
Salamander eggs
5.00 developing
4.50
May June July July Aug. Sept.
25 17 7 27 15 5
Date

Harte’s data indicated that the ponds became more acidic when the
snow melted. After a few weeks, the pH rose and then leveled off. The
Reviewing Information
data confirmed Harte’s first prediction and supported his first hypoth- On a separate sheet of
esis—melting snow caused acid to be released into the ponds at paper, make a table with
snowmelt, as shown in Figure 16. After snowmelt, the acid was neu- two columns. List the stages
tralized, probably by minerals that dissolved from the rocks in the common to scientific inves-
ponds, and pond pH returned to normal for the rest of the summer. tigations in the left-hand
To confirm his second hypothesis (melting snow was making the column. In the right-hand
column, describe in your
ponds acidic and harming the salamander embryos), Harte did an own words what is actually
experiment —a planned procedure to test a hypothesis. Salamanders done at that stage and
lay eggs in the ponds once a year, as soon as pond ice melts. Harte why that is important to
wanted to test whether exposure to the pH levels he had recorded at scientific inquiry.
that time of year would harm the salamanders that hatched from
the eggs.
Harte performed a controlled experiment. In a controlled experi-
ment, an experimental group (a group that receives some type of
experimental treatment) is compared with a control group. A
control group is a group in an experiment that receives no experi-
mental treatment. The control and experimental groups are
designed to be identical except for one factor, or variable. The factor
that is changed in an experiment is called the independent variable .
In Harte’s experiment, the independent variable was the acid (pH)
level. The variable that is measured in an experiment is called the
dependent variable. Harte’s dependent variable was the number of
salamanders that hatched from the eggs.
Determining the pH of
Common Substances
You can use pH indicator paper to determine the pH
of various solutions. The pH indicator paper changes
color when it is exposed to a solution. The change in
color indicates how acidic or basic the solution is.
Materials
paper, pencil, wide-range pH paper, three different
solutions, beaker or small jar, water
Procedure
1. Make a data table with three 3. Test each solution with pH were correct. Explain any
columns and the following paper, and record the results differences between your
headings: Solution, Predicted in the appropriate row in your predictions and your results.
pH, and Measured pH. Make data table.
3. Compare your results with
a row for each solution to be
Analysis those of the rest of the class.
tested.
1. Summarize your findings in Explain any differences.
2. Predict the pH (acid or base) two sentences. 4. List the steps of scientific
of each solution, and record
2. Determine whether the methods that you followed in
your predictions in your data
predictions that you made doing this activity.
table.

Harte allowed captive salamanders to lay eggs in regular pond
water. He collected and then divided the eggs into five groups. One
group, the control group, contained eggs placed in pond water with
a neutral pH. Each of the other four groups, the experimental
groups, contained eggs placed in pond water with different
amounts of acid added, similar to the acid levels found in the ponds
after snowmelt.
Harte found that acid did indeed affect development. Many of the
salamanders never hatched from the eggs placed in acidic water.
Figure 17 Deformities in Some of the salamanders that did hatch were born with develop-
amphibians. Scientists are mental abnormalities. Other scientists have found abnormalities in
investigating factors that may amphibians, as shown in Figure 17.
play a role in the development
of deformities found in amphib-
ians throughout the United Drawing Conclusions
States and other parts of the Once data are collected and analyzed, a conclusion is made as to
world. whether the data support the hypothesis. The hypothesis may be
supported or rejected. A hypothesis can be supported but never
proven because another experiment with new data and new infor-
mation may alter the conclusion.
Harte’s data supported both of his hypotheses. The pH levels in
the ponds before and after snowmelt indicated that the ponds
became more acidic after the snow melted. This supported his first
hypothesis—acids that were formed in the upper atmosphere by
pollutants were falling onto the mountains in the winter snows.
Harte’s controlled experiment showed that acidic water reduces
the number of salamanders that hatch from eggs. This supported
his second hypothesis—melting snow could make the ponds acidic
and harm the salamander embryos. Harte concluded that melting
snow in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado could cause acid
absorbed from atmospheric pollution to be released into the ponds
at snowmelt, harming salamander embryos.
Viewing Conclusions in Context

Scientists from many disciplines have been working together to sort
out the causes of the global decline in amphibians. Like many
important questions, this one does not have a simple answer.
Figure 18 Pacific tree frog Four factors seem to be contributing in major ways: (1) The ani-
tadpole. The pacific tree frog’s mals’ habitats are deteriorating and being destroyed. (2) Nonnative
numbers have been reduced
species introduced into amphibian habitats out-compete local
by chytrid inflections.
amphibian populations for resources. (3) Chemical pollutants accu-
mulate in amphibian habitats. Acid rain released into ponds at
snowmelt is but one example. (4) Amphibians have a high rate of
fatal infections by parasites such as viruses or fungi. In the western
United States, infection by ranavirus (a common pathogen in fish)
probably has led to declines in populations of mountain salaman-
ders and frogs. A soil fungus called a chytrid (KI TRID) also kills
amphibians. Amphibian larvae, such as the Pacific tree frog tadpole
shown in Figure 18, can be infected with the fungus. The fungus dis-
solves the mouthparts of the larvae, killing them.

Scientific Explanations
Scientific progress is made the same way a marble statue is, by chip- Figure 19 Theories
ping away the unwanted bits. If a hypothesis does not provide a Scientists build theories
reasonable explanation for observations, it must be rejected. Harte from questions, predic-
was able to show that enough acid was being introduced into the tions, hypotheses, and the
ponds to kill the salamander embryos. His hypothesis—that acid findings of their experi-
from melting snow was killing the salamanders—was therefore sup- ments. When related
ported. The hypothesis that acid rain is contributing to the loss of hypotheses consistently
explain scientific events, a
amphibian populations will require much more evidence before theory is formed.
becoming accepted as a broader theory. Related to other scientific
explanations, a model is a representation of an object or a system. Questions
In science, the term model is often used to mean a hypothetical
description.
It is important in science not to be misled by an isolated observa-
tion. Only after many studies like Harte’s will scientists be able to Predictions and hypotheses
assemble a picture that accurately reveals what is harming the
amphibians. As you have just read, other environmental factors may
play important roles. Figure 19 summarizes the steps in the devel-
Experimentation
opment of a theory. A theory is a set of related hypotheses that have
been tested and confirmed many times by many scientists. A theory
unites and explains a broad range of observations.
Some Some
hypotheses hypotheses
Constructing a Theory are supported. are rejected.
Constructing a theory often involves considering contrasting ideas and

conflicting hypotheses. For example, Harte’s conclusions have been
questioned by scientists who suggest that his observations may be only Related
coincidence. Argument, disagreement, and unresolved questions are a hypotheses are
verified by many.
healthy part of scientific research, a true reflection of how science is
done. Scientists routinely evaluate one another’s work. A key require-
ment of valid scientific research is that it can be replicated—that is,
reproduced—by other scientists. Theory
As you study biology, it is important to remember that
the word theory is used very differently by scientists than by
the general public. To scientists, a theory represents that of
which they are most certain. In contrast to the general pub-
lic, theory may imply a lack of knowledge, a guess. How
often have you heard someone say, “It’s only a theory” to
imply lack of certainty? As you can imagine, confusion
often results. In this textbook, the word theory will always
be used in its scientific sense—that is, a theory is a
well-supported scientific explanation that makes useful
predictions.
There is, however, no absolute certainty in a scientific
theory. The possibility always remains that future evidence
will cause a scientific theory to be revised or rejected. A
scientist’s acceptance of a theory is always provisional.
Once a scientist completes an investigation, he or she
often writes a report for publication in a scientific jour-
nal. Before publication, the research report is reviewed

by other scientists. These reviewers ensure that the investigation was car-
ried out with the appropriate controls, methods, and data analysis. The
reviewers also check that the conclusions reached by the author are justi-
fied by the data obtained. Publishing an investigation allows other scien-
tists to use the information for hypotheses they are forming. They can
also repeat the investigations and confirm the validity of the conclusions.
Magnification: 16
Analyzing Experimental Design

Background
To study the effects of common substances on the heart rate of a
0100010110
011101010 tiny aquatic organism known as Daphnia, students placed a
0010010001001 Daphnia in a drop of water on a glass slide. The students then
1100100100010
0000101001001 added 1 or more drops of a test substance dissolved in water to
1101010100100
0101010010010 the slide, waited 10 seconds, then counted heart beats for 10
seconds. The students used a clean slide and a new Daphnia
each time. Their data table is shown below.
Heart Rate of Daphnia in Different Solutions

Daphnia
Substance tested Heart rate (beats per minute)
None 58
Coffee 65
Ethanol 50
Analysis
1. Identify the dependent and 3. Identify the liquid that 5. Critical Thinking
independent variables in the should be used for the control Applying Information
experiment. group. Design an experiment that
students can perform to verify
2. Identify the experimental 4. Evaluate how the instructions
the prediction that coffee will
groups in the experiment. could be changed to improve
increase heart rate in Daphnia.
the design of the experiment.
Section 3 Review
Summarize how scientists use observations, Critical Thinking Evaluating Results Is
hypotheses, predictions, and experiments in Harte’s hypothesis the only possible hypothesis for
scientific investigations. the decrease in the number of salamanders in the
Rocky Mountains?
Differentiate independent variables from
dependent variables. Standardized Test Prep A researcher finds that 90
percent of salamanders hatch from eggs in water at
Define the word theory in a scientific sense and pH 7, 80 percent hatch at pH 6, 60 percent at pH 5,
then in a more general sense. and 40 percent at pH 4. What is the approximate
percentage that hatch at pH 5.5?
A 55 percent C 70 percent
B 61 percent D 85 percent

Study CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS
ZONE
Key Concepts Key Terms
1 Themes of Biology Section 1
● Living organisms are diverse but share certain biology (6)
cell (7)
characteristics.
reproduction (7)
● All living organisms are composed of cells, grow and metabolism (7)
develop, and are able to maintain homeostasis. homeostasis (8)
gene (8)
● Living organisms reproduce, producing offspring similar to heredity (8)
themselves. mutation (8)
● Living organisms obtain and use energy to stay alive, and evolution (9)
species (9)
they respond to their environment.
natural selection (9)
● Seven themes unify the science of biology: cellular structure ecology (9)
and function, reproduction, metabolism, homeostasis,
heredity, evolution, and interdependence.
2 Biology in Your World Section 2

● Pollution of the atmosphere, extinction of plants and animals, genome (11)
HIV (12)
and a growing demand for food are current environmental
cancer (12)
problems caused by the growing human population. cystic fibrosis (13)
● Biologists are using genetic engineering to develop crops gene therapy (13)
that require fewer fertilizers and pesticides and to develop
new crops.
● Biological research and new technologies will help
scientists battle diseases such as AIDS, cancer, and
cystic fibrosis.
3 Scientific Processes Section 3

● Scientists add to scientific knowledge by sharing observations observation (14)
hypothesis (16)
and posing questions about those observations.
prediction (16)
● Although there is no single method, observing, asking pH (16)
questions, and forming and testing hypotheses are impor- experiment (17)
tant in planning a scientific investigation. control group (17)
independent variable (17)
● In a controlled experiment, the independent variable is dependent variable (17)
varied between the experimental and control groups. The theory (19)
measured variable is the dependent variable.
● A collection of hypotheses that have been repeatedly
tested and are supported by a great deal of evidence forms
a theory.
CHAPTER 1 Highlights 21
Performance CHAPTER REVIEW
ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Is the word theory in the newspaper head-

line shown below used in a scientific sense
1. Toads that live in hot, dry regions bury or in a more general sense? Explain.
themselves in the soil during the day. What
theme of biology does this phenomenon
describe?
a. metabolism c. evolution
b. homeostasis d. heredity
2. Which of the following issues is not an exist-
ing problem that biologists can help solve?
a. destruction of rain forests
b. extinction of plants and animals
c. AIDS
d. snowmelt in the Rockies 9. Why might it be difficult to determine
whether or not microscopic particles are
3. The demand for more food is due to
alive?
a. the spread of disease.
b. the growth of the human population. 10. What arguments could you offer for and
c. uncontrolled scientific experimentation. against the removal of forests to make
d. extinction. room for new neighborhoods?
4. The disorder characterized by cells dividing 11. Concept Mapping Make a concept
uncontrollably within the body is called map that outlines scientific investigations
a. AIDS. c. cancer. in biology. Try to include the following
b. cystic fibrosis. d. mad cow disease. terms: biology, observation, communication,
5. The factor that is varied in a controlled hypotheses, predictions, experiments,
experiment is called the and theories.
a. control.
b. hypothesis. Critical Thinking
c. dependent variable. 12. Forming Reasoned Opinions Some people
d. independent variable. believe that scientists should not tamper
6. Which statement is false? with a person’s genes. Do you think
a. Observations are an important part of biologists should use gene therapy to try to
the scientific process. cure diseases? Explain your answer.
b. A solution with a low pH is more acidic 13. Applying Information One of the first
than a solution with a high pH. branches of biology to be developed was
c. A hypothesis can be proven with a well- taxonomy, the naming and grouping of
designed experiment. organisms. Why is taxonomy important to
d. A prediction is the expected outcome of communication about biology?
a test.
7. For each pair of terms, write one or more
Alternative Assessment
sentences summarizing what you learned 14. Interactive Tutor Unit 5 Heredity Write a
in this chapter about those terms. report summarizing how an understanding
a. evolution, natural selection of heredity allows animal breeders to
b. metabolism, homeostasis develop animals that have desirable traits.
c. control group, experimental group Find out what kinds of animals are bred for
special purposes.
22 CHAPTER 1 Review
Standardized Test Prep
Understanding Concepts Reading Skills

Directions (1–6): For each question, write on Directions (8): Read the passage below.
a separate sheet of paper the letter of the Then answer the question.
correct answer.
One of the most important parts of any
1 What is a statement that can be scientific publication is the section that
tested by additional observations or describes methods and materials used. In
experimentation? this section, the authors describe how they
A. hypothesis C. theory set up the experiment, what instruments
B. prediction D. variable they used to collect the data, and how they
recorded the data.
2 What is a group of organisms that can
produce fertile offspring? 8 Why is it important for scientists to
F. gene H. reproduction include in their scientific publications a
G. kingdom I. species section that describes the methods and
materials used?
3 What is the basic unit of heredity?
A. It shows how the data can be applied to
A. cell C. gene
other fields of study.
B. chromosome D. species
B. It proves how expensive their
4 What is the sum of all the chemical experiment is to carry out.
reactions carried out in an organism? C. It allows other scientists to reproduce
F. homeostasis H. reproduction the experiment accurately.
G. metabolism I. sensitivity D. It prevents other scientists from
repeating the experiment and claiming
5 What is a change in inherited characteris-
it as their own.
tics of species over time called?
A. evolution Interpreting Graphics
B. homeostasis
Directions (9): Base your answer to question
C. reproduction
9 on the chart below.
D. responsiveness
Municipal Solid Waste by Weight
6 To describe the acidity of a solution,
scientists use a number between 0 and 14. Metals
What does this number represent? Paper and
containing iron
(7%)
F. experimental life cardboard
(40%) Aluminum
G. neutrality (1%)
Glass
H. pH (7%)
I. solution rate Plastics
Other waste (8%)
Directions (7): For the following question, (19%)
Yard waste
write a short response. (18%)
7 A scientist on television states that a

hypothesis cannot be proven. Assess why
this statement is correct. 9 If each type of solid waste were recycled,
which type would have the biggest impact
on conserving trees?
Test F. aluminum
Carefully read the instructions, the question, and the G. glass
answer options before choosing an answer. H. paper and cardboard
I. plastics
Standardized Test Prep 23

Exploration Lab
Observing the Effects of Acid
Rain on Seeds
SKILLS
• Using scientific methods • lab apron
• Collecting, organizing, and • 50 seeds
graphing data • 250 mL beakers
OBJECTIVES
• 20 mL mold inhibitor
• Use a scientific method to • distilled water

investigate a problem. • paper towels
• Predict how acid rain affects • solutions of different pH
germination and growth. • wax pencil or marker
• zip-lock plastic bags
MATERIALS
• metric ruler
• safety goggles
• graph paper
• protective gloves
ChemSafety
CAUTION: Always CAUTION: Do not touch skin or clothing, wash it off at CAUTION: Glassware is
wear safety gog- or taste any chemicals. the sink while calling to the fragile. Notify the teacher
gles and a lab apron to protect Know the location of the emer- teacher. Notify the teacher of a of broken glass or cuts. Do not
your eyes and clothing. gency shower and eyewash spill. Spills should be cleaned clean up broken glass or spills
station and how to use them. up promptly, according to your with broken glass unless the
If you get a chemical on your teacher’s directions. teacher tells you to do so.
Before You Begin Procedure

Living things, such as salamander embryos, PART A: Design an Experiment
can be damaged by acid rain at certain times 1. Work with members of your lab group to
during their lives. In this lab, you will inves- explore one of the questions written for
tigate the effect of acidic solutions on seeds. step 2 of Before You Begin. To explore the
One way to investigate a problem is to design question, design an experiment that uses
and conduct an experiment . We begin a sci- the materials listed for this lab.
entific investigation by making observations
and asking questions. You Choose
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in As you design your experiment, decide the following:
the paragraph above and for each of the a. what question you will explore
following terms: pH, hypothesis, predic- b. what hypothesis you will test
tion, variable, control group. c. how to simulate growing seeds in soil
moistened by acid rain
2. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a d. how to keep seeds moist during the
question you would like to explore about experiment
the effect of acid rain, for example, When e. what your test solutions and control will be
is a plant most susceptible to acid rain? f. how to measure seedling growth
g. what to record in your data table

2. Write a procedure for your experiment. Analyze and Conclude
Make a list of all the safety precautions you
1. Summarizing Results Describe any
will take. Have your teacher approve your
changes in the look of your seeds during
procedure and safety precautions before
the experiment. Discuss seed type, average
you begin the experiment.
seed size, number of germinated seeds, and
changes in seedling length.
PART B: Conduct Your Experiment 2. Analyzing Results Were there any differ-
3. Put on safety goggles, ences between the solutions? Explain.
protective gloves, and
3. Analyzing Methods What was the con-
a lab apron.
trol group in your experiment?
4. Place your seeds in a 250 mL
4. Analyzing Data Make graphs of your
beaker, and slowly add enough
group’s data. Plot seedling growth (in mil-
mold inhibitor to cover the seeds.
limeters) on the y-axis. Plot number of days
CAUTION: The mold inhibitor contains
on the x-axis.
household bleach, which is a base. Soak
the seeds for 10 minutes, and then pour 5. Relating Concepts What scientific meth-
the mold inhibitor into the proper waste ods did you use to design and conduct your
container. Gently rinse the seeds with experiment?
distilled water, and place them on clean 6. Evaluating Methods How could your
paper towels. experiment be improved?
5. Set up your group’s experiment. 7. Inferring Conclusions How do acidic
CAUTION: Solutions with a pH conditions appear to affect seeds?
below 7.0 are acids. Conduct your experi- 8. Predicting Outcomes How might acid
ment for 7–10 days. Make observations rain affect the plants in an ecosystem?
every 1–2 days, and note any changes. 9. Further Inquiry Write a new question
Record each day’s observations in a data about the effect of acid rain that could be
table, similar to the one below. explored with another investigation.
DATA TABLE
Solution Date Observations Do You Know?
Do research in the library or media center
to answer these questions:
1. Which parts of the United States are
most affected by acid rain, and why?
2. How have factories been changed to
PART C: Cleanup and Disposal reduce the amount of acid rain?
6. Dispose of solutions, broken glass, Use the following Internet resources to
and seeds in the designated waste explore your own questions about acid rain.
containers. Do not pour chemicals down
the drain or put lab materials in the trash
unless your teacher tells you to do so.
www.scilinks.org
7. Clean up your work area and all lab Topic: Acid Rain
equipment. Return lab equipment to Keyword: HX4001
its proper place. Wash your hands thor-
oughly before you leave the lab and after
you finish all work.
CHAPTER 1 Biology and You 25
Stampeding horses

CHAPTER
2 Chemistry
of Life
Quick Review Looking Ahead
earlier sections of your book. Section 1
1. Identify seven properties of life. (Chapter 1,
Section 1) Nature of Matter
Atoms
2. List seven themes of biology. (Chapter 1,
Chemical Bonding
Section 1)
3. Distinguish between metabolism and
homeostasis. (Chapter 1, Section 1) Section 2
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Water and Solutions
sections indicated. Water in Living Things
Aqueous Solutions
Section 3
Reading Activity Chemistry of Cells
Before you read this chapter, write a short list Carbon Compounds
of all the things you know about the chemistry
of organisms. Then write a list of the things Section 4
that you want to know about the chemistry of
organisms. Save your list, and to assess what
Energy and Chemical Reactions
Energy for Life Processes
you have learned, see how many questions
Enzymes
you can answer after reading this chapter.
www.scilinks.org
What do these horses have in common with the grass
under their feet? They and all other organisms are
composed of chemical substances that include water,
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
CHAPTER 2 Chemistry of Life 27

Section 1 Nature of Matter
Objectives Atoms
● Differentiate between Cooking requires an understanding of how the ingredients in foods
atoms and elements. interact. A cook’s application of chemical principles while preparing
● Analyze how compounds are
recipes affects the flavor and texture of foods. Just as a cook can
formed. benefit from a knowledge of basic chemistry, you can better under-
stand principles of biology if you also understand the fundamentals
● Distinguish between cova-
of chemistry. Chemistry will help you learn about biology because
lent bonds, hydrogen bonds,
and ionic bonds.
organisms, including yourself, are chemical machines.
What does all matter have in common? Matter consists of atoms.
Key Terms An atom is the smallest unit of matter that cannot be broken down
by chemical means. Atoms are so small and dynamic that their exact
atom structure is difficult to determine. Scientists have developed models,
element
such as the one shown in Figure 1, to explain the structure and prop-
compound
erties of atoms.
molecule
ion As shown in Figure 1, atoms consist of three kinds of particles:
electrons, protons, and neutrons. Protons, shown in red, and neu-
trons, shown in blue, make up the nucleus, or core, of an atom.
The region around the nucleus that electrons may occupy at any
time is called the electron cloud, shown as a blue haze around the
nucleus. Electrons are negatively charged, so the electron cloud
has a negative charge. Protons are positively charged and neutrons
Figure 1 Atom. The
have no charge, so the nucleus has a positive charge. Because pro-
electron cloud is the region
of an atom where electrons tons and electrons are oppositely charged, they attract one
are most likely to be found. another. Atoms typically have one electron for each proton, so they
The nucleus of this atom have no electrical charge.
contains six protons and
six neutrons.
Elements
An element is a pure substance made of only one kind
of atom. There are more than 100 known elements,
and each is represented by a one-, two-, or three-letter
Proton symbol. For example, the elements hydrogen, oxygen,
and carbon are represented by the symbols H, O, and
C, respectively. Elements differ in the number of
Neutron protons their atoms contain. Atoms of the simplest ele-
ment, hydrogen, each contain one proton and one
electron. In contrast, oxygen atoms contain eight pro-
tons and eight electrons. The number of neutrons in
an atom is often but not always equal to the number of
Electron cloud
protons in the atom. Atoms of an element that contain
different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. For
example, three common isotopes of carbon, C, are
carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14. Each contains
six protons, however carbon-13 contains seven neu-
trons, and carbon-14 contains eight neutrons.
28 CHAPTER 2 Chemistry of Life

Chemical Bonding
–
Atoms can join with other atoms to form stable substances. A force
that joins atoms is called a chemical bond. A compound is a sub-
stance made of the joined atoms of two or more different elements.
For example, when sodium atoms, Na, bond with chlorine atoms, Cl, O
the compound sodium chloride (table salt) forms. Every compound is
represented by a chemical formula that identifies the elements in the H H
compound and their proportions. The formula for sodium chloride, + +
NaCl, shows that there is one sodium atom for every chlorine atom in Figure 2 Water molecule.
the compound. Each water molecule is held
together by covalent bonds
between two hydrogen atoms
Covalent Bonds and one oxygen atom.
Covalent bonds form when two or more atoms share electrons to
form a molecule. A molecule , such as the water molecule shown in
Figure 2, is a group of atoms held together by covalent bonds. Like the
rivets and welds that connect steel girders in a skyscraper, covalent
bonds join the atoms in molecules. Because the number of protons is
equal to the number of electrons in a molecule, the molecule has no
net electrical charge. Other examples of molecules include carbon
dioxide, CO2, and oxygen gas, O2.
The arrangement of their electrons determines how atoms bond
together. Electrons are grouped into different levels. The levels clos-
est to the nucleus have less energy than the levels farther from the
nucleus. Electron levels can hold a limited number of electrons. The
outer electron levels of hydrogen and helium can hold up to two
electrons. All other atoms, however, have outer electron levels that
can hold up to eight electrons. An atom becomes stable when its
outer electron level is full. If the outer electron level is not full, an
atom will react readily with atoms that can provide electrons to fill
its outer level. As Figure 2 shows, water, H2O, forms when an oxygen
atom, which has six outer electrons, combines with two hydrogen
atoms, which have one outer electron each.
Hydrogen Bonds
The electrons in a water molecule are shared Figure 3 Hydrogen bonds in water
by oxygen and hydrogen atoms. However, the Water molecules are attracted to each other by
shared electrons are attracted more strongly hydrogen bonds.
by the oxygen nucleus than by the hydrogen
Hydrogen bonds
nuclei. The water molecule therefore has par-
tially positive and negative ends, or poles. As
shown in Figure 3, the partially positive end
of one water molecule is attracted to the neg-
ative end of another water molecule.
Molecules with an unequal distribution of
electrical charge, such as water molecules,
are called polar molecules. This attraction
between two water molecules is an example
of a hydrogen bond—a weak chemical attrac-
tion between polar molecules.
SECTION 1 Nature of Matter 29

Real Life Ionic Bonds
Sometimes atoms or molecules gain or lose electrons. An atom or
Cells contain water molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons is called an
and are vulnerable to
ion (IE ahn). Ions have an electrical charge because they contain an
freezing.
unequal number of electrons and protons. An atom that has lost
Some species of fish can
swim in icy water because electrons is positively charged, whereas an atom that has gained
their bodies contain chem- electrons is negatively charged.
icals similar to automotive Ions of opposite charge may interact to form an ionic bond. For
antifreeze. example, an atom of sodium is unstable because it has only one elec-
Analyzing Information tron in its outer level. Sodium readily gives up this electron to
Humans lack these become a stable, positively charged sodium ion, Na+. An atom of
chemicals. Why then can
chlorine is also unstable because it has seven electrons in its outer
we tolerate short-term
exposure to subzero level. Chlorine readily accepts an electron to become a stable, nega-
temperatures? tively charged chloride ion, Cl–. The negative charge of a chloride
ion is attracted to the positive charge of a sodium ion. Thus, sodium
atoms and chlorine atoms readily form an ionic bond to become
sodium chloride, as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 Ionic bonds in sodium chloride

Ionic bonds in sodium chloride, NaCl, are formed by the interaction between
sodium ions, Na+, and chloride ions, Cl–.
Sodium ion, Na+
Table salt (NaCl) Chloride ion, Cl–
Salt crystal Ionic bonds between

sodium ions and
chloride ions
Section 1 Review
Differentiate between atoms and elements. Critical Thinking Recognizing Differences
Explain the difference between polar molecules
Describe how an atom differs from a molecule. and nonpolar molecules. Give an example of a
polar molecule.
Distinguish between covalent bonds and ionic
bonds. Standardized Test Prep Sodium chloride is an
example of
Identify the type of weak bond that forms
A a compound. C an isotope.
between water molecules.
B a molecule. D an ion.

Water and Solutions Section 2
Water in Living Things Objectives

You may not realize it, but nearly 70 percent of your body is made ● Analyze the properties of
of water. About two-thirds of the molecules in your body are water water.
molecules. Your body’s cells are filled with water, and water is the ● Describe how water
medium in which most cellular events take place. Your cells are also dissolves substances.
surrounded by water, and water helps move nutrients and other sub-
● Distinguish between acids
stances into and out of your cells. What are some of the properties
and bases.
of water that make it such an important substance for life?
Key Terms
Storage of Energy
cohesion
Water absorbs heat more slowly and retains this energy longer than
adhesion
many other substances do. For example, a pot of boiling water resolution
moved from a stove takes a long time to cool down. Many organisms acid
release excess heat through water evaporation. For example, humans base
cool themselves by sweating. The water vapor lost through the evap-
oration of sweat carries heat away from the body. In organisms, this
ability to control temperature enables cells to maintain a constant
internal temperature when the external tempera-ture changes drasti-
cally. Water thus helps cells maintain homeostasis.
Cohesion and Adhesion

The hydrogen bonds between water molecules cause the cohesion of
liquid water. Cohesion (koh HEE zhuhn) is an attraction between
substances of the same kind. Because of cohesion, water and other
liquids form thin films and drops, such as those shown in Figure 5.
Molecules at the surface of water are linked together by hydrogen
bonds like a crowd of people linked by holding hands. This attrac- Figure 5 Cohesion.
tion between water molecules causes a condition known as surface Because of cohesion, water
tension. Surface tension prevents the surface of water from stretch- forms drops like those on this
ing or breaking easily. plant.
Water molecules are also attracted to many
other similarly polar substances. Adhesion (ad
HEE zhuhn) is an attraction between different
substances. Because of adhesion, some sub-
stances get wet. Adhesion powers a process,
called capillary action, in which water mol-
ecules move upward through a narrow tube,
such as the stem of a plant. The attraction of
water to the walls of the tube sucks the water
up more strongly than gravity pulls it down.
Water moves upward through a plant from
roots to leaves through a combination of cap-
illary action, cohesion, and other factors.
SECTION 2 Water and Solutions 31

Aqueous Solutions
Many substances dissolve in water. For example, when you add salt
to water, the resulting mixture is a saltwater solution. A solution is
www.scilinks.org
a mixture in which one or more substances are evenly distributed in
Topic: Properties of Water
Keyword: HX4149 another substance. Many important substances in the body have
been dissolved in blood or other aqueous fluids. Because these sub-
stances can dissolve in water, they can more easily move within and
between cells. For example, sugar could not be delivered to your
cells if it were not dissolved in water.
Polarity
The polarity of water enables many substances to dissolve in water.
Ionic compounds and polar molecules dissolve best in water. When
ionic compounds are dissolved in water, the ions become sur-
rounded by polar water molecules. As Figure 6 shows, ions are
attracted to the ends of water molecules with the opposite charge.
The resulting solution is a mixture of water molecules and ions. A
similar attraction results when polar molecules are dissolved in
water. In both cases, the ions or molecules become evenly distrib-
uted in the water.
Nonpolar molecules do not dissolve well in water. When nonpolar
substances, such as oil, are placed in water, the water molecules are
more attracted to each other than to the nonpolar molecules. As a
result, the nonpolar molecules are shoved together. This explains
why oil forms clumps or beads in water. The inability of nonpolar
molecules to dissolve in polar molecules is important to organisms.
For example, the shape and function of cell membranes depend on
the interaction of polar water with nonpolar membrane molecules.
Figure 6 Water dissolves ionic compounds

When sodium chloride, NaCl, is dissolved in water, sodium ions, Na+, and
chloride ions, Cl–, become surrounded by water molecules, H2O.
Chloride ion, Cl–

Water molecules, H2O Sodium ion, Na+
Sodium
chloride,
NaCl
NaCl

Acids and Bases
While the bonds in water molecules are strong, at any given time a
tiny fraction of those bonds might break, forming a hydrogen ion,
H+, and a hydroxide ion, OH–: Reading Effectively
As you read, you may
H2O → H+ + OH– encounter the terms alkaline
or alkalinity. Basic solu-
As a result, pure water always has a low concentration of hydro-
tions—whose pH is above
gen ions and hydroxide ions, which are present in equal numbers. 7—are often called alkaline
Compounds that form hydrogen ions when dissolved in water are solutions. Solutions with
called acids . When an acid is added to water, the concentration of pH values below 7 are
hydrogen ions in the solution is increased above that of pure water. usually referred to as
In contrast, compounds that reduce the concentration of hydro- acidic solutions.
gen ions in a solution are called bases . Many bases form hydroxide
ions when dissolved in water. Such bases lower the concentration of
hydrogen ions because hydroxide ions react with hydrogen ions to
form water molecules.
The pH scale shown in Figure 7 is based on the concentration of
hydrogen ions in solutions. All solutions have a pH value between 0
and 14. Pure water has a pH value of 7. Acidic solutions have pH val-
ues below 7, and basic solutions have pH values above 7. Each
whole number represents a factor of 10 on the scale. A solution with
Figure 7 The pH scale.
a pH value of 5, for example, has 10 times as many hydrogen ions as
The pH scale is based on the
one with a pH value of 6. concentration of hydrogen ions
in a solution.
Hand Household
Lemon Vinegar Milk Antacid soap ammonia
pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
More acidic Neutral More basic
Section 2 Review
Distinguish between adhesion and cohesion. Standardized Test Prep The pH of solution A is 2.
Identify a substance that would not dissolve well The pH of solution B is 4. How does the concen-
in water. Explain why. tration of hydrogen ions in A ([H+]A) compare
with the concentration of hydrogen ions in B
Differentiate between acids and bases. ([H+]B)?
A [H+]A 2 [H+]B. C [H+]A 100 [H+]B.
Critical Thinking Inferring Relationships B [H+]B 2 [H+]A. D [H+]B 100 [H+]A.
When salt is added to water, the freezing point of
the water decreases. Explain why this occurs.
SECTION 2 Water and Solutions 33

Section 3 Chemistry of Cells
Objectives Carbon Compounds
● Summarize the characteris- Most matter in your body that is not water is made of organic
tics of organic compounds. compounds. Organic compounds contain carbon atoms that are
● Compare the structures and
covalently bonded to other elements—typically hydrogen, oxygen,
function of different types of and other carbon atoms. Four principal classes of organic com-
biomolecules. pounds are found in living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids. Without these compounds, cells could not function.
● Describe the components of
DNA and RNA.
● State the main role of ATP
Carbohydrates
in cells. Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen atoms in the proportion of 1:2:1. Carbohydrates are a
Key Terms key source of energy, and they are found in most foods—especially
fruits, vegetables, and grains. The building blocks of carbohydrates
carbohydrate
are single sugars, called monosaccharides (mahn oh SAK uh
monosaccharide
reyedz), such as glucose, C6H12O6, and fructose. Simple sugars such
lipid
protein as glucose are a major source of energy in cells. Disaccharides are
amino acid double sugars formed when two monosaccharides are joined. For
nucleic acid example, sucrose, or common table sugar, consists of both glucose
nucleotide and fructose. Polysaccharides such as starch, shown in Figure 8, are
DNA chains of three or more monosaccharides. A polysaccharide is an
RNA example of a macromolecule, a large molecule made of many
ATP smaller molecules.
In organisms, some polysaccharides function as storehouses of the
energy contained in sugars. Two polysaccharides that store energy in
Figure 8 Structure of this way are starch, which is made by plants, and glycogen, which is
polysaccharides. Starch is a made by animals. Both starch and glycogen are made of hundreds of
long chain of many linked linked glucose molecules. Cellulose is a polysaccharide that provides
glucose molecules. structural support for plants. Humans cannot digest cellulose. Thus,
you cannot digest wood, which is mostly cellulose.
A potato contains many granules

that are filled with starch.
CH 2 OH
Starch
(polysaccharide) H C O H
H
C C
OH H
OH C C OH
Starch contains hundreds of
linked glucose molecules. H OH
Glucose
(monosaccharide)

Figure 9 Structure of fats Saturated fatty acid
Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated. O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
HO C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Saturated fats, such as

butter, are solid at room
temperature.
Unsaturated fatty acid
O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
HO C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Unsaturated fats, such as

canola oil, are liquid at
room temperature.
Lipids
Lipids (LIHP ihdz) are nonpolar molecules that are not soluble or
mostly insoluble in water. They include fats, phospholipids, steroids,
and waxes. Lipids are an important part of the structure and func-
tioning of cell membranes. Phospholipids make up the lipid bilayer
of cell membranes. Steroids include cholesterol, which is found in
animal cell membranes. Other lipids include some light-absorbing
compounds called pigments, such as the plant pigment chlorophyll.
Fats are lipids that store energy. As Figure 9 shows, a typical fat
contains three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule backbone.
Glycerol is a three-carbon organic molecule. A fatty acid is a long
chain of carbon atoms, shown in green, with hydrogen atoms bonded
to them. Most carbon atoms in a fatty acid are bonded to either one
or two hydrogen atoms, shown in blue. Because bonds between car-
bon and hydrogen are rich in energy, fats can store a lot of energy.
In a saturated fatty acid, all of the carbon atoms in the chain are
bonded to two hydrogen atoms (except the carbon atom on the end,
which is bonded to three hydrogen atoms). Most animal fats—such Real Life
as those in butter, lard, and grease from cooked meats—contain Fat-free potato chips
primarily saturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids are relatively fried in artificial fats
straight molecules and are generally solid at room temperature. contain fewer calories
In an unsaturated fatty acid, some of the carbon atoms are linked than those fried in
natural fats.
by a “double” covalent bond, each with only one hydrogen atom,
Unfortunately, some
producing kinks in the molecule, as shown in Figure 9. Most plant
artificial fats may reduce
oils, such as olive oil, and some fish oils contain mainly unsaturated vitamin absorption and
fatty acids and are generally liquid at room temperature. cause indigestion in some
Hydrogenated vegetable oils contain naturally unsaturated fatty people.
acids that have been saturated artificially by the addition of Finding Information
hydrogen atoms. Thus, hydrogenated vegetable oils, such as those in Research the benefits and
margarine and vegetable shortening, are generally solid at room potential shortcomings of
artificial fats.
temperature.
SECTION 3 Chemistry of Cells 35

Proteins
Figure 10 Structure of proteins A protein (PROH teen) is usually a large molecule
Proteins are chains of amino acids which are formed by linked smaller molecules called amino acids.
usually folded into compact shapes. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.
Linked amino Twenty different amino acids are found in proteins.
acids Some amino acids are polar, and others are nonpolar.
Some amino acids are electrically charged, and others
are not charged. As Figure 10 shows, proteins fold into
compact shapes, determined in part by how the pro-
tein’s amino acids interact with water and one another.
Some proteins are enzymes and promote chemical
reactions. Other proteins have important structural
functions. For example, the protein collagen (KAHL uh
juhn) is found in skin, ligaments, tendons, and bones.
Your hair and muscles contain structural proteins and
so do the fibers of a blood clot. Other proteins called
Globular protein
antibodies help your body defend against infection.
Specialized proteins in muscles enable your muscles
to contract. In your blood, a protein called hemoglobin
carries oxygen from your lungs to body tissues.
Foods as Fuel
M ost foods contain a mixture

of carbohydrates, proteins,
and fats. The body can use these
Carbohydrates
Most carbohydrates in foods
come from plant products, such
molecules to build new struc- as fruits, grains, and vegetables.
tures, but it uses them mostly as Other sources are milk, which
an energy source. Your body’s contains the sugar lactose, and
cells harvest the energy in food various meats, which contain Fats
molecules for metabolism. The some glycogen. Candy and soft Fats are found mainly in veg-
energy value of food molecules is drinks also contain sugars. About etable oils, such as olive oil; dairy
measured in kilocalories (kcal). 4 kcal of energy are supplied by 1 products, such as milk and but-
The minimal rate of energy use gram (g) of carbohydrates. ter; and meat, such as beef and
per hour (h), called the basal pork. Fats contain more energy
metabolic rate, is about 70 kcal/h Proteins
per gram than do carbohydrates
for men and 60 kcal/h for women. Primary sources of dietary pro- and proteins; fats supply about
Typically, walking uses about 200 tein include legumes, eggs, milk, 9 kcal/g of energy.
kcal/h and jogging uses about fish, poultry, and meat. As with
600 kcal/h. If more kilocalories carbohydrates, proteins supply
are consumed than are used, the about 4 kcal/g. Dietary protein is
www.scilinks.org
body will store the excess kilo- the source of amino acids.
Topic: Foods as Fuel
calories as fat, regardless of Proteins also provide raw materi- Keyword: HX4086
whether the consumed kilocalo- als for other compounds, such as
ries are contained in carbohy- nucleic acids.
drates, proteins, or fats.

Figure 11 Structure of nucleic acids
DNA is made of two strands of multiple nucleotides linked by hydrogen bonds.
P
P
P
P
P Base
Phosphate
P P group
P P
P
P P P
P
P
P
P Sugar
P P P
P P
P Nucleotide
Nucleic Acids
All of your cells contain nucleic acids. A nucleic acid is a long chain
of smaller molecules called nucleotides. A nucleotide has three
parts: a sugar, a base, and a phosphate group, which contains phos-
phorus and oxygen atoms. There are two types of nucleic acids—
DNA and RNA—and each type contains four kinds of nucleotides.
DNA , or deoxyribonucleic acid, consists of two strands of
nucleotides that spiral around each other, as shown in Figure 11.
Chromosomes contain long strands of DNA, which stores heredi-
tary information.
RNA , or ribonucleic acid, may consist of a single strand of nucleo-
tides or of based-paired nucleotides. RNA plays many key roles in the
manufacture of proteins. RNA can also act as an enzyme, promoting
the chemical reactions that link amino acids to form proteins.
ATP
Another important biological molecule is ATP. ATP , or adenosine (uh
DEHN uh seen) triphosphate, is a single nucleotide with two extra
energy-storing phosphate groups. When food molecules are broken
down inside cells, some of the energy in the molecules is stored
temporarily in ATP. Cells need a steady supply of ATP to function.
Section 3 Review
Identify what all organic compounds have in Critical Thinking Inferring Relationships
common, and list the four principal classes of Compare the role of ATP in cells with the roles
organic compounds. of RNA.
Compare the structures of saturated and Standardized Test Prep Molecule X contains a
unsaturated lipids. sugar and a phosphate group. What is molecule X ?
A a carbohydrate C a fatty acid
Describe the three parts of a nucleotide and
B a nucleotide D an amino acid
how they are attached to one another.
SECTION 3 Chemistry of Cells 37

Section 4 Energy and Chemical
Reactions
Objectives Energy for Life Processes
● Evaluate the importance You are surrounded by energy. Energy is in food, in the motion of a
of energy to living things. speeding car, in the sound of a guitar, and in the warmth of a blazing
● Relate energy and chemical
fire. Energy is the ability to move or change matter. Energy exists in
reactions. many forms—including light, heat, chemical energy, mechanical
energy, and electrical energy—and it can be converted from one form
● Describe the role of
to another. If you kick a ball, for example, the energy of your kick
enzymes in chemical
reactions.
makes the ball move. If you cook an egg in a hot skillet, heat causes
the egg to change color and solidify, as shown in Figure 12. The
● Identify the effect of enzymes energy transferred to the egg by heat rearranges the atoms and mol-
on food molecules.
ecules in the egg. The bioluminescent click beetle, also shown in
Figure 12, uses energy to produce light.
Key Terms
Energy can be stored or released by chemical reactions. A chem-
energy ical reaction is a process during which chemical bonds between
activation energy atoms are broken and new ones are formed, producing one or more
enzyme different substances. At any moment, thousands of chemical reac-
substrate tions are occurring in every cell of your body. The starting materials
active site
for chemical reactions are called reactants. The newly formed sub-
stances are called products. Chemical reactions are summarized by
chemical equations, which are written in the following form:
Reactants → Products
The arrow is read as “changes to” or “forms.” For example, dissolv-
ing sodium chloride in water causes the following reaction:
NaCl 
→ Na+ + Cl–
Figure 12 Evidence of chemical reactions

An egg becomes solid when it is heated. A chemical reaction causes the bioluminescent click beetle, Pyrophorus
noctilucus, to give off light energy.

Figure 13 Energy and chemical reactions
Chemical reactions absorb or release energy.
Energy-Releasing Reaction Energy-Absorbing Reaction
Products
Energy
Energy
Energy
absorbed
Reactants Energy Reactants

released
Products
Reaction progress Reaction progress
Energy in Chemical Reactions

In chemical reactions, energy is absorbed or released when chemi-
cal bonds are broken and new ones are formed. The graphs shown
www.scilinks.org
in Figure 13 compare a chemical reaction that releases energy with
Topic: Chemical Reactions
a chemical reaction that absorbs energy. The freezing and melting of Keyword: HX4040
water are good examples of how energy is released or absorbed.
When water freezes, the process that leads to the formation of ice
crystals causes heat energy to be released. When you fill an ice-cube
tray with water and place it in the freezer to make ice, heat is
released from the water as the water freezes. When you remove ice
cubes from the freezer, the ice begins to melt. When ice melts, it
absorbs heat from the environment. When you hold a piece of ice,
your hand gets cold and heat is transferred from your hand to the
ice as the ice begins to melt.
Metabolism (muh TAB uh lihz uhm) is the term used to describe
all of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism. Your
cells get most of the energy needed for metabolism from the food you
eat. As food is digested, chemical reactions convert the chemical
energy in food molecules to forms of energy that can be used by cells.
Activation Energy
The heat from a flame transfers enough energy to ignite the logs in a
campfire. The spark from a spark plug causes the gasoline in an auto-
mobile engine to ignite. In both cases, energy is needed to start a
chemical reaction. The energy needed to start a chemical reaction is
called activation energy . To better understand activation energy,
think of rolling a boulder down a hill. To get the boulder rolling down-
hill, you must first push it. Activation energy is simply a chemical
“push” that starts a chemical reaction. Even in a chemical reaction
that releases energy, activation energy must be supplied before the
reaction can occur.
SECTION 4 Energy and Chemical Reactions 39

Enzymes
Like engines, cells consume fuel because they need energy to func-
tion. Just as an engine requires a spark of energy to begin burning
gasoline, most biochemical reactions—chemical reactions that
occur in cells—require activation energy to begin. The chemical
reactions in cells occur quickly and at relatively low temperatures
because of the action of many enzymes. Enzymes are substances
that increase the speed of chemical reactions. Most enzymes are
proteins. Enzymes are catalysts (KAT uh lists), which are substances
that reduce the activation energy of a chemical reaction. As shown
in Figure 14, an enzyme increases the speed of a chemical reaction
by reducing the activation energy of the reaction.
Figure 14 Enzymes lower
activation energy. Enzymes Activation Energy With and Without an Enzyme
decrease the amount of energy
needed to start a chemical
absorbed
reaction. Enzymes do not

Energy
Activation energy
change the amount of energy without an enzyme
contained in either the reac-
Activation energy
tants or the products. with an enzyme
released
Energy
Reactants
Products
Reaction progress
Enzymes help organisms maintain homeostasis. Without

enzymes, chemical reactions would not occur quickly enough to
sustain life. For example, consider a reaction that takes place in
your blood. Blood carries carbon dioxide, CO2, (a waste product
made by cells) to your lungs, where it is eliminated as you breathe
out. In the lungs, carbon dioxide reacts with water, H2O, to form
carbonic acid, H2CO3, as shown by the following equation:
carbonic anhydrase
→ H CO
CO2 H2O ← 2 3
The reverse reaction occurs in your lungs, converting carbonic acid

back to carbon dioxide and water. Most enzyme-assisted reactions
are reversible, meaning they can proceed in the opposite direction.
Without an enzyme, the reaction that produces carbonic acid is
very slow; only about 2000 molecules of carbonic acid are produced
Reading Effectively in an hour. This rate is not fast enough for your blood to carry away
As you read, notice that the the carbon dioxide released by millions of cells. Fortunately, your
names of most enzymes, blood contains the enzyme carbonic anhydrase (an HIED rays). In
such as amylase and cata-
the presence of carbonic anhydrase, carbon dioxide and water react
lase, end with -ase. This will
help you identify other to form about 600,000 molecules of carbonic acid per second! The
enzymes you will encounter enzyme increases the reaction rate about one million times,
in this book. enabling your body to eliminate carbon dioxide efficiently.

Enzyme Specificity
A substance on which an enzyme acts during a chemical reaction is
called a substrate (SUHB strayt). Enzymes act only on specific sub-
Real Life
strates. For example, the enzyme amylase (AM uh lays) assists in the Some laundry detergents
breakdown of starch to glucose in the following chemical reaction. contain enzymes.
In this reaction, starch is amylase’s substrate. Enzymes break down
carbohydrates or proteins
amylase
→ glucose
starch ← in common stains such as
food and blood, making
The enzyme catalase (KAT uh lays) assists in the breakdown of the stains easier to
hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, a toxin formed in cells. In this case, remove. The enzymes
can tolerate the high
hydrogen peroxide is broken down to water, H2O, and oxygen gas,
temperatures and alkaline
O2. In this reaction, hydrogen peroxide is catalase’s substrate. conditions required for
catalase cleaning fabrics.
2H2O2 →
← 2H2O O2 Finding Information
An enzyme’s shape determines its activity. Typically, an enzyme is Find out the source for
enzymes used in laundry
a large protein with one or more deep folds on its surface. These
detergents.
folds form pockets called active sites . As shown in Figure 15, an
enzyme’s substrate fits into the active site. An enzyme acts only on a
specific substrate because only that substrate fits into its active site.
Step When an enzyme first attaches to a substrate during a

chemical reaction, the enzyme’s shape changes slightly so
that the substrate fits more tightly in the enzyme’s active site.
Step At an active site, an enzyme and a substrate interact in a
way that reduces the activation energy of the reaction, mak-
ing the substrate more likely to react.
Step The reaction is complete when products have formed. The
enzyme is now free to catalyze further reactions.
Figure 15
B IO Enzyme Action
gra hic
p Enzymes assist biochemical reactions by bringing key molecules together.
A substrate attaches to an The enzyme reduces the activa- The enzyme is not changed
1 enzyme's active site.
2 tion energy of the reaction.
3 by the reaction.
Products
Substrate
Active
site
Enzyme
SECTION 4 Energy and Chemical Reactions 41

Factors in Enzyme Activity
Any factor that changes the shape of an enzyme can affect the
enzyme’s activity. For example, enzymes operate most efficiently
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Enzyme Activity within a certain range of temperatures. Temperatures outside this
Keyword: HX4071 range can either break or strengthen some of the enzyme’s bonds,
changing its shape. Moreover, each enzyme operates best within a
certain range of pH values. A pH value outside this range can cause
bonds in an enzyme to break, reducing the enzyme’s effectiveness.
The enzymes that are active at any one time in a cell determine what
happens in that cell. Your body’s cells contain many different enzymes,
and each enzyme catalyzes a different chemical reaction. Different
kinds of cells contain different collections of enzymes. For example, as
you read this page, the chemical reactions occurring in nerve cells in
your eye are different from the chemical reactions occurring in your
red blood cells.
Enzymes and pH
pH on Enzyme Activity
Rate of reaction
Trypsin
Pepsin
Background
0100010110
011101010 The graph at right shows the relationship between
0010010001001
1100100100010 pH and the activity of two digestive enzymes,
0000101001001
1101010100100 pepsin and trypsin. Pepsin works in the stomach,
0101010010010
while trypsin works in the small intestine. Use the
graph to answer the following questions. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
pH
Analysis
1. Name the enzyme that 3. Critical Thinking
works best in highly acidic Analyzing Data Identify the
environments. pH value at which trypsin 5. Critical Thinking
works best. Inferring Relationships
2. Name the enzyme that
What does the graph indicate
works best in less-acidic 4. Critical Thinking
about the relative acidity of the
environments. Analyzing Data Identify
stomach and small intestine?
the pH value at which pepsin
works best.
Section 4 Review
List three ways that organisms use energy. Critical Thinking Predicting Outcomes What
effect might a molecule that interferes with the
Summarize how energy is made available by action of carbonic anhydrase have on your body?
chemical reactions.
Standardized Test Prep Carboxypeptidase is an
Explain how enzymes increase the speed of enzyme that catalyzes reactions in the small intestine.
chemical reactions. The products of these reactions are amino acids.
What are the substrates of carboxypeptidase?
Describe how the enzyme amylase affects starch.
A proteins C lipids
B carbohydrates D nucleic acids

ZONE
1 Nature of Matter Section 1
● All matter is made of atoms. Atoms consist of electrons, atom (28)
element (28)
protons, and neutrons.
compound (29)
● Molecules are groups of atoms linked by covalent bonds. molecule (29)
● Hydrogen bonding occurs between polar molecules. ion (30)
● An ion is a charged atom or molecule. Ions of opposite

charge may form an ionic bond.
2 Water and Solutions Section 2

● Water, which is essential for life, stores heat efficiently cohesion (31)
adhesion (31)
and binds to itself and other substances.
solution (32)
● Water dissolves polar molecules and ionic compounds. acid (33)
base (33)
● Acids increase the hydrogen ion concentration of
a solution.
● Bases decrease the hydrogen ion concentration of
a solution.
● The pH scale measures the strength of acids and bases.
3 Chemistry of Cells Section 3

● Organic compounds are found in living things. carbohydrate (34)
monosaccharide (34)
● Carbohydrates, such as glucose, are a source of energy lipid (35)
and are used as structural materials in organisms. protein (36)
● Lipids are nonpolar molecules that store energy and are amino acid (36)
nucleic acid (37)
an important part of cell membranes. nucleotide (37)
● Proteins are chains of amino acids. The sequence of DNA (37)
amino acids determines a protein’s shape and RNA (37)
ATP (37)
specific function.
● Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information.
● ATP is the main energy currency of cells.
4 Energy and Chemical Reactions Section 4

● Chemical reactions absorb or release energy. energy (38)
activation energy (39)
● Starting a chemical reaction requires activation energy. enzyme (40)
● Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by decreasing substrate (41)
the activation energy of the reactions. active site (41)
● Enzymes bind only certain substrates.

● Factors such as temperature and pH affect
enzyme activity.
ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Ruby-throated humming-

1. Most atoms contain one or more birds migrate 2,000 km every fall. Before
a. neutrons. c. protons. migrating, they eat nectar and convert
b. electrons. d. All of the above much of the sugar in the nectar to fat. Why
is it advantageous for these birds to store
2. Water dissolves ionic compounds because energy as fat rather than as glycogen?
water molecules
9. Describe how molecules such as
a. are nonpolar.
carbohydrates and lipids are important in
b. have a pH value of 14 or greater.
homeostasis. (Hint: See Chapter 1,
c. have partially charged ends.
Section 1.)
d. do not contain atoms.
3. In cells, ATP temporarily stores 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
a. amino acids. c. energy. map that illustrates the structure of matter.
b. DNA. d. lipids. Include the following key terms in your
map: atom, element, compound, molecule,
4. Energy needed for metabolism does not
and ion.
come from
a. food. Critical Thinking
b. lipids.
11. Recognizing Differences What are two
c. carbohydrates.
differences between ionic bonds and
d. water.
covalent bonds?
5. Most enzymes are
a. lipids. Alternative Assessment
b. carbohydrates. 12. Evaluating Promotional Claims Analyze the
c. proteins. ingredients of various packaged foods.
d. nucleic acids. Record the percentage of carbohydrates,
6. Explain the relationship between an enzyme fats, and proteins in each food. List any
and the activation energy of the reaction in additives that the products contain.
which the enzyme participates. Research whether the additives are natural
or artificial, and find out why they are
7. Look at the water strider in the photograph added to particular foods. Compare these
below. Using what you have learned about data to advertising claims about the
the properties of water, explain how the products you analyzed.
insect can stand on the water’s surface.
13. Finding Information Investigate the
laboratory techniques of cell fractionation,
centrifugation, and electrophoresis. Find
out how each technique enables biologists
to experiment with cells and to analyze the
substances that cells produce. Prepare an
oral report and use graphics to interpret
and summarize your findings.
14. Career Connection Biochemist Research
the field of biochemistry, and write a report
on your findings. Your report should
include a job description, the training
required, names of employers, growth
prospects, and an average starting salary.
44 CHAPTER 2 Review

correct answer.
Fats are lipids that store energy. A typical
1 In what type of bond are electrons shared? fat contains three fatty acids bonded to a
A. covalent glycerol molecule backbone. The fatty acids
B. hydrogen in fats determine whether they are solids
C. ionic or liquids. Saturated fatty acids do not have
D. nuclear any double bonds between carbon atoms and
are generally solids at room temperature.
2 What weak bond holds together the two
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more
strands of nucleotides in a DNA molecule?
double bonds between carbon atoms and
F. covalent
are generally liquids at room temperature.
G. hydrogen
Animal fats are usually solid, and plant fats
H. ionic
are usually (liquid) oils. However, in many
I. nuclear
animals of the Arctic and Antarctic, animal
3 When an unknown substance is dissolved fats are mostly oils.
in water, it forms hydrogen ions. What can
you conclude about the substance? 6 What adaptive advantage would the stor-
age of body fat as oil instead of as a solid
A. The substance is a base.
be to animals that live in freezing climates?
B. The substance is an acid.
A. Plants can never freeze in the Arctic
C. The substance is a carbohydrate.
and Antarctic.
D. The substance is made up of molecules.
B. Oils are soluble in water while fats are
4 Analysis of an unknown substance shows not soluble in water.
that it has the following characteristics: it C. Oils have lower freezing points and give
contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen better protection against freezing.
and is soluble in oil but not in water. What D. Storing energy in oils as plants do
kind of substance is this? allows the animals to photosynthesize.
F. carbon dioxide
G. glucose Interpreting Graphics
H. lipid Directions (7): Base your answer to question
I. polar amino acid 7 on the diagram below.
Directions (5): For the following question, Model of Biological Molecule
write a short response. P
P
P
P
5
P
In an experiment a student conducted, the P P
P
P
rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction

increased as the student increased the
P P P
P
P
P
substrate concentration. Deduce why the P P

P
P
reaction rate might increase by only a P P
small amount. P
Test 7 What is the main function of this molecule?

F. storing energy
Choose your answer to a question based on both G. making up cell membranes
what you already know and any information pre- H. storing hereditary information
sented in the question. I. promoting chemical reactions

Exploration Lab
Observing Enzyme Detergents
SKILLS • 150 mL beaker
• Using scientific methods
• 18 g regular instant
• Measuring volume, mass, gelatin or 1.8 g sugar-
and pH free instant gelatin
OBJECTIVES • 0.7 g Na2CO3
• Recognize the function • tongs or a hot mitt
of enzymes in laundry • 50 mL boiling water
detergents. • thermometer
• Relate temperature and pH • pH paper
to the activity of enzymes. • 6 test tubes
MATERIALS
• test-tube rack • 50 mL distilled water
• safety goggles and lab apron • pipet with bulb • 1 g each of 5 brands of
• balance • plastic wrap laundry detergent
• graduated cylinder • tape • wax pencil
• glass stirring rod • 50 mL beakers (6) • metric ruler
ChemSafety

Enzymes are substances that speed up PART A: Make a Protein Substrate
chemical reactions. Each enzyme operates 1. Put on safety goggles and a lab
best at a particular pH and temperature. apron.
Substances on which enzymes act are called
2. CAUTION: Use tongs or
substrates . Many enzymes are named for
a hot mitt to handle
their substrates. For example, a protease is
heated glassware. Put 18 g of regular
an enzyme that helps break down proteins. In
(1.8 g of sugar-free) instant gelatin in a
this lab, you will investigate the effectiveness
150 mL beaker. Slowly add 50 mL of
of laundry detergents that contain enzymes.
boiling water to the beaker, and stir the
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in mixture with a stirring rod. Test and
the paragraph above. record the pH of this solution.
2. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a
question you would like to explore about
enzyme detergents.

3. Very slowly add 0.7 g of Na2CO3 to the hot PART D: Cleanup and Disposal
gelatin while stirring. Note any reaction. 11. Dispose of solutions, broken glass,
Test and record the pH of this solution. and gelatin in the designated waste
4. Place 6 test tubes in a test-tube rack. Pour containers. Do not pour chemicals down
5 mL of the gelatin-Na2CO3 mixture into the drain or put lab materials in the trash
each tube. Use a pipet to remove any bub- unless your teacher tells you to do so.
bles from the surface of the mixture in 12. Clean up your work area and all lab
each tube. Cover the tubes tightly with equipment. Return lab equipment to
plastic wrap and tape. Cool the tubes, and its proper place. Wash your hands thor-
store them at room temperature until you oughly before leaving the lab and after
begin Part C. Complete step 12. finishing all work.
PART B: Design an Experiment Analyze and Conclude

5. Work with members of your lab group to
1. Analyzing Methods Suggest a reason for
explore one of the questions written for
adding Na2CO3 to the gelatin solution.
step 2 of Before You Begin. To explore
the question, design an experiment that 2. Analyzing Results Make a bar graph of
uses the materials listed for this lab. your data. Plot the amount of gelatin
broken down (change in the depth of
You Choose the gelatin) on the y-axis and detergent
As you design your experiment, decide the following: on the x-axis.
a. what question you will explore 3. Inferring Conclusions What conclusions
b. what hypothesis you will test did your group infer from the results?
c. what detergent samples you will test Explain.
d. what your control will be 4. Further Inquiry Write a new question
e. how much of each solution to use for about enzyme detergents that could be
each test explored with another investigation.
f. how to determine if protein is breaking
down
Do You Know?
g. what data to record in your data table
6. Write a procedure for your experiment.
Make a list of all the safety precautions 1. What other household products con-
you will take. Have your teacher approve tain enzymes, and what types of
your procedure and safety precautions enzymes do they contain?
before you begin the experiment. 2. What type of organic compound is
broken down by each enzyme that
you identified?
PART C: Conduct Your Experiment Use SciLinks to explore your own ques-
7. Put on safety goggles and a lab tions about products that contain enzymes.
apron.
8. Make a 10 percent solution
of each laundry detergent by www.scilinks.org
dissolving 1 g of detergent in 9 mL of Topic: Enzymes
Keyword: HX4072
distilled water.
9. Set up your experiment. Repeat step 12.
10. Record your data after 24 hours.
CHAPTER 2 Chemistry of Life 47

Show jumper
Paramecium (790)

CHAPTER
3 Cell
Structure
molecules. (Chapter 2, Section 1) Looking at Cells
Cells Under the Microscope
2. Compare the structures of carbohydrates,
Types of Microscopes
lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. (Chapter 2,
Section 3)
3. Describe the function of ATP. (Chapter 2, Section 2
Section 3) Cell Features
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the The Cell Theory
sections indicated. Prokaryotes
Eukaryotic Cells
The Cell Membrane
Reading Activity Section 3

Write down the title of this chapter and the titles Cell Organelles
of its three sections on a piece of paper or in The Nucleus
your notebook. Leave a few blank lines after Ribosomes and the Endoplasmic Reticulum
each section title. Then write down what you Mitochondria
think you will learn in each section. Save your Structures of Plant Cells
check off everything that you learned that was
on your list.
www.scilinks.org
Most cells, including this one-celled organism

Paramecium, have all the equipment necessary to
perform the essential functions of life.
CHAPTER 3 Cell Structure 49

Section 1 Looking at Cells
Objectives Cells Under the Microscope
● Describe how scientists Most cells are too small to see with the naked eye; a typical human
measure the length of body cell is many times smaller than a grain of sand. Scientists
objects. became aware of cells only after microscopes were invented, in the
● Relate magnification and 1600s. When the English scientist Robert Hooke used a crude
resolution in the use of microscope to observe a thin slice of cork in 1665, he saw “a lot of
microscopes. little boxes.” The boxes reminded him of the small rooms in which
● Analyze how light monks lived, so he called them cells. Hooke later observed cells in
microscopes function. the stems and roots of plants. Ten years later, the Dutch scientist
Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a microscope to view water from a
● Compare light
microscopes with electron pond, and he discovered many living creatures. He named them
microscopes. “animalcules,” or tiny animals. Today we know that they were not
animals but single-celled organisms.
● Describe the scanning
tunneling microscope.
Measuring Cell Structures
Key Terms Measurements taken by scientists are expressed in metric units.
light microscope Scientists throughout the world use the metric system. The official
electron microscope name of the metric system is the International System of
magnification Measurements, abbreviated as SI. SI is a decimal system, so all rela-
resolution tionships between SI units are based on powers of 10. For example,
scanning tunneling scientists measure the sizes of objects viewed under a microscope
microscope using the SI base unit for length, which is the meter. A meter, which
is about 3.28 ft (a little more than a yard), equals 100 centimeters
(cm), or 1,000 millimeters (mm). A meter also equals 0.001 kilome-
ter (km). Most SI units have a prefix that indicates the relationship
of that unit to a base unit. For example, the symbol “µ” stands for
the metric prefix micro. A micrometer (µm) is a unit of linear meas-
urement equal to one-millionth of a meter, or one-thousandth of a
millimeter. Table 1 summarizes the SI units used to measure length.
Table 1 Metric Units of Length and Equivalents

Unit Prefix Metric equivalent Real-life equivalent
Kilometer (km) Kilo- 1,000 m About two-thirds of a mile
Meter (m) 1 m (SI base unit) A little more than a yard
Centimeter (cm) Centi- 0.01 m About half the diameter of a Lincoln penny
Millimeter (mm) Milli- 0.001 m About the width of a pencil tip
Micrometer (µm) Micro- 0.000001 m About the length of an average bacterial cell
Nanometer (nm) Nano- 0.000000001 m About the length of a water molecule

Magnification: 270
Characteristics of Microscopes
Since Robert Hooke first observed cork cells, micro-
scopes have unveiled the details of cell structure. These
powerful instruments provide biologists with insight into
how cells work—and ultimately how organisms function.
Biologists use different microscopes depending on the
organisms they wish to study and the questions they want
to answer. Two common kinds of microscopes are light
microscopes and electron microscopes. In a light
microscope , light passes through one or more lenses to
produce an enlarged image of a specimen. An electron
microscope forms an image of a specimen using a beam
of electrons rather than light.
An image produced by a microscope, such as the one Figure 1 Micrograph. This
shown in Figure 1, is called a micrograph. Many micrographs are light micrograph (LM) shows
labeled with the kind of microscope that produced the image—such an amoeba.
as a light micrograph (LM), a transmission electron micrograph
(TEM), or a scanning electron micrograph (SEM). Micrographs
often are labeled with the magnification value of the image.
Magnification is the quality of making an image appear larger than
its actual size. For example, a magnification value of 200 indicates
that the object in the image appears 200 times larger than the
object’s actual size. Resolution is a measure of the clarity of an
image. Both high magnification and good resolution are needed to
Figure 2 Magnifying
view the details of extremely small objects clearly. As shown in
power of microscopes. The
Figure 2, electron microscopes have much higher magnifying and scale shows the size range of
resolving powers than light microscopes. objects that can be viewed
with electron microscopes and
light microscopes.
Sizes of Objects and Magnifying Power of Microscopes
A red blood cell is about 5 times A Lincoln penny is about 2,000 A human is about 100 times
longer than a bacterial cell. times longer than a red blood cell. longer than a Lincoln penny.
2 µm 10 µm 2 cm 20 cm 2m
Bacterium Blood cell Penny Hand Human

m
ll
ce
an
iu
nd
nn
er
m
d
Ha
oo
ct
Pe
Hu
Sizes of objects
Ba
Bl
0.1 nm 1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 µm 10 µm 100 µm 1 mm 1 cm 10 cm 1m 10 m
Electron microscopes
Light microscopes
Unaided eye
SECTION 1 Looking at Cells 51

Types of Microscopes
Different types of microscopes have different qualities and uses.
Microscopes vary in magnification and resolution capabilities,
www.scilinks.org
which affect the overall quality of the images they produce.
Topic: Microscopes
Keyword: HX4122 Microscopes also have different limitations. For example, electron
microscopes have high magnifying power, but they cannot be used
to view living cells. Light microscopes have lower magnifying
power, but they can be used to view living cells.
Compound Light Microscope

Light microscopes that use two lenses are called compound light
microscopes. In a typical compound light microscope, such as the
one shown in Figure 3, a light bulb in the base shines light up through
the specimen, which is mounted on a glass slide. The objective lens,
closest to the specimen, collects the light, which then travels to the
ocular (AHK yoo luhr) lens, closest to the viewer’s eye. Both lenses
magnify the image. Thus, a microscope with a 40 objective lens and
a 10 ocular lens produces a total magnification of 400.
Why not add a third lens and magnify even more? This approach
does not work because you cannot distinguish between two objects,
or “resolve” them, when they are closer together than a few hun-
dred nm. When the objects are this close, the light beams from the
two objects start to overlap!
Figure 3 Compound light microscope

In a compound light microscope, a specimen is mounted on a glass slide and
is illuminated with a beam of light from below.
Magnification: 1,500
Ocular lens
Objective
lens
Specimen
Stage
Focus
knob
Light source
LM of sperm

The most powerful compound light microscopes have a total
magnification of up to 2,000, which is sufficient for viewing Real Life
objects as small as 0.5 µm in diameter. For you to see smaller Thirty movies could be
objects, the wavelength of the light beam must be shorter than the stored on a disk the size
wavelength of visible light. Electron beams have a much shorter of a penny.
wavelength than that of visible light, so electron microscopes are Using the scanning inter-
ferometric apertureless
much more powerful than light microscopes.
microscope (SIAM)
researchers have viewed
Electron Microscopes features that are about
Electron microscopes can magnify an image up to 200,000, and four atoms (1 nm) in diam-
eter. The technology could
they can be used to study very small structures inside cells or on cell
also be used to code
surfaces. In electron microscopes, both the electron beam and the information on storage
specimen must be placed in a vacuum chamber so that the electrons disks.
in the beam will not bounce off gas molecules in the air. Because liv- Applying Information
ing cells cannot survive in a vacuum, they cannot be viewed using Would the SIAM likely
electron microscopes. be more useful in under-
standing the overall
Transmission electron microscope In a transmission electron micro- structure of the cell
scope, shown in Figure 4, the electron beam is directed at a very thin or the structure
slice of a specimen stained with metal ions. Some structures in the of biological
specimen become more heavily stained than others. The heavily compounds
stained parts of the specimen absorb electrons, while those that are in the cell?
lightly stained allow electrons to pass through. The electrons that
pass through the specimen strike a fluorescent screen, forming an
image on the screen. A transmission electron micrograph (TEM),
such as the one of sperm cells shown in Figure 4, can reveal a cell’s
internal structure in fine detail. TEM images are always in black
and white. However, with the help of computers, scientists often add
artificial colors to make certain structures more visible.
Figure 4 Transmission electron microscope

In a transmission electron microscope, electrons pass through a specimen,
forming an image of the specimen on a fluorescent screen.
TEM of sperm
SECTION 1 Looking at Cells 53

SEM of sperm
Figure 5 Scanning
electron microscope Scanning electron microscope In a scanning electron microscope,
shown in Figure 5, the electron beam is focused on a specimen
In a scanning electron micro-
scope, electrons bounce off a coated with a very thin layer of metal. The electrons that bounce off
specimen, forming a three- the specimen form an image on a fluorescent screen. A scanning
dimensional image of the electron micrograph (SEM) shows three-dimensional images of cell
specimen on a fluorescent surfaces, such as the image of sperm cells shown in Figure 5. As
screen. with the transmission electron microscope, images produced by the
scanning electron microscope are black and white, but often they
are artificially colored.
Scanning Tunneling Microscope

New video and computer techniques are increasing the resolution and
magnification of microscopes. The scanning tunneling microscope
uses a needle-like probe to measure differences in voltage caused by elec-
trons that leak, or tunnel, from the surface of the object being viewed. A
computer tracks the movement of the probe across the object, enabling
objects as small as individual atoms to be viewed. The computer
generates a three-dimensional image of the specimen’s surface. The
scanning tunneling microscope can be used to study living organisms.
Section 1 Review
Describe the relationship between a meter, a Critical Thinking Comparing Functions
millimeter, and a micrometer. Assume that for the purposes of your investiga-
tion, you need detailed images of the internal
Describe how magnification and resolution structure of a bacterium. What type of micro-
affect the appearance of objects viewed under scope would you select for that that task?
a microscope. Explain your answer.
Compare the magnifying power of a light micro- Standardized Test Prep
The English scientist
scope with the magnifying power of an electron Robert Hooke used a crude microscope to examine
microscope. A electrons C individual atoms
Critical Thinking Recognizing Differences B cork cells D single-celled organisms
Explain why electron microscopes cannot be
used to view the structure of living cells.

Cell Features Section 2
The Cell Theory Objectives

It took scientists more than 150 years to fully appreciate the discov- ● List the three parts of the
eries of Hooke and Leeuwenhoek. In 1838, the German botanist cell theory.
Mattias Schleiden concluded that cells make up not only the stems ● Determine why cells must
and roots but every part of a plant. A year later, the German zoolo- be relatively small.
gist Theodor Schwann claimed that animals are also made of cells.
● Compare the structure of
In 1858, Rudolph Virchow, a German physician, determined that prokaryotic cells with that
cells come only from other cells. The observations of Schleiden, of eukaryotic cells.
Schwann, and Virchow form the cell theory , which has three parts:
● Describe the structure of
1. All living things are made of one or more cells. cell membranes.
2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in organisms.
Key Terms
3. All cells arise from existing cells.
cell theory
cell membrane
Cell Size cytoplasm
Small cells function more efficiently than large cells. There are cytoskeleton
about 100 trillion cells in the human body, most ranging from 5 µm ribosome
to 20 µm in diameter. What is the advantage of having so many tiny prokaryote
cells instead of fewer large ones? All substances that enter or leave cell wall
a cell must cross that cell’s surface. If the cell’s surface area–to- flagellum
volume ratio is too low, substances cannot enter and leave the cell in eukaryote
nucleus
numbers large enough to meet the cell’s needs. Small cells can
organelle
exchange substances more readily than large cells because small cilium
objects have a higher surface area–to-volume ratio than larger phospholipid
objects, as shown in Table 2. As a result, substances do not need to lipid bilayer
travel as far to reach the center of a smaller cell.
Table 2 Relationship Between Surface Area and Volume

Surface area/
Side length Surface area Volume
1 mm volume ratio
1 mm 6 mm2 1 mm3 6:1

2 mm
2 mm 24 mm2 8 mm3 3:1
4 mm
4 mm 96 mm2 64 mm3 3:2
SECTION 2 Cell Features 55

Common Features of Cells
Cells share common structural features, including an outer bound-
ary called the cell membrane . The cell membrane encloses the cell
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Cell Features and separates the cell interior, called the cytoplasm (SITE oh plaz
Keyword: HX4034 uhm), from its surroundings. The cell membrane also regulates
what enters and leaves a cell—including gases, nutrients, and
wastes. Within the cytoplasm are many structures, often suspended
in a system of microscopic fibers called the cytoskeleton . Most
cells have ribosomes. Ribosomes (RIE buh sohmz) are the cellular
structures on which proteins are made. All cells also have DNA,
which provides instructions for making proteins, regulates cellular
activities, and enables cells to reproduce. Some specialized cells
such as red blood cells, however, later lose their DNA.
8
0
493 2 Magnification: 230
5
x2 + <
6x -
7 Calculating Surface Area
and Volume
Background
You can improve your understanding of the relationship
between a cell’s surface area and its volume by practicing
with the large cube in Table 2.
1. Find the total surface area of the cube.

• side length l 4 mm
surface area of one side l l l
2
•
surface area of one side l 4 mm 4 mm 16 mm
2 2
•
total surface area 6 l 6 16 mm 96 mm
2 2 2
•
2. Calculate the volume of the cube.

Paramecium (SEM)
• height ( h ) l 4 mm
• volume l h 16 mm 4 mm 64 mm
2 2 3
3. Determine the surface area–to-volume ratio. A ratio compares two num-

bers by dividing one number by the other. A ratio can be expressed in three ways:
in words as a fraction with a colon

x to y _x x: y
y
For the surface area–to-volume ratio, divide total surface area by volume.
total surface area 96
volume
64
Divide both numbers by their greatest common factor:

96 32 3
64 32 2
Analysis
1. Calculate the surface area– 2. Calculate the surface area– 3. Critical Thinking
to-volume ratio of the cube to-volume ratio of the cube Relating Concepts How
with a side length of 2 mm with a side length of 1 mm does the flatness of the
in Table 2. in Table 2. single-celled Paramecium
shown above affect the cell’s
surface area–to-volume ratio?

Prokaryotes
The smallest and simplest cells are prokaryotes. A prokaryote (proh
KAIR ee oht) is a single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus and other
Reading Effectively
internal compartments. Without separate compartments to isolate For many words ending in
materials, prokaryotic cells cannot carry out many specialized func- -um, the plural is formed by
tions. Early prokaryotes lived at least 3.5 billion years ago. For nearly changing the -um to -a. For
2 billion years, prokaryotes were the only organisms on Earth. They example, the plural of bac-
were very simple and small (1–2 µm in diameter). Like their ancestors, terium is bacteria, and the
plural of flagellum is flagella.
modern prokaryotes are also very small (1–15 µm). The familiar
prokaryotes that cause infection and cause food to spoil belong to
a subset of all prokaryotes that is commonly called bacteria.
Characteristics of Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes can exist in a broad range of environmental conditions.
Many prokaryotes, including some bacteria that cause infection in
humans, grow and divide very rapidly. Some prokaryotes do not need
oxygen to survive. Other prokaryotes cannot survive in the presence
of oxygen. Some prokaryotes can even make their own food.
The cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell includes everything inside the
cell membrane. As Figure 6 shows, a prokaryote’s enzymes and ribo- Figure 6 Prokaryotes.
Prokaryotic cells have little
somes are free to move around in the cytoplasm because there are internal structure. Many also
no internal structures that divide the cell into compartments. In have a capsule and flagella.
prokaryotes, the genetic material is a single, Magnification: 61,850
circular molecule of DNA. This loop of pro-
karyotic DNA is often located near the center
of the cell, suspended within the cytoplasm.
Prokaryotic cells have a cell wall sur-
rounding the cell membrane that provides
structure and support. The cells of fungi and
plants also have cell walls; only animal cells
and some protists lack cell walls. Prokaryotes
lack an internal supporting skeleton, so they
depend on a strong cell wall to give the cell
shape. A prokaryotic cell wall is made of
strands of polysaccharides connected by
short chains of amino acids. Some prokary-
otic cell walls are surrounded by a structure
called a capsule, which is also composed
of polysaccharides. The capsule enables
prokaryotes to cling to almost anything,
including teeth, skin, and food.
Many prokaryotes have flagella (fluh JEL
uh), which are long, threadlike structures
that protrude from the cell’s surface and
enable movement. Prokaryotic flagella
rotate, propelling the organism through its
environment at speeds of up to 20 cell
lengths per second. Figure 6 shows a
prokaryote with several flagella.

Figure 7 Animal cell. Like Nuclear pore
all eukaryotic cells, animal cells Nuclear envelope
contain a cell membrane, a Nucleus
Nucleolus
nucleus, and other organelles.
Ribosomes
Mitochondrion
Microfilaments Cell membrane
Microtubules
Lysosome
Golgi
apparatus
Rough ER
Smooth ER
Eukaryotic Cells
The first cells with internal compartments were primitive eukaryotic
cells, which evolved about 2.5 billion years ago. A eukaryote (yoo
KAIR ee oht) is an organism whose cells have a nucleus. The
nucleus (NOO klee uhs) is an internal compartment that houses the
cell’s DNA. Other internal compartments, or organelles, enable
eukaryotic cells to function in ways different from prokaryotes. An
organelle is a structure that carries out specific activities in the cell.
The major organelles in an animal cell are shown in Figure 7. The
cytoplasm includes everything inside the cell membrane but outside
the nucleus. A complex system of internal membranes connects
some organelles within the cytoplasm. These membranes provide
channels that guide the distribution of substances within the cell.
The membranes also form envelopes called vesicles that move pro-
teins and other molecules from one organelle to another.
Many single-celled eukaryotes use flagella for movement. Short
hairlike structures called cilia (SIL ee uh) protrude from the surface
of some eukaryotic cells. Flagella or cilia propel some cells through
their environment. In other cells, cilia and flagella move substances
across the cell’s surface. For example, cilia on cells of the human res-
piratory system, shown in Figure 8, sweep mucus and other debris
out of the lungs.
A web of protein fibers, shown in Figure 9, makes up the
cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton holds the cell together and keeps the
Figure 8 Cilia. Cilia on
cells lining the respiratory cell’s membranes from collapsing. The fluid surrounding the cyto-
system remove debris from plasm’s organelles, internal membranes, and cytoskeleton fibers is
air passages. called the cytosol.

The Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton provides the inte-
rior framework of an animal cell,
much as your skeleton provides the Ribosomes
interior framework of your body. The

Nucleus
cytoskeleton is composed of an intri-
cate network of protein fibers
anchored to the inside of the plasma Microtubules
membrane. By linking one region to
another, they support the shape of
the cell, much as steel beams anchor Endoplasmic
the sides of a building to one another. reticulum
Other fibers attach the nucleus and

other organelles to fixed locations in
Mitochondrion
the cell. Because protein fibers are
too small for a light microscope to
reveal, biologists visualize the Figure 9 The cytoskeleton.
cytoskeleton by attaching fluorescent dyes to antibodies. An anti- The cytoskeleton’s network of
protein fibers anchors cells
body is an immune system protein specialized to bind to one organelles and other compo-
particular kind of molecule—in this case—cytoskeleton proteins. nents of the cytoplasm.
When the cell is examined under fluorescent light, the fibers glow
because of the fluorescent antibody attached to them.
There are three different kinds of cytoskeleton fibers: (1) long,
slender microfilaments made of the protein actin, (2) hollow tubes
called microtubules made of the protein tubulin, and (3) thick ropes
of protein called intermediate fibers.
Actin Fibers The actin fibers of the cytoskeleton form a network
just beneath the cell surface that is anchored to membrane proteins
embedded within the cell membrane. By contracting or expanding,
the actin fibers play a major role in determining the shape of ani-
mal cells by pulling the plasma membrane in some places and
pushing it out in others. If you examine the surface of a protist such
as the one shown in Figure 10, you will find it alive with motion.
Tiny projections extend out from the surface like fingers. Each is a
temporary projection of the plasma membrane that shoots out and
then retracts.
Microtubules Microtubules within the cytoskeleton act as a highway
system for the transportation of information from the nucleus to
different parts of the cell. RNA molecules are transported along
microtubular “rails” that extend through the interior of the cell like
train tracks. The RNA molecules, in complexes with proteins, are
attached to so-called motor proteins that chug along microtubules
like locomotives on tracks. The motor proteins drag the RNA-protein
complexes along with them like freight cars.
Intermediate Fibers The intermediate fibers of the cytoskeleton Figure 10 Cytoskeletal
provide a frame on which ribosomes and enzymes can be confined projections. The multiple
to particular regions of the cell. The cell can organize complex spikes on the surface of this
marine amoeba are projections
metabolic activities efficiently by anchoring particular enzymes
of the cytoskeleton stretching
near one another. the cell membrane outward.

The Cell Membrane
The cytoplasm of a cell is contained by its membrane. Cell mem-
Real Life branes are not rigid like an eggshell. Rather, they are fluid like a
Donated blood is frozen soap bubble. The fluidity of cell membranes is caused by lipids,
in a special process which form the foundation of membranes. The lipids form a barrier
called cryopreservation. that separates the inside of the cell from the outside of the cell. This
Similar methods are used barrier allows only certain substances in the cell’s environment to
to preserve human eggs,
pass through. This selective permeability of the cell membrane
embryos, and blood from
the umbilical cord, a rich determines which substances enter and leave the cell.
source of immune-system
cells. The Cell Membrane as a Barrier
Finding Information The selective permeability of the cell membrane is caused mainly by
Research how cryo-
the way phospholipids interact with water. A phospholipid is a lipid
preservation
methods enable made of a phosphate group and two fatty acids. As shown in
cells to with- Figure 11, a phospholipid has both a polar “head” and two nonpolar
stand freezing. “tails.” You may recall that the polar ends of water molecules will
form weak bonds with other polar substances. The head of a phos-
pholipid, which contains a phosphate group, is polar and is
attracted to water. In contrast, the two fatty acids, or tails, are non-
polar and therefore are repelled by water.
In a cell membrane, the phospholipids are arranged in a double
layer called a lipid bilayer , as shown in Figure 11. The nonpolar tails
of the phospholipids make up the interior of the lipid bilayer.
Because water both inside and outside the cell repels the nonpolar
tails, they are forced to the inside of the lipid bilayer. Ions and most
polar molecules, including sugars and some proteins, are repelled
by the nonpolar interior of the lipid bilayer. The lipid bilayer allows
lipids and substances that dissolve in lipids to pass through.
Figure 11 Lipid bilayer

Cell membranes are made of a double layer of phospholipids, called a lipid bilayer.
Polar
Nonpolar
Polar
head
Polar
Non-
Lipid bilayer polar
tails
The lipid bilayer is the foundation The arrangement of phospholipids
of the cell membrane. in the lipid bilayer makes the cell
membrane selectively permeable.
A phospholipid’s “head” is polar, and

its two fatty acid “tails” are nonpolar.

Figure 12 Membrane proteins
The cell membrane contains various proteins with specialized functions.
Outside of cell
Phospholipid heads Phospholipid tails

1. Cell-surface marker: Carbohydrate
Protein
Identifies cell type portion
portion
4. Transport protein:
3. Enzyme: Helps substances
Assists chemical move across Lipid
2. Receptor protein: reactions inside cell membrane bilayer
Recognizes and the cell
binds to substances
outside the cell
Inside of cell
Membrane Proteins
Various proteins are located in the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane.
What keeps these proteins within the lipid bilayer? You may recall
that proteins are made of amino acids and that some amino acids
are polar, while others are nonpolar. The nonpolar part of a mem-
brane protein is attracted to the interior of the lipid bilayer but is
repelled by the water on either side of the lipid bilayer. In contrast,
the polar parts of the protein are attracted to the water on either
side of the lipid bilayer. This attraction helps to hold the protein in
the lipid bilayer. The motion and fluidity of phospholipids enable
some membrane proteins to move around within the lipid bilayer.
As shown in Figure 12, cell membranes contain different types of
proteins. Marker proteins attached to a carbohydrate on the cell’s sur-
face advertise cell type—such as a liver cell or a heart cell. Receptor
proteins bind specific substances, such as signal molecules, outside
the cell. Enzymes embedded in the cell membrane are involved in
important biochemical reactions in the cell. Transport proteins aid the
movement of substances into and out of the cell.
Section 2 Review
Describe the importance of the surface area–to- Analyze the three parts of the cell theory and
volume ratio of a cell. describe two observations of early scientists that
support it.
Compare the structure of a eukaryotic cell with
that of a prokaryotic cell. Standardized Test Prep A bacterium that lost its
flagella would be unable to
Critical Thinking Comparing Functions A move C make proteins
Describe the functions of two types of cell-
B divide D maintain its shape
membrane proteins.

Section 3 Cell Organelles
Objectives The Nucleus
● Describe the role of Most functions of a eukaryotic cell are controlled by the cell’s
the nucleus in cell nucleus. As shown in Figure 13, the nucleus is surrounded by a
activities. double membrane called the nuclear envelope, also called the
● Analyze the role of internal nuclear membrane. The nuclear envelope is made of two lipid
membranes in protein bilayers that separate the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
production. Scattered over the surface of the nuclear envelope are many
● Summarize the importance small channels through the envelope called nuclear pores.
of mitochondria in eukaryotic Substances that are made in the nucleus, including RNA-ribosomal
cells. protein complexes, move into the cytoplasm by passing through
● Identify three structures in the nuclear pores. Ribosomes are partially assembled in a region
plant cells that are absent of the nucleus called the nucleolus, which is also shown in Figure
from animal cells. 13. Recall from Section 2 that ribosomes are the structures on
which proteins are made.
Key Terms The hereditary information of a eukaryotic cell is coded in the
cell’s DNA, most of which is stored in the nucleus. Eukaryotic
endoplasmic reticulum
DNA is wound tightly around proteins. Most of the time, DNA
vesicle
Golgi apparatus
exists as elongated and thin strands, which appear as a dark mass
lysosome under magnification. When a cell is about to divide, however, the
mitochondrion DNA strands, called chromosomes, wind up into a more compact
chloroplast form and appear as dense, rod-shaped structures. The number of
central vacuole chromosomes in a eukaryotic cell differs between species.
Human body cells have 46 chromosomes, while the cells of gar-
den peas have 14 chromosomes. You will learn more about DNA
and chromosomes later in this book.
Figure 13 Nucleus
The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope.
Nuclear
pores
Nucleolus
Nuclear envelope

Ribosomes and the
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have a system of internal
membranes that play an essential role in the processing of proteins.
www.scilinks.org
Cells make proteins on ribosomes. Each ribosome is made of dozens Topic: Proteins
of different proteins as well as RNA. Some of the ribosomes in a Keyword: HX4151
eukaryotic cell are suspended in the cytosol, as they are in prokary-
otic cells. These “free” ribosomes make proteins that remain inside
the cell, such as proteins used to build new organelles.
Production of Proteins
Proteins that are exported from the cell, such as some signal
molecules, are made on the ribosomes that lie on the surface
of the endoplasmic reticulum, shown in Figure 14. The
endoplasmic reticulum (ehn doh PLAZ mihk rih TIHK yuh luhm), or
ER, is an extensive system of internal membranes that move pro-
teins and other substances through the cell. Like the cell mem-
brane, the membranes of the ER are made of a lipid bilayer with
embedded proteins.
The part of the ER with attached ribosomes is called rough ER
because it has a rough appearance when viewed in the electron
microscope. The rough ER helps transport the proteins that are
made by its attached ribosomes. As each protein is made, it crosses
the ER membrane and enters the ER. The portion of the ER that
contains the completed protein then pinches off to form a vesicle. A
vesicle is a small, membrane-bound sac that transports substances
in cells. Because certain proteins are enclosed inside vesicles, these
proteins are kept separate from proteins that are produced by free
ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
The rest of the ER is called smooth ER because it lacks ribosomes
and thus appears smooth when viewed in the electron microscope.
The smooth ER performs various functions, such as making lipids
and breaking down toxic substances.
Figure 14 Endoplasmic reticulum

The ER moves proteins and other substances within eukaryotic cells.
Smooth ER
Ribosomes
Rough ER
SECTION 3 Cell Organelles 63

Packaging and Distribution of Proteins
Vesicles that contain newly made proteins move through the cytoplasm
from the ER to an organelle called the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi
Interpreting Graphics
(GOHL jee) apparatus is a set of flattened, membrane-bound sacs that
As you read, use Steps 1–5
in the text, shown in red, to serves as the packaging and distribution center of the cell. Enzymes
help you follow the same inside the Golgi apparatus modify the proteins that are received in
numbered steps shown in vesicles from the ER. The modified proteins are then enclosed in new
Figure 15. vesicles that bud from the surface of the Golgi apparatus. Other vesi-
cles include lysosomes (LIE seh sohms), which are small, spherical
organelles that contain the cell’s digestive enzymes. The ER, the Golgi
apparatus, and lysosomes work together in the production, packaging,
and distribution of proteins, as summarized in Figure 15.
Step Ribosomes make proteins on the rough ER. The proteins
are packaged into vesicles.
Step The vesicles transport the newly made proteins from the
rough ER to the Golgi apparatus.
Step In the Golgi apparatus, proteins are processed and then
packaged into new vesicles.
Step Many of these vesicles move to the cell membrane and
release their contents outside the cell.
Step Other vesicles, including lysosomes, remain within the
cytoplasm. Lysosomes digest and recycle the cell’s used
components by breaking down proteins, nucleic acids,
lipids, and carbohydrates.
Figure 15
B IO Processing of Proteins
g hic
rap Proteins are processed by an internal system of membranes.
Nucleus
Other vesicles remain in
5 the cell and become
lysosomes.
Proteins are made by
1 ribosomes on the
rough ER.
Some vesicles release

4 their proteins outside
the cell.
Proteins are modified in Vesicles carry proteins

3 the Golgi apparatus and
2 from the rough ER to
enter new vesicles. the Golgi apparatus.

Mitochondria
Nearly all eukaryotic cells contain many mitochondria (miet uh
KAHN dree uh), like the one shown in Figure 16. A mitochondrion is
an organelle that harvests energy from organic compounds to make The word mitochondrion is
ATP, the main energy currency of cells. Although some ATP is made from the Greek words
mitos, meaning “a thread”
in the cytosol, most of a cell’s ATP is made inside mitochondria. and chrondros, meaning
Cells that have a high energy requirement, such as a muscle cell, “grain.” Knowing this makes
may contain hundreds or thousands of mitochondria. Figure 16 it easier to remember that a
shows that a mitochondrion has two membranes. The outer mem- mitonchondrion is a small,
brane is smooth. The inner membrane is greatly folded, however, elongated cell organelle.
and its surface area is large. The two membranes form two com-
partments, one inside and one outside the mitochondrion’s inner
membrane. It is here that the chemical reactions that produce ATP
during cell metabolism take place.
Mitochondrial DNA
The nucleus is not the only organelle in the cell that contains nucleic
acids. Mitochondria also have DNA and ribosomes, and mitochon-
dria make some of their own proteins. However, most mitochondrial
proteins are made by free ribosomes in the cytosol. Mitochondrial
DNA is independent of nuclear DNA and similar to the circular DNA
of prokaryotic cells. This fact supports the widely accepted theory
that primitive prokaryotes are the ancestors of mitochondria. You
will learn more about the origin of mitochondrial DNA later in
this book.
Figure 16 Mitochondrion
In a eukaryotic cell, mitochondria make most of the ATP.
Inner
membrane
Outer
membrane
SECTION 3 Cell Organelles 65

Structures of Plant Cells
The organelles described in this section are found in both animal
cells and plant cells. However, plant cells have three additional
structures that are not found in animal cells, shown in Figure 17.
Unique Features of Plant Cells

Cell wall The cell membrane of a plant cell is surrounded by a thick
cell wall, composed of proteins and carbohydrates, including the
polysaccharide cellulose. The cell wall helps support and maintain the
shape of the cell, protects the cell from damage, and connects it with
adjacent cells.
Chloroplasts Plant cells contain one or
more chloroplasts . Chloroplasts are
organelles that use light energy to make
Figure 17 Plant cell. Plant cells have a cell carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and
wall, chloroplasts, and a large central vacuole water. Chloroplasts are found not only in
(shown in blue). plants but also in a wide variety of eukary-
otic algae, such as seaweed. Chloroplasts,
Chloroplast
along with mitochondria, supply much of
Central vacuole
the energy needed to power the activities
of plant cells. Like mitochondria, chloro-
plasts are surrounded by two membranes,
contain their own DNA, and are thought
to be the descendents of ancient prokary-
otic cells.
Central vacuole As shown in Figure 17,
much of a plant cell’s volume is taken up
by a large, membrane-bound space called
the central vacuole (VAK yoo ohl). The
central vacuole stores water and may
contain many substances, including ions,
nutrients, and wastes. When the central
Cell wall
vacuole is full, it makes the cell rigid. This
rigidity enables a plant to stand upright.
Section 3 Review
Describe the role of the nucleus in cell Critical Thinking Inferring Relationships
activities. What is the importance of a cell enclosing its
digestive enzymes inside lysosomes?
Sequence the course of newly made proteins
from the rough ER to the outside of the cell. Standardized Test PrepWhich organelle serves
as the packaging and distribution center of a
Describe the role of mitochondria in the metab- eukaryotic cell?
olism of eukaryotic cells. A nucleus C mitochondrion
Explain how a plant cell’s central vacuole and B lysosome D Golgi apparatus
cell wall help make the cell rigid.

ZONE
1 Looking at Cells Section 1
light microscope (51)
● Microscopes enable biologists to examine the details of cell electron microscope (51)
structure and to understand how organisms function. magnification (51)
resolution (51)
● Scientists use the metric system to measure the size of objects. scanning tunneling
● Light microscopes have a low magnification and can be used microscope (54)
to examine living cells.
● Electron microscopes have a high magnification but cannot
be used to examine living cells.
● The scanning tunneling microscope uses a computer to
generate a three-dimensional image of an object.
2 Cell Features Section 2

cell theory (55)
● The cell theory has three parts. cell membrane (56)
● Small cells function more efficiently than large cells because cytoplasm (56)
small cells have a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio than cytoskeleton (56)
ribosome (56)
large cells. prokaryote (57)
● All cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA. cell wall (57)
flagellum (57)
● Prokaryotic cells lack internal compartments. eukaryote (58)
● Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and other organelles, as well nucleus (58)
organelle (58)
as a cytoskeleton of microscopic protein fibers. cilium (58)
● The lipid bilayer of a cell membrane is made of a double phospholipid (60)
layer of phospholipid molecules. lipid bilayer (60)
● Proteins in cell membranes include enzymes, receptor

proteins, transport proteins, and cell-surface markers.
3 Cell Organelles Section 3

endoplasmic reticulum (63)
● The nucleus of a eukaryotic cell directs the cell’s activities vesicle (63)
and stores DNA. Golgi apparatus (64)
● In eukaryotic cells, an internal membrane system produces, lysosome (64)
mitochondrion (65)
packages, and distributes proteins. chloroplast (66)
● Mitochondria harvest energy from organic compounds to ATP. central vacuole (66)
● Lysosomes digest and recycle a cell’s used components.
● Plant cells have three structures that animal cells lack: a cell
wall, chloroplasts, and a central vacuole.
Unit 1—Use this unit to review the key
BIOLOGY concepts and terms in this chapter.
ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. What kind of microscope produced the

image of cilia shown below?
1. The main advantage of the transmission
electron microscope is that it allows the
viewer to see
a. three-dimensional images of cell surfaces.
b. the organelles of living cells.
c. a cell’s internal structure in fine detail.
d. the actual colors of a cell’s components.
2. The maximum size of a cell is determined
by the ratio between the cell’s
a. surface area and volume. 9. Transport proteins in the membrane of a
b. volume and organelles. lysosome move hydrogen ions into the
c. organelles and cytoplasm. lysosome. Use this information to predict
d. cytoplasm and nucleus. whether digestive enzymes in a lysosome
3. Eukaryotic cells differ from prokaryotic work best in a neutral, a basic, or an
cells in that eukaryotic cells acidic environment. (Hint: See Chapter 2,
a. lack organelles. Section 2.)
b. have DNA but not ribosomes.
10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
c. are smaller than prokaryotic cells.
d. have a nucleus.
map that compares plant cells with animal
cells. Include the following terms in your
4. In the cell membrane, the fatty acids of concept map: cell membrane, cell wall,
phospholipid molecules central vacuole, chloroplasts, and
a. face the cytoplasm. mitochondria.
b. face the outside of the cell.
c. are on both sides of the membrane. Critical Thinking
d. are in the interior of the membrane. 11. Recognizing Relationships How does the
5. One function of the Golgi apparatus arrangement of phospholipids influence
is to the permeability of the lipid bilayer?
a. store DNA. 12. Inferring Relationships Muscle cells have
b. make carbohydrates. more mitochondria than some other kinds
c. modify proteins. of eukaryotic cells. In what way would
d. digest and recycle the cell’s wastes. having many mitochondria be beneficial to
6. Structures present in plant cells but not muscle cells?
present in animal cells include 13. Applying Information Drugs that rid the
a. chloroplasts and the central vacuole. body of eukaryotic parasites often have
b. mitochondria and the cell wall. more side effects and are harder on the
c. ribosomes and ER. body than drugs that act on bacterial para-
d. lysosomes and the Golgi apparatus. sites. Suggest a reason for this difference.
7. Explain how the cell membrane con-
tributes to a cell’s ability to maintain Alternative Assessment
homeostasis. 14. Interactive Tutor Unit 1 Cell Transport and
Homeostasis Write a report summarizing the
role of the cell membrane in the preservation
of body organs donated for transplant.
68 CHAPTER 3 Review

correct answer.
Microbiologists study the growth,
1 What structure houses a eukaryotic cell’s structure, development, and many other
DNA? characteristics of bacteria and other
A. cell wall microorganisms. Some microbiologists also
B. cytoskeleton study the action of microorganisms on living
C. ER and dead tissue. This career requires at least
D. nucleus a two-year technical training degree from a
community college or technical institution.
2 Which of the following is not a protein
Many microbiologists have a four-year
that might be found in cell membranes?
bachelor’s degree plus a master’s or doctoral
F. enzyme
degree.
G. lipid
H. marker 6 What tools would be most useful for a
I. transporter microbiologist?
A. centrifuges and syringes
3 What structures are found in both
B. nets and specimen cages
eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells?
C. electron and light microscopes
A. mitochondrion and ER
D. balances and graduated cylinders
B. nucleus and cell membrane
C. mitochondrion and ribosome Interpreting Graphics
D. cell membrane and ribosome
4 What property of phospholipids makes 7 on the diagram below.
them ideal for making up the selectively Animal Cell
permeable cell membrane?
F. They repel small ions. C
G. They react readily with water
molecules.
H. They form triple layers that insulate
A
the cell.
I. They have a nonpolar region and a
polar region.
Directions (5): For the following question, D
write a short response. B
E
5 Analyze why smaller pieces of food cook
faster than larger pieces of food, based on
F
the relationship between surface area and
volume.
7 What is the function of the structure
labeled A?
Test F. making ATP
When possible, use the text in the test to answer G. making carbohydrates
other questions. For example, use a multiple-choice H. making proteins
answer to “jump start” your thinking about another I. moving proteins through the cell
question.

Skills Practice Lab
Studying Animal Cells and Plant Cells
Magnification: 530
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Using a compound • compound light microscope
microscope • prepared slide of human
• Drawing epithelial cells
• safety goggles
OBJECTIVES
• lab apron
• Identify the structures
you can see in animal • polyethylene gloves
cells and plant cells. • sprig of Elodea
• Compare and • forceps
Contrast the structure • microscope slides and
of animal cells and coverslips
plant cells. • dropper bottle of Lugol’s
iodine solution Plant cells
ChemSafety

You can see many cell parts with a light PART A: Animal Cells
microscope . In animal cells, the cytoplasm , 1. Examine a prepared slide of human
cell membrane , nucleus , nucleolus , and epithelial cells under low power with
vacuoles can be seen. In plant cells, the a compound light microscope. Find cells
cell wall and chloroplasts can also be seen. that are separate from each other, and
Stains add color to cell parts and make them place them in the center of the field of
more visible with a light microscope. A stain view. Switch to high power, and adjust the
can even make the endoplasmic reticulum diaphragm until you can see the cells more
visible. In this lab, you will use a light micro- clearly. Identify as many cell parts as you
scope to examine animal and plant cells. can. Note: Remember to use only the fine
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in adjustment to focus at high power.
the paragraph above. 2. Draw two or three epithelial cells as they
2. Why might a stain be needed to see cell look under high power. Label the cell mem-
parts under a microscope? brane, the cytoplasm, the nuclear envelope,
3. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a and the nucleus of at least one of the cells.
question you would like to explore about Make a second drawing of these cells as
cell structure. you imagine they might look in the lining
of your mouth.

PART B: Plant Cells its proper place. Wash your hands thor-
3. Using forceps, carefully remove a oughly before you leave the lab and after
small leaf from near the top of an you finish all work.
Elodea sprig. Place the whole leaf in a drop
of water on a slide, and add a cover slip. Analyze and Conclude
4. Observe the leaf under low power. Look 1. Recognizing Patterns In what observ-
for an area of the leaf in which you can able ways are animal and plant cells simi-
see the cells clearly, and move the slide so lar in structure, and in what observable
that this area is in the center of the field ways are they different?
of view. Switch to high power, and, if nec-
2. Comparing Structures Compare and
essary, adjust the diaphragm. Identify as
contrast the cytoplasm of epithelial cells
many cell parts as you can.
and Elodea cells.
5. Find an Elodea cell in which you can see
3. Analyzing Methods What is the reason
the chloroplasts clearly. Draw this cell.
for staining Elodea cells with iodine?
Label the cell wall, a chloroplast, and any
other cell parts that you can see. 4. Inferring Conclusions Lugol’s iodine
solution causes the movement of chloro-
6. Notice if the chloroplasts are moving in
plasts to stop. Explain why.
any of the cells. If you do not see move-
ment, warm the slide in your hand or 5. Inferring Conclusions If some of the
under a bright lamp for a minute or two. epithelial cells were folded over on them-
Look for movement of the cell contents selves but were still transparent, what
again under high power. Such movement could you conclude about their thickness?
is called cytoplasmic streaming. 6. Further Inquiry Write a new question
7. Put on safety gog- about cell structure that could be explored
gles, gloves, and a with another investigation.
lab apron. Make a wet mount of another
Elodea leaf, using Lugol’s iodine solution
instead of water. CAUTION: Lugol’s solu-
tion stains skin and clothing. Promptly
wash off spills. Observe these cells under
low and high power.
8. Draw a stained Elodea cell. Label the cell
wall and a chloroplast, as well as the cen-
tral vacuole, the nucleus, and the cell
membrane if they are visible.
PART C: Cleanup and Disposal

9. Dispose of solutions, broken glass, On the Job
and Elodea leaves in the waste con- Microscopy is an important tool for biol-
tainers designated by your teacher. Do not ogists who study cell structure. Do
pour chemicals down the drain or put lab research to learn more about how biol-
materials in the trash unless your teacher ogists use specialized microscopes to
tells you to do so. study cell structure. For more about
10. Clean up your work area and all lab careers, visit go.hrw.com and type in the
equipment. Return lab equipment to keyword HX4 Careers.
CHAPTER 3 Cell Structure 71

Show jumper
Nerve cells (2220)

CHAPTER
4 Cells and Their

Environment

substances. (Chapter 2, Section 1) Passive Transport
Diffusion
2. Describe the function of ATP in cells.
Osmosis
(Chapter 2, Section 3)
Crossing the Cell Membrane
3. Identify different kinds of proteins that
compose the cell membrane.
(Chapter 3, Section 2) Section 2
4. Summarize the function of vesicles and the Active Transport
Golgi apparatus. (Chapter 3, Section 3) Movement Against a Concentration Gradient
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Movement in Vesicles
sections indicated. Membrane Receptor Proteins
Reading Activity
Take a break after reading each section of this
chapter, and closely study the figures in the sec-
tion. Reread the figure captions, and, for each
one, write out a question that can be answered
by referring to the figure and its caption. Refer
to your list of figures and questions as you
review the concepts addressed in the chapter.
www.scilinks.org
The transfer of information between these nerve cells

requires constant movement of substances across
their cell membranes.
CHAPTER 4 Cells and Their Environment 73

Section 1 Passive Transport
Objectives Diffusion
● Relate concentration You constantly interact with your environment, whether you are
gradients, diffusion, and eating or putting on a raincoat to help keep you dry. Your body also
equilibrium. responds to external conditions to maintain a stable internal condi-
● Predict the direction of tion. Just as you must respond to your environment to maintain
water movement into and out stability, all other organisms and their cells must respond to external
of cells. conditions to maintain a constant internal condition. Recall that
● Describe the importance of when organisms adjust internally to changing external conditions,
ion channels in passive they are maintaining homeostasis. One way cells maintain home-
transport. ostasis is by controlling the movement of substances across their cell
● Identify the role of carrier
membrane. Cells must use energy to transport some substances
proteins in facilitated across the cell membrane. Other substances move across the cell
diffusion. membrane without any use of energy by the cell.
Key Terms Random Motion and Concentration

passive transport Movement across the cell membrane that does not require energy
concentration gradient from the cell is called passive transport . To understand passive
equilibrium transport, imagine two rooms of equal size separated by a wall with
diffusion a closed door, as shown in Figure 1. Suppose you release several rub-
osmosis ber balls into the first room. The balls move randomly, bouncing off
hypertonic solution the walls, the floor, the ceiling, and each other. Also suppose the
hypotonic solution
balls can bounce forever without slowing down. The balls become
isotonic solution
ion channel evenly distributed throughout the room. What happens when you
carrier protein open the door between the rooms? Some of the balls in the first
facilitated diffusion room bounce through the doorway and into the second room, as
shown in Figure 1. You do not have to use energy to make the balls
move into the second room. They enter the second room because of
their own random motion. Occasionally, a ball will bounce back into
the first room. However, most of the balls that pass through the
doorway move from the first room, where their concentration is
high, to the second room, where their concentration is low. A differ-
ence in the concentration of a substance, such as the balls, across a
space is called a concentration gradient .
As more balls enter the second room, the concentration of balls in
the second room increases, while the concentration of balls in the
Reading Effectively first room decreases. Eventually the concentration of balls in the
As you read this chapter, two rooms will be equal. The balls will still bounce around the
write the objectives for each rooms, but they will move from the second room to the first room
section on a sheet of paper.
just as often as they move from the first room to the second room.
Rewrite each objective as a
question, and answer these At this point, the system is said to be in equilibrium, as shown in
questions as you read the Figure 1. Equilibrium (ee kwih LIHB ree uhm) is a condition in
section. which the concentration of a substance is equal throughout a space.
74 CHAPTER 4 Cells and Their Environment

Figure 1 Models of diffusion
Because of diffusion, food coloring (blue) will gradually move through uncolored
gelatin (yellow), as shown in the beakers below.
1. Randomly bouncing balls are 2. If the door to an adjoining room 3. At equilibrium, the concentration
distributed evenly throughout is opened, the balls begin to of balls inside the two rooms will
a closed room. enter, or diffuse into, that room. be equal.
Movement of Substances
Like these imaginary rubber balls, particles of a substance in a solu-
tion also move around randomly. If there is a concentration gradient
in the solution, the substance will move from an area of high con-
centration to an area of lower concentration. The movement of a
substance from an area of high concentration to an area of lower
concentration caused by the random motion of particles of the sub-
stance is called diffusion (dih FYOO zhuhn). If diffusion is allowed
to continue, equilibrium eventually results.
Many substances, such as molecules and ions dissolved in the
cytoplasm and in the fluid outside cells, enter or leave cells by dif-
fusing across the cell membrane. Inside the cell, the concentrations
of most of these substances are different from their concentrations
outside the cell. Thus, for each of these substances a concentration
gradient exists across the cell membrane. To diffuse “down” its con-
centration gradient—from an area of high concentration to an area
of lower concentration—a substance must be able to pass through
the cell membrane.
The cell membrane is selectively permeable to substances. The www.scilinks.org
nonpolar interior of the lipid bilayer repels ions and most polar Topic: Water Movement
molecules. Thus, these substances are prevented from diffusing in Cells
across the cell membrane. In contrast, molecules that are either very Keyword: HX4189
small or nonpolar can diffuse across the cell membrane down their
concentration gradient. The diffusion of such molecules across the
cell membrane is the simplest type of passive transport.
SECTION 1 Passive Transport 75

Osmosis
Water molecules are small and can diffuse through the
cell membrane, as shown in Figure 2. The diffusion of
Figure 2 Osmosis water through a selectively permeable membrane is
Water diffuses across the cell called osmosis (ahz MOH sihs). Like other forms of dif-
membrane by osmosis. fusion, osmosis involves the movement of a substance—
High free
water—down its concentration gradient. Osmosis is a
water type of passive transport.
molecule What causes osmosis? Recall that a solution is a sub-
concentration
outside cell stance dissolved in another substance. In the solutions
on either side of the cell membrane, many ions and polar
molecules are dissolved in water. When these substances
Free water dissolve in water, some water molecules are attracted to
molecules them and so are no longer free to move around. If the
solutions on either side of the cell membrane have dif-
ferent concentrations of dissolved particles, they will also
Lower free have different concentrations of “free” water molecules.
water
molecule Then osmosis will occur as free water molecules move
concentration into the solution with the lower concentration of free
inside cell
water molecules.
Observing Osmosis
You can observe the movement of water into
or out of a grape under different conditions.
Materials
3 grapes, 3 small jars with lids, saturated sugar
solution, grape juice, tap water, marking pen, paper
towel, balance
Procedure
1. Make a data table with four 3. Using the balance, find the 6. Clean up your materials
columns (Solution, Original mass of each grape. Place before leaving the lab.
mass, Predicted mass, and one grape in each jar, and
Analysis
Actual mass) and a row for record the mass of each jar
each solution (Sugar solution, in your data table. Put a lid 1. Identify the solutions in
Grape juice, and Water). on each jar. which osmosis occurred.
2. Fill one jar with 4. Predict whether the mass of 2. Critical Thinking
the sugar solu- each grape will increase or Evaluating Conclusions
tion. Fill a second jar with decrease over time. Explain How did you determine
grape juice. (The grape will be your predictions. whether osmosis occurred in
more visible inside the jar if each of the three solutions?
5. After 24 hours, remove each
you fill the jar with white grape 3. Critical Thinking
grape from its jar, and dry it
juice, as shown in the middle Evaluating Hypotheses
gently with a paper towel.
jar in the photo above right.) Did the mass of each grape
Using the balance, find its
Fill the third jar with tap water. change as you predicted?
mass again. Record your
Label each jar according to Why or why not?
results.
the solution it contains.

Table 1 Hypertonic, Hypotonic, and Isotonic Solutions
If the fluid outside Then outside
Water diffuses… Effect on cell
the cell has… fluid is…
…lower free water molecule

…hypertonic. …out of cell. H2O Cell shrinks.
concentration than cytosol
…higher free water molecule

…hypotonic. …into cell. H2O Cell swells.
concentration than cytosol
…into and out

…same free water molecule Cell stays
…isotonic. of cell at H2O
concentration as cytosol same size.
equal rates.
The direction of water movement across the cell membrane

depends on the relative concentrations of free water molecules in
the cytoplasm and in the fluid outside the cell. There are three pos-
sibilities for the direction of water movement:
1. Water moves out. When water diffuses out of the cell, the cell
shrinks. A solution that causes a cell to shrink because of osmo-
sis is called a hypertonic (hie puhr TAHN ihk) solution . If the
fluid outside the cell has a higher concentration of dissolved par-
ticles than the cytoplasm has, then the outside fluid also has a
lower concentration of free water molecules than the cytoplasm.
2. Water moves in. When water diffuses into the cell, the cell
swells. A solution that causes a cell to swell because of osmosis is
called a hypotonic (hie poh TAHN ihk) solution . If the fluid out-
side the cell has a lower concentration of dissolved particles than
the cytoplasm has, then the outside fluid also has a higher con-
centration of free water molecules than the cytoplasm.
3. No net water movement. If the cytoplasm and the fluid outside
the cell have the same concentration of free water molecules,
water diffuses into and out of the cell at equal rates. This results
in no net movement of water across the cell membrane, and the
cell stays the same size—a state of equilibrium. A solution that
produces no change in cell volume because of osmosis is called
an isotonic (ie soh TAHN ihk) solution . Table 1 summarizes the
effects of hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions on cells.
If left unchecked, the swelling caused by a hypotonic solution could
The words hypertonic,
cause a cell to burst. Different kinds of cells have different adapta-
hypotonic, and isotonic
tions that deal with this problem. The cells of plants and fungi have have the same ending,
rigid cell walls that keep the cells from expanding too much. Some –tonic, which is from the
unicellular eukaryotes have contractile vacuoles (kuhn TRAK tihl VAK Greek tonos, meaning
yoo ohlz), which are organelles that collect excess water inside the “tension.” The prefix hyper–
cell and force the water out of the cell. Animal cells have neither cell is from the Greek hyper,
meaning “over.” The prefix
walls nor contractile vacuoles. However, many animal cells can avoid
hypo– is from the Greek
swelling caused by osmosis by removing dissolved particles from the hypo, meaning “under.” The
cytoplasm. The removal of dissolved particles from a cell increases prefix iso– is from the Greek
the concentration of free water molecules inside the cell. isos, meaning “same.”

Crossing the Cell Membrane
Recall that most ions and polar molecules cannot pass across
the cell membrane because they cannot pass through the nonpolar
interior of the lipid bilayer. However, such substances can cross the
cell membrane when they are aided by transport proteins. Transport
proteins called channels provide polar passageways through which
ions and polar molecules can move across the cell membrane. Each
channel allows only a specific substance to pass through the cell
membrane. For example, some channels allow only one type of ion
to cross the cell membrane, while others transport a particular kind
of sugar or amino acid. This selectivity is one of the most important
properties of the cell membrane because it enables a cell to control
what enters and leaves.
Diffusion Through Ion Channels

Ions such as sodium, Na, potassium, K, calcium, Ca2, and
chloride, Cl, are involved in many important cell functions. For
example, ions are essential to the ability of nerve cells to send elec-
trical signals throughout your body. Muscle cells in your heart could
not make your heart beat without the movement of ions between the
cells. Although ions cannot diffuse through the nonpolar interior of
the lipid bilayer, they can cross the cell membrane by diffusing
through ion channels. An ion channel is a transport protein with a
polar pore through which ions can pass. As Figure 3 shows, the pore
of an ion channel spans the thickness of the cell membrane. Thus,
an ion that enters the pore can cross the cell membrane without
contacting the nonpolar interior of the lipid bilayer.
The pores of some ion channels are always open. In other ion chan-
nels, the pores can be closed by ion channel gates. A model of an ion
channel with a gate is shown in Figure 3. Ion channel gates may open
or close in response to different kinds of stimuli. These include the
stretching of the cell membrane, a change in electrical charge, or
the binding of specific molecules to the ion channel. In this
way, the stimuli are able to affect the ability of particular ions to cross
Figure 3 Ion channels

Ion channels allow certain ions to pass through the cell membrane.
Outside of cell
Chloride ion, Cl– Inside of cell

Gate
Gated sodium ion channel Gated sodium ion channel

Sodium ion, Na+
(closed) (open)

the cell membrane. Like the diffusion of small molecules and nonpo-
lar molecules through the lipid bilayer, the diffusion of ions through
www.scilinks.org
ion channels is a form of passive transport. No use of energy by the cell
Topic: Ion Channels
is required because the ions move down their concentration gradients. Keyword: HX4106
Electrical Charge and Ion Transport

The rate of movement of a substance across the cell membrane is
generally determined by the concentration gradient of the sub-
stance. The movement of a charged particle, such as an ion, across
the cell membrane is also influenced by the particle’s positive or
negative electrical charge. The inside of a typical cell is negatively
charged with respect to the outside of the cell. Opposite charges
attract, and like charges repel. Thus, a more positively charged ion
located outside the cell is more likely to diffuse into the cell, where
the charge is negative. Conversely, a more negatively charged ion
located inside the cell is more likely to diffuse out of the cell. The
direction of movement caused by an ion’s concentration gradient
may oppose the direction of movement caused by the ion’s electrical
charge. Thus, an ion’s electrical charge often affects the diffusion of
the ion across the cell membrane. This is very important to the func-
tioning of nerve cells in animals.
Analyzing the Effect of Electrical

Charge on Ion Transport
Background
0100010110
011101010 The electrical charge of an ion affects the diffusion of the ion
0010010001001
1100100100010 across the cell membrane. Some ions are more concentrated
0000101001001
1101010100100 inside cells, and some ions are more concentrated outside
0101010010010
cells. Use the table below to answer the following questions: Nerve cell
Ion Charges and Concentration Inside and Outside Cell

Concentration of ion
Ion Charge of ion
outside cell : inside cell
Sodium (Na+) Positive 10:1
Potassium (K+) Positive 1:20
Calcium (Ca2+) Positive 10,000:1

Chloride (Cl–) Negative 12:1
Analysis
1. Identify the ion that is more 3. Critical Thinking 4. Critical Thinking
concentrated inside the cell Recognizing Inferring Relationships
than outside the cell. Relationships Do the Which ions’ electrical charges
positive charges of calcium oppose the direction of move-
2. Identify those ions that are
ions and sodium ions make ment that is caused by their
more concentrated outside
these ions more likely to move concentration gradient?
the cell than inside the cell.
into or out of the cell?

Facilitated Diffusion
Most cells also have a different kind of transport protein that can bind
to a specific substance on one side of the cell membrane, carry the
substance across the cell membrane, and release it on the other side.
Such proteins are called carrier proteins. When carrier proteins are
used to transport specific substances—such as amino acids and
sugars—down their concentration gradient, that transport is called
facilitated diffusion. Facilitated (fah SIHL uh tayt ehd) diffusion,
shown in Figure 4, is a type of passive transport. It moves substances
down their concentration gradient without using the cell’s energy.
Step The carrier protein binds a specific molecule on one side of
the cell membrane.
Step A change in the shape of the carrier protein exposes the
molecule to the other side of the cell membrane.
Step The carrier protein shields the molecule from the interior of
the lipid bilayer. The molecule is then released from the car-
rier protein, which returns to its original shape.
Figure 4
B IO Facilitated Diffusion
gr hic
ap Carrier proteins transport substances down their concentration gradient.
A molecule outside the cell The carrier protein trans- The molecule is released
1 binds to a carrier protein on
2 ports the molecule across
3 from the carrier protein
the cell membrane. the cell membrane. inside the cell.
Carrier
protein
Inside of cell
Section 1 Review
Distinguish between diffusion and Critical Thinking Predicting Outcomes
equilibrium. Predict what would happen to a cell that is placed
in a hypertonic solution, and explain why this
Describe how the diffusion of ions across a cell would occur.
membrane differs from the diffusion of nonpolar
molecules across the cell membrane. Standardized Test Prep Which substance crosses
the cell membrane by facilitated diffusion?
Explain how some substances cross the cell A a sugar C sodium ion
membrane by facilitated diffusion.
B water D chloride ion

Active Transport Section 2
Movement Against a Objectives

Concentration Gradient ● Compare active transport
Although facilitated diffusion can help move amino acids and sug- with passive transport.
ars across the cell membrane, it can only transport these substances ● Describe the importance of
down their concentration gradient. Cells must transport certain the sodium-potassium
amino acids, sugars, and other substances into their cytoplasm from pump.
the surrounding fluid. But many of these substances have a low con- ● Distinguish between endo-
centration outside cells and a higher concentration inside cells. cytosis and exocytosis.
Their concentration gradients would cause these important sub- ● Identify three ways that
stances to move out of the cell rather than into the cell. So, cells also receptor proteins can
have a way to move some substances against their concentration change the activity of
gradient—from an area of low concentration to an area of higher a cell.
concentration.
The transport of a substance across the cell membrane against its Key Terms
concentration gradient is called active transport . Unlike passive active transport
transport, active transport requires the cell to use energy because sodium-potassium
the substance is being moved against its concentration gradient. pump
Most often, the energy needed for active transport is supplied endocytosis
directly or indirectly by ATP. exocytosis
Some active-transport processes involve carrier proteins. Like the receptor protein
carrier proteins used in facilitated diffusion, the carrier proteins second messenger
used in active transport bind to specific substances on one side of
the cell membrane and release them on the other side of the cell
membrane. But in active transport, the substances bind to carrier
proteins where they are low in concentration and are released where
they are higher in concentration. Thus, carrier proteins in active
transport function as “pumps” that move substances against their Real Life
concentration gradient. For this reason, these carrier proteins are
often called membrane pumps. Why saltwater frogs
aren’t in a pickle.
Some frogs have urea—a
Sodium-Potassium Pump salty product of metabo-
One of the most important membrane pumps in animal cells is a lism that is usually
carrier protein called the sodium-potassium pump. In a complete secreted as urine—in their
cycle, the sodium-potassium pump transports three sodium ions, blood. This makes their
bodies nearly as salty
Na, out of a cell and two potassium ions, K, into the cell. Sodium
as seawater, allowing
ions are usually more concentrated outside the cell than inside the them to live in saltwater
cell, and potassium ions are typically more concentrated inside the environments.
cell than outside the cell. Thus, the sodium-potassium pump actively Finding Information
transports both sodium ions and potassium ions against their con- Find out the species
centration gradients. The energy needed to power sodium-potassium name of a
pumps is supplied by ATP. In some cells, sodium-potassium pumps saltwater
frog.
are so active that they use much of the ATP produced by the cells.
SECTION 2 Active Transport 81

Figure 5
B IO Sodium-Potassium Pump
graphic The sodium-potassium pump actively transports sodium ions, Na+,
and potassium ions, K+, against their concentration gradient.
Three sodium ions, Na+ The pump changes Two potassium ions, The phosphate
1 and a phosphate group
2 shape, transporting the
3 K+, bind to the pump
4 group and the two
(P) from ATP bind to three sodium ions across and are transported potassium ions are
the pump. the cell membrane. across the cell released inside
membrane. the cell.
Sodium ion, Na+ Outside of cell Potassium ion, K+
P + ADP
ATP P P P
Phosphate
group Inside of cell
A model of the sodium-potassium pump is shown in Figure 5.

Step Three sodium ions inside the cell bind to the sodium-
potassium pump. Because energy is needed to move the
sodium ions against their concentration gradient, a phosphate
group is removed from ATP and also binds to the pump.
Step The pump changes shape, transporting the three sodium ions
across the cell membrane and releasing them outside the cell.
Step The pump is now exposed on the surface of the cell. Two
potassium ions outside the cell bind to the pump. The phos-
phate group is released, changing the shape of the pump.
Step The pump is again exposed to the inside of the cell. The two
potassium ions are transported across the cell membrane
and are released inside the cell.
The sodium-potassium pump is important for two main reasons.
First, the pump prevents sodium ions from accumulating in the cell.
Sodium ions continuously diffuse into the cell through ion channels
embedded in the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. The increased
concentration of sodium ions would then cause water to enter the
cell by osmosis, causing the cell to swell or even burst. Second, the
sodium-potassium pump helps maintain the concentration gradi-
ents of sodium ions and potassium ions across the cell membrane.
Many cells use the sodium-ion concentration gradient to help trans-
port other substances, such as glucose, across the cell membrane.

Movement in Vesicles
Many substances, such as proteins and polysaccharides, are too
large to be transported by carrier proteins. These substances are
moved across the cell membrane by vesicles. The movement of a
As you look at Figure 6,
substance into a cell by a vesicle is called endocytosis (ehn doh sie
notice that during
TOH sihs). During endocytosis, the cell membrane forms a pouch endocytosis, the cell
around a substance, as shown in Figure 6. The pouch then closes up membrane pinches off
and pinches off from the membrane to form a vesicle. Vesicles to become the vesicle
formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes or other organelles. membrane. Conversely,
The movement of a substance by a vesicle to the outside of a cell during exocytosis, the
vesicle membrane
is called exocytosis (ek soh sie TOH sihs), also shown in Figure 6.
becomes part of the
During exocytosis, vesicles in the cell fuse with the cell membrane, cell membrane.
releasing their contents. Cells use exocytosis to export proteins that
are modified by the Golgi apparatus. Nerve cells and cells of various
glands, for example, release proteins by exocytosis.
Figure 6 Endocytosis and exocytosis

Vesicles transport substances into and out of cells.
Outside of cell
Cell
membrane
Inside of cell Vesicle
Endocytosis
Cell Outside of cell

membrane
Vesicle Inside of cell
Exocytosis

Membrane Receptor Proteins
We are constantly bombarded with information from other people
and through television, the Internet, and many other media. To inter-
pret information, we must be able to communicate and to distinguish
between important and unimportant information. Similarly, your
body’s cells must communicate with each other to coordinate your
growth, metabolism, and other activities. Cells that do not lie next to
each other cannot communicate directly. Instead, some cells release
signal molecules that carry information to nearby cells and through-
out the body. Hormones are one familiar example of signal molecules.
Hormones are made in one part of the body and carried in the blood-
stream to other parts, where they have their effects.
Cells must also respond to important information and filter out
unimportant information. Cells can receive the messages carried by
certain signal molecules because the cell membrane contains special-
Figure 7 Action of signal
ized proteins that bind these signal molecules. Such proteins are
molecules. When you exer-
cise, signal molecules are called receptor proteins. A receptor protein is a protein that binds to
bound by receptor proteins on a specific signal molecule, enabling the cell to respond to the signal
your muscle cells, signaling molecule. For example, the muscles of the person exercising in
your muscles to contract. Figure 7 could not contract without receptor proteins and signal
molecules that tell the muscles when to contract and when to relax.
Functions of Receptor Proteins

A signal molecule is bound by a receptor protein that fits that mol-
ecule, as shown in Figure 8. Most receptor proteins are embedded in
the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. The part of the protein that
fits the signal molecule faces the outside of the cell.
The binding of a signal molecule by its complementary receptor
protein causes a change in the receiving cell. This change can occur
in the following three ways: by causing changes in the permeability
of the receiving cell; by triggering the formation of second messen-
gers inside the cell; and by activating enzymes inside the cell.
Figure 8 Changes in permeability
Some receptor proteins are coupled with ion channels.
Sodium ion, Na+ Signal molecules
Outside of cell
Inside of cell
Receptor Sodium ion

Sodium ion protein
channel (closed) channel (open)
1. The ion channel is 2. When a signal molecule 3. Sodium ions diffuse into
closed, so no ions can binds to the receptor protein, the cell through the open
move through the channel. the ion channel opens. ion channel.

Figure 9 Second messengers
Some receptor proteins trigger the production of second messengers.
Receptor Signal molecule
protein
1. A signal molecule binds Outside of cell

to a receptor protein.
4. The enzyme catalyzes

the formation of a
2. The receptor protein second messenger.
activates an intermediary Intermediary Enzyme
protein. protein 3. The intermediary Second
protein activates messenger
Inside of cell an enzyme.
Changes in Permeability The receptor protein may be coupled with

an ion channel, as shown in Figure 8. The binding of a signal mol-
Real Life
ecule to the receptor protein causes the ion channel to open, allowing Many medicines are
specific ions to cross the cell membrane. This type of receptor protein drugs that bind to
is especially important in the nervous system. receptor proteins.
Some of these drugs
Second Messengers The receptor protein may cause the formation of interfere with the recep-
a second messenger inside the cell, as shown in Figure 9. When it is tor’s ability to bind to
activated, a second messenger acts as a signal molecule in the cyto- signal molecules.
plasm. The second messenger amplifies the signal of the first messen- Finding Information
ger—that is, the original signal molecule. Second messengers can Research some
change the functioning of a cell in several ways. For example, some medicines that
bind to receptor
second messengers activate enzymes, triggering a series of biochemi-
proteins.
cal reactions in the cell. Other second messengers change the perme-
ability of the cell by opening ion channels in the cell membrane.
Enzyme Action The receptor protein may act as an enzyme. When a
signal molecule binds to the receptor protein, the receptor protein
may speed up chemical reactions inside the cell. Receptor proteins
may also activate other enzymes located inside the cell or in the cell
membrane, triggering chemical reactions in the cell. In this way, the
signal molecule can cause many changes in the functioning of the
receiving cell.
Many drugs affect the binding of signal molecules to receptor
proteins. Some drugs, such as the illegal drug heroin, imitate signal www.scilinks.org
molecules by binding to receptor proteins on a receiving cell, altering Topic: Receptor Proteins
the function of the cell. Other drugs block or interfere with receptor Keyword: HX4157
proteins, preventing signal molecules from binding to the receptor
proteins. For example, signal molecules that bind to receptor proteins
on heart-muscle cells stimulate the cells, causing the heart rate to

increase. Beta blockers, which are drugs prescribed to patients with a
rapid heartbeat, bind to some of these receptor proteins. Beta blockers
therefore interfere with the binding of signal molecules to the receptor
proteins, preventing the heart rate from increasing too rapidly.
The Shifting Allegiance of HIV
O ne of the more puzzling

aspects of the AIDS epi-
demic is the slow onset of the
receptor proteins exactly corre-
spond to the spike’s shape does
the HIV particle attach to the cell
disease after infection. In a person and infect it.
infected by HIV, the virus that The cell surface receptor pro-
causes AIDS, it may take 8 to 10 tein that matches HIV’s spikes is develops, HIV is continuously
years for full blown AIDS— called CD4, and it is found on both reproduced inside macro-
destruction of the immune macrophages and the infection- phages. While HIV grows in
system—to develop. fighting cells of the immune these infected cells, it does not
system called lymphocytes. Why harm them. As the virus repro-
Docking then are lymphocytes not infected duces, it accumulates random
When HIV is introduced into the right away, as macrophages are? changes in its genetic material.
human bloodstream, the virus After docking onto the CD4 Eventually and by chance, HIV
particles circulate throughout receptor of a macrophage, the changes in such a way that its
the whole body, but they only HIV particle requires a second spike proteins now recognize a
infect certain cells—large cells receptor protein to enter the new co-receptor, one present
called macrophages. Why only cell. This second receptor, on the surface of lymphocytes.
macrophages? Spikes composed called a co-receptor, pulls the When the body’s lymphocytes
of protein cover the surface of HIV particle across the cell become infected with HIV, the
each HIV particle. These spikes membrane. Macrophages have consequences are deadly—HIV
come into contact with all cells a co-receptor that HIV recog- eventually destroys most of the
the virus encounters as it moves nizes, but lymphocytes lack this body’s supply of lymphocytes.
through the blood, yet the virus specific co-receptor. This shift in the allegiance of HIV
ignores most of the cells. Only from one type of co-receptor to
when an HIV spike comes into Onset of AIDS another leads directly to the onset
contact with a cell whose surface During the long period before AIDS of AIDS.
Section 2 Review
Distinguish between passive transport and Critical Thinking Applying Information
active transport. During exercise, potassium ions accumulate in
the fluid that surrounds muscle cells. Which cell
Describe how the sodium-potassium pump membrane protein helps muscle cells counteract
helps prevent animal cells from bursting. this tendency? Explain your answer.
Compare two ways that the binding of a signal Standardized Test Prep The concentration of mol-
molecule to a receptor protein causes a change in ecule X is greater inside a cell than outside. If the
the activity of the receiving cell. cell acquires X from its surroundings, X must cross
the cell membrane by means of
Identify the terms endocytosis and exocytosis and
A exocytosis. C receptor proteins.
distinguish between them.
B active transport. D second messengers.

ZONE
1 Passive Transport Section 1
passive transport (74)
● Passive transport is the movement of substances across concentration gradient (74)
the cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell. equilibrium (74)
● Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of diffusion (75)
osmosis (76)
high concentration to an area of lower concentration. hypertonic solution (77)
● Osmosis is the diffusion of free water molecules across a hypotonic solution (77)
isotonic solution (77)
selectively permeable membrane.
ion channel (78)
● Ion channels are proteins that have a pore through which carrier protein (80)
ions can cross the cell membrane. facilitated diffusion (80)
● In facilitated diffusion, a carrier protein transports a

substance across the cell membrane down the concentra-
tion gradient of the substance.
2 Active Transport Section 2

active transport (81)
● Active transport is the movement of a substance against sodium-potassium pump (81)
the concentration gradient of the substance. Active trans- endocytosis (83)
port requires cells to use energy. exocytosis (83)
receptor protein (84)
● In animal cells, the sodium-potassium pump uses energy second messenger (85)
supplied by ATP to transport sodium ions out of the cell
and potassium ions into the cell.
● During endocytosis, substances are moved into a cell by a
vesicle that pinches off from the cell membrane.
● During exocytosis, substances inside a vesicle are released
from a cell as the vesicle fuses with the cell membrane.
● Communication between cells often involves signal mol-
ecules that are bound by receptor proteins on cells.
● A signal molecule that is bound by a receptor protein on
a cell can change the activity of the cell in three ways:
by enabling specific ions to cross the cell membrane, by
causing the formation of a second messenger, or
by speeding up chemical reactions inside the cell.
Unit 1—Cell Transport and Homeostasis
BIOLOGY Use Topics 1–6 in this unit to review the key

concepts and terms in this chapter.
ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 7. Define the term homeostasis, and explain

how the sodium-potassium pump contrib-
1. In diffusion, a substance moves utes to homeostasis in an animal.
a. against its concentration gradient.
b. from an area of lower concentration to 8. When a cell takes in a food particle by
an area of higher concentration. endocytosis, the vesicle that is formed may
c. independent of its concentration. fuse with a lysosome. How would fusion
d. down its concentration gradient. with a lysosome help the cell digest the food
particle?
2. Substances enter or leave a cell
through the 9. Which types of cells does
a. cytoplasm. c. nucleus. HIV infect, and which of these does it
b. Golgi apparatus. d. cell membrane. destroy?
3. Facilitated diffusion 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
a. is driven by energy from ATP. map that shows how cells maintain homeo-
b. is a type of active transport. stasis. Include the following terms in your
c. employs receptor proteins. map: concentration gradient, diffusion, osmo-
d. employs carrier proteins. sis, and carrier protein.
4. The sodium-potassium pump moves
a. sodium ions into the cell and potassium
Critical Thinking
ions out of the cell. 11. Applying Information Identify the property
b. sodium ions out of the cell and potassium of a cell membrane that allows particles to
ions into the cell. pass through it. Predict how a cell mem-
c. sodium and potassium into the cell. brane that allows some types of ions and
d. sodium and potassium out of the cell. molecules through but not others would
affect equilibrium between the cell and the
5. The binding of a signal molecule by a recep-
fluid around it.
tor protein can
a. activate a second messenger inside the Alternative Assessment
receiving cell.
12. Finding Information Use library or Internet
b. trigger enzyme activity in the cell.
resources to investigate problems in trans-
c. change the permeability of the cell.
port of molecules across the cell membrane.
d. All of the above
Several human diseases, including cystic
6. The drawing below shows a plant cell that fibrosis, hypercholesterolemia, and myasthe-
has become shriveled after having been nia gravis affect the function of specific
placed in a solution. Is the solution most transport proteins. Describe the symptoms of
likely hypertonic, hypotonic, or isotonic? and treatments for the diseases. Summarize
Explain your reasoning. your findings in a written report.
13. Interactive Tutor Unit 1 Cell Transport and
Homeostasis Write a report summarizing the
roles of osmosis and diffusion in the preserva-
tion and maintenance of body organs donated
for transplants. Why must the organs be pre-
served in special solutions prior to a trans-
plant? Find out what kinds of substances
these solutions contain.
88 CHAPTER 4 Review

correct answer.
The diffusion of water through a
1 A cell begins to swell when placed in an selectively permeable membrane is called
unknown solution. What can you conclude osmosis. Osmosis is a form of diffusion that
about the solution? involves the movement of water down its
A. The solution is hypertonic. concentration gradient. When solutions on
B. The solution is hypotonic. either side of a membrane have different
C. The solution is isotonic. concentrations of dissolved particles, they
D. The solution is saturated. also have different concentrations of water
molecules that are not interacting with the
2 Which of the following processes allows
dissolved particles. The water molecules
the cell to dispose of wastes?
move from the side with a lower
F. endocytosis
concentration of dissolved particles to the
G. exocytosis
side with a higher concentration.
H. facilitated diffusion
I. sodium-potassium pumping 5 A student wants to model osmosis by
placing a mesh bag in a solution of salt
3 A gelatin block is prepared with a
water. The bag fills up with a saltwater
chemical indicator that turns pink in the
solution that is the same concentration as
presence of a base. The block is enclosed
the solution outside of the bag. Why is this
in a membrane and placed in a beaker of
not a good model for osmosis?
basic solution. After half an hour, the
F. Salt water is not a solution.
block begins to turn pink. Why does the
G. The bag is impermeable to salt.
gelatin turn pink?
H. The bag is not selectively permeable.
A. The membrane is impermeable to acid,
I. The solution is not concentrated
so the gelatin becomes an acid.
enough.
B. The membrane is impermeable to base,
so the gelatin becomes a base. Interpreting Graphics
C. The base diffuses down its
concentration gradient through the 6 on the diagram below.
membrane and into the gelatin.
D. The acid diffuses down its Sodium-Potassium Pump
concentration gradient through the
membrane and into the gelatin.
Directions (4): For the following question,
write a short response.
4 How do the processes of osmosis and

diffusion explain why cooking dried pasta
in boiling water makes the pasta soft?
A B
Test 6 What substance is released from the pump

in step B?
Pay close attention to words such as not, only, A. ATP C. potassium ion
rather, and some that appear in questions.
B. phosphate group D. sodium ion

Exploration Lab
Analyzing the Effect of Cell
Size on Diffusion
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Using scientific methods • safety goggles
• Collecting, organizing, and • lab apron
graphing data • disposable gloves
OBJECTIVES
• block of phenolphthalein
agar (3 3 6 cm)
• Relate the size of a cell to
its surface area–to-volume • plastic knife
ratio. • metric ruler
• Predict how the surface • 250 mL beaker
area–to-volume ratio of a • 150 mL of vinegar
cell will affect the diffusion • plastic spoon
of substances into the cell. • paper towel
ChemSafety

Substances enter and leave a cell in several PART A: Design an Experiment
ways, including by diffusion . How efficiently 1. Work with members of your lab group to
a cell can exchange substances depends on explore one of the questions written for
the surface area–to-volume ratio (surface step 2 of Before You Begin. To explore the
area volume) of the cell. Surface area is question, design an experiment that uses
the size of the outside of an object. Volume the materials listed for this lab.
is the amount of space an object takes up.
In this lab, you will investigate how cell size You Choose
affects the diffusion of substances into a cell. As you design your experiment, decide the following:
To do this, you will make cell models using a. what question you will explore
agar that contains an indicator. This indica- b. what hypothesis you will test
tor will change color when an acidic solution c. how many “cells” (agar cubes) you will have
diffuses into it. and what sizes they will be
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in d. how long to leave the “cells” in the vinegar
the paragraph above. e. how to determine how far the vinegar
diffused into a “cell”
f. how to prevent contamination of agar
question you would like to explore about cubes as you handle them
cell size and diffusion. g. what data to record in your data table

2. Write a procedure for your experiment. 5. Analyzing Results Using the graph you
Make a list of all the safety precautions you made in item 4, make a statement about
will take. Have your teacher approve your the relationship between the surface
procedure and safety precautions before area–to-volume ratio and the rate of
you begin the experiment. diffusion of a substance.
6. Evaluating Methods In what ways do your
PART B: Conduct Your Experiment agar models simplify or fail to simulate the
features of real cells?
3. Put on safety goggles, a
lab apron, and disposable 7. Calculating Calculate the surface area and
gloves. volume of a cube with a side length of 5
cm. Calculate the surface area and volume
4. Carry out the experiment
of a cube with a side length of 10 cm.
you designed. Record your
Determine the surface area–to-volume ratio
observations in your data table.
of each of these cubes. Which cube has the
greater surface area–to-volume ratio?
PART C: Cleanup and Disposal 8. Evaluating Conclusions How does the size
5. Dispose of solutions, broken glass, of a cell affect the diffusion of substances
and agar in the designated waste con- into the cell?
tainers. Do not pour chemicals down the
9. Further Inquiry Write a new question
drain or put lab materials in the trash
about cell size and diffusion that could be
explored with another investigation.
6. Clean up your work area and all lab
equipment. Return lab equipment to
oughly before you leave the lab and after Do You Know?
Analyze and Conclude 1. How does cell transport in prokaryotic
1. Summarizing Results Describe any cells differ from cell transport in
changes in the appearance of the cubes. eukaryotic cells?
2. Summarizing Results Make a graph 2. Which of the following molecules can
diffuse across the cell membrane with-
using your group’s data. Plot “Diffusion
out the help of a transport protein:
Distance (mm)” on the vertical axis. Plot
water, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins?
“Surface Area–to-Volume Ratio” on the
horizontal axis. Use the following Internet resources to
explore your own questions about cell size
3. Analyzing Results Using the graph you and cell transport.
made in item 2, make a statement about
the relationship between the surface
area–to-volume ratio and the distance
a substance diffuses.
4. Summarizing Results Make a graph www.scilinks.org
using your group’s data. Plot “Rate of Topic: Cell Membrane
Diffusion (mm/min)” (distance vinegar Keyword: HX4035
moved time) on the vertical axis. Plot
“Surface Area–to-Volume Ratio” on the
horizontal axis.
CHAPTER 4 Cells and Their Environment 91
Show jumper
Deer eating leaves

CHAPTER
5 Photosynthesis
and Cellular
Respiration
1. Describe different kinds of chemical bonds.
(Chapter 2, Section 1) Energy and Living Things
Energy in Living Systems
2. List the properties of organic compounds.
ATP
3. Distinguish between mitochondria and
chloroplasts. (Chapter 3, Section 3) Section 2
4. Differentiate between passive transport and Photosynthesis
active transport. (Chapter 4, Section 2) Using the Energy in Sunlight
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Stage One: Absorption of Light Energy
sections indicated. Stage Two: Conversion of Light Energy
Stage Three: Storage of Energy
Section 3
Reading Activity Cellular Respiration
Before you read this chapter, write a short list of Cellular Energy
all of the things you know about photosynthesis Stage One: Breakdown of Glucose
and cellular respiration. Then write a list of the Stage Two: Production of ATP
things that you want to know about photo- Fermentation in the Absence of Oxygen
synthesis and cellular respiration. Save your list,
and to assess what you have learned, see how
many of your own questions you can answer
after reading this chapter.
www.scilinks.org
This deer, like many other organisms, depends upon

the energy stored in plants for food. Food supplies the
energy needed for cellular activities.
CHAPTER 5 Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration 93

Section 1 Energy and Living Things
Objectives Energy in Living Systems
● Analyze the flow of energy You get energy from the food you eat. Where does the energy in food
through living systems. come from? Directly or indirectly, almost all of the energy in living
● Compare the metabolism
systems needed for metabolism comes from the sun. Figure 1 shows
of autotrophs with that of how energy flows through living systems. Energy from the sun
heterotrophs. enters living systems when plants, algae, and certain prokaryotes
absorb sunlight. Some of the energy in sunlight is captured and
● Describe the role of ATP in
metabolism.
used to make organic compounds. These organic compounds store
chemical energy and can serve as food for organisms.
● Describe how energy is
released from ATP.
Building Molecules That Store Energy
Key Terms Metabolism involves either using energy to build molecules or
breaking down molecules in which energy is stored. Photosynthesis
photosynthesis
is the process by which light energy is converted to chemical energy.
autotroph
Organisms that use energy from sunlight or from chemical bonds in
heterotroph
cellular respiration inorganic substances to make organic compounds are called
autotrophs (AWT oh trohfs). Most autotrophs, especially plants, are
photosynthetic organisms. Some autotrophs, including certain
prokaryotes, use chemical energy from inorganic substances to
make organic compounds. Prokaryotes found near deep-sea vol-
canic vents live in perpetual darkness. Sunlight does not reach the
bottom of the ocean. These prokaryotes get energy, however, from
chemicals flowing out of the vents.
Figure 1 Flow of energy

Energy flows from sunlight or inorganic substances to autotrophs, such as
grasses, and then to heterotrophs, such as rabbits and foxes.
Light energy
1. Plants convert light energy 2. Rabbits get energy by 3. Foxes get energy by
to chemical energy. eating plants. eating rabbits.
94 CHAPTER 5 Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Breaking Down Food for Energy
The chemical energy in organic compounds can be transferred to
other organic compounds or to organisms that consume food.
Organisms that must get energy from food instead of directly from The words autotroph and
sunlight or inorganic substances are called heterotrophs (HEHT uhr heterotroph have the same
suffix, -troph, which is from
oh trohfs). Heterotrophs, including humans, get energy from food
the Greek word trophikos,
through the process of cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is a meaning “to feed.” The pre-
metabolic process similar to burning fuel. While burning converts fix auto- is from the Greek
almost all of the energy in a fuel to heat, cellular respiration releases word autos, meaning “self,”
much of the energy in food to make ATP. This ATP provides cells and the prefix hetero- is
with the energy they need to carry out the activities of life. from the Greek word
heteros, meaning “other.”
Transfer of Energy to ATP

The word burn is often used to describe how cells get energy from
food. Although the overall processes are similar, the “burning” of
food in living cells clearly differs from the burning of a log in a
campfire. When a log burns, the energy stored in wood is released
quickly as heat and light. But in cells, chemical energy stored in
food molecules is released gradually in a series of enzyme-assisted
chemical reactions. As shown in Figure 2, the product of one
chemical reaction becomes a reactant in the next reaction. In the
breakdown of starch, for example, each reaction releases energy.
When cells break down food molecules, some of the energy in the
molecules is released as heat. Much of the remaining energy is
stored temporarily in molecules of ATP. Like money, ATP is a
portable form of energy “currency” inside cells. ATP delivers energy
wherever energy is needed in a cell. The energy released from ATP
can be used to power other chemical reactions, such as those that
build molecules. In cells, most chemical reactions require less
energy than is released from ATP. Therefore, enough energy is
released from ATP to drive most of a cell’s activities.
Figure 2 Breakdown of starch

Energy is released from starch in a series of enzyme-assisted chemical reactions.
Reactant Product
ATP
CH2OH
H C O OH
Enzyme H Enzymes
C C 6CO2 + 6H2O
OH H
Starch OH C Carbon Water
C H
+ dioxide
6O2 H OH
Heat
Glucose
Reactant Products
SECTION 1 Energy and Living Things 95

ATP
Recall that ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a nucleotide with two
extra energy-storing phosphate groups. As shown in Figure 3, the
three phosphate groups in ATP form a chain that branches from a
five-carbon sugar called ribose (RIE bohs). This phosphate “tail” is
unstable because the phosphate groups are negatively charged and
therefore repel each other. The phosphate groups store energy like a
compressed spring does. This energy is released when the bonds
that hold the phosphate groups together are broken.
Breaking the outer phosphate bond requires an input of energy.
Much more energy is released, however, than is consumed by the
reaction. As shown in Figure 3, the removal of a phosphate group
from ATP produces adenosine diphosphate, or ADP. This reaction
releases energy in a way that enables cells to use the energy. The fol-
lowing equation summarizes this reaction:
H2O ATP → ADP P energy
Cells use the energy released by this reaction to power metabo-
lism. In some chemical reactions, two phosphate groups are
removed from ATP instead of just one. This tends to make the reac-
tion irreversible because the pair of phosphate groups that is
removed is not available for the reverse reaction. Rather, the pair is
quickly split into two single phosphate groups.
Figure 3 ATP releases energy

When the outer phosphate group detaches from ATP, energy is released.
Base (adenine)
Phosphate groups
P P P P P
P Energy
Sugar +
(ribose) H2O
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) ADP (Adenosine diphosphate)
Section 1 Review
1 Identify the primary source of energy that flows 5 Critical Thinking Analyzing Patterns
through most living systems. Explain how life involves a continuous flow of
energy.
2 Compare the metabolism of autotrophs with
that of heterotrophs. Standardized Test Prep A grasshopper obtains
energy by eating grass. A snake eats the grass-
3 Describe how energy is released from ATP. hopper, and a hawk then eats the snake. What is
the original source of energy for the hawk?
4 Critical Thinking Inferring Relationships
A the snake C the grass
How can the energy in the food that a fox eats be
traced back to the sun? B the grasshopper D the sun

Photosynthesis Section 2
Using the Energy in Sunlight Objectives

When you eat a hamburger, you get energy from the sun indirectly. ● Summarize how energy is
Plants, such as grass, capture the energy in sunlight. The beef in a captured from sunlight in the
hamburger comes from a cow that ate grass. The bun, lettuce, and first stage of photosynthesis.
tomato come from plants. With few exceptions, you end up with ● Analyze the function of
plants whenever you trace your food back to its origin. Plants, algae, electron transport chains in
and some bacteria capture about 1 percent of the energy in the sun- the second stage of photo-
light that reaches Earth and convert it to chemical energy through synthesis.
the process of photosynthesis. ● Relate the Calvin cycle to
carbon dioxide fixation in
The Stages of Photosynthesis the third stage of photo-
synthesis.
Photosynthesis is the process that provides energy for almost all life.
As Figure 4 shows, photosynthesis has three stages: ● Identify three environmental
factors that affect the rate of
Stage 1 Energy is captured from sunlight. photosynthesis.
Stage 2 Light energy is converted to chemical energy, which is tem-
porarily stored in ATP and the energy carrier molecule
Key Terms
NADPH. pigment
chlorophyll
Stage 3 The chemical energy stored in ATP and NADPH powers the carotenoid
formation of organic compounds, using carbon dioxide, thylakoid
CO2. electron transport
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells and algae chain
and in the cell membrane of certain prokaryotes. Photosynthesis NADPH
can be summarized by the following equation: carbon dioxide
fixation
light
6CO2 6H2O → C6H12O6 6O2 Calvin cycle
carbon water sugars oxygen
dioxide gas
This equation, however, does not show

how photosynthesis occurs. It merely says
that six carbon dioxide molecules, six Figure 4 Photosynthesis
water molecules, and light are needed to The process of photosynthesis occurs in three stages.
form one six-carbon organic compound
and six molecules of oxygen. Plants use
ADP
the organic compounds they make during O2 CO2
photosynthesis to carry out their life H 2O
ATP
processes. For example, some of these sug-
ars are used to form starch, which can be Light
Stage 3
Stage 1 Stage 2
stored in stems or roots. The plant may
later break down the starch to make ATP
NADP+
used to power metabolism. All of the pro-
teins, nucleic acids, and other molecules
NADPH Organic
of the cell are assembled from fragments compounds
of these sugars.
SECTION 2 Photosynthesis 97
Stage One:
Absorption of Light Energy
Sun The chemical reactions that occur in the first and second stages of
photosynthesis are sometimes called “light reactions,” or light-
dependent reactions. Without the absorption of light, these
Sunlight
reactions could not occur. Light energy is used to make energy-
storing compounds. Light is a form of radiation—energy in the form
Prism of waves that travel through space. Different types of radiation, such
as light and heat, have different wavelengths (the distance between
two consecutive waves). When the sun shines on you, your body is
bombarded by many kinds of radiation from the sun. However, you
can see only radiation known as visible light. You see wavelengths of
visible light as different colors. As shown in Figure 5, sunlight con-
Visible spectrum
tains all the wavelengths of visible light, red through violet.
400 nm Increasing 700 nm Pigments

wavelength How does a human eye or a leaf absorb light? These structures con-
Figure 5 Visible spectrum. tain light-absorbing substances called pigments . Pigments absorb
Sunlight contains a mixture of only certain wavelengths and reflect all the others. Chlorophyll
all the wavelengths (colors) of (KLOR uh fihl), the primary pigment involved in photosynthesis,
visible light. When sunlight
passes through a prism, the
absorbs mostly blue and red light and reflects green and yellow
prism separates the light into light. This reflection of green and yellow light makes many plants,
different colors. especially their leaves, look green. Plants contain two types of
chlorophyll, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. Both types of chloro-
phyll play an important role in plant photosynthesis.
The pigments that produce yellow and orange fall leaf colors, as
well as the colors of many fruits, vegetables, and flowers, are called
carotenoids (kuh RAH tuh noydz). Carotenoids absorb wavelengths
of light different from those absorbed by chlorophyll, so having both
pigments enables plants to absorb more light energy during photo-
synthesis. The graph in Figure 6 shows the wavelengths of light
absorbed by chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids.
Figure 6 Light absorption

during photosynthesis.
Absorption Spectra of Photosynthetic Pigments
Chlorophylls absorb mostly
violet, blue, and red light, while Chlorophyll b
carotenoids absorb mostly
light absorbed
blue and green light.

Percentage of
Chlorophyll a
Carotenoids
400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm)

Production of Oxygen
As shown in Figure 7, pigments involved in plant photosynthesis are
located in the chloroplasts of leaf cells. Clusters of pigments are
www.scilinks.org
embedded in the membranes of disk-shaped structures called
Topic: Light Absorption
thylakoids (THIE luh koydz). When light strikes a thylakoid in a Keyword: HX4116
chloroplast, energy is transferred to electrons in chlorophyll. This
energy transfer causes the electrons to jump to a higher energy level.
Electrons with extra energy are said to be “excited.” This is how
plants first capture energy from sunlight.
Excited electrons jump from chlorophyll molecules to other
nearby molecules in the thylakoid membrane, where the electrons
are used to power the second stage of photosynthesis. The excited
electrons that leave chlorophyll molecules must be replaced by
other electrons. Plants get these replacement electrons from water
molecules, H2O. Water molecules are split by an enzyme inside the
thylakoid. When water molecules are split, chlorophyll molecules
take the electrons from the hydrogen atoms, H, leaving hydrogen
ions, H+. The remaining oxygen atoms, O, from the disassembled
water molecules combine to form oxygen gas, O2.
Figure 7 Chloroplast
Pigment molecules are embedded in thylakoid membranes, as are other
molecules that participate in photosynthesis.
Plant cell
Outer Chloroplast
membrane
Leaf
Inner
Thylakoid membrane
Outside of membrane
thylakoid
Water-splitting
enzyme
Thylakoid
e– membrane
Cluster of
+ pigments
4H
Thylakoid
Thylakoid
2H2O space
O2
Thylakoid
space
Stage Two: Conversion of Light Energy
Excited electrons that leave chlorophyll molecules are used to
produce new molecules, including ATP, that temporarily store
chemical energy. First an excited electron jumps to a nearby mol-
Interpreting Graphics ecule in the thylakoid membrane. Then the electron is passed
Look closely at Figure 8. through a series of molecules along the thylakoid membrane like a
Electrons are represented ball being passed down a line of people. The series of molecules
by the symbol e–. The red
through which excited electrons are passed along a thylakoid mem-
arrows show the path of
excited electrons. Hydrogen brane are called electron transport chains . Trace the path taken by
ions are represented by the excited electrons in the electron transport chains shown in Figure 8.
symbol H+. The blue arrows
show the path of hydrogen
ions that cross the thylakoid
Electron Transport Chains
membrane. How are electron transport chains used to make molecules that
temporarily store energy in the cell? The first electron transport
chain shown in Figure 8 lies between the two large green clusters of
pigment molecules. This type of electron transport chain contains a
protein (the large purple molecule) that acts as a membrane pump.
Excited electrons lose some of their energy as they each pass through
this protein. The energy lost by the electrons is used to pump hydro-
gen ions, H, into the thylakoid. Recall that hydrogen ions are also
produced when water molecules are split inside the thylakoid.
As the process continues, hydrogen ions become more concen-
trated inside the thylakoid than outside, producing a concentration
gradient across the thylakoid membrane. As a result, hydrogen ions
have a tendency to diffuse back out of the thylakoid down their
Figure 8 Electron transport chains of photosynthesis

Electron transport chains (represented by the red lines) convert light energy to chemical energy.
Light Light Path of

Thylakoid
electrons
NADP+ + H+ NADPH
H+
H+ H+
Pigments
H+
e-
e-
Water-splitting e-
enzyme
4 H+
H+ H+ H+
O2 H+ H+
2 H2O H+ H+
H+ H+
ATP-producing H+
H+ Hydrogen
carrier protein
H+ H+ ions, H+
ATP
ADP + P

concentration gradient through specialized carrier proteins (illus-
trated on the lower surface of the thylakoid). These carrier proteins
are unusual because they function both as an ion channel and as an
enzyme. As hydrogen ions pass through the channel portion of the
protein, the protein catalyzes a reaction in which a phosphate group
is added to a molecule of ADP, making ATP. Thus, the movement of
hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane through these pro-
teins provides the energy needed to make ATP, which is used to
power the third stage of photosynthesis.
While one electron transport chain provides energy used to make
ATP, a second electron transport chain provides energy used to
make NADPH. NADPH is an electron carrier that provides the high-
energy electrons needed to make carbon-hydrogen bonds in the third
stage of photosynthesis. The second electron transport chain shown
in Figure 8 lies to the right of the second green pigment molecule. In
this second chain, excited electrons combine with hydrogen ions as
well as an electron acceptor called NADP+, forming NADPH.
The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis can be summa-
rized as follows. Pigment molecules in the thylakoids of chloroplasts
absorb light energy. Electrons in the pigments are excited by light and
move through electron transport chains in thylakoid membranes.
These electrons are replaced by electrons from water molecules, which
are split by an enzyme. Oxygen atoms from water molecules combine
to form oxygen gas. Hydrogen ions accumulate inside thylakoids,
setting up a concentration gradient that provides the energy to make
ATP.
Identifying a Product
of Photosynthesis
You can use the following procedure to identify the
gas given off by a photosynthetic organism.
Materials
MBL or CBL system with appropriate software, test tube or
small glass jar, sprig of Elodea, distilled water, cool light
source, dissolved oxygen (DO) probe
Procedure Analysis
1. Set up an MBL/CBL system 3. Place the test tube or glass 1. Infer the cause of any
to collect and graph data jar under a cool light source, change you observed.
from a dissolved oxygen and lower a DO probe into
2. Propose a control for this
probe at 30-second intervals the water. Collect data for 30
experiment.
for 60 data points. Calibrate minutes.
the DO probe. 3. Critical Thinking
4. When data collection is
Evaluating Hypotheses
2. Place a sprig of Elodea complete, view the graph of
Explain how your data support
in a test tube or glass your data. If possible, print
or do not support the hypoth-
jar, and fill the test tube or jar the graph. Otherwise, sketch
esis that photosynthetic
with distilled water. the graph on paper.
organisms give off oxygen.

Stage Three: Storage of Energy
In the first and second stages of photosynthesis, light energy is used
to make ATP and NADPH, which temporarily store chemical energy.
These stages are therefore considered light-dependent. In the third
(final) stage of photosynthesis, however, carbon atoms from carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere are used to make organic compounds in
which chemical energy is stored. The transfer of carbon dioxide to
organic compounds is called carbon dioxide fixation. The reactions
that “fix” carbon dioxide are sometimes called “dark reactions,” or
light-independent reactions. Among photosynthetic organisms,
there are several ways in which carbon dioxide is fixed.
Calvin Cycle
The most common method of carbon dioxide fixation is the Calvin
cycle. The Calvin cycle is a series of enzyme-assisted chemical
reactions that produces a three-carbon sugar. The Calvin cycle is
summarized in Figure 9.
Step In carbon dioxide fixation, each molecule of carbon dioxide,
CO2, is added to a five-carbon compound by an enzyme.
Figure 9
B IO Calvin Cycle
g hic
rap The Calvin cycle is a common method of carbon dioxide fixation.
A CO2 molecule is Three

1 added to a five-carbon carbon dioxide
compound. molecules
C 3 CO2 2 The three resulting

six-carbon compounds
split, forming a total of six
The other five three-carbon
4 sugars regenerate the
Three three-carbon compounds.
5-carbon
five-carbon compound that compounds
began the cycle.
P C C C C C P
Six
3-carbon
3 ADP
compounds
6 C C C P
3 ATP
6 ATP
One
Organic 6 ADP
3-carbon
compounds
sugar
1 C C C P 6 NADPH
Six
3-carbon
sugars
6 NADP+
One three-carbon sugar is used
3 to make organic compounds. 6 C C C P

Step The resulting six-carbon compound splits into two three- Real Life
carbon compounds. Phosphate groups from ATP and
electrons from NADPH are added to the three-carbon com- Some houseplants thrive
in dim light.
pounds, forming three-carbon sugars.
A plant inside a home may
Step One of the resulting three-carbon sugars is used to make receive 100 times less
organic compounds—including starch and sucrose—in bright light than it would if
which energy is stored for later use by the organism. it were grown outdoors.
Recognizing Patterns
Step The other three-carbon sugars are used to regenerate the Examine several species
initial five-carbon compound, thereby completing the cycle. of houseplants in a
The Calvin cycle is named for Melvin Calvin, the American bio- store or nursery.
What features
chemist who worked out the chemical reactions in the cycle. The are common
reactions are cyclic—they recycle the five-carbon compound needed among
to begin the cycle again. A total of three carbon dioxide molecules house-
must enter the Calvin cycle to produce each three-carbon sugar that plants?
will be used to make other organic compounds. These organic
compounds provide the organism with energy for growth and
metabolism. The energy used in the Calvin cycle is supplied by ATP
and NADPH made during the second stage of photosynthesis.
Factors that Affect Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is directly affected by various environmental factors.
The most obvious of these factors is light. In general, the rate of
photosynthesis increases as light intensity increases until all the
pigments are being used. At this saturation point, the reactions of
the Calvin cycle cannot proceed any faster. The overall rate of pho-
tosynthesis is thus limited by the slowest step, which occurs in the www.scilinks.org
Calvin cycle. The carbon dioxide concentration affects the rate of Topic: Factors Affecting
photosynthesis in a similar manner. Once a certain concentration of Photosynthesis
carbon dioxide is present, photosynthesis cannot proceed any faster. Keyword: HX4079
Photosynthesis is most efficient within a certain range of tem-
peratures. Like all metabolic processes, photosynthesis involves
many enzyme-assisted chemical reactions. Recall that unfavorable
temperatures may inactivate certain enzymes.
Section 2 Review
Summarize how photosynthetic organisms Critical Thinking Inferring Relationships
capture the energy in sunlight. What combination of environmental factors
affects the rate of photosynthesis?
Compare the roles of water molecules and
hydrogen ions in electron transport chains. Standardized Test Prep During photosynthesis,
plants store energy in
Describe the role of the Calvin cycle in the third A ADP. C 3-carbon sugars.
stage of photosynthesis.
B carbon dioxide. D water.
Critical Thinking Organizing Information
Make a table in which you identify the role of each
of the following in photosynthesis: light, water,
pigments, ATP, NADPH, and carbon dioxide.

Section 3 Cellular Respiration
Objectives Cellular Energy
● Summarize how glucose is Most of the foods we eat contain usable energy. Much of the energy
broken down in the first in a hamburger, for example, is stored in proteins, carbohydrates,
stage of cellular respiration. and fats. But before you can use that energy, it is transferred to ATP.
● Describe how ATP is made Like in most organisms, your cells transfer the energy in organic
in the second stage of cellu- compounds, especially glucose, to ATP through a process called
lar respiration. cellular respiration. Oxygen in the air you breathe makes the pro-
● Identify the role of fermen- duction of ATP more efficient, although some ATP is made without
tation in the second stage of oxygen. Metabolic processes that require oxygen are called aerobic
cellular respiration. (ehr OH bihk). Metabolic processes that do not require oxygen are
● Evaluate the importance
called anaerobic (AN ehr oh bihk), meaning “without air.”
of oxygen in aerobic
respiration. The Stages of Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is the process cells use to harvest the energy in
Key Terms organic compounds, particularly glucose. The breakdown of glucose
aerobic during cellular respiration can be summarized by the following
anaerobic equation:
glycolysis enzymes
C6H12O6 6O2 → 6CO2 6H2O energy
NADH
glucose oxygen carbon water ATP
Krebs cycle gas dioxide
FADH2
fermentation
As Figure 10 shows, cellular respiration occurs in two stages:
Stage 1 Glucose is converted to pyruvate (PIE roo vayt), producing
a small amount of ATP and NADH.
Stage 2 When oxygen is present, pyruvate and NADH are used
to make a large amount of ATP. This process is called aero-
Figure 10 bic respiration. Aerobic respiration
Cellular respiration Glucose
occurs in the mitochondria of eukary-
Cellular respiration occurs otic cells and in the cell membrane of
in two stages. prokaryotic cells. When oxygen is not
NAD+ ADP present, pyruvate is converted to either
lactate (LAK tayt) or ethanol (ethyl alco-
NADH ATP
hol) and carbon dioxide.
1. First, glucose is
broken down to Stage 1 The equation above does not show
pyruvate. how cellular respiration occurs. It simply
Anaerobic Pyruvate Aerobic shows that the complete enzyme-assisted
(without O2) (with O2)
breakdown of a glucose molecule uses
Stage 2 six oxygen molecules and forms six
Ethanol carbon dioxide molecules, six water
and CO2, or molecules, and ATP. Aerobic respiration
lactate
produces most of the ATP made by cells.
Mitochondrion Intermediate products of aerobic respi-
2. Then, either aerobic
respiration or anaerobic ration form the organic compounds that
processes occur. ATP help build and maintain cells.

Stage One: Breakdown of Glucose
The primary fuel for cellular respiration is glucose, which is formed
when carbohydrates such as starch and sucrose are broken down. If
too few carbohydrates are available to meet an organism’s glucose
needs, other molecules, such as fats, can be broken down to make
ATP. In fact, one gram of fat contains more energy than two grams of
carbohydrates. Proteins and nucleic acids can also be used to make
ATP, but they are usually used for building important cell parts.
Glycolysis
In the first stage of cellular respiration, glucose is bro- Figure 11
ken down in the cytoplasm during a process called
glycolysis (glie KAHL uh sihs). Glycolysis is an B IO Glycolysis
enzyme-assisted anaerobic process that breaks down gra hic
p
one six-carbon molecule of glucose to two three-
carbon pyruvate ions. Recall that a molecule that has
lost or gained one or more electrons is called an ion.
Glucose
Pyruvate is the ion of a three-carbon organic acid
called pyruvic acid. The pyruvate produced during gly-
C C C C C C
colysis still contains some of the energy that was
stored in the glucose molecule.
As glucose is broken down, some of its hydrogen 1 2 ADP
atoms are transferred to an electron acceptor called
NAD. This forms an electron carrier called NADH . 6-carbon
For cellular respiration to continue, the electrons car- compound
ried by NADH are eventually donated to other organic
C C C C C C
compounds. This recycles NAD, making it available
to accept more electrons. Glycolysis is summarized in
Figure 11. 2
Step In a series of three reactions, phosphate Two 3-carbon
compounds
groups from two ATP molecules are trans-
ferred to a glucose molecule. C C C C C C
Step In two reactions, the resulting six-carbon com- 2 NAD+
pound is broken down to two three-carbon 3 2 NADH + 2H+
compounds, each with a phosphate group. 2
Step Two NADH molecules are produced, and one
Two 3-carbon
more phosphate group is transferred to each compounds
three-carbon compound.
C C C C C C
Step In a series of four reactions, each three-carbon
4 ADP
compound is converted to a three-carbon
pyruvate, producing four ATP molecules in 4
the process.
Glycolysis uses two ATP molecules but produces four
ATP molecules, yielding a net gain of two ATP mol- Two 3-carbon
ecules. Glycolysis is followed by another set of reactions pyruvates
that use the energy temporarily stored in NADH to C C C C C C

make more ATP.
SECTION 3 Cellular Respiration 105

Stage Two: Production of ATP
When oxygen is present, pyruvate produced during glycolysis enters
a mitochondrion and is converted to a two-carbon compound. This
reaction produces one carbon dioxide molecule, one NADH mole-
cule, and one two-carbon acetyl (uh SEET uhl) group. The acetyl
group is attached to a molecule called coenzyme A (CoA), forming a
compound called acetyl-CoA (uh SEET uhl-koh ay).
Krebs Cycle
Acetyl-CoA enters a series of enzyme-assisted reactions called the
Krebs cycle , summarized in Figure 12. The cycle is named for the
biochemist Hans Krebs, who first described the cycle in 1937.
Step Acetyl-CoA combines with a four-carbon compound, form-
ing a six-carbon compound and releasing coenzyme A.
Step Carbon dioxide, CO2, is released from the six-carbon com-
pound, forming a five-carbon compound. Electrons are
transferred to NAD+, making a molecule of NADH.
Figure 12
B IO
graphic
Krebs Cycle
The Krebs cycle produces electron carriers that temporarily store chemical energy.
11. Acetyl-CoA combines with a 22. CO2 is released

four-carbon compound, CoA from the six-carbon
forming a six-carbon compound, leaving a
compound. 6-carbon C CO2 five-carbon compound.
Acetyl-CoA compound
NAD+
C C C C C C C C
NADH + H+
33. CO2 is released from

5-carbon the five-carbon
4-carbon
compound compound, leaving
compound
a four-carbon
C C C C C C C C C compound.
C CO2
NADH + H +
NAD+
NAD+ NADH + H+
ADP + P
4-carbon 4-carbon
compound compound
55. The new four-carbon ATP
compound is converted C C C C C C C C
to the four-carbon
compound that began
44. The four-carbon compound
is converted to a new
the cycle. FAD four-carbon compound.
FADH2

Step Carbon dioxide is released from the five-carbon compound,
resulting in a four-carbon compound. A molecule of ATP is www.scilinks.org
made, and a molecule of NADH is also produced. Topic: Aerobic Respiration
Keyword: HX4004
Step The existing four-carbon compound is converted to a new
four-carbon compound. Electrons are transferred to an
electron acceptor called FAD, making a molecule of FADH2.
FADH2 is another type of electron carrier.
Step The new four-carbon compound is then converted to the
four-carbon compound that began the cycle. Another mol-
ecule of NADH is produced.
After the Krebs cycle, NADH and FADH2 now contain much of the
energy that was previously stored in glucose and pyruvate. When the
Krebs cycle is completed, the four-carbon compound that began the
cycle has been recycled, and acetyl-CoA can enter the cycle again.
Electron Transport Chain

In aerobic respiration, electrons donated by NADH and FADH2 pass
through an electron transport chain, as shown in Figure 13. In
eukaryotic cells, the electron transport chain is located in the inner
membranes of mitochondria. The energy of these electrons is used to
pump hydrogen ions out of the inner mitochondrial compartment.
Hydrogen ions accumulate in the outer compartment, producing a
concentration gradient across the inner membrane. Hydrogen ions
diffuse back into the inner compartment through a carrier protein
that adds a phosphate group to ADP, making ATP. At the end of the
electron transport chain, hydrogen ions and spent electrons combine
with oxygen molecules, O2, forming water molecules, H2O.
Figure 13 Electron transport chain of aerobic respiration

In the inner membranes of mitochondria, electron transport chains (represented by the red lines) make ATP.
Outer compartment
H+ H+ 3. ATP is produced as hydrogen ions

diffuse into the inner compartment
H+ H+
H+ through a channel protein.
H+
e-
e- ATP-producing
carrier protein
H+
Inner
H+
NAD+ mitochondrial
membrane
NADH + H+ H+
4H+ + O2
2H2O
Inner compartment
H+
1. The electron transport 2. At the end of the chain,

chain pumps hydrogen electrons and hydrogen
ADP + P
ions, H+, out of the ions combine with ATP
inner compartment. oxygen, forming water.

Respiration in the Absence
of Oxygen
What happens when there is not enough oxygen for aerobic respi-
ration to occur? The electron transport chain does not function
because oxygen is not available to serve as the final electron accep-
tor. Electrons are not transferred from NADH, and NAD therefore
cannot be recycled. When oxygen is not present, NAD is recycled in
another way. Under anaerobic conditions, electrons carried by
NADH are transferred to pyruvate produced during glycolysis. This
process recycles NAD needed to continue making ATP through gly-
colysis. The recycling of NAD using an organic hydrogen acceptor
is called fermentation . Prokaryotes carry out more than a dozen
kinds of fermentation, all using some form of organic hydrogen
acceptor to recycle NAD. Two important types of fermentation are
Figure 14 Fermentation. lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation. Lactic acid fer-
In cheese making, fungi or
mentation by some prokaryotes and fungi is used in the production
prokaryotes added to milk
carry out lactic acid fermenta- of foods such as yogurt and some cheeses, as shown in Figure 14.
tion on some of the sugar in
the milk. Lactic Acid Fermentation
In some organisms, a three-carbon pyruvate is converted to a three-
carbon lactate through lactic acid fermentation, as shown in
Figure 15. Lactate is the ion of an organic acid called lactic acid. For
example, during vigorous exercise pyruvate in muscles is converted
to lactate when muscle cells must operate without enough oxygen.
Fermentation enables glycolysis to continue producing ATP in mus-
cles as long as the glucose supply lasts. Blood removes excess lactate
from muscles. Lactate can build up in muscle cells if it is not
removed quickly enough, sometimes causing muscle soreness.
Figure 15 Two types of fermentation

When oxygen is not present, cells recycle NAD+ through fermentation.
In lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is converted to lactate. In alcoholic fermentation, pyruvate is broken down
to ethanol, releasing carbon dioxide, CO2.
Glucose Glycolysis Pyruvate Glucose Glycolysis Pyruvate
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
C
+ + + +
NAD NADH + H NAD NADH + H CO2
Lactate Ethanol 2-carbon

compound
C C C C C C C
Lactic acid fermentation Alcoholic fermentation

Alcoholic Fermentation
In other organisms, the three-carbon pyruvate is broken down to
ethanol (ethyl alcohol), a two-carbon compound, through alcoholic fer-
www.scilinks.org
mentation. Carbon dioxide is released during the process. As shown in Topic: Fermentation
Figure 15, alcoholic fermentation is a two-step process. First, pyruvate Keyword: HX4080
is converted to a two-carbon compound, releasing carbon dioxide.
Second, electrons are transferred from a molecule of NADH to the two-
carbon compound, producing ethanol. As in lactic acid fermentation,
NAD is recycled, and glycolysis can continue to produce ATP.
Alcoholic fermentation by yeast, a fungus, has been used in the
preparation of many foods and beverages. Wine and beer contain
ethanol made during alcoholic fermentation by yeast. Carbon
dioxide released by the yeast causes the rising of bread dough and
the carbonation of some alcoholic beverages, such as beer. Ethanol
is actually toxic to yeast. At a concentration of about 12 percent
ethanol kills yeast. Thus, naturally fermented wine contains about
12 percent ethanol.
Muscle Fatigue and Endurance Training
A nyone who runs or exercises

for a long period of time
is a storable form of glucose
that acts as an energy reserve.
soon learns about muscle fatigue. Glycolysis converts the muscle
As you continue vigorous exer- glycogen to pyruvate, which is
cise, the muscles you are using then fermented to lactic acid.
become fatigued—that is, tired The ability to perform con-
and less able to generate force. tinuous exercise is limited by
The reasons for muscle fatigue are the body’s stored glycogen. So,
not fully understood, but in most physical endurance can increase
cases the fatigue increases when if glycogen stored in muscles is
Lance Armstrong
the production of lactic acid by spared during exercise. Trained
the exercising muscle increases. athletes such as cyclist Lance endurance-trained athletes’ high
Armstrong, shown at right, get a aerobic capacity—rather than
Anaerobic Threshold their greater muscle mass—that
relatively large portion of their
Why does an exercising muscle energy from aerobic respiration. allows these athletes to exercise
produce lactic acid? A resting Thus, their muscle glycogen more before lactic acid produc-
muscle obtains most of its energy reserve is depleted more slowly tion and glycogen depletion
from aerobic respiration. A con- than that in untrained individuals. cause muscle fatigue.
tinuously exercising muscle, how- In fact, the greater the level of
ever, soon depletes its available physical training, the higher the
oxygen. At this point, called the proportion of energy the body
anaerobic threshold, the exercis- derives from aerobic respiration. www.scilinks.org
ing muscle begins to obtain the Topic: Anaerobic Threshold
ATP needed anaerobically. In the Athletic Endurance Keyword: HX4192
absence of oxygen, glycolysis Endurance-trained athletes gen-
extracts the required ATP from erally have more muscle mass
glycogen in the muscle. Glycogen than untrained people. But it is

Figure 16 Effect of oxygen on ATP production
Most ATP is produced during aerobic respiration.
Glucose
Glycolysis (Net) 2 ATP
Fermentation Without O2 Pyruvate With O2 Krebs cycle 2 ATP
Ethanol Electron
Lactate (Up to)
and CO2 transport 34 ATP
chain
Anaerobic processes Aerobic respiration
Production of ATP
The total amount of ATP that a cell is able to harvest from each glucose
molecule that enters glycolysis depends on the presence or absence of
oxygen. As shown in Figure 16, cells use energy most efficiently when
oxygen is present. In the first stage of cellular respiration, glucose is
broken down to pyruvate during glycolysis. Glycolysis is an anaerobic
process, and it results in a net gain of two ATP molecules. In the sec-
ond stage of cellular respiration, the pyruvate passes through either
aerobic respiration or (anaerobic) fermentation. When oxygen is
present, aerobic respiration occurs. When oxygen is not present,
fermentation occurs instead. The NAD that gets recycled during fer-
mentation allows glycolysis to continue producing ATP. Thus, a small
amount of ATP is produced even during fermentation. Most of a cell’s
ATP is made, however, during aerobic respiration. For each molecule
of glucose that is broken down, as many as two ATP molecules are
made directly during the Krebs cycle, and up to 34 ATP molecules
are produced later by the electron transport chain.
Section 3 Review
List the products of glycolysis. What is the Critical Thinking Inferring Conclusions
role of each of these products in cellular Excess glucose in your blood is stored in your
respiration? liver as glycogen. How might your body sense
when to convert glucose to glycogen and glyco-
Summarize the roles of the Krebs cycle and gen back to glucose?
the electron transport chain during aerobic
respiration. Standardized Test PrepWhen oxygen is present,
most of the ATP made in cellular respiration is
Describe the role of fermentation in the second produced by
stage of cellular respiration. A aerobic respiration. C alcoholic fermentation.
Critical Thinking Comparing Functions B glycolysis. D lactic acid fermentation.
Explain why cellular respiration is more efficient
when oxygen is present in cells.

ZONE
1 Energy and Living Things Section 1
photosynthesis (94)
● Energy from sunlight flows through living systems, from autotroph (94)
autotrophs to heterotrophs. heterotroph (95)
● Photosynthesis and cellular respiration form a cycle cellular respiration (95)
because one process uses the products of the other.

● ATP supplies cells with energy needed for metabolism.
2 Photosynthesis Section 2
pigment (98)
● Photosynthesis has three stages. First, energy is captured chlorophyll (98)
from sunlight. Second, energy is temporarily stored in ATP carotenoid (98)
and NADPH. Third, organic compounds are made using thylakoid (99)
ATP, NADPH, and carbon dioxide. electron transport chain (100)
NADPH (101)
● Pigments absorb light energy during photosynthesis. carbon dioxide fixation (102)
Calvin cycle (102)
● Electrons excited by light travel through electron transport
chains, in which ATP and NADPH are produced.
● Through carbon dioxide fixation, often by the Calvin cycle,
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is used to make organic
compounds, which store energy.
● Photosynthesis is directly affected by environmental factors
such as the intensity of light, the concentration of carbon
dioxide, and temperature.
3 Cellular Respiration Section 3

aerobic (104)
● Cellular respiration has two stages. First, glucose is broken anaerobic (104)
down to pyruvate during glycolysis, making some ATP. glycolysis (105)
Second, a large amount of ATP is made during aerobic NADH (105)
respiration. When oxygen is not present, NAD+ is recycled Krebs cycle (106)
FADH2 (107)
during the anaerobic process of fermentation. fermentation (108)
● The Krebs cycle is a series of reactions that produce
energy-storing molecules during aerobic respiration.
● During aerobic respiration, large amounts of ATP are made
in an electron transport chain.
● When oxygen is not present, fermentation follows glycolysis,
regenerating NAD+ needed for glycolysis to continue.
Unit 2, Unit 3—Use Topics 1–6 in these units to
BIOLOGY review the key concepts and terms in this chapter.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 6. Which of the following is the correct pairing

of a process and its requirement for oxygen?
1. Energy flows through living systems a. glycolysis: no oxygen required
from? b. fermentation: oxygen required
a. the sun, to heterotrophs, and c. Krebs cycle: no oxygen required
then to autotrophs. d. none of the above
b. autotrophs, to the environment, and
then to heterotrophs. 7. Analyze the flow of energy that enables you to
c. the sun, to autotrophs, and then to get energy from the food you eat.
heterotrophs. 8. What change occurs in
d. the environment, to heterotrophs, and muscles at the anaerobic threshold?
then to autotrophs.
9. How is starch broken down to glucose
2. The products of photosynthesis that begin prior to glycolysis? (Hint: See Chapter 2,
cellular respiration are Section 4.)
a. organic compounds and oxygen.
b. carbon dioxide and water. 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
c. NADP+ and hydrogen. map that shows how photosynthesis and cel-
d. ATP and water. lular respiration are related. Try to include
3. The thylakoid membranes of a chloroplast
the following terms in your map: glycolysis,
are the sites where Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, Calvin
a. electron transport chains operate.
cycle, fermentation, and NADH.
b. NADPH and ATP are produced. Critical Thinking
c. pigments are located.
d. all of the above 11. Distinguishing Relevant Information The
enzyme that aids in the conversion of pyru-
4. The oxygen produced during photo- vate to acetyl-CoA requires vitamin B1, also
synthesis comes directly from the called thiamine. Thiamine is not made in
a. splitting of carbon dioxide molecules. the human body and must be taken in in
b. splitting of water molecules. foods. How would a deficiency of thiamine
c. mitochondrial membranes. in cells affect cellular respiration?
d. absorption of light.
12. Inferring Relationships How might the
5. Study the micrograph of a chloroplast shown folding of the inner membrane of mito-
below, and identify the structures labeled X. chondria affect the rate of aerobic
During photosynthesis, are hydrogen ions respiration? Explain your answer.
more concentrated in these structures or in
the spaces around them? Alternative Assessment
13. Analyzing Methods Research several ways
that fermentation is used in food prepara-
X
tion. Find out what kinds of microorganisms
are used in cultured dairy products, such as
yogurt, sour cream, and some cheeses.
Research the role of alcoholic fermentation
by yeast in bread making. Prepare an oral
report to summarize your findings.
112 CHAPTER 5 Review


correct answer.
Exercise physiologists study the best ways
1 What pigment causes a plant to look green? to regulate diet and training to maximize the
A. carotenoid C. NADH performance and health of athletes. The diet
B. chlorophyll D. NAPH of an athlete depends on the energy
requirements of the athlete’s sport. Some
2 A scientist makes the following statement:
sports, such as weight lifting, involve mainly
“If Earth’s early atmosphere had been rich
anaerobic metabolism. Others, such as
in oxygen, photosynthetic organisms
jogging and swimming, involve more
would not have been able to evolve.”
aerobic respiration.
Which of the following statements can be
used to argue against this hypothesis? 6 The heart pumps oxygen-rich blood to the
F. Earth’s present atmosphere is rich in body’s cells. Why do aerobic sports
oxygen. generally condition heart muscle faster
G. The main component of the atmos- than anaerobic sports?
phere is nitrogen gas. A. You do not use your heart during
H. Nonphotosynthetic organisms require anaerobic respiration.
atmospheric or dissolved oxygen to B. You have to breathe more when you are
survive. doing an anaerobic sport.
I. Photosynthetic organisms today carry C. Some muscle cells do not use aerobic
out photosynthesis in the presence of respiration to generate ATP.
oxygen. D. Muscle cells need more oxygen when
they are undergoing aerobic respiration.
3 Which of the following is not involved in
the aerobic part of cellular respiration? Interpreting Graphics
A. ATP C. the Krebs cycle
B. glycolysis D. mitochondria
4 What is the product of the electron Effect of Temperature on Photosynthesis
transport chain of photosynthesis?
photosynthesis
F. ATP and NADPH

G. glucose
Rate of
H. pyruvate
I. water

0 10 20 30 40 50
write a short response. Temperature (qC)
5 Differentiate between heterotrophs and
autotrophs. 7 Which statement is supported by the data?
F. Photosynthesis does not occur at 0°C.
G. The rate of photosynthesis at 40°C is
Test greater than the rate at 20°C.
H. The optimum temperature for photo-
If you come upon a word you do not know, try to synthesis is approximately 46°C.
identify its prefix, suffix, or root. Sometimes knowing I. The rate of photosynthesis increases
even one part of the word will help you answer the as temperature increases from 25°C
question to 30°C.

Skills Practice Lab
Observing Oxygen Production
from Photosynthesis
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Measuring • 500 mL of 5 percent
• Collecting Data baking-soda-and-
water solution
• Graphing
• 600 mL beaker
OBJECTIVE • 20 cm long Elodea
• Measure amount of sprigs (2–3)
oxygen produced by • glass funnel
an Elodea sprig.
• test tube
• metric ruler
Elodea
• protective gloves
ChemSafety
ChemSafety
CAUTION: Always CAUTION: Glassware is CAUTION: Wear dispos-
wear safety gog- fragile. Notify the teacher able polyethlene gloves
gles and a lab apron to protect of broken glass or cuts. Do not when handling any plant. Do
your eyes and clothing. clean up broken glass or spills not eat any part of a plant or
with broken glass unless the plant seed used in the lab.
teacher tells you to do so. Wash hands thoroughly after
handling any part of a plant.

Plants use photosynthesis to produce food. 1. Add 450 mL of baking-soda-and-water
One product of photosynthesis is oxygen. In solution to a beaker.
this activity, you will observe the process of 2. Put two or three sprigs of Elodea in the
photosynthesis and determine the rate of beaker. The baking soda will provide the
photosynthesis for Elodea. Elodea with the carbon dioxide it needs for
1. Write a definition for the boldface term above. photosynthesis.
2. Create a Data Table like the one below. 3. Place the wide end of the funnel over the
Elodea. The end of the funnel with the small
opening should be pointing up. The Elodea
Amount of Gas Present in the Test Tube and the funnel should be completely under
Days of exposure Total amount of Amount of gas the solution, as shown on the facing page.
to light gas present (mm) produced per
day (mm) 4. Fill a test tube with the remaining
0 baking-soda-and-water solution. Place
your thumb over the end of the test tube.
1
Turn the test tube upside-down, taking
2 care that no air enters. Hold the opening
3 of the test tube under the solution and
place the test tube over the small end of
4
the funnel. Try not to let any solution leak
5 out of the test tube as you do this.
114 CHAPTER 5 Photosynthesis and Respiration

5. Place the beaker setup in a well-lit area Analyze and Conclude
near a lamp or in direct sunlight.
1. Summarizing Results Using information
6. Record that there was 0mm gas in the test from your graph, describe what happened
tube on day 0. (If you were unable to place to the amount of gas in the test tube.
the test tube without getting air in the tube,
2. Analyzing Data How much gas was pro-
measure the height of the column of air in
duced in the test tube after day 5?
the test tube in millimeters. Record this
value for day 0.) In this lab, change in gas 3. Drawing Conclusions Write the equa-
volume is indicated by a linear measure- tion for photosynthesis. Explain each part
ment expressed in millimeters. of the equation. For example, what ingredi-
ents are necessary for photosynthesis to
7. For days 1 through 5, measure the amount
take place? What substances are produced
of gas in the test tube. Record the measure-
by photosynthesis? What gas is produced
ments in your data table under the head-
that we need in order to live?
ing, “Total amount of gas present (mm).”
4. Predicting Patterns What may happen
8. Calculate the amount of gas produced each
to the oxygen level if an animal, such as a
day by subtracting the amount of gas pre-
snail, were put in the beaker with the
sent on the previous day from the amount
Elodea sprig while the Elodea sprig was
of gas present today. Record these amounts
making oxygen?
under the heading, “Amount of gas pro-
duced per day (mm).” 5. Further Inquiry Write a new question
about photosynthesis that could be
9. Plot the data from your table on a graph.
Do You Know?
1. What is hydroponic farming?
2. How do coral reefs depend on
photosynthesis?
Use the following Internet resources
to explore your own questions about
photosynthesis.
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Photosynthesis
Keyword: HX4136
CHAPTER 5 Photosynthesis and Respiration 115

Show jumper
Four-day-old mouse cells (645)

CHAPTER
6 Chromosomes
and Cell
Reproduction
1. Define the term mutation. (Chapter 1,
Section 1) Chromosomes
Formation of New Cells by Cell Division
2. Describe the structure of proteins and of DNA.
How Chromosome Number and Structure
Affect Development
3. Summarize the function and structure of the
nucleus and of microtubules. (Chapter 3,
Section 2) Section 2
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the The Cell Cycle
sections indicated. The Life of a Eukaryotic Cell
Control of the Cell Cycle
Section 3
Reading Activity Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Copy the following statements in your notebook: Chromatid Separation in Mitosis
• Chromosomes from females determine the sex Mitosis and Cytokinesis
of humans.
• Every human cell contains 46 chromosomes.
• Healthy cells cannot become cancerous cells.
Before you read the chapter, write down if
you agree with each statement. After you have
finished reading the chapter, decide whether you
still agree with your first response.
www.scilinks.org
This cluster of cells is smaller than the head of a pin, resources are located throughout this chapter.
but over the next 17 days, they will divide repeatedly
to form a new mouse. Chromosomes inside each cell
carry the instructions for growth and development of
an individual.
CHAPTER 6 Chromosomes and Cell Reproduction 117

Section 1 Chromosomes
Objectives Formation of New Cells
● Identify four examples of by Cell Division
cell division in eukaryotes About 2 trillion cells are produced by an adult human body every
and one example in day. This is about 25 million new cells per second! These new cells
prokaryotes.
are formed when older cells divide. Cell division, also called cell
● Differentiate between reproduction, occurs in humans and other organisms at different
a gene, a DNA molecule, times in their life. In Figure 1, the cells of the fawn that is growing
a chromosome, and a
and developing and the cells in the wound that is healing are under-
chromatid.
going cell division. The type of cell division differs depending on the
● Differentiate between organism and why the cell is dividing. For example, bacterial cells
homologous chromosomes, undergoing reproduction divide by one type of cell division. Eukary-
autosomes, and sex
chromosomes.
otic organisms undergoing growth, development, repair, or asexual
reproduction divide by a different type of cell division. And the for-
● Compare haploid and mation of gametes involves yet a third type of cell division. Gametes
diploid cells.
are an organism’s reproductive cells, such as sperm or egg cells.
● Predict how changes in Regardless of the type of cell division that occurs, all of the infor-
chromosome number mation stored in the molecule DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) must
or structure can affect be present in each of the resulting cells. Recall from Chapter 3 that
development.
DNA stores the information that tells cells which proteins to make
and when to make them. This information directs a cell’s activities
Key Terms
and determines its characteristics. Thus, when a cell divides, the
gamete DNA is first copied and then distributed. Each cell ends up with a
binary fission complete set (copy) of the DNA.
gene
chromosome
chromatid Figure 1 Cell division
centromere
The cells of these organisms are undergoing some type of cell division.
homologous
chromosome
diploid
haploid
zygote
autosome
sex chromosome
karyotype
Repair Growth and development
118 CHAPTER 6 Chromosomes and Cell Reproduction

Prokaryotic Cell Reproduction
A prokaryote’s single DNA molecule is circular and is attached to the
inner cell membrane. Prokaryotes reproduce by a type of cell division
Real Life
called binary fission. Binary fission is a form of asexual reproduction Escherichia coli cells
that produces identical offspring. In asexual reproduction, a single can produce 2 million
parent passes exact copies of all of its DNA to its offspring. new cells in less than
7 hours.
Binary fission occurs in two stages: first, the DNA is copied (so
A variety of E. coli known
that each new cell will have a copy of the genetic information), and
as O157:H7 is sometimes
then the cell divides. The prokaryote divides by adding a new cell found in raw or under-
membrane to a point on the membrane between the two DNA cooked meat. When such
copies. As new material is added, the growing cell membrane meat is eaten, this bacteria
pushes inward and the cell is constricted in the middle, like a long can cause life-threatening
balloon being squeezed near the center. A new cell wall forms intestinal bleeding and
kidney failure. Thorough
around the new membrane. Eventually the dividing prokaryote is
cooking is necessary
pinched into two independent cells. Each cell contains one of the to destroy the bacteria.
circles of DNA and is a complete functioning prokaryote. Finding Information
Research out-
Eukaryotic Cell Reproduction breaks of E. coli
O157:H7 in your
The vast amount of information encoded in DNA is organized into community or
units called genes. A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a prostate.
tein or RNA molecule. A single molecule of DNA has thousands of
genes lined up like train cars. Genes play an important role in deter-
mining how a person’s body develops and functions. When genes
are being used, the DNA is stretched out so that the information it
contains can be used to direct the synthesis of proteins.
As a eukaryotic cell prepares to divide, the chromosomes—the
DNA and the proteins associated with the DNA—become visible, as
shown in Figure 2. Before the DNA coils up, however, the DNA is
copied. The two exact copies of DNA that make up each chromosome
are called chromatids (KROH muh tihdz). The two chromatids of a
chromosome are attached at a point called a centromere. The chro-
matids, become separated during cell division and placed into each Figure 2 Chromosome
structure. A chromosome
new cell, ensuring that each new cell will have the same genetic
consists of DNA tightly
information as the original cell. coiled around proteins. The
chromosomes condense as
a cell prepares to divide.
Centromere
Chromosome Coil within Further coiling DNA and DNA double

(made of 2 chromosome within larger coil proteins helix
chromatids)
SECTION 1 Chromosomes 119

How Chromosome Number and
Structure Affect Development
Each human somatic cell (any cell other than a sperm or egg cell)
normally has two copies of 23 different chromosomes, for a total of
www.scilinks.org
46 chromosomes. The 23 chromosomes differ in size, shape, and
Topic: Chromosomes
Keyword: HX4042 set of genes. Each chromosome contains thousands of genes that
play important roles in determining how a person’s body develops
and functions. For this reason, a complete set of all chromosomes
is essential to survival.
Sets of Chromosomes
Each of the 23 pairs of chromosomes consists of two homologous
(hoh MAHL uh gus) chromosomes, or homologues (HOH muh logs).
Homologous chromosomes are chromosomes that are similar in
size, shape, and genetic content. Each homologue in a pair of ho-
mologous chromosomes comes from one of the two parents, as
shown in Figure 3. Thus, the 46 chromosomes in human somatic
cells are actually two sets of 23 chromosomes. One set comes from
the mother, and one set comes from the father. A human chromo-
some is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 3 Fertilization
When haploid gametes fuse, they produce a diploid zygote.
Egg cell
Sperm cell n = 23
n = 23
Fertilization
Zygote
2n = 46

All of the cells in the body, other than gametes, are somatic cells. Magnification: 12,542
When a cell, such as a somatic cell, contains two sets of chromo-

somes, it is said to be diploid (DIHP loyd). Unlike somatic cells,
human gametes contain only one set of chromosomes (23 total).
When a cell, such as a gamete, contains one set of chromosomes, it
is said to be haploid (HAP loyd). Biologists use the symbol n to rep-
resent one set of chromosomes. The haploid number in a human
gamete can be written as n 23. The diploid number in a somatic
cell can be written as 2n 46. The fusion of two haploid gametes—
a process called fertilization—forms a diploid zygote, as shown in
Figure 3. A zygote (ZY goht) is a fertilized egg cell, the first cell of
a new individual.
As seen in Table 1, each organism has a characteristic number of
chromosomes. The number of chromosomes in cells is constant
within a species. Fruit flies, for example, have only eight chromo-
Figure 4 Human
somes in each cell. Although most species have different numbers
chromosome. As many as
of chromosomes, some species by chance have the same number. 500 chromosomes lined up
For example, potatoes, plums, and chimpanzees all have 48 end to end would fit in a
chromosomes in each cell. Many plants have far more chromo- 0.2 cm space—about the
somes. Some ferns have more than 500. A few kinds of organisms— thickness of a nickel. The
such as the Australian ant Myrmecia, the plant Haplopappus chromosome above has
replicated and consists of
(a desert relative of the sunflower), and the fungus Penicillium
two identical chromatids.
(from which the antibiotic penicillin is obtained)—have only one
pair of chromosomes.
Table 1 Chromosome Number of Various Organisms

Organism Number (2n) of chromosomes
Penicillium 1–4
Saccharomyces (yeast) 16
Mosquito 6
Housefly 12
Garden pea 14
Corn 20
Adder’s tongue fern 480–1,020
Frog 26
Human 46
Orangutan 48
Dog 78

Sex Chromosomes
Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in human somatic cells, 22 pairs
are called autosomes. Autosomes are chromosomes that are not
The word chromosome directly involved in determining the sex (gender) of an individual.
is from the Greek chroma, The sex chromosomes, one of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in
meaning “color,” and
humans, contain genes that will determine the sex of the individual.
soma, meaning “body.”
Chromosomes were so In humans and many other organisms, the two sex chromosomes
named because they are referred to as the X and Y chromosomes. The genes that cause a
absorbed a colored dye fertilized egg to develop into a male are located on the Y chromo-
that made them more some. Thus, any individual with a Y chromosome is male, and any
visible under a microscope. individual without a Y chromosome is female. For example, in
human males, the sex chromosomes are made up of one X chromo-
some and one Y chromosome (XY). The sex chromosomes in human
females consist of two X chromosomes (XX). Because a female can
donate only an X chromosome to her offspring, the sex of an off-
spring is determined by the male, who can donate either an X or a Y.
The structure and number of sex chromosomes vary in different
organisms. In some insects, such as grasshoppers, there is no Y
chromosome—the females are characterized as XX and the males
are characterized as XO (the O indicates the absence of a chromo-
some). In birds, moths, and butterflies, the male has two X chro-
mosomes and the female has only one.
Change in Chromosome Number

Each of an individual’s 46 chromosomes has thousands of genes.
Because genes play an important role in determining how a person’s
body develops and functions, the presence of all 46 chromosomes
Figure 5 A human karyotype is essential for normal develop-
ment and function. A person must
Karyotypes are used to examine an individual’s chromosomes.
have the characteristic number of
To prepare a karyotype,
photographs of the chromosomes in his or her cells.
chromosomes are cut out, Humans with more than two
arranged in pairs from largest copies of a chromosome, a condi-
to smallest, and numbered.
tion called trisomy (TRY soh mee),
will not develop properly. Abnor-
malities in chromosome number
can be detected by analyzing a
karyotype (KAR ee uh tiep), a
photo of the chromosomes in a
dividing cell that shows the chro-
mosomes arranged by size. Figure
5 shows a typical karyotype. A por-
tion of a karyotype from an indi-
vidual with an extra copy
of chromosome 21 is also shown in
Figure 5. This condition is called
Down syndrome, or trisomy 21.
People with Down syndrome have
three copies of chromosome 21 in
Short stature, a round face with
their karyotype.

upper eyelids that cover the inner corners of the eyes, and varying
degrees of mental retardation are characteristics of people with
Down syndrome.
In mothers younger than 30, Down syndrome occurs in about 1
in 1,500 births. In mothers 37 years old, the incidence doubles to 1
in 290 births. In mothers over 45, the risk is as high as 1 in 46
births. Older mothers are more likely to have a baby with Down
syndrome because all the eggs a female will ever produce are pre-
sent in her ovaries when she is born, unlike males who produce new
sperm throughout adult life. As a female ages, her eggs can accu-
mulate an increasing amount of damage. Because of this risk, a
pregnant woman over the age of 35 may be advised to undergo pre-
natal testing that includes fetal karyotyping.
What events can cause an individual to have an extra copy of a
chromosome? When sperm and egg cells form, each chromosome
and its homologue separate, an event called disjunction (dihs
JUHNK shuhn). If one or more chromosomes fail to separate prop-
erly—an event called nondisjunction—one new gamete ends up
receiving both chromosomes and the other gamete receives none.
Trisomy occurs when the gamete with both chromosomes fuses
with a normal gamete during fertilization, resulting in offspring
with three copies of that chromosome instead of two. In Down syn-
drome, nondisjunction involves chromosome 21.
Amniotic fluid
Uterus
Fetus
Prenatal Testing Chorionic
villi
Chorionic
Amniocentesis villi sampling
W ill our baby be normal? For

many expectant parents,
prenatal testing can help answer
fluid that surrounds
the fetus. The fluid
contains fetal cells.
this question. In prenatal testing, The fetal cells are
the cells of a fetus are tested for grown in a labora-
normal chromosome number tory for 1–4 weeks Cell culture
and cell structure by a procedure to obtain enough Amniotic
called fetal karyotyping. Fetal actively dividing fluid Karyotype
containing
karyotyping allows parents and fetal cells to make a fetal cells
doctors to view the chromo- karyotype, which is
somes found in the cells of the then analyzed.
fetus. The doctor can then check
Chorionic Villi
for any abnormalities, such as
Sampling (CVS)
Down syndrome. There are two
ways to obtain fetal cells. In chorionic villi (kawr ee AHN ihk produce a karyotype without hav-
VIHL ie) sampling, a tissue sam- ing to culture cells. Since the villi
Amniocentesis ple is collected from the chorionic have the same genetic makeup
In amniocentesis (am nee oh villi, fingerlike extensions of the as the fetus, the doctor is able to
sehn TEE sihs), a needle and placenta that grow into the detect abnormalities in the fetal
syringe are used to remove a mother’s uterus. Enough actively chromosome number.
small amount of the amniotic dividing cells are obtained to

Change in Chromosome Structure
Changes in an organism’s chromosome structure are called mutations.
Breakage of a chromosome can lead to four types of mutations. In a
deletion mutation, a piece of a chromosome breaks off completely. After
cell division, the new cell will lack a certain set of genes. In many cases
this proves fatal to the zygote. In a duplication mutation, a chromosome
fragment attaches to its homologous chromosome, which will then
carry two copies of a certain set of genes. A third type of mutation is an
inversion mutation, in which the chromosome piece reattaches to the
original chromosome but in a reverse orientation. If the piece reattaches
to a nonhomologous chromosome, a translocation mutation results.
Modeling Chromosomal Mutations

You can use paper and a pencil to model the ways
in which chromosome structure can change.
1 2 3 4 5
Materials
Original chromosome
14 note-card pieces, pencils, tape
Procedure 1 2 4 5
1. Write the numbers 1–8 on 3. Reconstruct the original
note-card pieces (one num- chromosome before Deletion
ber per piece). Tape the modeling a duplication,
pieces together in numerical an inversion, and a trans- 1 2 1 2 3 4 5
order to model a chromo- location. Use the extra
some with eight genes. note-card pieces to make
Duplication
the additional numbers you
2. Use the “chromosome” you
need.
made to model the four alter-
1 2 4 3 5
ations in chromosome struc- Analysis
ture discussed on this page Describe how a cell might Inversion
and illustrated at right. For be affected by each mutation
example, remove the number if the cell were to receive a
3 and reconnect the remain- chromosome with that 1 2 9 3 4 5
ing chromosome pieces to mutation.
represent a deletion. Translocation
Section 1 Review
Summarize how prokaryotic cells divide by Critical Thinking Evaluating Conclusions
binary fission. Do you agree or disagree that homologous chro-
mosomes are found in gametes. Explain.
Identify the point in a eukaryotic cell cycle
at which DNA condenses to form visible Standardized Test Prep How does the karyotype of
chromosomes. a person with Down syndrome differ from a normal
karyotype?
Summarize the difference between a haploid A It lacks a chromosome.
cell and a diploid cell.
B It has two sex chromosomes.
C It occurs in XO individuals.
D It has an extra copy of a chromosome.

The Cell Cycle Section 2
The Life of a Eukaryotic Cell Objectives

Cell division in eukaryotic cells is more complex than cell division ● Identify the major
in bacteria because it involves dividing both the cytoplasm and the events that characterize
chromosomes inside the nucleus. Many internal organelles must be each of the five phases of
correctly rearranged before the eukaryotic cell can properly divide the cell cycle.
and form two fully functioning cells. ● Describe how the cell
cycle is controlled in
eukaryotic cells.
The Cell Cycle
The life of a eukaryotic cell is traditionally shown as a cycle, as ● Relate the role of the
illustrated in Figure 6. The cell cycle is a repeating sequence of cel- cell cycle to the onset
of cancer.
lular growth and division during the life of an organism. A cell
spends 90 percent of its time in the first three phases of the cycle,
Key Terms
which are collectively called interphase. A cell will enter the last
two phases of the cell cycle only if it is about to divide. The five cell cycle
phases of the cell cycle are summarized below: interphase
mitosis
1. First growth (G1) phase. During the G1 phase, a cell grows cytokinesis
rapidly and carries out its routine functions. For most organ- cancer
isms, this phase occupies the major portion of the cell’s life. Cells
that are not dividing remain in the G1 phase. Some somatic cells,
such as most muscle and nerve cells, never divide. Therefore, if
these cells die, the body cannot replace them.
Figure 6 The eukaryotic
2. Synthesis (S) phase. A cell’s DNA is copied during this phase.
cell cycle. The cell cycle
At the end of this phase, each chromosome consists of two chro- consists of phases of growth,
matids attached at the centromere. DNA replication, preparation
3. Second growth (G2) phase. In the G2 phase, for cell division, and division of
the nucleus and cytoplasm.
preparations are made for the nucleus to
divide. Hollow protein fibers called micro- INTE
RP
tubules are rearranged during G2 in prepara- HA
S E
tion for mitosis.
4. Mitosis. The process during cell division in S
(DNA synthesis)
which the nucleus of a cell is divided into two
nuclei is called mitosis (mie TOH sihs). Each G1
nucleus ends up with the same number and (Cell growth)
kinds of chromosomes as the original cell.
G2
5. Cytokinesis. The process during cell division (Growth and
in which the cytoplasm divides is called preparation for
cytokinesis (SIET oh kih nee sihs). Cytokinesis mitosis)
Mitosis and cytokinesis produce new cells Mitosis
that are identical to the original cells and allow

organisms to grow, replace damaged tissues,
and, in some organisms, reproduce asexually.
SECTION 2 The Cell Cycle 125

Control of the Cell Cycle
If a cell spends 90 percent of its time in interphase, how do cells
“know” when to divide? How is the cycle controlled? Just as traffic
lights control the flow of traffic, cells have a system that controls
Learn the stages of inter-
the phases of the cell cycle. Cells have a set of “red light–green light”
phase by reviewing the
steps numbered 1–5 on the switches that are regulated by feedback information from the cell.
previous page. You can see The cell cycle has key checkpoints (inspection points) at which
in Figures 6 and 7 that the feedback signals from the cell can trigger the next phase of the cell
cell cycle is a repeating cycle (green light). Other feedback signals can delay the next phase
series of three steps to allow for completion of the current phase (yellow or red light).
followed by mitosis
The cell cycle in eukaryotes is controlled by many proteins. Con-
and cytokinesis.
trol occurs at three principal checkpoints, as shown in Figure 7.
1. Cell growth (G1) checkpoint. This checkpoint makes the deci-
sion of whether the cell will divide. If conditions are favorable
for division and the cell is healthy and large enough, certain
proteins will stimulate the cell to begin the synthesis (S) phase.
During the S phase, the cell will copy its DNA. If conditions are
not favorable, cells can typically stop the cell cycle at this check-
point. The cell cycle will also stop at this checkpoint if the cell
needs to pass into a resting period. Certain cells, such as some
nerve and muscle cells, remain in this resting period perma-
nently and never divide.
2. DNA synthesis (G2) checkpoint. DNA replication is checked at
this point by DNA repair enzymes. If this checkpoint is passed,
proteins help to trigger mitosis. The cell begins the many mo-
lecular processes that are needed to proceed into mitosis.
Figure 7 Control of the
cell cycle. The cell cycle in 3. Mitosis checkpoint. This checkpoint triggers the exit from
eukaryotes is controlled at mitosis. It signals the beginning of the G1 phase, the major
three inspection points, or growth period of the cell cycle.
checkpoints. Many proteins
are involved in the control of
the cell cycle. When Control Is Lost: Cancer
G1 INTE Certain genes contain the information nec-
checkpoint RP
HA essary to make the proteins that regulate cell
S E
growth and division. If one of these genes is
mutated, the protein may not function, and
S
regulation of cell growth and division can be
disrupted. Cancer , the uncontrolled growth
G1 of cells, may result. Cancer is essentially a
disorder of cell division. Cancer cells do not
respond normally to the body’s control
G2 mechanisms.
Some mutations cause cancer by over-
Cytokinesis producing growth-promoting molecules,
Mitosis
thus speeding up the cell cycle. Others
cause cancer by inactivating the control
Mitosis G2 proteins that normally act to slow or stop
checkpoint
checkpoint the cell cycle.

nucleus. One protein mol-
Exploring Further ecule passes the signal to
the next like a baton in a
relay race. The genes for
Cancer these signal-carrying
proteins are called onco-
Although all cancers are not curable, great genes (onco is Greek for
progress has been made in cancer research over “mass” or “tumor.”). If
the last 30 years. We now know that cancer oncogenes are changed
results from damage to a small set of genes that, by mutation to become
in normal cells, limits the ability of cells to divide. more active, cancer can
What causes this damage? Certain environmental result. Like stepping on
factors appear to be associated with cancer. For the accelerator of a car, Melanoma cells
example, the incidence of cancer per thousand an increase in the activity
people is not uniform throughout the United of these proteins amplifies the “divide” signal.
States. Rather, it is higher in cities and in the This causes the cell to divide more often.
Mississippi delta, suggesting that pollution and Releasing the Brakes
pesticide runoff may contribute to cancer. When At the nucleus, the divide signal overrides a
pollutants, radiation, and other environmental fac- set of genes that act as “brakes.” These braking
tors associated with cancer are analyzed, a clear genes—called tumor suppressor genes—prevent
pattern emerges. Most cancer-causing agents are cell division from occurring too often. In cancer,
powerful mutagens—that is, they readily damage these tumor suppressor genes are damaged. Like
DNA. The conclusion that cancer is caused by removing pressure from the brakes of a car
mutation of a cell’s DNA is now supported by a increases a car’s speed, decreasing the activity of
very large body of evidence. tumor suppressors speeds up cell division.
How many mutations are required to produce Cells have three kinds of tumor suppressors, all of
cancer? Research in the last several years indicates which must be disabled before cancer can occur.
that mutation of only a few genes can transform First, cells have proteins that inhibit DNA replication
normal cells into cancerous ones. All of these for limited periods. In cancer cells they are
cancer-causing genes are involved with regulating permanently inactivated. Second, cells have error-
how fast cells grow and divide. How is cell division correcting proteins that detect damage to genes.
regulated? As a crude analogy, imagine a car In most cancers this error-detection has been
parked on the side of a road. To get it going, you disabled. Third, cancer cells rebuild the tips of
must step on the accelerator and release the brake. their chromosomes. A little is lost from the ends
Stepping on the Accelerator of chromosomes at
A cell divides when it receives a signal to do so. A each replication, lim-
“divide” signal is usually in the form of a chemical iting the number of
www.scilinks.org
substance released by another cell. The sub- times a normal cell
Topic: Cancer Cells
stance is bound by a protein on the surface of can divide. Adding
Keyword: HX4030
the receiving cell. This binding activates a second the deleted material
protein inside the cell—relaying the signal from back to the tips
the outside of the cell to the inside. Here, a family removes this limit to
of proteins then relay the signal inward to the a cell’s life span.
Section 2 Review
Differentiate between the G1, G2, and S phases
Why are individual chromosomes more difficult
of the eukaryotic cell cycle. to see during interphase than during mitosis?
Standardized Test PrepIn the cell cycle of typical
Relate what occurs at each of the three principal
checkpoints in the cell cycle. cancer cells, mutations have caused
A slower growth. C uncontrolled growth.
Critical Thinking Evaluating Information B a failure in mitosis. D a halt in cell division.
SECTION 2 The Cell Cycle 127

Section 3 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Objectives Chromatid Separation in Mitosis
● Describe the structure and Every second about 2 million new red blood cells are produced in
function of the spindle your body by cell divisions occurring in the bone marrow. These cells
during mitosis. have received the signal to divide. The cells continue past the G2 phase
● Summarize the events and enter into the last two phases of the cell cycle—mitosis and
of the four stages cytokinesis. During mitosis the nucleus divides to form two nuclei,
of mitosis. each containing a complete set of the cell’s chromosomes. During
● Differentiate cytokinesis in cytokinesis the cytoplasm is divided between the two resulting cells.
animal and plant cells. During mitosis, the chromatids on each chromosome are physi-
cally moved to opposite sides of the dividing cell with the help of
Key Terms the spindle, shown in Figure 8. Spindles are cell structures made up
of both centrioles and individual microtubule fibers that are
spindle
involved in moving chromosomes during cell division.
Forming the Spindle

At each of the cell’s poles lies a centrosome. The centrosome is an
organelle that organizes the assembly of the spindle. In animal cells,
a pair of centrioles is found inside each centrosome. As you can see
in Figure 8, centrioles are conspicuous. They are not necessary, how-
ever, for spindle formation.
Centrioles and spindle fibers are both made of hollow tubes of pro-
tein called microtubules. Each spindle fiber is made of an individual
microtubule. Each centriole, however, is made of nine triplets of
Figure 8 The spindle

The spindle, made up of centrioles
and spindle fibers, helps move Microtubule
chromosomes apart during mitosis. triplets
Centrosome
Centromere
Cell Chromatids
Spindle Each centriole is composed of

fibers nine triplets of microtubules
arranged in a circle.
Centrioles (in centrosome)

microtubules arranged in a circle. Unlike animal cells, plant cells do
not have centrioles, but they form a spindle that is almost identical
to that of an animal cell.
Separation of Chromatids
by Attaching Spindle Fibers
Some of the microtubules in the spindle interact with each other.
Others attach to a protein structure found on each side of the centro-
mere. The two sets of microtubules extend out toward opposite poles
of the cell. Once the microtubules attach to the centromeres and
poles, the two chromatids in each chromosome can be separated.
The paired chromatids separate. One of the pair of chromatids
will move to one pole of the cell. The second member of the pair
will move to the other pole. Once separated, the chromatids move
along paths described by microtubules to which they are attached.
The chromatids draw closer to the poles of the cell as these micro-
tubules are broken down bit by bit and become shorter.
As soon as the chromatids separate from each other they are
called chromosomes. When the chromosomes finally arrive, each
pole has one complete set of chromosomes.
8
0
493 2
5
x2 + <
6x -
7 Calculating the Number of Cells
Resulting from Mitosis
Background
Scientists investigating cancer might need to know the
number of cells produced in a certain amount of time. In
the human body the rate of mitosis is about 25 million
(2.5 107) cells produced every second! You can calculate
the number of cells produced by mitosis in a given amount
of time.
1. Calculate the number of cells produced by mitosis in the given time. For example, to find
the number of cells produced in 3 minutes, determine how many seconds there are in 3 minutes (since
the rate is given in seconds).
60 seconds
3 minutes 180 seconds
1 minute
2. Multiply the rate of mitosis by the time (in seconds) asked for in the problem
(180 seconds).
2.5 107 cells
180 seconds 4.5 109 cells (4,500,000,000 cells)
second
Analysis
1. Calculate the number of 2. Calculate the number of 3. Critical Thinking Predict-
cells that would be produced cells that would be produced ing Patterns Identify factors
in 1 hour. in 1 day. that might increase or decrease
the rate of mitosis.
SECTION 3 Mitosis and Cytokinesis 129

Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Although mitosis is a continuous process, biologists traditionally
divide it into four stages, as shown in Figure 9.
Mitosis
Step Prophase Chromosomes coil up and become visible during
prophase. The nuclear envelope dissolves and a spindle forms.
Step Metaphase During metaphase the chromosomes move to the
center of the cell and line up along the equator. Spindle fibers
link the chromatids of each chromosome to opposite poles.
Step Anaphase Centromeres divide during anaphase. The two
chromatids (now called chromosomes) move toward oppo-
site poles as the spindle fibers attached to them shorten.
Step Telophase A nuclear envelope forms around the chromo-
somes at each pole. Chromosomes, now at opposite poles,
Figure
Figure 96-9
B IO Stages of Mitosis
g hic
rap The chromosome copies in the nucleus of a dividing cell are separated into two nuclei.
1 Prophase 2 Metaphase
• Chromosomes • Chromosomes
become visible line up along
• Nuclear envelope equator
dissolves
• Spindle forms
Nucleus
Chromosome
The chromosomes (already copied)
replicate during
interphase.
INTER
PH
AS
E
S Centrioles
Spindle fibers
G1
Magnification: 567
G2
s
si
ne
ki
to
Cy
Mitosis

uncoil and the spindle dissolves.
The spindle fibers break down and
disappear. Mitosis is complete.
Belt of protein
Cytokinesis threads
As mitosis ends, cytokinesis begins. Dur-
ing cytokinesis, the cytoplasm of the cell
is divided in half, and the cell membrane
grows to enclose each cell, forming two
separate cells as a result. The end result
Figure 10 Cytokinesis
of mitosis and cytokinesis is two geneti-
in animal cells. The cell
cally identical cells where only one cell membrane is pinched in
existed before. half by a belt of protein
During cytokinesis in animal cells and threads.
other cells that lack cell walls, the cell is
pinched in half by a belt of protein
threads, as shown in Figure 10.
3 Anaphase 4 Telophase
• Centromeres divide • Nuclear envelope

• Chromatids (now forms at each pole
called chromosomes) • Chromosomes uncoil
move toward opposite • Spindle dissolves
poles Two genetically • Cytokinesis begins
identical cells
SECTION 3 Mitosis and Cytokinesis 131

In plant cells and other cells that have rigid cell walls, the
cytoplasm is divided in a different way. In plant cells, vesicles
formed by the Golgi apparatus fuse at the midline of the
dividing cell and form a cell plate. A cell plate is a membrane-
bound cell wall that forms across the middle of
Cell wall the plant cell. A new cell wall then forms on both
sides of the cell plate, as shown in Figure 11. When
Nucleus
complete, the cell plate separates the plant cell
into two new plant cells.
Figure 11
Cytokinesis in In both animal and plant cells, offspring cells are
plant cells. A about equal in size. Each offspring cell receives an
cell wall forms identical copy of the original cell’s chromosomes.
in the center of Each offspring cell also receives about one-half of
the dividing cell. Forming
the original cell’s cytoplasm and organelles.
cell plate
Observing Mitosis and Cytokinesis

You can identify the stages of mitosis and the process
of cytokinesis by observing slides of tissues undergoing
mitosis using a compound microscope.
Materials
compound microscope, prepared slide of mitosis,
paper, pencil
Procedure Analysis
1. View a prepared slide of cells 4. On a separate piece of paper, 1. Describe the activity of
undergoing mitosis under low sketch an example of each chromosomes in each stage
power of a compound micro- stage. Label each sketch with of mitosis.
scope. the following terms where
2. Compare the number of
appropriate: chromosomes,
2. Move the slide until you find a cells in interphase with the
cell membrane, cytoplasm,
section where different stages number of cells in one of the
nucleus, spindle, and cell wall.
of mitosis are visible. stages of mitosis.
5. Switch to low power, and
3. Switch to high power. Use 3. Critical Thinking Infer-
estimate how many cells are
the photos in Figure 9 to help ring Relationships What
clearly in interphase and how
you locate and identify cells does your answer to item 2
many cells are in one of the
in interphase and in each indicate about the relative
stages of mitosis.
stage of mitosis. length of interphase?
Section 3 Review
Describe the function of the microtubules Compare how cytokinesis occurs in plant cells
during anaphase. with how it occurs in animal cells.
Describe the events that occur during each of Standardized Test Prep Mitosis could not proceed
the four stages of mitosis. if a mutation interrupted the assembly of
A the cell wall. C the cell membrane.
B spindle fibers. D the nuclear envelope.

ZONE
1 Chromosomes Section 1
gamete (118)
● Cell division allows organisms to reproduce asexually, grow, binary fission (119)
replace worn-out or damaged tissues, and form gametes. gene (119)
● Bacteria reproduce by binary fission. chromosome (119)
chromatid (119)
● Before cell division, DNA coils around proteins and the centromere (119)
chromosomes condense. At cell division, each chromosome homologous chromosome (120)
diploid (121)
consists of two chromatids attached at the centromere.
haploid (121)
● Each organism has a characteristic number of chromosomes. zygote (121)
autosome (122)
● Human somatic cells are diploid, with 23 pairs of homolo- sex chromosome (122)
gous chromosomes. Human gametes are haploid, with 23 karyotype (122)
chromosomes.
● Sex chromosomes carry information that determines an
organism’s sex.
● Changes in chromosome number or structure can cause
abnormal development. Karyotypes are used to examine an
individual’s chromosomes.
2 The Cell Cycle Section 2

cell cycle (125)
● The life of a eukaryotic cell—the cell cycle—includes interphase (125)
interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. mitosis (125)
cytokinesis (125)
● Interphase consists of 3 phases: growth, DNA synthesis (repli-
cancer (126)
cation), and preparation for cell division. A cell about to divide
enters the mitosis and cytokinesis phases of the cell cycle.
● The cell cycle is carefully controlled; failure of cellular
control can result in cancer.
3 Mitosis and Cytokinesis Section 3

spindle (128)
● During mitosis, spindle fibers drag the chromatids to opposite
poles of the cell. A nuclear envelope forms. Each resulting
nucleus contains a copy of the original cell’s chromosomes.
● Cytokinesis in animal cells occurs when a belt of protein
threads pinches the cell membrane in half. Cytokinesis in
plant cells occurs when vesicles from the Golgi apparatus
fuse to form a cell plate.
Unit 4—Cell Reproduction Use Topics 1–4
BIOLOGY in this unit to review the key concepts and

terms in this chapter.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 6. List five organelles that must divide or

fragment before the cytoplasm divides.
1. In humans, females have _______ sex (Hint: See Chapter 3, Section 2.)
chromosomes.
a. XY c. YY 7. How does cell division differ between
b. XX d. XO animal and plant cells?
a. Plant cells do not have centrioles.
2. The diagram below represents a(n) _______ b. Animal cells form a cell plate.
mutation. c. Plant cells are always haploid.
a. deletion d. Animal cells do not have centrioles.
b. translocation
c. inversion 8. Summarize how normal cells can become
d. duplication cancer cells.
9. What information, besides
1 2 3 4 5
chromosome number, can amniocentesis
and chorionic villi sampling reveal?
Original chromosome
map that shows the events in the cell cycle.
1 2 1 2 3 4 5
Try to include the following words in your
map: cell cycle, interphase, synthesis phase,
? mutation chromosomes, cytokinesis, mitosis, second
growth phase, and first growth phase.
3. When the cell cycle is not controlled, Critical Thinking

_______ may result. 11. Inferring Relationships Explain the
a. Down syndrome relationships between mitosis in
b. binary fission eukaryotic cells and binary fission
c. cancer in prokaryotes.
d. a spindle
12. Evaluating Conclusions Damage to the
4. As a result of mitosis, each resulting cell brain or the spinal cord is usually perma-
a. receives an exact copy of all of the chro- nent. Use your knowledge of the cell cycle
mosomes present in the original cell. to explain why damaged cells in the brain
b. receives most of the chromosomes from or spinal cord are not replaced.
the original cell.
c. donates a chromosome to the original Alternative Assessment
cell. 13. Finding and Communicating Information
d. receives exactly half the chromosomes Scientists have determined that telomeres
from the original cell. (the tips of chromosomes) are shaved down
5. During the metaphase stage of mitosis, slightly every time a cell divides. When the
a. the cell membrane folds inward. telomeres reach a certain length, the cell
b. chromosomes line up at the cell’s equator. may lose its ability to divide. Find out what
c. spindle fibers shorten, pulling chromo- scientists have recently uncovered about
somes to the poles of the cell. telomeres and their association with cell
d. chromosomes are at opposite ends of division and cancer. Prepare a brief written
the cell. report to share with your class.


correct answer.
There are many environmental factors
1 What term describes the asexual that appear to be associated with cancer,
reproduction of prokaryotes? such as pollution and radiation. Cancer
A. binary fission occurs when cell division does not respond
B. cytokinesis to the normal signals that regulate the cell
C. disjunction cycle. Some cancer-fighting drugs kill cancer
D. mitosis cells by interrupting the cell cycle. Examples
of such drugs include vincristine and taxol,
2 What might happen if cytokinesis were
which prevent the mitosis spindle
omitted from the cell cycle?
microtubules from functioning.
F. The cell would lose its mitochondria.
G. The cell would become a cancer cell. 6 How is cancer a disorder of cell division?
H. The cell would not divide into two A. It is mitosis without cytokinesis.
offspring cells. B. It is nondisjunction of gamete cells.
I. The offspring cells would not have C. It is the uncontrolled growth of cells.
enough DNA. D. It is cell division without replication
of DNA.
3 In what stage of the cell cycle is a cell’s
DNA copied? Interpreting Graphics
A. cytokinesis
B. G1
C. mitosis
D. S The Cell Cycle
4 What are chromatids? I NT E

RP
HA
F. prokaryotic chromosomes S E
G. dense patches of protein within the
nucleus S
H. structures that move chromosomes
during mitosis G1
I. two exact copies of DNA that make up
each chromosome
Directions (5): For the following question, G2
write a short response. Cytokinesis
5 A newspaper article describes the concern Mitosis

that more infants with Down syndrome
will be born in the United States as more
women delay having children. What infor-
mation might account for this statistic? 7 What are the phases of the cell cycle start-
ing immediately after cell division?
Test F. cytokinesis, G1, S, G2, mitosis
Test questions may not be arranged in order of G. G1, cytokinesis, mitosis, G2
increasing difficulty. If you are unable to answer a H. G1, S, G2, mitosis, cytokinesis
question, mark it and move on to another question. I. S, G2, mitosis, cytokinesis, G1

Exploration Lab
Modeling Mitosis
Magnification: 670
SKILLS
• Modeling
OBJECTIVES
• Describe the events that
occur in each stage of
mitosis.
• Relate mitosis to genetic
continuity.
MATERIALS
• pipe cleaners of at least
two different colors Whitefish cells
• yarn
• wooden beads
• white labels
• scissors

The cell cycle includes all of the phases in PART A: Design a Model
the life of a cell. The cell cycle is a repeating 1. Work with the members of your lab group
sequence of cellular growth and division dur- to design a model of a cell that uses the
ing the life of an organism. Mitosis is one of materials listed for this lab. Be sure your
the phases in the cell cycle. Mitosis is the model cell has at least two pairs of chromo-
process by which the material in a cell’s somes and is about to undergo mitosis.
nucleus is divided during cell reproduction.
In this lab, you will build a model that will
You Choose
help you understand the events of mitosis.
As you design your model, decide the following:
You can also use the model to demonstrate
a. what question you will explore
the effects of nondisjunction and mutations.
b. how to construct a cell membrane
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in c. how to show that your cell is diploid
the paragraph above and for the following d. how to show the locations of at least two
terms: chromatid, centromere, spindle genes on each chromosome
fiber, cytokinesis. e. how to show that chromosomes are
duplicated before mitosis begins
2. Where in the human body do cells undergo
mitosis?
2. Write out the plan for building your model.
3. How does a cell prepare to divide during
Have your teacher approve the plan before
interphase of the cell cycle?
you begin building the model.
mitosis.
3. Build the cell model your group PART C: Cleanup and Disposal
designed. CAUTION: Sharp or 8. Dispose of paper and yarn scraps in
pointed objects can cause injury. Handle the designated waste container.
scissors carefully. Promptly notify your 9. Clean up your work area and all lab
teacher of any injuries. Use your model to equipment. Return lab equipment to
demonstrate the phases of mitosis. Draw its proper place. Wash your hands thor-
and label each phase you model. oughly before you leave the lab and after
4. Use your model to explore one of the ques- you finish all work.
tions written for step 4 of Before You
Begin. Describe the steps you took to
explore the question.
Analyze and Conclude
1. Analyzing Results How do the nuclei
you made by modeling mitosis compare
PART B: Test Hypotheses
with the nucleus of the model cell you
Answer each of the following questions by started with? Explain your result.
writing a hypothesis. Use your model to test
2. Evaluating Methods How could you
each hypothesis, and describe your results.
modify your model to better illustrate the
5. Cytokinesis follows mitosis. How will the process of mitosis?
size of each new cell that is formed follow-
3. Recognizing Patterns How does the
ing cytokinesis compare with that of the
genetic makeup of the cells that result from
original cell?
mitosis compare with the genetic makeup
6. Sometimes two chromatids fail to separate of the original cell?
during mitosis. How might this failure
4. Inferring Conclusions How is mitosis
affect the chromosome number of the two
important?
new cells?
7. A mutation is a permanent change in a
about mitosis or the cell cycle that could be
gene or chromosome. What effect might a
explored with your model.
mutation in a parent cell have on future
generations of cells that result from the
parent cell? Do You Know?
1. How often do different cells of the
human body undergo mitosis?
2. What are some common chemicals
that disrupt the cell cycle?
Use the following Internet resources to
explore your own questions about mitosis
or the cell cycle.
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Cell Cycle
Keyword: HX4033
CHAPTER 6 Chromosomes and Cell Reproduction 137

Do you know what cancer is

and what may cause it?
Understanding
Cancer
ost healthy cells of the body grow, divide How Cancer Begins
M a certain number of times, age, and die.

Sometimes, this orderly process is dis-
rupted when cells lose the ability to limit
and direct their growth. Cells may divide too
often and produce an excess of cells, called a
Changes in the genes that influence the cell cycle
can cause the transformation of a normal cell into
a cancer cell. There are two types of these genes.
The first type codes for proteins that stimulate
tumor. A tumor can be benign or malignant. cell division. Genes of this type are normally
Benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the turned off in cells that are not dividing. This type
body, and can usually be surgically removed. A of gene can be converted to an oncogene, that is,
malignant tumor—cancer—invades and destroys a “cancer gene,” by mutation. One common onco-
nearby healthy tissues and organs. Cancerous gene, a gene called ras, is present in mutated form
tumors can metastasize, that is, can spread to in about 30 percent of human cancers and in
other parts of the body and form new tumors. some forms of leukemia.
There are probably at least 100 different kinds of The second type of gene associated with
cancer, with each one affecting different kinds of cancer is a tumor suppressor gene. Tumor sup-
cells and having different characteristics. pressor genes code for proteins that normally
Cancer cells do not respond normally to the restrain cell division. In many cancers, tumor
chemical signals that regulate the cell cycle. In suppressor genes have been inactivated by muta-
some cancer cells, the way cell division signals tion. An inherited mutation in one copy of a
are transmitted to the nucleus is abnormal. In tumor suppressor gene results in higher risk of
other cancer cells, the entire cell cycle control cancer. However, cancer does not occur unless
system may be abnormal. If cancer cells stop and until the remaining, healthy copy of the gene
dividing, they do so at random points in the cell is also inactivated by mutation. If a person is
cycle rather than at the normal checkpoints. born with two normal copies of a tumor suppres-
When cultured in the laboratory with adequate sor gene, both must be inactivated before cancer
nutrients, cancer cells can divide indefinitely and can develop.
are referred to as “immortal.” Most mammalian Almost 50 percent of human cancers are asso-
cells grown in culture divide only 20 to 50 times ciated with a mutation in the tumor suppressor
before they stop dividing, age, and die. gene p53. These cancers include many breast,
colon, lung, prostate, and skin cancers. The
protein produced by the p53 gene normally acts
as an emergency brake in the cell cycle. The p53
protein also induces the death of damaged cells.
To perform these functions, p53 protein must
Bronchial tumor
Tumor cells have replaced the
normal, ciliated tissue in the bronchi.
138 UNIT 2
C a re e r
Lung tumor
A malignant tumor differs from the Cancer
tissue that surrounds it. Treatment
bind to DNA. Mutant p53 protein cannot bind to Oncologist

Profile
DNA, thus cell division occurs unchecked.
Mutations that result in cancer, whether they
involve oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes,
can occur spontaneously. Mutations can also be
O ncologists are cancer specialists—physicians
who care for people who have been diagnosed
with cancer.
induced by factors in the environment, such as Job Description
X-rays and ultraviolet radiation, cigarette smoke,
Oncologists may begin to treat a patient soon after
asbestos, and even by the human papilloma virus
he or she is diagnosed with cancer. Oncologists work
and the hepatitis B virus.
cooperatively with surgeons, radiologists, and other
physicians to devise the best combination of treat-
Surviving Cancer ments for the particular patient and cancer being
In the United States, about one of every five treated. Oncologists may manage radiation treatment
deaths—more than half a million each year—are and/or chemotherapy, as well as other types of can-
caused by cancer. Only heart disease kills more cer therapy.
people. The number of new cancer cases and the Science/Math Career Preparation
number of cancer deaths for every 100,000 per-
Biology Microbiology
sons have decreased over the past 10 years. The
Chemistry Biochemistry
death rates for children and adults under the age
of 50 have decreased dramatically. Genetics Mathematics
Some kinds of cancer kill more people than
others. Lung cancer is the number one cancer
killer. Colorectal cancer, breast cancer, and
prostate cancer are the next most common. Cancer site 5-year survival (percent)
Cancer survival is measured by the percentage of
Prostate (males only) 98
cancer patients who survive a specific number of
years. Five-year cancer survival rates for com- Breast (females only) 88
mon cancers are shown in the table at the right.
Colorectal 63
Cancer survival is influenced by the type of
cancer and by the stage at which a cancer is diag- Leukemia 47
nosed. For example, the 5-year survival rate for
Brain 32
colorectal cancer diagnosed in its first stage is 96
percent. When diagnosed in its fourth and most Lung 15
advanced stage, however, the 5-year survival rate
Pancreas 4
is only 5 percent. Cancer screenings and early
detection of cancers, such as those of the breast All cancers 64
and colon, greatly increase a person’s chances of
surviving cancer. ■
Analyzing STS Issues

Science and Society Technology
1 Use library resources or the Internet to research fac- 2 The type, size, stage, and location of a person’s can-
tors that increase the risk of cancer. List some of the cer determines which cancer treatment is most
risk factors and what types of cancer they could lead appropriate for that person. A patient should take an
to. Why are factors in lifestyle or the environment dif- active part in researching and developing an
ficult to identify? How can people protect them- informed treatment plan. Using library resources or
selves from exposure to known risk factors? the Internet, research and identify some therapies
used to treat cancer. What are some advantages and
disadvantages to these treatments?
Science • Technology • Society 139

Principles of
UNIT 2 Genetics
Chapters
7 Meiosis and Sexual
Reproduction
8 Mendel and Heredity
9 DNA: The Genetic

Material
10 How Proteins Are

Made
11 Gene Technology
A DNA sequencing gel,

shown here being examined
by a technician, reveals an
individual’s unique chemical
fingerprint.

Hemophilia
Queen Victoria of England

carried the gene for hemophilia.
“Our poor family,” she wrote in
her diary, “seems persecuted by this awful disease,
the worst I know.” One son died of hemophilia
and two daughters inherited the gene for the
disease. Why are carriers of hemophilia
always female?
Queen Victoria
The blood of normal individuals

contains a protein called factor VIII
that enables the blood to clot after
an injury. But in people with hemophilia, the gene
that produces factor VIII is defective and bleeding
continues uncontrolled. Discover how a gene
controls the production of a protein. Injections
of factor VIII at the first sign of bleeding allow Factor VIII protein
many hemophiliacs to control bleeding episodes.
Biologists have recently

learned to make a genetically
engineered form of factor VIII.
New research in genetic engineering has yielded
female pigs that produce factor VIII in
their milk. What are the safety
advantages of genetically- www.scilinks.org
engineered factor VIII? Topic: Hemophilia
Keyword: HX4097
141
Show jumper
Sperm on the surface of an egg (2890)
(2890

CHAPTER
7 Meiosis
and Sexual
Reproduction
1. Define the terms evolution and natural
selection. (Chapter 1, Section 1) Meiosis
Formation of Haploid Cells
2. Define the term homologous chromosomes,
Meiosis and Genetic Variation
and identify chromatids. (Chapter 6,
Section 1) Meiosis and Gamete Formation
3. Differentiate between haploid cells and diploid
cells. (Chapter 6, Section 1) Section 2
4. Describe the structure and function of the Sexual Reproduction
spindle. (Chapter 6, Section 3) Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
5. Summarize the steps of mitosis. (Chapter 6, Sexual Life Cycles in Eukaryotes
Section 3)
sections indicated.
Reading Activity
Take a few moments to study the first two pages
in Section 1, including Figure 1. Then on a sheet
of paper or in your notebook, answer the follow-
ing questions:
• What is the topic of Section 1?
• How are meiosis I and meiosis II similar?
• How are meiosis I and meiosis II different?
www.scilinks.org
A special form of cell reproduction produces the egg
and sperm cells shown here. When an egg joins with a
single sperm cell, genetic instructions from a male and
female are combined, and a new individual is formed.
CHAPTER 7 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction 143

Section 1 Meiosis
Objectives Formation of Haploid Cells
● Summarize the events that Some organisms reproduce by joining gametes to form the first cell of
occur during meiosis. a new individual. The gametes are haploid—they contain one set of
● Relate crossing-over, inde-
chromosomes. Imagine how the chromosome number would increase
pendent assortment, and with each generation if chromosome reduction did not occur!
random fertilization to genetic Meiosis (meye OH sihs) is a form of cell division that halves the
variation. number of chromosomes when forming specialized reproductive
● Compare spermatogenesis cells, such as gametes or spores. Meiosis involves two divisions of
and oogenesis. the nucleus—meiosis I and meiosis II.
Before meiosis begins, the DNA in the original cell is replicated.
Key Terms Thus, meiosis starts with homologous chromosomes. Recall that
homologous chromosomes are similar in size, shape, and genetic
meiosis
content. The stages of meiosis are summarized in Figure 1.
crossing-over
independent Step Prophase I The chromosomes condense, and the nuclear
assortment envelope breaks down. Homologous chromosomes pair
spermatogenesis along their length. Crossing-over occurs when portions of a
sperm
chromatid on one homologous chromosome are broken
oogenesis
ovum
and exchanged with the corresponding chromatid portions
of the other homologous chromosome.
Figure 1
B IO Stages of Meiosis
gr hic
ap Four cells are produced, each with half as much genetic material as the original cell.
Telophase I
1 Prophase I 2 Metaphase I 3 Anaphase I 4 and cytokinesis
Chromosomes become Pairs of homologous Homologous chromosomes Chromosomes gather
visible. The nuclear chromosomes move to move to opposite poles of at the poles of the cell.
envelope breaks down. the equator of the cell. the cell. The cytoplasm divides.
Crossing-over occurs.
Crossing-over
Spindle
Homologous
chromosomes
144 CHAPTER 7 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction

Step Metaphase I The pairs of homologous chromosomes are
moved by the spindle to the equator of the cell. The homolo-
gous chromosomes remain together.
Step Anaphase I The homologous chromosomes separate. As in
mitosis, the chromosomes of each pair are pulled to opposite
poles of the cell by the spindle fibers. But the chromatids do
not separate at their centromeres—each chromosome is still
composed of two chromatids. The genetic material, however,
has recombined.
Step Telophase I Individual chromosomes gather at each of the
poles. In most organisms, the cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis),
forming two new cells. Both cells or poles contain one
chromosome from each pair of homologous chromosomes.
Chromosomes do not replicate between meiosis I and meiosis II.
Step Prophase II A new spindle forms around the chromosomes.
Step Metaphase II The chromosomes line up along the equator
and are attached at their centromeres to spindle fibers.
Step Anaphase II The centromeres divide, and the chromatids
(now called chromosomes) move to opposite poles of the cell.
Step Telophase II A nuclear envelope forms around each set of
chromosomes. The spindle breaks down, and the cell under-
goes cytokinesis. The result of meiosis is four haploid cells.
Telophase II
5 Prophase II 6 Metaphase II 7 Anaphase II 8 and cytokinesis
A new spindle forms Chromosomes line up Centromeres divide. A nuclear envelope forms around
around the at the equator. Chromatids move to each set of chromosomes.
chromosomes. opposite poles of The cytoplasm divides.
the cell.
Haploid offspring cells
SECTION 1 Meiosis 145

Meiosis and Genetic Variation
Meiosis is an important process that allows for the rapid generation
of new genetic combinations. Three mechanisms make key contribu-
www.scilinks.org
tions to this genetic variation: independent assortment, crossing-over,
Topic: Genetic Variation
Keyword: HX4093 and random fertilization.
Independent Assortment
Most organisms have more than one chromosome. In humans, for
example, each gamete receives one chromosome from each of 23
pairs of homologous chromosomes. But, which of the two chromo-
somes that an offspring receives from each of the 23 pairs is a matter
of chance. This random distribution of homologous chromosomes
during meiosis is called independent assortment . Independent
assortment is summarized in Figure 2. Each of the 23 pairs of
chromosomes segregates (separates) independently. Thus, 223 (about
8 million) gametes with different gene combinations can be produced
from one original cell by this mechanism.
Crossing-Over and Random Fertilization

The DNA exchange that occurs during crossing-over adds even more
recombination to the independent assortment of chromosomes that
occurs later in meiosis. Thus, the number of genetic combinations
that can occur among gametes is practically unlimited.
Figure 2 Independent assortment

The same cell is shown twice. Because each pair of homologous chromosomes
separates independently, four different gametes can result in each case.
Possibility 1 Possibility 2
Metaphase of
meiosis I
The arrangement
of chromosomes
in each of these
cells is equally
probable.
Metaphase of
meiosis II
Gametes with
different possible
combinations
146 CHAPTER 7 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Homologous chromosomes
Modeling Crossing-Over
You can use paper strips and pencils to model the
process of crossing-over.
Materials
4 paper strips, pens or pencils (two colors), A A a a
scissors, tape
B b B b
Procedure
1. Using one color, write the let- 3. Use your chromosome 3. Compare the number of
ters A and B on two paper models, scissors, and different types of chromatids
strips. These two strips will tape to demonstrate cross- (combinations of A, B, a, and
represent one of the two ing-over between the chro- b) before crossing-over with
homologous chromosomes matids of two homologous the number after crossing-
shown above. chromosomes. over.
2. Using a second color, write Analysis 4. Critical Thinking
the letters a and b on two 1. Determine what the letters Applying Information
paper strips. These two strips A, B, a, and b represent. How does crossing-over relate
will represent the second to genetic recombination?
homologous chromosome 2. Infer why the chromosomes
shown above. you made are homologous.
Furthermore, the zygote that forms a new individual is created by

the random joining of two gametes (each gamete produced inde-
pendently). Because fertilization of an egg by a sperm is random,
the number of possible outcomes is squared (223 223 64 trillion).
Importance of Genetic Variation

Meiosis and the joining of gametes are essential to evolution. No
genetic process generates variation more quickly. In many cases, the
pace of evolution appears to increase as the level of genetic variation
increases. For example, when domesticated animals such as cattle
and sheep are bred for large size, many large animals are produced at
first. But as the existing genetic combinations become used up, the
ability to obtain larger and larger animals slows down. Further
progress must then wait for the formation of new gene combinations.
Racehorse breeding provides another example. Thoroughbred
racehorses are all descendants of a small number of individuals, and
selection for speed has accomplished all it can with this limited
amount of genetic variation. The winning times in major races
stopped dramatically improving decades ago.
The pace of evolution is sped up by genetic recombination. The The word meiosis is from
combination of genes from two organisms results in a third type, not the Greek word meioun,
identical to either parent. But bear in mind that natural selection does meaning “to make smaller.”
Knowing this makes it eas-
not always favor genetic change. Indeed, many modern organisms
ier to remember that during
are little changed from their ancestors of the distant past. Natural meiosis, the chromosome
selection may favor existing combinations of genes, slowing the pace number is reduced by half
of evolution. to form haploid gametes.

Meiosis and Gamete Formation
The fundamental events of meiosis occur in all sexually reproducing
Real Life organisms. However, organisms vary in timing and structures asso-
Some animals are both ciated with gamete formation. Meiosis is the primary event in the
male and female. formation of gametes—gametogenesis.
Hermaphrodites (huhr
MAF roh DIETZ) have both
male and female reproduc-
Meiosis in Males
tive organs. Most The process by which sperm are produced in male animals is called
hermaphrodites spermatogenesis (spur mat uh JEHN uh sihs). Spermatogenesis
mate with occurs in the testes (male reproductive organs). As illustrated in
another indi- Figure 3, a diploid cell first increases in size and becomes a large
vidual, while
immature cell (germ cell). The large cell then undergoes meiosis I.
some fertilize
themselves. Two cells are produced, each of which undergoes meiosis II to form
Other hermaphrodites can a total of four haploid cells. The four cells change in form and
reverse their sex each develop a tail to become male gametes called sperm .
breeding season.
Finding Information
What are some examples
Meiosis in Females
of hermaphroditic fish The process by which gametes are produced in female animals is
species, and where do called oogenesis (oh oh JEHN uh sihs). Oogenesis, summarized in
they live? Figure 3, occurs in the ovaries (female reproductive organs). Notice
that during cytokinesis following meiosis I, the cytoplasm divides
unequally. One of the resulting cells gets nearly all of the cytoplasm.
It is this cell that will ultimately give rise to an egg cell. The other
cell is very small and is called a polar body. The polar body may
divide again, but its offspring cells will not survive.
Figure 3 Meiosis in male and female animals

Meiosis of a male diploid cell results in four haploid sperm, while meiosis
of a female diploid cell results in only one functional haploid egg cell.
Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
Diploid Diploid
germ cell germ cell
Meiosis I Meiosis I
Immature
sperm cells
Secondary egg cell First polar body
Meiosis II
Meiosis II
Undifferentiated sperm cells Undifferentiated Second polar bodies (all 3 will die)
egg cell
Egg cell
Sperm (ovum)

The larger cell undergoes meiosis II, and the division of the egg
cell during cytokinesis is again unequal. The larger cell develops
into a gamete called an ovum (plural, ova) or, more commonly, egg.
The smaller cell, the second polar body, dies. Because of its larger
share of cytoplasm, the mature ovum has a rich storehouse of nutri-
ents. These nutrients nourish the young organism that develops if
the ovum is fertilized.
The Making of an Egg
A n intricate series of steps

controls the formation of an
egg. As oogenesis proceeds,
cyst. However, only one of the
cells develops into an egg. The
other 15 cells become nurse cells,
eggs become very different from which donate organelles—includ-
other cells in the organism. One ing mitochondria and parts of the
obvious difference is the size of endoplasmic reticulum—to the
the egg cells. In many animals, growing egg. The organelles move Human ovarian follicle
eggs swell to gigantic propor- through the ring canals by travel-
tions as they accumulate cellular ing along a network of micro- fruit fly, many cellular compo-
components. How is this trans- tubules. Some scientists believe nents are redistributed among the
formation accomplished? that this movement reflects an cells in the cyst. These findings
organized sorting process, in suggest that the early steps in
Oogenesis in Drosophila
which functional organelles collect egg formation may be very similar
Researchers have examined in the egg and damaged organ- in a wide range of organisms.
oogenesis in great detail in the elles collect in the nurse cells. The
fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. nurse cells die as the egg com-
As in other animals, eggs in pletes its development.
Drosophila are produced when www.scilinks.org
germ cells divide. Four rapid cell Oogenesis in Other Topic: Oogenesis
divisions produce 16 cells, which Organisms Keyword: HX4194
form a cluster known as a germ A comparable process of cyst
cell cyst. Bridges called ring formation takes place during
canals interconnect all cells in the oogenesis in the mouse. As in the
Section 1 Review
Explain the significance of meiosis in sexual Critical Thinking Evaluating Information
reproduction. If one cell in a dog (2n = 78) undergoes meiosis
and another cell undergoes mitosis, how many
Name the stage of meiosis during which chromosomes will each resulting cell contain?
chromatids are separated to opposite poles
of the cell. Standardized Test Prep If a cell begins meiosis
with two pairs of homologous chromosomes,
Compare the processes of crossing-over and how many chromatids will be in each cell that is
independent assortment. produced at the end of meiosis I?
A1 C 4
Differentiate gamete formation in male animals
from gamete formation in female animals. B2 D 8

Section 2 Sexual Reproduction
Objectives Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
● Differentiate between Some organisms look exactly like their parents and siblings. Others
asexual and sexual share traits with family members but are not identical to them.
reproduction. Some organisms have two parents, while others have one. The type
● Identify three types of of reproduction that produces an organism determines how similar
asexual reproduction. the organism is to its parents and siblings. Reproduction, the
process of producing offspring, can be asexual or sexual.
● Evaluate the relative genetic
and evolutionary advantages
In asexual reproduction a single parent passes copies of all of its
and disadvantages of asexual genes to each of its offspring; there is no fusion of haploid cells such
and sexual reproduction. as gametes. An individual produced by asexual reproduction is a
clone , an organism that is genetically identical to its parent. As you
● Differentiate between the
three major sexual life cycles have read, prokaryotes reproduce by a type of asexual reproduction
found in eukaryotes. called binary fission. Many eukaryotes, as shown in Figure 4, also
reproduce asexually.
Key Terms In contrast, in sexual reproduction two parents each form repro-
ductive cells that have one-half the number of chromosomes. A
asexual reproduction
clone
diploid mother and father would give rise to haploid gametes,
sexual reproduction which join to form diploid offspring. Because both parents con-
life cycle tribute genetic material, the offspring have traits of both parents
fertilization but are not exactly like either parent. As shown in Figure 5, sexual
sporophyte reproduction, with the formation of haploid cells, occurs in eukary-
spore otic organisms, including humans.
gametophyte
Types of Asexual Reproduction

There are many different types of asexual reproduction. For
example, amoebas reproduce by fission, the separation of a parent
into two or more individuals of
about equal size. Some multicellu-
lar eukaryotes undergo fragmenta-
tion, a type of reproduction in
which the body breaks into several
pieces. Some or all of these frag-
ments later develop into complete
adults when missing parts are
regrown. Other organisms, like the
hydra shown in Figure 4, undergo
budding, in which new individuals
split off from existing ones. The bud
may break from the parent and
become an independent organism,
or it may remain attached to the
Figure 4 Asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction creates parent. An attached bud can even-
clones. This hydra is in the process of reproducing asexually. The smaller tually give rise to a group of many
hydra budding from the parent is genetically identical to the parent. individuals.

Genetic Diversity
Asexual reproduction is the simplest and most Figure 5 Sexual reproduction
primitive method of reproduction. In a stable Sexual reproduction creates genetic diversity.
environment, asexual reproduction allows organ- Human gametes contain 23 chromosomes.
isms to produce many offspring in a short period (Only one chromosome is shown in each gamete
of time, without using energy to produce gametes below.) After fertilization the resulting zygote has
or to find a mate. However, the DNA of these 23 pairs of chromosomes.
organisms varies little between individuals. This
may be a disadvantage in a changing environment
because a population of organisms may not be
able to adapt to a new environment.
On the other hand, sexual reproduction provides
a powerful means of quickly making different Sperm cell Egg cell
combinations of genes among individuals. Such n = 23 n = 23
genetic diversity is the raw material for evolution.
Fertilization
Evolution of Sexual Reproduction

The evolution of sexual reproduction may have allowed early
protists to repair their own DNA. Only diploid cells can repair
certain kinds of chromosome damage, such as breaks in both
Zygote
strands of DNA. Many modern protists are haploid most of the 2n = 46
time, and they reproduce asexually. (They form a diploid cell
only in response to stress in the environment.) Thus the process
of meiosis and the pairing of homologous chromosomes may
have allowed early protistan cells to repair damaged DNA. This
hypothesis is further supported by the fact that many enzymes
that repair DNA damage are involved in meiosis.
Observing Reproduction
in Yeast
Yeast are unicellular organisms that live in liquid or moist
environments. You can examine a culture of yeast to observe
one of the types of reproduction that yeast can undergo.
Materials
microscope, microscope slides, dropper, culture of yeast
Procedure
1. Make a wet mount of a drop 4. Observe the pairs under high 2. Identify the reason for your
of yeast culture. power, and then make draw- answer.
ings of your observations.
2. Observe the yeast with a 3. Determine, by referring to
compound microscope under Analysis your textbook, the name of
low power. 1. Infer the type of reproduc- the type of reproduction you
tion you observed when the observed.
3. Look for yeast that appear to
be in “pairs.” yeast appeared to be in pairs.
SECTION 2 Sexual Reproduction 151

Sexual Life Cycles in Eukaryotes
The entire span in the life of an organism from one generation to the
next is called a life cycle . The life cycles of all sexually reproducing
organisms follow a basic pattern of alternation between the diploid
After reading this chapter,
and haploid chromosome numbers. The type of sexual life cycle that
trace or make a sketch of
Figures 6, 7, and 8 without a eukaryotic organism has depends on the type of cell that under-
the labels. On separate goes meiosis and on when meiosis occurs. Eukaryotes that undergo
pieces of paper, write down sexual reproduction can have one of three types of sexual life cycles:
the labels. Without referring haploid, diploid, or alternation of generations.
to your book, match the
labels with the correct part
of your sketch. Haploid Life Cycle
The haploid life cycle is the simplest of sexual life cycles. In this life
cycle, shown in Figure 6, haploid cells occupy the major portion of
the life cycle. The zygote is the only diploid cell, and it undergoes
meiosis immediately after it is formed, creating new haploid cells.
The haploid cells give rise to haploid multicellular individuals that
produce gametes by mitosis (not meiosis). In a process called
fusion, the gametes fuse to produce a diploid zygote, and the cycle
continues.
When the diploid zygote undergoes meiosis it provides an oppor-
tunity for the cell to correct any genetic damage, as discussed earlier.
The damage is repaired during meiosis, when the two homologous
chromosomes are lined up side-by-side in preparation for crossing
over. Special repair enzymes remove any damaged sections of double
stranded DNA, and fill in any gaps. This type of life cycle is found in
many protists, as well as in some fungi and algae, such as the uni-
cellular Chlamydomonas (KLUH mih duh moh nuhs), shown in
Figure 6.
Figure 6 Haploid life cycle.

Some organisms, such as
Diploid (2n) Haploid (n)
Chlamydomonas, have haploid
cells as a major portion of their n Haploid Magnification: 430
life cycle. n cells
n
n
Meiosis
2n Haploid n n
individuals
Zygote
Mitosis
n
n
Fusion
Gametes
Haploid life cycle

Diploid Life Cycle
The outstanding characteristic of the diploid Diploid (2n) Haploid (n)
life cycle is that adult individuals are diploid,
each individual inheriting chromosomes n
Reproductive
from two parents. In most animals, including cell n Gametes
Meiosis
humans, a diploid reproductive cell under- 2n n
goes meiosis to produce gametes.
n
As shown in Figure 7, the gametes (sperm
and egg cells) join in a process called 2n
fertilization , which results in a diploid zygote. n n
Diploid
After fertilization, the resulting zygote begins individual
to divide by mitosis. This single diploid cell

eventually gives rise to all of the cells of the
adult. The cells of the adult are also diploid 2n
since they are produced by mitosis. Zygote Fertilization

The diploid individual that develops from
the zygote occupies the major portion of the Diploid life cycle
diploid life cycle. The gametes are the only
haploid cells in the diploid life cycle; all of the Figure 7 Diploid life cycle. Humans and other
other cells are diploid. organisms have a life cycle dominated by a
diploid individual.
Exploring Further
Cloning by Parthenogenesis
A snake is born to a mother that did not have a
mate. Although this may sound impossible, or
like some headline in a tabloid magazine, this
can actually occur in nature. Parthenogenesis
(pahr thuh noh JEHN uh sihs) is a type of repro-
duction in which a new individual develops from
an unfertilized egg. Since there is no male that
contributes genetic material, the offspring is a Whiptail lizard
clone (genetically identical) of the mother. Clones
are usually produced in nature by asexual repro- Organisms That Undergo Parthenogenesis
duction. Parthenogenesis, however, is a special Organisms capable of reproducing by partheno-
form of cloning. genesis include dandelions, hawkweeds, and
How Does Parthenogenesis Occur? some fishes, lizards, and frogs. Whiptail lizards
Parthenogenesis in snakes has usually occurred are all females that lay eggs that hatch without
in older females that have lived many years any male contributions. Honeybees also produce
without male companionship, such as those in male drones by parthenogenesis.
a zoo. It is hypothesized that in the mother snake, Parthenogenesis is not thought to be possible
her own chromosomes are copied in place of the in mammals. Embryos of mammals that do not
missing father’s chromosomes, thereby self- have genes from both a female and a male parent
fertilizing her egg. Other scientists think that do not develop normally. The only natural mam-
after a long absence of males, some unknown malian clones known are identical twins, which
signal (such as a hormone) triggers the egg to develop when a fertilized egg splits and two
start dividing. individuals develop.
SECTION 2 Sexual Reproduction 153

Alternation of Generations
Plants, algae, and some protists have a life cycle that regularly alter-
nates between a haploid phase and a diploid phase. As shown in
Figure 8, in plants, the diploid phase in the life cycle that produces
spores is called a sporophyte (SPOH ruh fiet). Spore-forming cells in
the sporophyte undergo meiosis to produce spores. A spore is a
haploid reproductive cell produced by meiosis that is capable of
developing into an adult without fusing with another cell. Thus,
unlike a gamete, a spore gives rise to a multicellular individual
called a gametophyte (guh MEET uh fiet) without joining with
Figure 8 Alternation of another cell.
generations
In the life cycle of a plant, the gametophyte is the haploid phase
Some organisms, such as that produces gametes by mitosis. The gametophyte produces gametes
roses, have a life cycle that that fuse and give rise to the diploid phase. Thus, the sporophyte and
alternates between diploid and
haploid phases.
gametophyte generations take turns, or alternate, in the life cycle.
In moss, for example, haploid
spores develop in a capsule at the tip
of the sporophyte “stalk.” When the
lid of the capsule pops off, the spores
Spore- n scatter. The spores germinate by
forming n Spores mitosis and eventually form sexually
Meiosis
cell
2n n mature gametophytes. The male
n gametophytes release sperm which
swim through a film of moisture to
2n n n the eggs in the female gametophyte.
Sporophyte Gametophytes The diploid zygote develops as a
sporophyte within the gametophyte
Mitosis and the life cycle continues.
2n
It is important not to lose sight of
n the basic similarity of all three types
Zygote
Fertilization n of sexual life cycles. All three involve
Gametes an alternation of haploid and diploid
Alternation of generations phases. The three types of sexual life
cycles differ from each other only in
which phases become multicellular.
Section 2 Review
Identify the type of reproduction that results in Critical Thinking Evaluating Information
offspring that are genetically identical to their Evaluate the significance of mutations and repair of
parent. mutations to the evolution of sexual reproduction.
Describe two different types of eukaryotic Standardized Test Prep The amount of genetic
asexual reproduction. variation in offspring is greatest in organisms
that reproduce
Compare the haploid life cycle found in A sexually through meiosis.
Chlamydomonas with a diploid life cycle.
B sexually through fission.
Summarize the process of alternation of C asexually through mitosis.
generations. D asexually through budding.

ZONE
1 Meiosis Section 1
meiosis (144)
● Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes by half to crossing-over (144)
form reproductive cells. When the reproductive cells unite independent assortment (146)
in fertilization, the normal diploid number is restored. spermatogenesis (148)
sperm (148)
● During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate. oogenesis (148)
Crossing-over during prophase I results in the exchange of ovum (149)
genetic material between homologous chromosomes.
● During meiosis II, the two chromatids of each chromosome
separate. As a result of meiosis, four haploid cells are
produced from one diploid cell.
● Independent assortment, crossing-over, and random
fertilization contribute to produce genetic variation in
sexually reproducing organisms.
● In sexually reproducing eukaryotic organisms, gametes
form through the process of spermatogenesis in males and
oogenesis in females.
2 Sexual Reproduction Section 2

asexual reproduction (150)
● Asexual reproduction is the formation of offspring from clone (150)
one parent. The offspring are genetically identical to the sexual reproduction (150)
parent. life cycle (152)
fertilization (153)
● Sexual reproduction is the formation of offspring through sporophyte (154)
the union of gametes. The offspring are genetically different spore (154)
from their parents. gametophyte (154)
● A disadvantage to asexual reproduction in a changing
environment is the lack of genetic diversity among the
offspring.
● Sexual reproduction increases variation in the population
by making possible genetic recombination.
● Sexual reproduction may have begun as a mechanism to
repair damaged DNA.
● Eukaryotic organisms can have one of three kinds of sexual
life cycles, depending on the type of cell that undergoes
meiosis and on when meiosis occurs.
Unit 4—Cell Reproduction


ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. What is the function of a

1. Which of the following events occurs nurse cell in egg formation?
during prophase I of meiosis? 9. Review two hypotheses
a. crossing-over that have been proposed to explain
b. duplication of chromatids parthenogenesis according to the strengths
c. reduction in chromosome number and weaknesses of those hypotheses.
d. separation of chromatids to opposite poles Which hypothesis do you think is more
2. Homologous pairs of chromosomes move supportable, and why?
to opposite poles during
a. prophase I. c. metaphase II.
b. anaphase I. d. anaphase II.
map that shows the three sexual life cycles in
eukaryotic organisms. Include the following
3. Spermatogenesis produces words in your map: meiosis, fusion, gametes,
a. four haploid cells. spores, fertilization, zygote, gametophyte,
b. four diploid cells. sporophyte, haploid, and diploid.
c. four polar bodies.
d. two haploid cells. Critical Thinking
4. Sexual reproduction may have originated 11. Evaluating Results Occasionally homolo-
as a way for cells to gous chromosomes fail to separate during
a. shuffle genetic material. meiosis I. Using the hypothetical example
b. repair damaged DNA. of an adult organism that has two pairs of
c. produce diploid individuals. chromosomes, describe the chromosomal
d. increase their population growth at a makeup of the eggs that would result from
maximum rate. this error in meiosis.
5. In plants, the sporophyte generation 12. Evaluating Results If normal human sperm
produces ______ spores through meiosis. fertilized the eggs described above, what
a. haploid would the chromosomal makeup of the
b. triploid resulting zygote be?
c. diploid 13. Applying Information How do independent
d. mutated assortment, crossing-over, and random
6. After crossing-over as shown below, what fertilization affect the rate of evolution?
would the sequence of genes be for each of 14. Critiquing Hypotheses A student states that
the chromatids? organisms that reproduce asexually are at a
A A a a disadvantage in a stable environment. If
B B B B you agree with this hypotheses, name one
c c C
or more of its strengths. If you disagree,
C
name one or more of its weaknesses.
d d D D Alternative Assessment
15. Interactive Tutor Unit 4 Cell Reproduction
E e E e
Write a report summarizing the effects of
7. Compare and contrast the processes of various treatments for infertility. Find out
mitosis and meiosis. (Hint: See Chapter 6, how the production of gametes may be
Section 4.) affected in some people who are infertile.


correct answer.
Many zoos have captive breeding programs
1 How do most multicellular eukaryotes for endangered species. These programs
form specialized reproductive cells? attempt to increase genetic diversity through
A. binary fission selective breeding. However, this can be
B. fragmentation difficult if the number of individuals in a
C. meiosis breeding program is low. Researchers can
D. mitosis document the genetic makeup of each indi-
vidual in the breeding program in order to
2 How does meiosis differ from mitosis?
mate individuals that are genetically varied.
F. Mitosis includes cytokinesis, while
meiosis does not. 6 Why might the genetic variation of captive-
G. The DNA is replicated before mitosis bred animals be different from the genetic
but not before meiosis. variation of wild animals?
H. Meiosis produces haploid cells, while A. Wild animals usually produce offspring
mitosis produces diploid cells. that cannot reproduce.
I. Mitosis produces gametes, while B. Wild animals are more likely to live
meiosis produces offspring cells. longer than captive-bred animals.
C. Captive-bred animals are more likely to
3 What is the process that contributes to the
have mutations that lead to diversity.
formation of an embryo from the zygote?
D. Captive-bred animals can mate only
A. fission
with the individuals in their enclosed
B. meiosis
habitat.
C. mitosis
D. oogenesis Interpreting Graphics
4 During what process are genes exchanged Directions (7): Base your answer to question
between homologous chromosomes? 7 on the diagram below.
F. crossing-over H. meiosis
Human Reproduction
G. fertilization I. telophase II

5 Plants experience alternation of genera-

Baby
Adult Adult
female
tions with a sporophyte phase and a male
gametophyte phase. How are sporophytes

and gametophytes different in terms of the
number of chromosomes they have? Sperm Egg
Test Embryo Fertilization
If you are unsure of the answer to a particular ques- Zygote
tion, put a question mark beside it and go on to the

next question. If you have time, go back and recon- 7 Which type of eukaryotic life cycle does
sider any question that you skipped. (Do not write in this diagram represent?
this book.) F. asexual H. diploid
G. cloning I. haploid

Exploration Lab
Modeling Meiosis
SKILLS
• Modeling
OBJECTIVES
• Describe the events that
occur in each stage of the
process of meiosis.
• Relate the process of meiosis
to genetic variation.
MATERIALS
• pipe cleaners of at least two • wooden beads
different colors • white labels Glass frog with eggs
• yarn • scissors
Before You Begin materials listed for this lab. Be sure that
your model cell has at least two pairs of
Meiosis is the process that results in the pro-
chromosomes.
duction of cells with half the normal number
of chromosomes. It occurs in all organisms 2. Write out the plan for building your model.
that undergo sexual reproduction . In this lab, Have your teacher approve the plan before
you will build a model that will help you you begin building the model.
understand the events of meiosis. You can
also use the model to demonstrate the effects You Choose
of events such as crossing-over to explain As you design your experiment, decide the following:
results such as genetic recombination . a. what question you will explore
b. how to construct a cell membrane
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in
c. how to show that your cell is diploid
the paragraph above and for the following
d. how to show the locations of at least two
terms: homologous chromosomes, gamete. genes on each chromosome
2. In what organs in the human body do cells e. how to show that chromosomes are dupli-
undergo meiosis? cated before meiosis begins
3. During interphase of the cell cycle, how 3. Build the cell model your group
does a cell prepare for dividing? designed. CAUTION: Sharp or
4. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a pointed objects can cause injury. Handle
question you would like to explore about scissors carefully. Use your model to
meiosis. demonstrate the phases of meiosis. Draw
and label each phase you model.
Procedure 4. Use your model to explore one of the ques-
tions written by your group for step 4 of
PART A: Design a Model
Before You Begin. Describe the steps you
1. Work with the members of your lab group took to explore your question.
to design a model of a cell using the

PART B: Test Hypotheses Analyze and Conclude
Answer each of the following questions by 1. Analyzing Results How do the nuclei
writing a hypothesis. Use your model to test you made by modeling meiosis compare
each hypothesis, and describe your results. with the nucleus of the cell you started
5. In humans, gametes (eggs and sperm) with? Explain your result.
result from meiosis. Will all gametes pro- 2. Recognizing Relationships How are
duced by one parent be identical? homologous chromosomes different from
6. When an egg and a sperm fuse during sex- chromatids?
ual reproduction, the resulting cell (the 3. Forming Reasoned Opinions How is
first cell of a new organism) is called a synapsis important to the outcome of
zygote. How many copies of each chro- meiosis? Explain.
mosome and each gene will be found in a
4. Evaluating Methods How could you
zygote?
modify your model to better illustrate the
7. Crossing-over frequently occurs between process of meiosis?
the chromatids of homologous chromo-
5. Drawing Conclusions How are the
somes during meiosis. Under what cir-
processes of meiosis similar to those of
cumstances does crossing-over result in
mitosis? How are they different?
new combinations of genes in gametes?
6. Predicting Outcomes What would hap-
8. Synapsis (the pairing of homologous
pen to the chromosome number of an
chromosomes) must occur before cross-
organism’s offspring if the gametes for sex-
ing-over can take place. How would the
ual reproduction were made by mitosis
outcome of meiosis be different if synap-
instead of by meiosis?
sis did not occur?
about meiosis or sexual reproduction that
PART C: Cleanup and Disposal could be explored with your model.
9. Dispose of paper and yarn scraps in
the designated waste container.
Do You Know?
equipment. Return lab equipment to Do research in the library or media center
its proper place. Wash your hands thor- to answer these questions:
oughly before you leave the lab and after 1. What types of human abnormalities
finishing all work. arise when chromosomes do not sepa-
rate properly during meiosis?
2. How do chemicals such as nicotine
affect meiosis?
explore your own questions about meiosis
and gamete formation.
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Meiosis
Keyword: HX4120
CHAPTER 7 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction 159

Show jumper

CHAPTER
8 Mendel and
Heredity
1. Define the term gamete. (Chapter 6, Section 1)
The Origins of Genetics
2. Summarize the relationship between chromo-
Mendel’s Studies of Characters
somes and genes. (Chapter 6, Section 1)
Characters Expressed as Simple Ratios
3. Differentiate between autosomes and
sex chromosomes. (Chapter 6, Section 1)
Section 2
4. Describe how independent assortment
during meiosis contributes to genetic Mendel’s Theory
variation. (Chapter 7, Section 1) A Theory of Heredity
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the The Laws of Heredity
chapters indicated.
Section 3
Studying Heredity
Reading Activity Punnett Squares
Outcomes of Crosses
Before you read this chapter, write a short list of Inheritance of Characters
all the things you know about inheritance. Then
write a list of the things that you want to know Section 4
about inheritance. Save your list, and to assess
Complex Patterns of Heredity
what you have learned, see how many questions
Complex Control of Characters
you can answer after reading this chapter. Genetic Disorders
Treating Genetic Disorders
www.scilinks.org
Horses like this show jumper are bred for certain char-
acteristics, such as speed and agility. Most character-
istics are inherited—passed down from parents to
offspring.
CHAPTER 8 Mendel and Heredity 161
Section 1 The Origins of Genetics
Objectives Mendel’s Studies of Characters
● Identify the investigator Many of your characteristics—or characters—including the color
whose studies formed the and shape of your eyes and the texture of your hair resemble those
basis of modern genetics. of your parents. The passing of characters from parents to offspring
● List characteristics that make is called heredity . From the beginning of recorded history, humans
the garden pea a good sub- have attempted to alter crop plants and domestic animals to give
ject for genetic study. them traits that are more useful to us. Before DNA and chromo-
● Summarize the three major somes were discovered, heredity was one of the greatest mysteries
steps of Gregor Mendel’s of science.
garden pea experiments.
● Relate the ratios that Mendel Mendel’s Breeding Experiments
observed in his crosses to The scientific study of heredity began more than a century ago with
his data. the work of an Austrian monk named Gregor Johann Mendel, shown
in Figure 1. Mendel carried out experiments in which he bred
Key Terms different varieties of the garden pea Pisum sativum, shown in Figure 2
heredity and in Table 1. British farmers had performed similar breeding
genetics experiments more than 200 years earlier. But Mendel was the first to
monohybrid cross develop rules that accurately predict patterns of heredity. The pat-
true-breeding terns that Mendel discovered form the basis of genetics , the branch
P generation of biology that focuses on heredity.
F1 generation
Mendel’s parents were peasants, so he learned much about agri-
F2 generation
culture. This knowledge became invaluable later in his life.
As a young man, Mendel studied theology and was ordained as a
priest. Three years after being ordained, he went to the University of
Vienna to study science and mathematics. There he learned how to
study science through experimentation and how to use mathematics
to explain natural phenomena.
Mendel later repeated the experi-
Figure 1 Gregor Mendel. ments of a British farmer, T. A. Knight.
Mendel’s experiments with Knight had crossed a variety of the gar-
garden peas led to our den pea that had purple flowers with a
modern understanding of variety that had white flowers. (The
heredity.
term cross refers to the mating or
breeding of two individuals.) All of the
offspring of Knight’s crosses had pur-
ple flowers. However, when two of the
purple-flowered offspring were crossed,
their offspring showed both white and
purple flowers. The white trait had
reappeared in the second generation!
Mendel’s experiments differed from
Knight’s because Mendel counted the
number of each kind of offspring and
analyzed the data.
162 CHAPTER 8 Mendel and Heredity

Figure 2 Pollen transfer
in Mendel’s experiments
To cross-pollinate flowers of
different colors, Mendel first
removed the stamens—the
pollen-producing structures—
from one flower.
Mendel transferred pollen from

a second flower to the pistil of
the original flower.
Useful Features in Peas
The garden pea is a good subject for studying heredity for several rea-
sons. Table 1 shows the seven characters that Mendel chose to study.
1. Several characters of the garden pea exist in two clearly different
forms. For example, the flower color is either purple or white—
there are no intermediate forms. Note that the term character is
used to mean inherited characteristic, such as flower color. Trait
refers to a single form of a character—having purple flowers is a
trait.
2. The male and female reproductive parts of garden peas are
enclosed within the same flower. You can control mating by
allowing a flower to fertilize itself (self-fertilization), or you can
transfer the pollen to another flower on a different plant (cross-
pollination). To cross-pollinate two pea plants, Mendel removed
the stamens (the male reproductive organs that produce pollen)
from the flower of one plant. As shown in Figure 2, he then
dusted the pistil (the female reproductive organ that produces
eggs) of that plant with pollen from a different pea plant.
3. The garden pea is small, grows easily, matures quickly, and pro-
duces many offspring. Thus, results can be obtained quickly, and
there are plenty of subjects to count.
Table 1 The Seven Characters Mendel Studied and Their Contrasting Traits
Flower Seed Seed Pod Pod Flower Plant
color color shape color shape position height
SECTION 1 The Origins of Genetics 163

Traits Expressed as Simple Ratios
Mendel’s initial experiments were monohybrid crosses. A
monohybrid cross is a cross that involves one pair of contrasting
traits. For example, crossing a plant with purple flowers and a plant
with white flowers is a monohybrid cross. Mendel carried out his
experiments in three steps, as summarized in Figure 3.
Step Mendel allowed each variety of garden pea to self-pollinate
for several generations. This ensured that each variety was
true-breeding for a particular character; that is, all the off-
spring would display only one form of the character. For
example, a true-breeding purple-flowering plant should
produce only plants with purple flowers in subsequent
generations.
These true-breeding plants served as the parental gener-
ation in Mendel’s experiments. The parental generation, or
P generation , are the first two individuals that are crossed
in a breeding experiment.
Step Mendel then cross-pollinated two P generation plants that
The word filial is from the had contrasting traits, such as purple flowers and white
Latin filialis, meaning “of a flowers. Mendel called the offspring of the P generation the
son or daughter.” Thus F first filial generation, or F1 generation. He then examined
(filial) generations are all
each F1 plant and recorded the number of F1 plants
those generations that
follow a P (parental) expressing each trait.
generation. Step Finally, Mendel allowed the F1 generation to self-pollinate.
He called the offspring of the F1 generation plants the sec-
ond filial generation, or F2 generation. Again, each F2 plant
Figure 3 was characterized and counted.

Mendel’s Results
Each of Mendel’s F1 plants showed only one form of the character.
The contrasting trait had disappeared! But when the F1 generation
was allowed to self-pollinate, the missing trait reappeared in some of
the plants in the F2 generation. When Mendel crossed purple flowers
with white flowers, all of the offspring in the F1 generation had pur-
ple flowers. In the F2 generation, 705 plants had purple flowers and
224 plants had white flowers—a ratio of 705 to 224.
A ratio is a comparison of two numbers and can be written as a
70
5
fraction (
224 ) or with a colon (705:224). You can see patterns more
easily in data if you reduce a ratio to its simplest form. To do this,
divide each term by the smaller of the two terms. This reduces
705:224 to 3.15, which is then rounded to 3:1.
705 224

224
224 3.15 (or about 3)
For each of the seven characters Mendel studied, he found the same 3:1
ratio of plants expressing the contrasting traits in the F2 generation.
8
0
493 2
5
x2 + <
6x -
7 Calculating Mendel’s Ratios
Background
You can calculate the ratios Mendel obtained in the F2
generation for the characters he studied. First copy the
partially completed table below on a separate piece of paper.
Analysis
Characters F2 generation results Ratio
1. Calculate the ratio for each
contrasting trait. Use colon form. Flower color 705 purple 224 white 3.15:1
2. State the ratio for each pair of Seed color 6,022 yellow 2,001 green
contrasting traits in words and Seed shape 5,474 round 1,850 wrinkled
as a fraction.
Pod color 428 green 152 yellow
3. Critical Thinking
Pod shape 882 round 299 constricted
Interpreting Results Do the
data confirm a 3:1 ratio in the Flower position 651 axial 207 top
F2 generation for each of the 787 tall 277 dwarf
Plant height
characters he studied?
Section 1 Review
Describe the contribution of Mendel to the Critical Thinking Evaluating Outcomes What
foundation of modern genetics. differences would be expected in experiments with
squash plants, which usually do not self-pollinate?
Describe why garden-pea plants are good
subjects for genetic experiments. Standardized Test Prep When two true-breeding
pea plants that show contrasting traits are
Summarize the design of Mendel’s pea-plant crossed, all of the offspring show
studies. A both forms of C one-fourth of
State the ratio Mendel obtained in each F2
the character. each trait.
generation for each of the characters he studied. B one form of the character. D a different trait.

SECTION 1 The Origins of Genetics 165
2
Section # Mendel’s
A Theory
Head 1-line
Objectives A Theory of Heredity
● Describe the four Before Mendel’s experiments, many people thought offspring were a
major hypotheses Mendel blend of the traits of their parents. For example, if a tall plant were
developed. crossed with a short plant, the offspring would be medium in height.
● Define the terms homozy- Mendel’s results did not support the blending hypothesis. Mendel cor-
gous, heterozygous, genotype, rectly concluded that each pea has two separate “heritable factors” for
and phenotype. each character—one from each parent. As shown in Figure 4, when
● Compare Mendel’s two laws gametes (sperm and egg cells) form, each receives only one of the
of heredity. organism’s two factors for each character. When gametes fuse during
fertilization, the offspring has two factors for each character, one
Key Terms from each parent.
allele
dominant Mendel’s Hypotheses
recessive The four hypotheses Mendel developed were based directly on the
homozygous results of his experiments. These four hypotheses now make up the
heterozygous Mendelian theory of heredity—the foundation of genetics.
genotype
phenotype 1. For each inherited character, an individual has two copies
law of segregation of the gene—one from each parent.
law of independent 2. There are alternative versions of genes. For example, the
assortment gene for flower color in peas can exist in a “purple” version
Figure 4 Mendel’s factors

Each parent has two separate “factors,”
or genes, for a particular trait.
Parent Parent
1. During gamete Meiosis

formation (meio-
sis), the two
genes separate. Gametes
2. During fertilization,
each offspring Fertilization
receives one version
of each gene (allele)
from each parent. Y = Gene for
yellow seeds
y = Gene for
green seeds

or a “white” version. Today the different versions of a gene
are called its alleles . As shown in Figure 4, an individual
receives one allele from each parent. Each allele can be
passed on when the individual reproduces.
3. When two different alleles occur together, one of them may
be completely expressed, while the other may have no
observable effect on the organism’s appearance. Mendel
described the expressed form of the character as
dominant . The trait that was not expressed when the
dominant form of the character was present was
described as recessive . For every pair of contrasting PP
Purple flowers,
traits that Mendel studied, the allele for one form of the homozygous
character was always dominant and the allele for the dominant
other form of the character was always recessive. For Pp
example, if a plant has both purple and white alleles for Purple flowers,
heterozygous
flower color but blooms purple flowers, then purple is
the dominant form of the character; white is the reces-
sive form. This is shown in Figure 5.
4. When gametes are formed, the alleles for each gene in an
individual separate independently of one another. Thus,
gametes carry only one allele for each inherited character.
When gametes unite during fertilization, each gamete
contributes one allele. As shown in Figure 4, each parent
can contribute only one of the alleles because of the way
gametes are produced during the process of meiosis.
Mendel’s Findings in Modern Terms pp

Geneticists have developed specific terms and ways of representing White flowers,
homozygous
an individual’s genetic makeup. For example, letters are often used recessive
to represent alleles. Dominant alleles are indicated by writing the
first letter of the character as a capital letter. For instance, in pea Figure 5 Recessive alleles.
plants, purple flower color is a dominant trait and is written as P. Alleles can be present but not
Recessive alleles are also indicated by writing the first letter of the expressed. The allele for purple
flowers, P, is dominant to the
dominant trait, but the letter is lowercase. For example, white
recessive allele, p.
flower color is recessive and is written as p.
If the two alleles of a particular gene present in an individual are
the same, the individual is said to be homozygous (hoh moh ZIE
guhs) for that character. For example, a plant with two white flower
alleles is homozygous for flower color, as shown in Figure 5. The
allele for yellow peas, Y, is dominant to the allele for green peas, y.
A plant with two yellow-pea alleles, YY, is homozygous for seed
color.
If the alleles of a particular gene present in an individual are dif-
ferent, the individual is heterozygous (heht uhr oh ZIE guhs) for
that character. As shown in Figure 5, a plant with one “purple
flower” allele and one “white flower” allele is heterozygous for
flower color. A plant with one “yellow pea” allele and one “green
pea” allele is heterozygous for seed color.
SECTION 2 Mendel’s Theory 167

In heterozygous individuals, only the dominant
allele is expressed; the recessive allele is present
but unexpressed. An example of a human trait
that is expressed in a heterozygous individual is
freckles. Freckles F, is a dominant allele. The
recessive allele is f, no freckles. The recessive
allele may be present but not expressed. As shown
in Figure 6, people who are heterozygous for
freckles (Ff ) will have freckles even though they
also have the allele for no freckles, f.
The set of alleles that an individual has for a
character is called its genotype (JEE noh tiep).
Figure 6 Dominent alleles. In het- The physical appearance of a character is
erozygous individuals, freckles, F, is the called its phenotype (FEE noh tiep). Phenotype
dominant allele. Similarly, the allele for a is determined by which alleles are present. For
cleft chin is dominant to the allele for a
example, if Pp is the genotype of a pea plant, its
chin without a cleft.
phenotype is purple flowers. If pp is the geno-
type of a pea plant, its phenotype is white flow-
ers. When considering seed color, if Yy is the
genotype of a pea plant, its phenotype is yellow
seeds. If yy is the genotype of a pea plant, its
phenotype is green seeds. Note that by conven-
tion, the dominant form of the character is
written first, followed by the lowercase letter
for the recessive form of the character.
Identifying Dominant
or Recessive Traits
You can determine some of the genotypes and all of the pheno-
types for human characters that are inherited as simple domi-
nant or recessive traits.
Materials Dominant trait Recessive trait
pencil, paper
Cleft chin No cleft
Dimples No dimples
Procedure
Hair above knuckles Hairless fingers
1. Make a table like the one at
right. For each character, Freckles No freckles
circle the phenotype that
best matches your own Analysis
phenotype.
1. Summarize the class 3. Critical Thinking
2. Determine how many results for each character. Applying Information For
students in your class share which phenotypes in the table
2. Calculate the class
your phenotype by recording can you determine a person’s
dominant:recessive ratio for
your results in a table on the genotype without ever having
each character.
chalkboard. seen his or her parents?
Explain.

The Laws of Heredity
Mendel’s hypotheses brilliantly predicted the results of his crosses
and also accounted for the ratios he observed. Similar patterns of
heredity have since been observed in countless other organisms.
Because of their importance, Mendel’s ideas are often referred to as
the laws of heredity.
The Law of Segregation

The first law of heredity describes the behavior of chromosomes
during meiosis. At this time, homologous chromosomes and then
chromatids are separated. The first law, the law of segregation ,
states that the two alleles for a character segregate (separate) when
gametes are formed (as shown in Figure 4).
Figure 7 The law of
The Law of Independent Assortment independent assortment.
Mendel found that the
Mendel went on to study whether the inheritance of one character
inheritance of one character,
(such as plant height) influenced the inheritance of a different char- such as plant height, did not
acter (such as flower color). To study how different pairs of genes influence the inheritance of
are inherited, Mendel conducted dihybrid crosses. A dihybrid cross another character, such as
is a cross that considers two pairs of contrasting characters. For flower color.
example, a cross that considers both plant height and flower color is
a dihybrid cross.
Mendel found that for the characters he studied, the inheritance of
one character did not influence the inheritance of any other character.
The law of independent assortment states that the alleles of different
genes separate independently of one another during gamete forma-
tion. For example, the alleles for the height of the plant shown in Fig-
ure 7 separate independently of the alleles for its flower color. We now
know that this law applies only to genes that are located on different
chromosomes or that are far apart on the same chromosome.
The search for the physical nature of Mendel’s “factors” domi-
nated biology for more than half a century after Mendel’s work was
rediscovered in 1900. We now know that the units of heredity are
portions of DNA called genes, which are found on the chromosomes
that an individual inherits from its parents.
Section 2 Review
Differentiate between alleles and genes. Critical Thinking Critiquing Explanations
Review Mendel’s two laws according to their
Apply the terms homozygous, heterozygous, strengths and weaknesses in terms of our mod-
dominant, or recessive to describe plants with ern understanding of meiosis.
the genotypes PP and Pp.
Standardized Test Prep If a pea plant is heterozy-
Identify the phenotypes of rabbits with the gous for a particular character, how can the alleles
genotypes Bb and bb, where B = black coat and that control the character be described?
b = brown coat. A two recessive C one dominant, one recessive
Determine whether the rabbits in item 3 are B two dominant D three dominant, one recessive
heterozygous or homozygous.
SECTION 2 Mendel’s Theory 169

3
Section # Studying
A Heredity
Head 1-line
Objectives Punnett Squares
● Predict the results of mono- Animal breeders try to breed animals with very specific character-
hybrid genetic crosses by istics. Thus, breeders must be able to predict how often a trait will
using Punnett squares. appear when two animals are crossed (bred). Likewise, horticultur-
● Apply a test cross to deter- ists (plant breeders) need to produce plants with very specific
mine the genotype of an characteristics. One simple way of predicting the expected results
organism with a dominant (not necessarily the actual results) of the genotypes or phenotypes
phenotype. in a cross is to use a Punnett square.
● Predict the results of mono- A Punnett square is a diagram that predicts the outcome of a
hybrid genetic crosses by genetic cross by considering all possible combinations of gametes
using probabilities. in the cross. Named for its inventor, Reginald Punnett, the sim-
● Analyze a simple plest Punnett square consists of four boxes inside a square. As
pedigree. shown in Figure 8, the possible gametes that one parent can pro-
duce are written along the top of the square. The possible gametes
Key Terms that the other parent can produce are written along the left side of
the square. Each box inside the square is filled in with two letters
Punnett square
test cross
obtained by combining the allele along the top of the box with the
probability allele along the side of the box. The letters in the boxes indicate
pedigree the possible genotypes of the offspring.
sex-linked gene
One Pair of Contrasting Traits
Punnett squares can be used to predict the outcome of a monohybrid
cross (a cross that considers one pair of contrasting traits between
two individuals). For example, a Punnett square can be used to pre-
dict the outcome of a cross between a pea plant that is homozygous
for yellow seed color (YY) and a pea plant that is homozygous for
green seed color (yy). Figure 8 shows that 100 percent of the off-
spring in this type of cross are expected to be heterozygous (Yy),
expressing the dominant trait of yellow seed color.
Figure 8 Monohybrid cross: homozygous plants

A cross between a pea
plant that is homozygous YY
for yellow seeds (YY ) and (Homozygous dominant)
Possible gametes Y Y
a pea plant that is from each parent
homozygous for green
seeds (yy ) will produce
only yellow heterozygous y
offspring (Yy ).
Yy Yy
yy
(Homozygous recessive)
y
y
4
_ = Yy (Heterozygous) Yy Yy
4

Figure 9 shows a Punnett square that predicts Figure 9 Monohybrid cross:
the results of a monohybrid cross between two heterozygous plants
pea plants that are both heterozygous (Yy) for Crossing two pea plants
seed color. One-fourth of the offspring would be that are heterozygous
Yy
expected to have the genotype YY, two-fourths (or for seed color (Yy) will (Heterozygous)
one-half) would be expected to have the genotype produce offspring in
the ratio shown in the Y y
Yy, and one-fourth would be expected to have the
Punnett square.
genotype yy. Another way to express this is to say
that the genotypic ratio is 1 YY : 2 Yy : 1 yy. Y
Because the Y allele is dominant over the y allele, YY Yy
three-fourths of the offspring would be yellow,
and one-fourth would be green. The phenotypic Yy
(Heterozygous)
ratio is 3 yellow : 1 green.
y
Punnett squares allow direct and simple predic-
Yy yy
tions to be made about the outcomes of genetic
crosses. Although animal breeders and horticul-
turists are not always certain what characteristics 1
_
4 = YY (Homozygous dominant)
will turn up in the offspring, they can use the pre-
2
_
dictions from Punnett squares to cross individuals 4 = Yy (Heterozygous)
that they know will be most likely to produce off- 1
_
spring with the desired phenotypes. 4 = yy (Homozygous recessive)
Then write the genotypes of these gametes on the

Exploring Further top and left sides of a Punnett square (Figure B).
Complete the Punnett square
Crosses That Involve On a separate sheet of paper, make a copy of the
Punnett square in Figure B, which has been par-
Two Characters tially filled in with the predicted genotypes. Fill in
the remaining genotypes, then do the following:
Suppose a horticulturist has two characters that • List all of the possible genotypes that can
she wants to consider when crossing two plants. result.
A cross that involves two pairs of contrasting
traits is called a dihybrid cross. For example, she • Calculate the genotypic ratio for this cross.
may want to predict the results of a cross • List all of the possible phenotypes that can
between two pea plants that are heterozygous for result.
seed shape (R round, r wrinkled) and seed • Calculate the phenotypic ratio for this cross.
color (Y yellow, y green).
Determine possible gametes Figure B Punnett square
To use a Punnett square to predict the results of
this cross, first consider how the four alleles from Yellow
either parent (RrYy) can combine to form gametes Possible
gametes from RY Ry rY ry
that are either RY, Ry, rY, or ry (Figure A). each parent
Parent RY RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy

Figure A Gametes
Ry RRYy RrYy
(Round, yellow)
RrYy Yellow rY RrYY RrYy
RY Ry rY ry ry RrYy
Possible gametes
SECTION 3 Studying Heredity 171

Determining Unknown Genotypes
Animal breeders, horticulturists, and others involved in breeding
organisms often need to know whether an organism with a dominant
phenotype is heterozygous or homozygous for a character. How do
they determine this? For example, how might a horticulturist deter-
mine whether a pea plant with a dominant phenotype, such as yellow
seeds, is homozygous (YY) or heterozygous (Yy)? The horticulturist
could perform a test cross. In a test cross , an individual whose
phenotype is dominant, but whose genotype is not known, is crossed
with a homozygous recessive individual.
For example, a plant with yellow seeds but of unknown genotype
(Y?) is test-crossed with a plant with green seeds (yy). If all of the off-
spring produce yellow seeds, the offspring must be Yy. Thus, the
genotype of the “unknown” plant must be YY. If half of the offspring
produce yellow seeds and half produce green seeds, the genotype of
the unknown plant must be Yy. In reality, if the cross produces even
one plant that produces green seeds, the genotype of the unknown
parent plant is likely to be heterozygous. After performing a test
cross, the horticulturist can continue breeding the original plant
with more certainty of its genotype.
Analyzing a Test Cross

Background
You can use a test cross to determine whether a plant with pur-
0100010110
011101010 ple flowers is heterozygous (Pp) or homozygous dominant
0010010001001 (PP). On a separate sheet of paper, copy the two Punnett
1100100100010
0000101001001 squares shown below, and fill in the boxes in each square.
1101010100100
0101010010010
P p P P
Is this purple
p p flowering pea
plant Pp or PP?
p p
Figure A Heterozygous (Pp) plant Figure B Homozygous (PP) plant
Analysis
1. Determine what the letters 3. Calculate the genotypic 4. Critical Thinking
at the top and side of each and phenotypic ratios that Predicting Outcomes
box represent. would be predicted if the If half of the offspring have
2. Determine what the letters parent of the unknown white flowers, what is the
genotype were homozygous genotype of the plant with
in each box represent.
for the character (Figure B). purple flowers?

Outcomes of Crosses
Like Punnett squares, probability calculations can be used to predict
the results of genetic crosses. Probability is the likelihood that a spe-
cific event will occur. Probabilities can be expressed in words, as Because probability is a
decimals, as percentages, or as fractions. For example, if an event ratio of a subset of all possi-
definitely will occur, its probability can be expressed as either 1 out ble outcomes to all possible
of 1 (in words), 1 (as a decimal numeral), 100 percent (as a percent- outcomes, the value for
age), or 11 (as a fraction). If an event definitely will not occur, its probability is never greater
than 1. When it is less than
probability can be expressed as either 0 out of 0, 0, 0 percent, or 00.
one, it can be expressed as
In order to simplify our discussion of probability, we will a fraction or as a percent-
express probabilities as fractions. Probability can be determined age of the whole.
by the following formula:
number of one kind of possible outcome
Probability
total number of all possible outcomes
Consider the possibility that a coin tossed into the air will land
on heads (one possible outcome). The total number of all possible
outcomes is two—heads or tails. Thus, the probability that a coin
will land on heads is 12, as shown in Figure 10.
Probability of a Specific Allele in a Gamete

The same formula can be used to predict the probability of an allele
being present in a gamete. If a pea plant has two alleles for seed color,
the plant can contribute either allele (yellow or green) to the gamete
it produces (the law of independent assortment). For a plant with
two alleles for seed color, the total number of possible outcomes is
two—green or yellow. The probability that a gamete will carry the
allele for green seed color is 21. The probability that a gamete from
this plant will carry the allele for yellow seed color is also 21.
Probability of the Outcome of a Cross

Because two parents are involved in a genetic cross, both parents
must be considered when calculating the probability of the out-
come of a genetic cross. Consider the analogy of two coins being
tossed at the same time. The probability of a penny landing on
heads is 12, and the probability of a nickel landing on heads is 12. The
way one coin falls does not depend on how the other coin falls. Sim-
ilarly, the allele carried by the gamete from the first parent does not
depend on the allele carried by the gamete from the second parent.
The outcomes are independent of each other.
To find the probability that a combination of two independent Figure 10 Probability of
events will occur, multiply the separate probabilities of the two heads or tails. The probability
events. Thus, the probability that a nickel and a penny will both that a tossed coin will land
1
land on heads is on heads is 2. The probability
1 1 1 that a tossed coin will land on

2
2
4
1
tails is 2.

Figure 11 Probability with two coins The possible results of tossing a nickel and a
The probability of the results of flipping two coins penny at the same time and the probability of
is easy to compute. each outcome are shown in Figure 11. Since the
combination of heads and tails can occur in two
possible ways, those two probabilities are added
together.
Probability of each
1 1 2 1
coin landing on Heads Tails
4
4
4 or
2
heads or tails 1
_ 1_
2 2 Consider the possible results that can occur
in a cross between two pea plants that are het-
Heads Tails
Heads 1
_
Heads Heads erozygous for seed shape (Rr). The R allele for
2
1
_ 1_ round seed shape is dominant over the r allele
4 4
for wrinkled seed shape. The probability of each
parent carrying gametes with R or r alleles is 12.
Heads Tails The probability of offspring with RR alleles is
Tails 1
_
Tails Tails
2 1 1 1
1_
4
1_
4

2
2
4
Similarly, the probability of offspring with rr

alleles is
The green boxes have the same 1 1 1
combination (heads, tails), so
2
2
4
the probabilities are added
together. The combination of Rr alleles can occur in two
1
_+1
_=1
_ possible ways. One parent can contribute the R
4 4 2 allele, and the second parent the r allele, or vice
versa. Thus, the probability of offspring with Rr
alleles is
1 1 1

4
4
2
8
0
493 2
5
x2 + <
6x -
7 Predicting the Results of
Crosses Using Probabilities
Background
In rabbits, the allele B for black hair is dominant
over the allele b for brown hair. You can practice
using probabilities to predict the outcome of genetic
crosses by completing the genetic problems below.
Draw Punnett squares for each problem.
Analysis
1. Calculate the probability of heterozygous parent and a
homozygous dominant (BB ) homozygous recessive (bb)
offspring resulting from a parent.
cross between two heterozy-
3. Calculate the probability of 4. Calculate the probability of
gous (Bb) parents.
heterozygous offspring result- homozygous dominant off-
2. Calculate the probability of ing from a cross between a spring resulting from a cross
heterozygous offspring result- homozygous dominant parent between a heterozygous
ing from a cross between a and a homozygous recessive parent and a homozygous
parent. recessive parent.

Inheritance of Traits
Imagine that you want to learn about an inherited trait present in
your family. How would you find out the chances of passing the trait
Real Life
to your children? Geneticists often prepare a pedigree , a family About 10 percent
history that shows how a trait is inherited over several generations. of Dalmatians
are deaf.
Pedigrees are particularly helpful if the trait causes a genetic disor-
Because many
der and the family members want to know if they are carriers or if purebred dogs
their children might get the disorder. Carriers are individuals who are inbred—that
are heterozygous for an inherited disorder but do not show symp- is, they have
toms of the disorder. Carriers can pass the allele for the disorder to closely
their offspring. related parents—some of
Figure 12 shows an example of a pedigree for a family with them are homozygous for
certain recessive disorders.
albinism. In the genetic disorder albinism, the body is unable to pro-
Finding Information
duce an enzyme necessary for the production of melanin. Melanin If you have a purebred
is a pigment that gives dark color to hair, skin, scales, eyes, and dog, find out if that breed
feathers. Without melanin, an organism’s surface coloration may be is prone to a genetic
milky white and its eyes may be pink, as shown in Figure 12. disorder.
Scientists can determine several pieces of genetic information
from a pedigree:
Autosomal or Sex-Linked? If a gene is autosomal, it will appear in
both sexes equally. Recall that an autosome is a chromosome other
than an X or Y sex chromosome. If a trait is sex-linked, its effects are
usually seen only in males. A sex-linked gene’s allele is located only
on the X or Y chromosome. Most sex-linked genes are carried on the
X chromosome and are recessive. Because males have only one X
chromosome, a male who carries a recessive allele on the X chromo-
some will exhibit the sex-linked condition.
A female who carries a recessive allele on one X chromosome will
not exhibit the condition if there is a dominant allele on her other X
chromosome. She will express the recessive condition only if she
inherits two recessive alleles. Thus, her chances of inheriting and
exhibiting a sex-linked condition are significantly less.
Figure 12 Albinism pedigree
Albinism is a genetic disorder transmitted by a recessive allele.
Horizontal lines
indicate matings.
Vertical lines indicate

offspring (arranged from
left to right in order of
their birth).
The purple
symbols represent
affected individuals.
In the wild, albino animals have

Male Male albino little chance of survival. They lack
the pigments that provide protec-
Female Female albino tion from the sun’s ultraviolet rays.

Dominant or Recessive? If the gene is autosomal dominant, every
individual with the condition will have a parent with the condition. If
the condition is recessive, an individual with the condition can have
one, two, or neither parent exhibit the condition.
Heterozygous or Homozygous? If individuals with autosomal traits
are homozygous dominant or heterozygous, their phenotype will
show the dominant allele. If individuals are homozygous recessive,
their phenotype will show the recessive allele. Two people who are
heterozygous carriers of a recessive mutation will not show the
mutation, but they can produce children who are homozygous for
the recessive allele.
Evaluating a Pedigree
Background
The photo shows a family with an albino member.
0100010110
011101010 Pedigrees, such as the one below, can be used to track
0010010001001 different genetic traits, including albinism. Use the pedi-
1100100100010
0000101001001 gree below to practice interpreting a pedigree.
1101010100100
0101010010010
Analysis
1. Interpret the pedigree to
Albino
determine whether the trait is
sex-linked or autosomal and
whether the trait is inherited in a
dominant or recessive manner.
2. Determine whether Female A
is homozygous or heterozygous.
3. Critical Thinking Applying
Information If Female B has
children with a homozygous Female A Female B
individual, what is the probabil-
ity that the children will be Male Female Male with Female with
heterozygous? trait trait
Section 3 Review
Predict the expected phenotypic and genotypic Critical Thinking Analyzing Graphics When
ratios among the offspring of two individuals who analyzing a pedigree, how can you determine if an
are heterozygous for freckles (Ff ) by using a individual is a carrier (heterozygous) for the trait
Punnett square. being studied?
Summarize how a test cross can reveal the Standardized Test Prep A cross between two pea
genotype of a pea plant with round seeds. plants that produce yellow seeds results in 124 off-
spring: 93 produce yellow seeds and 31 produce
Calculate the probability that an individual green seeds. What are the likely genotypes of the
heterozygous for a cleft chin (Cc) and an individ- plants that were crossed?
ual homozygous for a chin without a cleft (cc) will A both Yy C both yy
produce offspring that are homozygous recessive
B both YY D one YY, one Yy
for a chin without a cleft. (cc)
176 CHAPTER 8 Mendel and Heredity Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Complex Patterns
A-Head Section 4
#
2-line
of Heredity
Complex Control of Characters Objectives
A horse with red hair mates with a horse with white hair, and their ● Identify five factors that
offspring has both red and white hair. How can this be? If charac- influence patterns of
ters are controlled by single genes with simple dominant and reces- heredity.
sive alleles, the colt’s hair should be one color or the other. Not ● Describe how
always! Most of the time, characters, such as hair color in horses, mutations can cause
display more-complex patterns of heredity than the simple domi- genetic disorders.
nant-recessive patterns discussed so far. ● List two genetic disorders,
and describe their causes
Characters Influenced by Several Genes and symptoms.
When several genes influence a character, this is an example of ● Evaluate the benefits
polygenic inheritance. The genes for a polygenic character may be of genetic counseling.
scattered along the same chromosome or located on different chro-
mosomes. Determining the effect of any one of these genes is diffi- Key Terms
cult. Due to independent assortment and crossing-over during polygenic inheritance
meiosis, many different combinations appear in offspring. Famil- incomplete dominance
iar examples of polygenic characters in humans include eye color, multiple alleles
height, weight, and hair and skin color. All of these characters have codominance
degrees of intermediate conditions between one extreme and the
other, as shown in Figure 13.
Intermediate Characters
Recall that in Mendel’s pea-plant crosses, one
allele was completely dominant over another.
In some organisms, however, an individual
displays a phenotype that is intermediate
between the two parents, a condition known
as incomplete dominance . For example,
when a snapdragon with red flowers is
crossed with a snapdragon with white flow-
ers, a snapdragon with pink flowers is pro-
duced. Neither the red nor the white allele is
completely dominant over the other allele.
The flowers appear pink because they have
less red pigment than the red flowers. In Cau-
casians, the child of a straight-haired parent
and a curly-haired parent will have wavy hair.
Straight and curly hair are homozygous dom- Figure 13 Polygenic inheritance. Many
inant traits. Wavy hair is heterozygous and is characters—height, weight, hair color, and
intermediate between straight and curly hair. skin color—are influenced by many genes.
SECTION 4 Complex Patterns of Heredity 177

Characters Controlled by Genes with Three
or More Alleles
Genes with three or more alleles are said to have multiple
alleles . For example, in the human population, the ABO blood
groups (blood types) are determined by three alleles, IA, IB, and
i. The letters A and B refer to two carbohydrates on the surface
of red blood cells. In the i allele, neither carbohydrate is present.
The IA and IB alleles are both dominant over i. But neither IA nor
IB is dominant over the other. When IA and IB are both present
they are codominant. Even for characters controlled by genes
with multiple alleles, an individual can have only two of the pos-
sible alleles for that gene. Figure 14 shows how combinations of
the three different alleles can produce four different blood
types—A, B, AB, and O. Notice that a person who inherits two i
alleles has type O blood.
Characters with Two Forms Displayed

at the Same Time
For some characters, two dominant alleles are expressed at the
same time. In this case, both forms of the character are dis-
played, a phenomenon called codominance. Codominance is
different from incomplete dominance because both traits are
displayed.
The situation of human ABO blood groups, as discussed
above, is an example of co-dominance. The genotype of a person
who has blood type AB is IAIB, and neither allele is dominant
over the other. Type AB blood cells carry both A- and B-types of
carbohydrate molecules on their surfaces.
Figure 14 Multiple alleles control the ABO blood groups

Different combinations of the three alleles IA, IB, and i result in four different blood
phenotypes, A, AB, B, and O. For example, a person with the alleles IA and i
would have blood type A.
Possible alleles
IA IB i
IA IAIA IAIB IAi

Possible alleles
IB IAIB I BI B I Bi
i IAi I Bi ii
Blood types A AB B O

Characters Influenced by the
Environment
An individual’s phenotype often depends on condi-
tions in the environment. In plants, hydrangea (hie
DRAYN juh) flowers of the same genetic variety
range in color from blue to pink, as shown in
Figure 15. Hydrangea plants in acidic soil bloom
blue flowers, while those in neutral to basic soil will
bloom pink flowers.
The color of the arctic fox is affected by tempera-
ture. During summer, the fox produces enzymes that
make pigments. These pigments darken the fox’s coat
to a reddish brown, as shown in Figure 16, enabling
the fox to blend in with the summer landscape.
During the winter, the pigment-producing genes of
the arctic fox do not function because of the cold tem- Figure 15 Environmental
perature. As a result, the coat of the fox is white, and influences on flower color.
the animal blends in with the snowy background. Hydrangea with the same
Fur color in Siamese cats is also influenced by temperature. In a genotype for flower color
Siamese cat, the fur on its ears, nose, paws, and tail is darker than express different phenotypes
depending on the acidity of
on the rest of its body. The Siamese cat has a genotype that results
the soil.
in dark fur at locations on its body that are cooler than the normal
body temperature. Thus, the darkened parts have a lower body tem-
perature than the light parts.
In humans many characters, such as height, are influenced by the
environment. For example, height is influenced by nutrition, an
internal environmental condition. Exposure to the sun, an external
environmental condition, alters the color of the skin. Many aspects
of human personality, such as aggressive behavior, are strongly influ-
enced by the environment, although genes appear to play an impor-
tant role. Because identical twins have identical genes, they are often
used to study environmental influences. Because identical twins are
genetically identical, any differences between them are attributed to
environmental influences.
Figure 16 Environmental influences on fur color

Can the same species of fox look so different? Many arctic mammals, such as
the arctic fox, develop white fur during the winter and dark fur during the summer.

Genetic Disorders
In order for a person to develop and function normally, the proteins
encoded by his or her genes must function precisely. Unfortunately,
sometimes genes are damaged or are copied incorrectly, resulting
in faulty proteins. Changes in genetic material are called mutations.
Mutations are rare because cells have efficient systems for correct-
ing errors. But mutations sometimes occur, and they may have
harmful effects.
The harmful effects produced by inherited mutations are called
genetic disorders. Many mutations are carried by recessive alleles
in heterozygous individuals. This means that two phenotypically
normal people who are heterozygous carriers of a recessive muta-
tion can produce children who are homozygous for the recessive
allele. In such cases, the effects of the mutated allele cannot
be avoided. Several human genetic disorders are summarized in
Table 2.
Sickle Cell Anemia

An example of a recessive genetic disorder is sickle cell anemia, a
condition caused by a mutated allele that produces a defective
form of the protein hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is found within red
blood cells, where it binds oxygen and transports it through the
body. In sickle cell anemia, the defective form of hemoglobin
causes many red blood cells to bend into a sickle shape, as seen in
Figure 17 Sickle cell. One
out of 500 African Americans Figure 17. The sickle-shaped cells rupture easily, resulting in less
has sickle cell anemia, which oxygen being carried by the blood. Sickle-shaped cells also tend
is caused by a gene mutation to get stuck in blood vessels; this can cut off blood supply to
that produces a defective form an organ.
of hemoglobin. The recessive allele that causes sickle-shaped red blood
cells also helps protect the cells of heterozygous individuals
from the effects of malaria. Malaria is a disease caused by
a parasitic protozoan that invades red blood cells. The sick-
led red blood cells of heterozygous individuals cause the
death of the parasite. But the individual’s normal red blood
cells can still transport enough oxygen. Therefore, these
people are protected from the effects of malaria that
threaten individuals who are homozygous dominant for the
hemoglobin gene.
Cystic Fibrosis (CF)

Cystic fibrosis is the most common fatal, hereditary, reces-
sive disorder among Caucasians. One in 25 Caucasian indi-
viduals has at least one copy of a defective gene that makes a
protein necessary to move chloride into and out of cells.
About 1 in 2,500 Caucasian infants in the United States is
homozygous for the cf allele. The airways of the lungs
become clogged with thick mucus, and the ducts of the liver
and pancreas become blocked. While treatments can relieve
some of the symptoms, there is no known cure.
Hemophilia
Another recessive genetic disorder is hemophilia (hee moh FIHL
ee uh), a condition that impairs the blood’s ability to clot.
www.scilinks.org
Hemophilia is a sex-linked trait. More than a dozen genes code for Topic: Genetic Disorders
the proteins involved in blood clotting. A mutation on one of these Keyword: HX4091
genes on the X chromosome causes the form of hemophilia called
hemophilia A. If the mutation appears on the X chromosome,
which a male receives from his mother, he does not have a normal
gene on the Y chromosome to compensate. Therefore, he will
develop hemophilia.
Huntington’s Disease (HD)

Huntington’s disease is a genetic disorder caused by a dominant
allele located on an autosome. The first symptoms of HD—mild
forgetfulness and irritability—appear in victims in their thirties or
forties. In time, HD causes loss of muscle control, uncontrollable
physical spasms, severe mental illness, and eventually death.
Unfortunately, most people who have the HD allele do not know
they have the disease until after they have had children. Thus, the
disease is unknowingly passed on from one generation to the next.
Table 2 Some Human Genetic Disorders

Disorder Dominant or Symptom Defect Frequency Among
Recessive Human Births
Sickle Cell Recessive Poor blood circulation Abnormal hemoglobin 1 in 500

Anemia molecules (African Americans)
Hypercholes- Dominant Excessive cholesterol Abnormal form of cell 1 in 500

terolemia levels in blood, leading surface receptor for
to heart disease cholesterol
Tay-Sachs Recessive Deterioration of central Defective form of a 1 in 3,500

Disease in early childhood nervous system; death brain enzyme (Ashkenazi Jews)
Cystic Recessive Mucus clogs organs Defective chloride-ion 1 in 2,500

Fibrosis including the lungs, transport protein (Caucasians)
liver, and pancreas;
affected individuals
usually do not
survive to old age
Hemophilia A Sex-linked Failure of blood Defective form of a 1 in 10,000

(Classical) recessive to clot blood-clotting factor (males)
Huntington’s Dominant Gradual deterioration Inhibitor of brain-cell 1 in 10,000

Disease of brain tissue in middle metabolism is made
age; shortened life
expectancy

Treating Genetic Disorders
Most genetic disorders cannot be cured, although progress is being
www.scilinks.org made. A person with a family history of genetic disorders may wish
Topic: Genetic Counseling to undergo genetic counseling before becoming a parent. Genetic
Keyword: HX4090 counseling is a form of medical guidance that informs people about
genetic problems that could affect them or their offspring.
In some cases, a genetic disorder can be treated if it is diagnosed
early enough. For example, an individual with the genetic disorder
phenylketonuria (PKU) lacks an enzyme that converts the amino
acid phenylalanine into the amino acid tyrosine. As a result, pheny-
lalanine builds up in the body and causes severe mental retardation.
If PKU is diagnosed soon after birth, however, the newborn can
be placed on a low-phenylalanine diet. Because this disorder can be
easily diagnosed by inexpensive laboratory tests, many states require
PKU testing of all newborns.
Gene Therapy
Gene technology may soon allow scientists to correct certain recessive
genetic disorders by replacing defective genes with copies of healthy
ones, an approach called gene therapy. The essential first step in gene
therapy is to isolate a copy of the gene. The defective cf gene was iso-
lated in 1989. In 1990, a working cf gene was successfully transferred
into human lung cells growing in tissue culture by attaching the cf
gene to the DNA of a cold virus. The cold virus—carrying the normal
cf gene piggyback—easily infects lung cells. The cf gene enters the lung
cells and begins producing functional CF protein. Thus, the defective
cells are “cured” and are able to transport chloride ions across their
plasma membranes.
Similar attempts in humans, however, were not successful. Most
people have had colds and, as a consequence, have built up a natural
immunity to the cold virus. Their lungs therefore reject the cold virus
and its cf passenger. In the last few years, similar attempts using a
different virus to transport the cf gene into lung cells have been ini-
tiated. This virus, called AAV, produces almost no immune response
and so seems a much more suitable vehicle for introducing cf into
cells. Clinical trials are underway, and the outlook is promising.
Section 4 Review
Differentiate between incomplete dominance Critical Thinking Justifying Conclusions
and codominance. A nurse states that a person cannot have the blood
type ABO. Do you agree or disagree? Explain.
Identify two examples of characters that are
influenced by environmental conditions. Standardized Test Prep The mutated allele that
causes Huntington’s disease is
Summarize how a genetic disorder can result A sex-linked and C autosomal and
from a mutation. recessive. recessive.
Describe how males inherit hemophilia. B sex-linked and D autosomal and
dominant. dominant.

ZONE
1 The Origins of Genetics Section 1
● Gregor Mendel bred varieties of the garden pea in an heredity (162)
genetics (162)
attempt to understand heredity. Mendel observed that con-
monohybrid cross (164)
trasting traits appear in offspring according to simple ratios. true-breeding (164)
● In Mendel’s experiments, only one of the two contrasting P generation (164)
forms of a character was expressed in the F1 generation. The F1 generation (164)
F2 generation (164)
other form reappeared in the F2 generation in a 3:1 ratio.
2 Mendel’s Theory Section 2

● Different versions of a gene are called alleles. An individual allele (167)
usually has two alleles for a gene, each inherited from a dominant (167)
different parent. recessive (167)
homozygous (167)
● Individuals with the same two alleles for a gene are heterozygous (167)
homozygous; those with two different alleles for a gene genotype (168)
are heterozygous. phenotype (168)
law of segregation (169)
● The law of segregation states that the two alleles for a gene law of independent assortment
separate when gametes are formed. The law of independent (169)
assortment states that two or more pairs of alleles separate
independently of one another during gamete formation.
3 Studying Heredity Section 3

● The results of genetic crosses can be predicted with the use Punnett square (170)
of Punnett squares and probabilities. test cross (172)
probability (173)
● A test cross can be used to determine whether an individual
pedigree (175)
expressing a dominant trait is heterozygous or homozygous. sex-linked gene (175)
● A trait’s pattern of inheritance within a family can be deter-
mined by analyzing a pedigree.
4 Complex Patterns of Heredity Section 4

● Characters usually display complex patterns of heredity, polygenic inheritance (177)
such as incomplete dominance, codominance, and multiple incomplete dominance (177)
alleles. multiple alleles (178)
codominance (178)
● Mutations can cause genetic disorders, such as sickle cell
anemia, hemophilia, and Huntington’s disease.
● Genetic counseling can help patients concerned about a
genetic disorder.
Unit 5—Heredity
BIOLOGY Use this unit to review the key concepts

and terms in this chapter.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 7. The unknown genotype of an individual

with a dominant phenotype can be deter-
1. The scientist whose studies formed the mined using
basis of modern genetics is a. a ratio. c. probability.
a. T. A. Knight. c. Louis Pasteur. b. a dihybrid cross. d. a test cross.
b. Gregor Mendel. d. Robert Hooke.
8. Explain how working genes have been
2. Which of the following is not a good reason
why Pisum sativum makes an excellent inserted into defective cells during gene
subject for genetic study? therapy.
a. Many varieties exist. 9. Relate the events of meiosis to the law of
b. They require cross-pollination. segregation. (Hint: See Chapter 7, Section 1.)
c. They grow quickly.
10. State the genotypic and
d. They demonstrate complete dominance.
phenotypic ratios that would result from
3. If smooth peas are dominant over wrinkled a cross between two YyRR pea plants.
peas, the allele for smooth peas should be
represented as 11. Concept Mapping Make a concept
a. W. b. S. c. w. d. s. map about Mendel’s experiments. Try to
include the following words in your map:
4. The law of segregation states that pairs of
Pisum sativum, P generation, F1 generation,
alleles
F2 generation, dominant trait, and recessive
a. separate when gametes form.
trait.
b. separate independently of one another
during gamete formation.
c. are always the same.
Critical Thinking
d. are always different. 12. Evaluating Results Mendel based his
5. The trait shown below is
conclusion about inheritance patterns on
experiments involving large numbers of
plants. Why do you think the use of large
numbers of individuals is advantageous
when studying patterns of inheritance?
13. Justifying Conclusions A 20-year-old man
who has cystic fibrosis has a sister who is
planning to have a child. The man
encourages his sister to see a genetic
a. sex-linked and dominant. counselor. What do you think the man’s
b. autosomal and dominant. reasons are for giving such advice?
c. sex-linked and recessive. Alternative Assessment
d. autosomal and recessive.
14. Technology and Learning Find out how
6. D, dimples, is the dominant allele to the new technologies have changed plant-
recessive allele, d, no dimples. The proba- breeding methods since Mendel’s time.
bility of parents with Dd and dd genotypes Prepare an oral report to summarize
having a child with no dimples (dd) is your findings. Or create a display that
1 1
a. ᎏ8ᎏ. c. ᎏ2ᎏ. compares the methods and equipment
1
b. ᎏ4ᎏ. d. 1. Mendel might have used with those used
by plant breeders today.


correct answer.
Genetic counselors use various types of
1 What are the offspring of true-breeding information, including pedigrees, laboratory
parents called? tests, and karyotypes, to determine the odds
A. F1 generation of a person or a couple’s child having a
B. F2 generation genetic disorder. Genetic counselors also
C. dominant offspring outline the options for dealing with those
D. recessive offspring risks and offer emotional support.
2 What term describes a gene with two 6 A man and a woman who do not have
dominant alleles that are expressed at the hemophilia visit a genetic counselor. What
same time? tool might the counselor use to determine
F. codominant the risk of the couple having a child with
G. incompletely dominant hemophilia?
H. mutational A. blood test
I. polygenic B. DNA fingerprint
C. karyotype
3 What characteristic is described in the
D. pedigree
statement: The dog’s coat is brown?
A. dominance C. pedigree Interpreting Graphics
B. genotype D. phenotype
4 What does the law of segregation state? 7 on the diagram below.
F. The two alleles for a gene separate
Pea Plant Cross
when gametes are formed.
G. A species can have a variety of ? ?
different alleles that code for a single
characteristic.
H. The alleles of different genes separate ? Tt tt
independently from one another during
gamete formation.
I. Populations of a single species divided
geographically will change over time to
form two separate species.
? Tt tt

5 Albinism is rare among wild animals, but 7 The diagram above shows the expected
common among some domesticated results of a cross between two pea plants.
species. What factor might account for T and t represent the alleles for tall and
this difference? dwarf traits, respectively. What genotypic
ratio is expected in the offspring of this
Test cross?
F. 1 Tt : 1 tt
Before answering word problems that involve genet- G. 3 Tt : 1 tt
ics, write the problem down by using letters to sym- H. 1 Tt : 3 tt
bolize genotypes. I. 1 TT : 1 tt

Skills Practice Lab
Modeling Monohybrid Crosses
SKILLS OBJECTIVES MATERIALS
• Predicting outcomes • Predict the genotypic and • lentils
• Calculating data phenotypic ratios of offspring • green peas
resulting from the random pair- •
• Organizing data 2 Petri dishes
ing of gametes.
• Analyzing data
• Calculate the genotypic ratio
and phenotypic ratio among the
offspring of a monohybrid cross.
Before You Begin 3. Each parent contributes one allele to each

offspring. Model a cross between these
A monohybrid cross is a cross that involves
two parents by choosing a random pairing
one pair of contrasting traits. Different ver-
of the dried seeds from the two Petri
sions of a gene are called alleles . When two
dishes. Do this by simultaneously picking
different alleles are present and one is
one seed from each Petri dish without
expressed completely and the other is not,
looking. Place the pair of seeds together
the expressed allele is dominant and the
on the lab table. The pair of seeds repre-
unexpressed allele is recessive . sents the genotype of one offspring.
1. Write a definition for each boldface term 4. Record the genotype of the first offspring
in the paragraph above. in your lab report in a table like Table A
2. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a shown below.
heredity.
Gamete Pairings
Procedure Trial Offspring genotype Offspring phenotype

1
PART A: Simulating a Monohybrid
Cross 2
1. You will model the random pairing of alle- 3

les by choosing lentils and peas from Petri 4
dishes. These dried seeds will represent the
5
alleles for seed color. A green pea will rep-
resent G, the dominant allele for green 6
seeds, and a lentil will represent g, the
7
recessive allele for yellow seeds.
8
2. Each Petri dish will represent a parent.
Label one Petri dish “female gametes” and 9
the other Petri dish “male gametes.” Place 10
one green pea and one lentil in the Petri
dish labeled “female gametes” and place
5. Return the seeds to their original dishes
one green pea and one lentil in the Petri
and repeat step 3 nine more times. Record
dish labeled “male gametes.”
the genotype of each offspring in your
data table.
6. Based on each offspring’s genotype, 13. Construct a Punnett square showing the
determine and record each offspring’s parents and their offspring in your lab
phenotype. report.
14. Clean up your materials before
PART B: Calculating Genotypic and leaving the lab.
Phenotypic Ratios
7. In your lab report, prepare a data table Analyze and Conclude
similar to Table B shown below.
1. Summarizing Results What character is
being studied in this investigation?
2. Analyzing Data What are the genotypes
Offspring Ratios
of the parents? Describe the genotypes of
Genotypes Total Genotypic ratios
both parents using the terms homozygous
Homozygous dominant (GG)
or heterozygous, or both. Did Table B
Heterozygous (Gg) ____ : ____ : ____ reflect a classic monohybrid-cross pheno-
Homozygous recessive (gg) typic ratio of 3:1?
Phenotypes Phenotypic ratios 3. Drawing Conclusions If a genotypic
Green seeds ratio of 1:2:1 is observed, what must the
________ : ________
Yellow seeds
genotypes of both parents be?
4. Predicting Patterns Show what the
8. Determine the genotypic and phenotypic genotypes of the parents would be if 50
ratios among the offspring. First count percent of the offspring were green and 50
and record the number of homozygous percent of the offspring were yellow.
dominant, heterozygous, and homozygous 5. Further Inquiry Construct a Punnett
recessive individuals you recorded in square for the cross of a heterozygous black
Table A. Then record the number of off- guinea pig and an unknown guinea pig
spring that produce green seeds and the whose offspring include a recessive white-
number that produce yellow seeds under furred individual. What are the possible
“Phenotypes” in your data table. genotypes of the unknown parent?
9. Calculate the genotypic ratio for each
genotype using the following equation: Do You Know?
phenotypic ratio = Do research in the library or media center
number of offspring with a given genotype to answer these questions:
total number of offspring
1. How are hybrids of plants such as
10. Calculate the phenotypic ratio for each orchids produced?
phenotype using the following equation: 2. What is hybrid vigor?
phenotypic ratio =
number of offspring with a given phenotype
total number of offspring
genetics.
11. Now pool the data for the whole class, and
record the data in your lab report in a
second table like Table B. www.scilinks.org
12. Compare the class’s sample with your Topic: Genetic Code
small sample of 10. Calculate the geno- Keyword: HX4089
typic and phenotypic ratios for the class
data, and record them in your data table.
CHAPTER 8 Mendel and Heredity 187

Show jumper
Computer model of DNA

CHAPTER
DNA: The
9 Genetic Material

1. Describe the structure of chromosomes.
(Chapter 6, Section 1) Identifying the Genetic Material
Transformation
2. Define the term gene. (Chapter 6, Section 1)
Viral Genes and DNA
3. Identify the stage in a cell cycle in which DNA
is copied. (Chapter 6, Section 2)
Section 2
4. Identify changes in DNA as mutations.
(Chapter 6, Section 3) The Structure of DNA
5. Summarize Mendel’s theory of heredity. A Winding Staircase
(Chapter 8, Section 2) Discovering DNA’s Structure
sections indicated. Section 3
The Replication of DNA
Reading Activity The Roles of Enzymes in DNA Replication
The Rate of Replication
Before you read this chapter, write a short list of
all the things you know about DNA. Then write
a list of the things that you want to know about
DNA. Save your list, and to assess what you
have learned, see how many of your own ques-
tions you can answer after reading this chapter.
www.scilinks.org
Each human cell contains about 6 billion pairs of

nucleotides—one pair for each “step” in the winding
staircase of the DNA model shown on the facing page.
CHAPTER 9 DNA: The Genetic Material 189

Section 1 Identifying the
Genetic Material
Objectives Transformation
● Relate Griffith’s conclusions Mendel’s experiments and results answered the question of why you
to the observations he made resemble your parents. You resemble your parents because you have
during the transformation copies of their chromosomes, which contain sets of instructions called
experiments. genes. But Mendel’s work created more questions, such as, What are
● Summarize the steps genes made of? Scientists believed that if they could answer this ques-
involved in Avery’s transfor- tion they would understand how chromosomes function in heredity.
mation experiments, and
state the results.
Griffith’s Experiments
● Evaluate the results of In 1928, an experiment completely unrelated to the field of genetics
the Hershey and Chase
led to an astounding discovery about DNA. Frederick Griffith, a bac-
experiment.
teriologist, was trying to prepare a vaccine (vahk SEEN) against
pneumonia. Streptococcus pneumoniae (abbreviated S. pneumoniae),
Key Terms
is shown in Figure 1. S. pneumoniae is a prokaryote (of the type com-
vaccine monly called a bacterium) that causes pneumonia. A vaccine is a
virulent substance that is prepared from killed or weakened disease-causing
transformation
agents, including certain bacteria. The vaccine is introduced into the
bacteriophage
body to protect the body against future infections by the disease-
causing agent.
Griffith worked with two types, or strains, of S. pneumoniae, as
shown in Figure 2. The first strain is enclosed in a capsule composed
of polysaccharides. The capsule protects the bacterium from the
body’s defense systems. This helps make the microorganism
virulent (VIHR yoo luhnt), or able to cause disease. Because of the
capsule, this strain of S. pneumoniae grows as smooth-edged (S)
colonies when grown in a Petri dish. The sec-
Figure 1 Streptococcus pneumoniae ond strain of S. pneumoniae lacks the polysac-
charide capsule and does not cause disease.
Certain types of S. pneumoniae bacteria can cause the
When grown in a Petri dish, the second strain
lung disease pneumonia.
forms rough-edged (R) colonies.
Griffith knew that mice infected with the S
bacteria grew sick and died, while mice
infected with the R bacteria were not harmed,
as shown in Figure 2. To determine whether
the capsule on the S bacteria was causing the
mice to die, Griffith injected the mice with
dead S bacteria. The mice remained healthy.
Griffith then prepared a vaccine of weakened
S bacteria by raising their temperature to a
point at which the bacteria were “heat-killed,”
meaning that they could no longer reproduce.
(The capsule remained on the bacteria).
190 CHAPTER 9 DNA: The Genetic Material

Figure 2 Griffith’s discovery of transformation
Griffith discovered that harmless bacteria could turn virulent when
mixed with bacteria that cause disease.
1. S bacteria kill 2. R bacteria do 3. Heat-killed S bacteria 4. Heat-killed S bacteria

mouse. not kill mouse. do not kill mouse. and R bacteria kill mouse.
When Griffith injected mice with heat-killed S bacteria, the mice

still lived. Thus, Griffith knew it was not the capsule on the S bacte-
ria that killed the mice. He then mixed the harmless live R bacteria
with the harmless heat-killed S bacteria. Mice injected with this mix-
ture of previously harmless preparations died. When Griffith exam-
ined the blood of the dead mice, he found that the live R bacteria had
acquired capsules. Somehow, the harmless R bacteria had changed
and became virulent S bacteria. Griffith had discovered what is now
called transformation. Transformation is a change in genotype
caused when cells take up foreign genetic material. But the cause of
the transformation was not known at the time.
Avery’s Experiments
The search for the substance responsible for transformation contin-
ued until 1944. Then, an elegant series of experiments showed that
the activity of the material responsible for transformation is not
affected by protein-destroying enzymes. The activity is stopped, how- The word virulent is from
ever, by a DNA-destroying enzyme. Thus, almost 100 years after the Latin virulentus, which
means “full of poison.”
Mendel’s experiments, Oswald Avery and his co-workers at the
Knowing this makes it
Rockefeller Institute, in New York City, demonstrated that DNA is the easier to remember that a
material responsible for transformation. DNA contains the instruc- microorganism’s virulence is
tions for the making of the capsule in the S strain of S. pneumoniae. its ability to cause disease.
SECTION 1 Identifying the Genetic Material 191

Viral Genes and DNA
Even though Avery’s experiments clearly indicated that the genetic
material is composed of DNA, many scientists remained skeptical.
Scientists knew that proteins were important to many aspects of cell
structure and metabolism, so most of them suspected that proteins
were the genetic material. They also knew very little about DNA, so
they could not imagine how DNA could carry genetic information.
Figure 3
DNA’s Role Revealed
B IO The Hershey-Chase In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha
g hic
rap Experiment Chase, scientists at Cold Spring Harbor
Laboratory, in New York, performed an
Bacteriophages were used to show that DNA, not
protein, is the genetic material of viruses. experiment that settled the controversy. It
was known at that time that viruses, which
1 T2 phages were labeled with radioactive isotopes.
are much simpler than cells, are composed
of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protective
Virus's protein coat Virus's DNA core
labeled with 35S labeled with 32P protein coat. A bacteriophage (bak TIHR
ee uh fayj), also referred to as phage (fayj),
is a virus that infects bacteria. It was also
known that when phages infect bacterial
cells, the phages are able to produce more
viruses, which are released when the bac-
terial cells rupture.
What was not known at the time was
how the bacteriophage reprograms the
bacterial cell to make viruses. Does the
2 The phages infect E. coli bacterial cells.
phage DNA, the protein, or both
issue instructions to the bacteria?
Hershey and Chase used the bacterio-
phage T2, shown in Figure 3, to answer
this question. Hershey and Chase knew
that the only molecule in the phage that
contains phosphorus is its DNA. Likewise,
the only phage molecules that contain sul-
Bacterium
fur are the proteins in its coat. Hershey
and Chase used these differences to carry
out the experiment shown in Figure 3.
3 Bacterial cells were spun to remove the virus's protein coats. Step Hershey and Chase first grew T2
with Escherichia coli (abbreviated
E. coli) bacteria in a nutrient
medium that contained radioac-
tive sulfur (35S). The protein coat
of the virus would incorporate the
35S. They grew a second batch of
phages with E. coli bacteria in a

nutrient medium that contained
35
S radioactivity 32
P radioactivity radioactive phosphorus (32P). The
remained in phages. moved into cells.
radioactive phosphorus would
become part of the phages’ DNA.

Step The 35S-labeled and 32P-labeled phages were used to infect Real Life
two separate batches of E. coli bacteria. Because radioac-
tive elements release particles that can be detected with Many viruses infect
humans.
machines, they can be followed, or traced, in a biological
Although the T2 viruses
process. Scientists could determine whether it was the
used by Hershey and
DNA, the protein, or both that were being transferred into Chase infect bacteria,
the bacterial cells to reprogram the bacteria. many other viruses infect
humans. For example,
Step After a few minutes, the scientists tore the 35S-labeled phages
viruses are responsible
off the surfaces of the bacteria (with the help of a blender). for causing polio, the
The bacteria infected with the 32P-labeled phage were like- common cold, measles,
wise mixed in a blender. The investigators used a centrifuge to and rabies.
separate the bacteria and phages. The heavier, bacterial cells Finding Information
formed a solid layer at the bottom of the centrifuge tubes. The Research other human
lighter, viral parts remained in the upper, liquid layer. diseases that
Hershey and Chase examined the layers from the 35S- are caused
by viruses.
infected bacteria. The scientists found that most of the
35S label was still part of the phage (the upper layer), mean-
ing the protein was not injected into the bacteria. When
they examined the layers from the 32P-infected bacteria, the
scientists found the 32P label mostly in the layer containing
the bacterial cells (the lower layer). The DNA had been
injected into the hosts. Moreover, the new generation of
phages that was produced by these bacteria also contained
radioactive DNA.
Hershey and Chase concluded that the DNA of viruses is injected
into the bacterial cells, while most of the viral proteins remain out-
side. The injected DNA molecules causes the bacterial cells to pro-
duce more viral DNA and proteins. This meant that the DNA, rather
than proteins, is the hereditary material, at least in viruses.
These important experiments, and many others since, have
shown that DNA is the molecule that stores genetic information in
living cells. As you will see in the next section, the structure of DNA
makes DNA particularly well suited to this function.
Section 1 Review
Summarize Griffith’s transformation Critical Thinking Evaluating Methods Why
experiments. did heat kill Griffith’s S bacteria?
Describe how Avery’s experiment supplied Critical Thinking Applying Information What
evidence that DNA, and not protein, is the might Hershey and Chase have concluded if they
genetic material. had found 32P and 35S in the bacterial cells?
Describe the contributions of Hershey and Standardized Test Prep The first experiments that
Chase to the understanding that DNA is the correctly identified the molecule that carries
genetic material. genetic information were performed by
A Oswald Avery. C Frederick Griffith.
B Alfred Hershey. D Martha Chase.
SECTION 1 Identifying the Genetic Material 193

Section 2 The Structure of DNA
Objectives A Winding Staircase
● Describe the three By the early 1950s, most scientists were convinced that genes were
components of a made of DNA. They hoped that the mystery of heredity could be
nucleotide. solved by understanding the structure of DNA. The research of
● Develop a model of many scientists led two young researchers at Cambridge University,
the structure of a DNA James Watson and Francis Crick, to piece together a model of the
molecule. structure of DNA. The discovery of DNA’s structure was important
● Evaluate the contributions because it clarified how DNA could serve as the genetic material.
of Chargaff, Franklin, and Watson and Crick determined that a DNA molecule is a double
Wilkins in helping Watson helix —two strands twisted around each other, like a winding staircase.
and Crick determine the As shown in Figure 4, each strand is made of linked nucleotides (NOO
double-helical structure klee oh tiedz). Nucleotides are the subunits that make up DNA. Each
of DNA. nucleotide is made of three parts: a phosphate group, a five-
● Relate the role of the base- carbon sugar molecule, and a nitrogen-containing base. Figure 4 shows
pairing rules to the structure how these three parts are arranged to form a nucleotide. The five-
of DNA. carbon sugar in DNA nucleotides is called deoxyribose (dee ahk see
RIE bohs), from which DNA gets its full name, deoxyribonucleic acid.
Key Terms
double helix Figure 4 DNA double helix
nucleotide Watson and Crick’s model of DNA is a double helix composed of two
deoxyribose nucleotide chains that are twisted around a central axis
base-pairing rules and held together by hydrogen bonds. Nucleotide
complementary base
pair
Phosphate Nitrogen
base
P group
Adenine (A) Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G) Thymine (T)

Sugar
P (deoxyribose)
P
P P
Hydrogen bond P
P
T P
C P P
C A G
T P T G
G P P T
G P C P
C
P T T P
A
P T
P C C
P T P
A P A P G
C
C P A T P
P C G
A P
P P
P P G A
P
T C
P C
G P
P P
T
P
194 CHAPTER 9 DNA: The Genetic Material P
P reserved.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights
While the sugar molecule and the phosphate Figure 5 Purines and pyrimidines
group are the same for each nucleotide in a The nitrogen base in a nucleotide can be either a bulky,
molecule of DNA, the nitrogen base may be any double-ring purine, or a smaller, single-ring pyrimidine.
one of four different kinds. Figure 5 illustrates Purines
the four different nitrogen bases in DNA: ad- Adenine Guanine
enine (AD uh neen), guanine (GWAH neen), NH2 O
thymine (THIE meen), and cytosine (SIET oh C N C N
N C HN C
seen). Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are classi-
CH CH
fied as purines (PYUR eenz), nitrogen bases HC C C C
NH NH
made of two rings of carbon and nitrogen N NH2 N
atoms. Thymine (T) and cytosine (C) are classi-

fied as pyrimidines (pih RIHM uh deenz),
nitrogen bases made of a single ring of carbon Pyrimidines
and nitrogen atoms. Thymine Cytosine
O NH2
Note how the DNA shown in Figure 4 resem-
bles a ladder twisted like a spiral staircase. The C CH3 C
HN C N CH
sugar-phosphate backbones (the blue “ribbons”)
are similar to the side rails of a ladder. The C CH C CH
O N O NH
paired nitrogen bases are similar to the rungs of
H
the ladder. The nitrogen bases face each other.
The double helix is held together by weak
hydrogen bonds between the pairs of bases.
Observing Properties of DNA

You can extract DNA from onion cells using ethanol
and a stirring rod.
Materials
safety goggles and plastic gloves, 5 mL of onion extract,
test tube, 5 mL of ice-cold ethanol, plastic pipet,
glass stirring rod, test tube rack
Procedure
1. Place 5 4. Insert a glass stirring rod into 6. Clean up your materials
mL of the boundary between the and wash your hands
onion extract in a test tube. onion extract and ethanol. before leaving the lab.
Gently twirl the stirring rod by
2. CAUTION: Ethanol is Analysis
rolling the handle between
flammable. Do not 1. Describe any material that
your thumb and finger.
use it near a flame. stuck to the stirring rod.
Hold the test tube at a 45º 5. Remove the stirring rod from
angle. Use a pipet to add the liquids, and examine any 2. Relate the characteristics of
5 mL of ice-cold ethanol to material that has stuck to it. your sample to the structural
the tube one drop at a time. Touch the material to the lip characteristics of DNA.
NOTE: Allow the ethanol to of the test tube, and observe 3. Propose a way to determine
run slowly down the side of how the material acts as you if the material on the stirring
the tube so that it forms a try to remove it. rod is DNA.
distinct layer.
3. Let the test tube stand for
2–3 minutes.
SECTION 2 The Structure of DNA 195

Discovering DNA’s Structure
How were Watson and Crick able to determine the double helical
structure of DNA? As with most discoveries in science, other scien-
tists provided crucial pieces that helped them solve this puzzle.
Chargaff’s Observations
In 1949, Erwin Chargaff, a biochemist working at Columbia
University, in New York City, made an interesting observation about
DNA. Chargaff’s data showed that for each organism he studied, the
amount of adenine always equaled the amount of thymine (AT).
Likewise, the amount of guanine always equaled the amount of
cytosine (GC). However, the amount of adenine and thymine and
of guanine and cytosine varied between different organisms.
Wilkins and Franklin’s Photographs

The significance of Chargaff’s data became clear in the 1950s
when scientists began using X-ray diffraction to study the struc-
tures of molecules. In X-ray diffraction, a beam of X rays is
directed at an object. The X rays bounce off the object and are
Figure 6 Franklin and her scattered in a pattern onto a piece of film. By analyzing the com-
X-ray diffraction photo. The plex patterns on the film, scientists can determine the structure of
photographs revealed the X the molecule (much like shining a light on an object and then
pattern characteristic of a helix.
Franklin died of cancer when
analyzing its shadow).
she was 37 years old. In the winter of 1952, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin,
two scientists working at King’s College in London, developed high-
quality X-ray diffraction photographs of strands of DNA. These
photographs, such as the one in Figure 6, suggested that the DNA
molecule resembled a tightly coiled helix and was composed of two
or three chains of nucleotides.
Watson and Crick’s

DNA Model
The three-dimensional structure of the
DNA molecule, however, was yet to be
discovered. Any model had to take into
account both Chargaff’s findings and
Franklin and Wilkins’s X-ray diffraction
data. In 1953, Watson and Crick used
this information, along with their
knowledge of chemical bonding, to
come up with a solution. With tin-and-
wire models of molecules, they built a
model of DNA with the configuration of
a double helix, a “spiral staircase” of
two strands of nucleotides twisting
Figure 7 Watson and Crick’s model. The double-helical around a central axis. Figure 7 shows
model of DNA takes into account Chargaff’s observations and the Watson (left) and Crick next to their tin-
patterns on Franklin’s X-ray diffraction photographs. and-wire model of DNA.

P
P P Figure 8 Base-pairing
P in DNA
P P
G
G
P T C The diagram of DNA below
T T
C P the helix makes it easier to
P C visualize the base-pairing that
A G P
C
P occurs between DNA strands.
P A
A
T
P G
A T P
P
P
P
P
P P
T A T G G A G A G T C
A T A C C T C T C A G
Pairing Between Bases

Watson and Crick determined that a purine on one strand of DNA is
always paired with a pyrimidine on the opposite strand, as you can
see in Figure 8. More specifically, an adenine on one strand always
pairs with a thymine on the opposite strand, and a guanine on one
strand always pairs with a cytosine on the opposite strand. The struc-
ture and size of the nitrogen bases allows for only these two paired
combinations. These base-pairing rules are supported by Chargaff’s Organizing Information
observations. One easy way to visualize base-pairing is by simplifying Create a timeline that
the way in which DNA structure is represented, as shown in Figure 8. summarizes the people and
Adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with thymine, and cytosine events that led to the
discovery that DNA is the
forms three hydrogen bonds with guanine. The hydrogen bonds
molecule where genetic
between the nitrogen bases keep the two strands of DNA together. information is stored.
The strictness of base-pairing results in two strands that contain Start with 1928, and
complementary base pairs . That is, the sequence of bases on one end with 1953.
strand determines the sequence of bases on the other strand. For
example, if the sequence of nitrogen bases on one strand of a DNA
molecule is TCGAACT, the sequence of nitrogen bases on the other
strand must be AGCTTGA.
Section 2 Review
Describe the three parts of a DNA nucleotide. Critical Thinking Applying Information
Suppose a strand of DNA has the nucleotide
Relate the base-pairing rules to the structure of sequence CCAGATTG. What is the nucleotide
DNA. sequence of the complementary strand?
Descibe the two pieces of information from Standardized Test Prep Which pattern shows how
other scientists that enabled James Watson and bases pair in complementary strands of DNA?
Francis Crick to discover the double-helical struc- A A-C and T-G C A-G and T-C
ture of DNA.
B A-T and C-G D A-A and C-C
Explain why the two strands of the double helix
are described as complementary.
SECTION 2 The Structure of DNA 197

Section 3 The Replication of DNA
Objectives Roles of Enzymes in
● Summarize the process DNA Replication
of DNA replication. When the double helix structure of DNA was first discovered, scien-
● Describe how errors are tists were very excited about the complementary relationship
corrected during DNA between the sequences of nucleotides. They predicted that the com-
replication. plementary structure was used as a basis to make exact copies of the
● Compare the number DNA each time a cell divided. Watson and Crick proposed that one
of replication forks DNA strand serves as a template, or pattern, on which the other
in prokaryotic and strand is built. Within five years of the discovery of DNA’s structure,
eukaryotic DNA. scientists had firm evidence that the complementary strands of the
double helix do indeed serve as templates for building new DNA.
Key Terms The process of making a copy of DNA is called DNA replication .
DNA replication DNA replication is summarized in Figure 9. Recall from your read-
DNA helicase ing of earlier chapters that DNA replication occurs during the
replication fork synthesis (S) phase of the cell cycle, before a cell divides.
DNA polymerase
Step Before DNA replication can begin, the double helix unwinds.
This is accomplished by enzymes called DNA helicases.
DNA helicases open the double helix by breaking the hydro-
gen bonds that link the complementary nitrogen bases
between the two strands.
Figure 9
B IO
graphic
DNA Replication
DNA replication results in two identical DNA strands.
The two original DNA DNA polymerases add Two DNA molecules form
1 strands separate.
2 complementary nucleotides
3 that are identical to the
to each strand. original DNA molecule.
DNA
helicase
DNA New
polymerases DNA
Old
Replication DNA
fork
Old
DNA
New
DNA

Once the two strands are separated, additional proteins
attach to each strand, holding them apart and preventing
them from assuming their double-helical shape. The areas
where the double helix separates are called replication forks
because of their Y shape, as shown in Figure 9.
Step At the replication fork, enzymes known as DNA polymerases
move along each of the DNA strands. DNA polymerases add
nucleotides to the exposed nitrogen bases, according to the
base-pairing rules. As the DNA polymerases move along, two
new double helixes are formed.
Step Once DNA polymerases have begun adding nucleotides to a
growing double helix, the process continues until all of the
DNA has been copied and the polymerases are signaled to
detach. This process produces two DNA molecules, each
composed of a new and an original strand. The nucleotide
sequences in both of these DNA molecules are identical to
each other and to the original DNA molecule.
Checking for Errors

In the course of DNA replication, errors sometimes occur and the
wrong nucleotide is added to the new strand. An important feature of
DNA replication is that DNA polymerases have a “proofreading” role.
They can add nucleotides to a growing strand only if the previous
nucleotide is correctly paired to its complementary base. In the event
of a mismatched nucleotide, the DNA polymerase can backtrack. The
DNA polymerase removes the incorrect nucleotide and replaces it
with the correct one. This proofreading reduces errors in DNA repli-
cation to about one error per 1 billion nucleotides.
8
0
493 2 Magnification: 83,640
5
x2 + <
6x -
7 Analyzing the Rate of
DNA Replication
Background
Cancer is a disease caused by cells that divide uncontrol-
lably. Scientists studying drugs that prevent cancer often
measure the effectiveness of a drug by its effect on DNA
replication. During normal DNA replication, nucleotides are
added at a rate of about 50 nucleotides per second in
mammals and 500 nucleotides per second in bacteria.
DNA replication forks
Analysis
1. Calculate the time it would 2. Calculate the time it would 3. Critical Thinking
take a bacterium to add 4,000 take a mammalian cell to add Predicting Outcomes How
nucleotides to one DNA strand 4,000 nucleotides to one DNA would the total time needed to
undergoing replication. strand undergoing replication. add the 4,000 nucleotides be
affected if a drug that inhibits
DNA polymerases were present?
SECTION 3 The Replication of DNA 199

The Rate of Replication
Replication does not begin at one end of the DNA molecule and end
at the other. The circular DNA molecules found in prokaryotes usually
www.scilinks.org
have two replication forks that begin at a single point. The replication
Topic: DNA Replication
Keyword: HX4059 forks move away from each other until they meet on the opposite side
of the DNA circle, as shown in Figure 10.
In eukaryotic cells, each chromosome contains a single, long
strand of DNA. The length presents a challenge: The replication of a
typical human chromosome with one pair of replication forks
spreading from a single point, as occurs in prokaryotes, would take
33 days! To understand how eukaryotes meet this challenge, imag-
ine that your class has to carry 25 boxes to another building.
Carrying one box over, returning, carrying the second box, and so
on, would be very slow. It would be much faster if everyone in the
class picked up a box so that all of the boxes could be carried in one
trip. That is similar to replication in eukaryotic cells, as shown in
Figure 10. Each human chromosome is replicated in about 100 sec-
tions that are 100,000 nucleotides long, each section with its own
starting point. With multiple replication forks working in concert,
an entire human chromosome can be replicated in about 8 hours.
Figure 10 Replication forks

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA have a different number of replication forks.
Original DNA New DNA
Replication forks
Replication forks
New DNA
Original DNA
Prokaryotic DNA Eukaryotic DNA
Section 3 Review
Explain the two roles that enzymes play in Critical Thinking Evaluating Information
DNA replication as is illustrated in Figure 9 in If a mutation occurs during the formation of
this section. an egg cell or sperm cell, is that mutation more
significant or less significant than a mutation that
Explain the relationship between DNA occurs in a body cell? Explain your answer.
polymerases and mutations.
Standardized Test Prep How many DNA strands
State the effect of multiple replication forks exist after one molecule of DNA has been replicated?
on the speed of replication in eukaryotes. A1 C 4
B2 D 8

ZONE
1 Identifying the Genetic Material Section 1
vaccine (190)
● The experiments of Griffith and of Avery yielded results virulent (190)
that suggested DNA was the genetic material. transformation (191)
● Hershey and Chase used the bacteriophage T2 and radioactive bacteriophage (192)
labels to show that viral genes are made of DNA, not protein.
● DNA stores the information that tells cells which proteins
to make and when to make them.
2 The Structure of DNA Section 2

double helix (194)
● DNA is made of two strands of nucleotides twisted into the nucleotide (194)
form of a double helix. deoxyribose (194)
● Each nucleotide in DNA is made of the sugar deoxyribose, a base-pairing rules (197)
complementary base pair (197)
phosphate group, and one of four nitrogen bases. The four
nitrogen bases found in DNA nucleotides are adenine (A),
thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C).
● The two strands of DNA are complementary—each A on one
strand pairs with a T on the opposite strand, and each G on
one strand pairs with a C on the opposite strand.
● Watson and Crick announced their discovery of the structure
of DNA in 1953 with the help of data gathered by Wilkins,
Franklin, and Chargaff.
3 The Replication of DNA Section 3

DNA replication (198)
● Before a cell divides, it copies its DNA by a process called DNA helicase (198)
DNA replication. replication fork (199)
● In DNA replication, enzymes work to unwind and separate DNA polymerase (199)
the double helix and add complementary nucleotides to the
exposed strands.
● The result of DNA replication is two exact copies of the cell’s
original DNA. Each new double helix is composed of one
original DNA strand and one new DNA strand.
● DNA polymerase proofreads DNA during its replication so
that very few errors occur.
Unit 6—Gene Expression
BIOLOGY Use Topics 1–2 in this unit to review the

key concepts and terms in this chapter.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. CHAPTER 9 Highlights 201
ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 6. If the sequence of nucleotides on one strand of

a DNA molecule is GCCATTG, the sequence
1. In his experiments on Streptococcus on the complementary strand is
pneumoniae, Griffith found that a. GGGTAAG.
a. harmless R bacteria changed and b. CCCTAAC.
became virulent. c. CGGTAAC.
b. the S bacteria were transformed. d. GCCATTC.
c. the capsule did not protect the bacterium.
d. mice injected with the R bacteria died. 7. Does DNA replication occur immediately
before asexual reproduction, before sexual
2. Hershey and Chase showed that reproduction, or before both?
a. bacteriophages can infect human cells.
b. DNA controls heredity. 8. What are two functions of DNA poly-
c. bacteria undergo transformation. merases during DNA replication?
d. a vaccine for pneumonia could be 9. Differentiate between DNA, genes, chro-
produced. matids, and chromosomes. (Hint: See
3. James Watson and Francis Crick Chapter 6, Section 1.)
a. built a structural model of DNA.
b. discovered DNA replication. 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
c. used X-ray diffraction. map that shows the structure of DNA and
d. discovered DNA polymerases. how it is copied. Try to include the follow-
ing words in your concept map: nucleotides,
4. Multiple replication forks along the DNA phosphate group, five-carbon sugar, nitrogen
a. correct replication errors. base, purine, pyrimidine, double helix, repli-
b. reduce DNA replication time. cation, DNA polymerases, and gene.
c. ensure that the new and old DNA
strands are complementary. Critical Thinking
d. signal DNA polymerase to stop.
11. Evaluating Models Explain why you do or
5. The table below summarizes the percent- do not think Watson and Crick’s model of
age of each nitrogen base found in an DNA illustrated in Figure 7 in this chapter is
organism’s DNA. a good representation of the structure of
DNA. What existing information about DNA
Percentage of Each Nitrogen Base did Watson and Crick’s model have to take
A T G C into account?
Human 30.4 30.1 19.6 19.9 12. Predicting Results Identify the process by
Wheat 27.3 27.1 22.7 22.8
which new molecules of DNA are synthe-
sized, and predict the effect on this process
E. coli 24.7 23.6 26.0 25.7 of reducing available DNA helicases.
a. What is the ratio of purines to

pyrimidines? 13. Selecting Technology Research two
b. Within each organism, which methods used to sequence the nucleotides
nucleotides are found in similar in a gene. Compare and contrast the two
percentages? methods. Give examples of how this
c. Do the ratio and percentages in (a) and technology might be used in a clinical
(b) follow Chargaff’s rule? setting. Prepare a poster to summarize
the nucleotide-sequencing methods
you researched.


correct answer.
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is
1 What is the name of the process that was a technique used in genetic engineering
involved in changing Griffith’s R bacteria and applied in procedures such as DNA
to S bacteria? fingerprinting and genetic screening. This
A. crossing over C. polymerization technique allows a small sample of DNA to
B. DNA replication D. transformation be copied many times. Genetic analysis,
which determines the presence of restriction
2 A scientist extracted 4.6 picograms
length polymorphisms (DNA fingerprinting),
(or 4.6 ⫻ 10⫺12 grams) of DNA from
or mutations on specific genes, can be
mouse muscle cells. How much DNA
performed with PCR-amplified DNA samples.
could be extracted from the same number
of mouse sperm? 6 What could be inferred as the meaning of
F. 2.3 picograms H. 9.2 picograms the term “PCR-amplified DNA” above?
G. 4.6 picograms I. 10⫺12 picograms A. a kind of PCR that is used on large
samples of DNA
3 Which of the following is not a component
B. DNA fingerprinting that results in
of a DNA nucleotide?
amplification of a PCR technique
A. double helix
C. a sample of DNA that has been
B. five-carbon sugar
replicated many times using PCR
C. nitrogen base
D. a sequence of DNA that codes for an
D. phosphate group
auditory trait such as sensitive hearing
4 What molecule did Hershey and Chase’s
work show was the genetic material of the
T2 bacteria? Directions (7): Base your answer to question
F. DNA 7 on the diagram below.
G. a protein
DNA Replication
H. DNA helicase
I. DNA polymerase A
Directions (5): For the following question, B

C
5 X-rays damage DNA in organisms.

Rosalind Franklin died of cancer at an
early age. Analyze how her work with X-ray
diffraction might have led to her death.
D
Test 7 What is the function of the structure

You can sometimes figure out an answer to a ques- labeled A?
tion before you look at the answer choices. After you F. separating DNA strands
answer the question in your mind, compare your G. reconnecting DNA strands
answer with each answer choice. Choose the H. checking the new DNA strands for errors
answer that most closely matches your own answer. I. adding nucleotides to make new DNA
strands

Exploration Lab
Modeling DNA Structure
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Modeling • plastic soda straws,
• Using scientific methods 3 cm sections
• metric ruler
OBJECTIVES
• pushpins (red, blue,
• Design and analyze a model yellow, and green)
of DNA.
• paper clips
• Describe how replication
occurs.
• Predict the effect of errors
during replication.

DNA contains the instructions that cells need PART A: Design a Model
in order to make every protein required to 1. Work with the members of your lab group
carry out their activities and to survive. DNA to design a model of DNA that uses the
is made of two strands of nucleotides materials listed for this lab. Be sure that
twisted around each other in a double helix . your model has at least 12 nucleotides on
The two strands are complementary, that is, each strand.
the sequence of bases on one strand deter-
mines the sequence of bases on the other You Choose
strand. The two strands are held together by As you design your model, decide the following:
hydrogen bonds. a. what question you will explore
In this lab, you will build a model to help b. how to use the straws, pushpins, and paper
you understand the structure of DNA. You clips to represent the three components of
a nucleotide
can also use the DNA model to illustrate and
c. how to link (bond) the nucleotides together
explore processes such as replication and
d. in what order you will place the nucleotides
mutation .
on each strand
1. Write a definition for each boldface term
in the paragraphs above and for each of 2. Write out the plan for building your model.
the following terms: replication fork, base- Have your teacher approve the plan before
pairing rules. you begin building the model.
2. Identify the three different components 3. Build the DNA model your group
of a nucleotide. designed. CAUTION: Sharp or
3. Identify the four different nitrogen bases pointed objects may cause injury. Handle
that can be found in DNA nucleotides. pushpins carefully. Sketch and label the
4. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a parts of your DNA model.
question you would like to explore about 4. Use your model to explore one of the
DNA structure. questions written for step 4 of Before
You Begin.
PART B: DNA Replication Analyze and Conclude
5. Discuss with your lab group how the 1. Analyzing Results In your original DNA
model you built for Part A may be used to model, were the two strands identical to
illustrate the process of replication. each other?
6. Write a question you would like to explore 2. Relating Concepts How does DNA
about replication. Use your model to structure ensure that the two DNA mole-
explore the question you wrote. Sketch cules made by replication are the same as
and label the steps of replication. the original DNA molecule?
3. Drawing Conclusions Did the two DNA
PART C: Test Hypothesis molecules you made in step 6 have the
Answer each of the following questions by same nitrogen-base sequence as your origi-
writing a hypothesis. Use your model to test nal model DNA molecule?
each hypothesis, and describe your results. 4. Inferring Relationships The order of
7. Mitosis follows replication. How might nitrogen bases on a DNA strand is a code
the cells produced by mitosis be affected for making proteins. What does this mean
if nucleotides on one DNA strand were has happened to the “code” in one of the
incorrectly paired during replication? DNA molecules you made in step 7?
8. What would happen if only one strand in 5. Predicting Outcomes What would hap-
a DNA molecule were copied during pen if the DNA in a cell that is about to
replication? divide were not replicated?
6. Inferring Information What are the
PART D: Cleanup and Disposal advantages of having DNA remain in the
nucleus of a cell?
9. Dispose of damaged pushpins in the
designated waste container. 7. Further Inquiry Write a new question
about DNA that could be explored with
your model.
Do You Know?
you finish all work. Do research in the library or media center
1. Are there any pollutants in the environ-
ment that disrupt replication when an
organism is exposed to the pollutant?
2. How do DNA molecules differ among
various species of animals and plants?
How are they similar?
explore your own questions about DNA.
www.scilinks.org
Topic: DNA
Keyword: HX4058
CHAPTER 9 DNA: The Genetic Material 205

Show jumper
Firefly (19)

CHAPTER
10 How Proteins
Are Made

1. Summarize the structure and function of
proteins. (Chapter 2, Section 3) From Genes to Proteins
Decoding the Information in DNA
2. Describe the function of ribosomes.
Transfer of Information from DNA to RNA
The Genetic Code: Three-Nucleotide “Words”
3. Differentiate between DNA and genes.
RNA’s Roles in Translation
4. Describe the structure and function of DNA.
Section 2
5. State the base-pairing rules. (Chapter 9, Gene Regulation and Structure
Section 2) Protein Synthesis in Prokaryotes
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Protein Synthesis in Eukaryotes
sections indicated. Intervening DNA in Eukaryotic Genes
Mutations
Reading Activity
all the things you know about how proteins are
made. Then, write a list of the things that you
want to know about how proteins are made.
Save your list, and to assess what you have
learned, see how many of your own questions
www.scilinks.org
The firefly shown here gives off light because of a

chemical reaction activated by an enzyme (which
is a type of protein) made by its cells.
CHAPTER 10 How Proteins Are Made 207

Section 1 From Genes to Proteins
Objectives Decoding the Information in DNA
● Compare the structure Traits, such as eye color, are determined by proteins that are built
of RNA with that of DNA. according to instructions coded in DNA. Recall that proteins have
● Summarize the process of
many functions, including acting as enzymes and cell membrane
transcription. channels. Proteins, however, are not built directly from DNA.
Ribonucleic (rie boh noo KLAY ihk) acid is also involved.
● Relate the role of codons to
Like DNA, ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a nucleic acid—a molecule
the sequence of amino acids
that results after translation.
made of nucleotides linked together. RNA differs from DNA in three
ways. First, RNA consists of a single strand of nucleotides instead of
● Outline the major steps of the two strands found in DNA, as shown in Figure 1. Second, RNA
translation.
nucleotides contain the five-carbon sugar ribose (RIE bohs) rather
● Discuss the evolutionary than the sugar deoxyribose, which is found in DNA nucleotides.
significance of the genetic Ribose contains one more oxygen atom than deoxyribose contains.
code. And third, in addition to the A, G, and C nitrogen bases found in
DNA, RNA nucleotides can have a nitrogen base called uracil (YUR
Key Terms uh sihl)—abbreviated as U. No thymine (T) bases are found in RNA.
ribonucleic acid (RNA) Like thymine, uracil is complementary to adenine whenever RNA
uracil base-pairs with another nucleic acid.
transcription A gene’s instructions for making a protein are coded in the
translation sequence of nucleotides in the gene. The instructions for making a
gene expression
protein are transferred from a gene to an RNA molecule in a process
RNA polymerase
called transcription . Cells then use two different types of RNA to read
messenger RNA
codon the instructions on the RNA molecule and put together the amino
genetic code acids that make up the protein in a process called translation . The
transfer RNA entire process by which proteins are made based on the information
anticodon encoded in DNA is called gene expression , or protein synthesis. This
ribosomal RNA process is summarized in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Gene expression

The instructions for building a protein are found in a gene and are “rewritten”
to a molecule of RNA during transcription. The RNA is then “deciphered”
during translation.
DNA Transcription RNA Translation Protein
T A A Uracil
A T U
C G G
A T U
C G G
A T U
C G G
G C C
208 CHAPTER 10 How Proteins Are Made

Transfer of Information
from DNA to RNA
The first step in the making of a protein, transcription, takes the
information found in a gene in the DNA and transfers it to a mol-
Real Life
ecule of RNA. RNA polymerase , an enzyme that adds and links Death cap mushrooms
complementary RNA nucleotides during transcription, is required. are deadly if eaten.
Figure 2 summarizes the steps of transcription. One of the poisons in
death cap mushrooms
Step Transcription begins when RNA polymerase binds to the (Amanita phalloides) is
gene’s promoter—a specific sequence of DNA that acts as a taken up by liver cells,
“start” signal for transcription. where the poison binds to
an RNA polymerase. The
Step RNA polymerase then unwinds and separates the two poison prevents liver cells
strands of the double helix, exposing the DNA nucleotides from making RNA and,
on each strand. thus, from making pro-
teins. Liver failure—and
Step RNA polymerase adds and then links complementary RNA death—can result.
nucleotides as it “reads” the gene. RNA polymerase moves Finding Information
along the nucleotides of the DNA strand that has the gene, Research other poisons
much like a train moves along on a track. Transcription fol- found in Amanita
lows the base-pairing rules for DNA replication except that spp. and determine
their methods
in RNA, uracil, rather than thymine, pairs with adenine. of action.
As transcription proceeds, the RNA polymerase eventually
reaches a “stop” signal in the DNA. This “stop” signal is a sequence
of bases that marks the end of each gene in eukaryotes, or the end
of a set of genes in prokaryotes.
Figure 2
B IO
graphic
Transcription: Making RNA
RNA polymerase adds complementary RNA nucleotides as it reads the gene.
RNA polymerase binds to The two DNA strands Complementary RNA nucleo-
1 the gene’s promoter.
2 unwind and separate.
3 tides are added.
RNA
polymerase
Promoter RNA
site on DNA
SECTION 1 From Genes to Proteins 209

When the RNA nucleotides are added during transcription, they
are linked together with covalent bonds. As RNA polymerase
moves down the strand, a single strand of RNA grows. Behind
RNA polymerase, the two strands of DNA close up by forming
hydrogen bonds between complementary bases, re-forming the
DNA double helix.
Like DNA replication, transcription uses DNA nucleotides as a
template for making a new molecule. However, in DNA replication,
the new molecule made is DNA. In transcription, the new molecule
made is RNA. In addition, in DNA replication, both strands of DNA
serve as templates, whereas in transcription, only part of one of
the two strands of DNA (a gene) serves as a template.
Transcription in prokaryotic cells occurs in the cytoplasm
(because prokaryotic cells have no nucleus); transcription in
Figure 3 Multiple copies eukaryotic cells occurs in the nucleus, where the DNA is located.
of RNA. In eukaryotes, RNA During transcription, many identical RNA molecules are made
polymerase adds about 60
simultaneously from a single gene, as shown in Figure 3. The RNA
nucleotides per second.
There are typically about 100 being made fans out from the gene to give a “feathery” appear-
RNA polymerase molecules ance. The long line along the length of the “feather” is the DNA
per gene. being transcribed. The circles along the length are the RNA poly-
merase molecules. The “hairs” on the feather are the RNA chains
being made.
Modeling Transcription
You can use paper and pens to model the process
of transcription.
Materials
paper, scissors, pens or pencils (two colors), tape
Procedure Analysis
1. Cut a sheet of paper 3. To make the second side 1. Propose a reason for using
into 36 squares, each of your DNA model, line up different colors for the DNA
about 2.5 2.5 cm 12 squares next to the first and RNA “nucleotides.”
(1 1 in.) in size. column. Use the same color
2. Predict how a change in the
you used in step 2 to label
2. To make one side of your sequence of nucleotides in a
each square with the comple-
DNA model, line up DNA molecule would affect
mentary DNA nucleotide.
12 squares in a column. the mRNA transcribed from
Tape the squares together in
Using one color, randomly the DNA molecule.
a column.
label each square with one of
the following letters: A, C, G, 4. Separate the two columns.
Applying Information Use
or T. Each square represents The remaining 12 squares
your model to test your pre-
a DNA nucleotide. Use represent RNA nucleotides.
diction. Describe your results.
tape to keep the squares Use a different color to
in a column. “transcribe” one of the
DNA strands.

The Genetic Code:
Three-Nucleotide “Words”
Different types of RNA are made during transcription, depending
on the gene being expressed. When a cell needs a particular pro-
www.scilinks.org
tein, it is messenger RNA that is made. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is Topic: Genetic Code
a form of RNA that carries the instructions for making a protein Keyword: HX4089
from a gene and delivers it to the site of translation. The informa-
tion is translated from the language of RNA—nucleotides—to the
language of proteins—amino acids. The RNA instructions are
written as a series of three-nucleotide sequences on the mRNA
called codons (KOH dahnz). Each codon along the mRNA strand
corresponds to an amino acid or signifies a start or stop signal for
translation.
In 1961, Marshall Nirenberg, an American biochemist, deci-
phered the first codon by making artificial mRNA that contained
only the base uracil (U). The mRNA was translated into a protein
made up entirely of phenylalanine amino-acid subunits.
Nirenberg concluded that the codon UUU is the instruction for
the amino acid phenylalanine. Later, scientists deciphered the
other codons. Figure 4 shows the genetic code —the amino acids
and “start” and “stop” signals that are coded for by each of the
possible 64 mRNA codons.
Figure 4 Interpreting the genetic code

The amino acid coded for by a specific mRNA codon
can be determined by following the three steps below.
1. Find the first
base of the Codons in mRNA
mRNA codon
along the left First Second base Third
side of the base U C A G base
table.
UUU UCU UAU UGU U
2. Follow that row Phenylalanine Tyrosine Cysteine
U UUC UCC UAC UGC C
to the right Serine
UUA UCA UAA UGA – Stop A
until you are Leucine Stop
UUG UCG UAG UGG – Tryptophan G
beneath the
second base
of the codon. CUU CCU CAU CGU U
Histidine
C CUC CCC CAC CGC C
3. Move up or Leucine Proline Arginine
CUA CCA CAA CGA A
down in that Glutamine
CUG CCG CAG CGG G
section until
you are even, AUU ACU AAU AGU U
on the right Asparagine Serine
A AUC Isoleucine ACC AAC AGC C
side of the Threonine
AUA ACA AAA AGA A
chart, with the Lysine Arginine
AUG – Start ACG AAG AGG G
third base of
the codon.
GUU GCU GAU Aspartic GGU U
G GUC GCC GAC Acid GGC C
Valine Alanine Glycine
GUA GCA GAA Glutamic GGA A
GUG GCG GAG Acid GGG G

RNA’s Roles in Translation
Translation takes place in the cytoplasm. Here transfer RNA mol-
ecules and ribosomes help in the synthesis of proteins.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are single strands of RNA that
temporarily carry a specific amino acid on one end. Each tRNA is
folded into a compact shape and has an anticodon (an tee KOH
dahn). An anticodon is a three-nucleotide sequence on a tRNA
that is complementary to an mRNA codon. As shown in Figure 5,
the amino acid that a tRNA molecule carries corresponds to a par-
ticular mRNA codon.
Ribosomes, shown in Figure 5, are composed of both proteins
and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosomal RNA molecules are RNA
molecules that are part of the structure of ribosomes. A cell’s cyto-
plasm contains thousands of ribosomes. Each ribosome tem-
porarily holds one mRNA and two tRNA molecules. Figure 5
summarizes the process of translation:
Step Translation begins when the mRNA leaves the nucleus and
enters the cytoplasm. The mRNA, the two ribosomal sub-
units, and a tRNA carrying the amino acid methionine
(muh THIE uh neen) together form a functional ribosome.
The mRNA “start” codon AUG, which signals the beginning
of a protein chain, is oriented in a region of the ribosome
called the P site, where the tRNA molecule carrying methio-
nine can bind to the start codon.
Figure 5
B IO Translation: Assembling Proteins

gra hic
p Amino acids are assembled from information encoded in mRNA.
The ribosomal The tRNA carrying A peptide bond

1 subunits, the mRNA,
2 the amino acid
3 forms between
Nuclear envelope and the tRNA specified by the adjacent amino
carrying methionine codon in the A site acids.
Nuclear pore bind together. arrives.
Met
Amino acid tRNA
Amino acid
methionine
(Met)
A
P site
site
mRNA Ribosome

Step The codon in the area of the ribosome called the A site is
ready to receive the next tRNA. A tRNA molecule with the
complementary anticodon arrives and binds to the codon.
The tRNA is carrying its specific amino acid.
Step Now both the A site and the P site are holding tRNA mol-
ecules, each carrying a specific amino acid. Enzymes then
help form a peptide bond between the adjacent amino acids.
Step Afterward, the tRNA in the P site detaches, leaves behind its
amino acid, and moves away from the ribosome.
Step The tRNA (with its protein chain) in the A site moves over
to fill the empty P site. Because the anticodon remains
attached to the codon, the tRNA molecule and mRNA mol-
ecule move as a unit. As a result, a new codon is present in
the A site, ready to receive the next tRNA and its amino
acid. An amino acid is carried to the A site by a tRNA and
then bonded to the growing protein chain.
Step The tRNA in the P site detaches and leaves its amino acid.
Step Steps 2 through 6 are repeated until a stop codon is reached.
A stop codon is one of three codons (UAG, UAA, or UGA) for
which there is no tRNA molecule with a complementary
anticodon. Because there is no tRNA to fit into the empty
A site in the ribosome, protein synthesis stops. The newly
made protein is released into the cell.
The tRNA in the The tRNA in the A site A peptide bond is The process is repeated until a
4 P site detaches
5 moves to the P site.
6 formed. The tRNA in
7 stop codon is reached. The
and leaves its The tRNA carrying the the P site detaches Met ribosome complex falls apart.
amino acid behind. amino acid specified and leaves its amino The newly made protein is
by the codon in the acid behind. released.
A site arrives.
Met
Growing
Newly
protein chain
made
protein
Met
Met

As the mRNA moves across the ribosome, another ribosome can
find the AUG codon on the same mRNA and begin making a second
copy of the same protein. In this way many copies of the same protein
are made from a single mRNA molecule.
With few exceptions, the genetic code is the same in all organ-
isms. For example, the codon GUC codes for the amino acid valine
in bacteria, in eagles, in plants, and in your own cells. For this rea-
son, the genetic code is often described as being nearly universal. It
appears that all life-forms have a common evolutionary ancestor
with a single genetic code. Some exceptions include the ways cell
organelles that contain DNA (such as mitochondria and chloro-
plasts) and a few microscopic protists read “stop” codons.
Decoding the Genetic Code

Background
Keratin is one of the proteins in hair. The gene for keratin is
0100010110
011101010 transcribed and translated by certain skin cells. The series of
0010010001001 letters below represents the sequence of nucleotides in a por-
1100100100010
0000101001001 tion of an mRNA molecule transcribed from the gene for ker-
1101010100100
0101010010010 atin. This mRNA strand and the genetic code in Figure 4 can be
used to determine some of the amino acids in keratin.
U C U C G U G A A U U U U C C
Analysis
1. Determine the sequence of 3. Critical Thinking 4. Critical Thinking
amino acids that will result Recognizing Patterns Recognizing Patterns
from the translation of the Determine the sequence of Determine the sequence of
segment of mRNA above. nucleotides in the segment of nucleotides in the segment of
DNA from which the mRNA DNA that is complementary to
2. Determine the anticodon of
strand above was transcribed. the DNA segment described
each tRNA molecule that will
in item 3.
bind to this mRNA segment.
Section 1
Distinguish two differences between Critical Thinking Justifying
RNA structure and DNA structure. Conclusions Evaluate the following state-
ment: The term transcription is appropriate
Explain how RNA is made during tran- for describing the production of RNA, and
scription. the term translation is appropriate for
describing the synthesis of proteins.
Interpret the genetic code to determine
the amino acid coded for by the codon Standardized Test Prep What is the maxi-
CCU. mum number of amino acids that could be
coded for
Compare the roles of the three different
by a section of mRNA with the sequence
types of RNA during translation. GUUCAGAACUGU?
A3 C 6
214 CHAPTER 10 How Proteins Are Made B4 D 12
Gene Regulation Section 2
and Structure
Protein Synthesis in Prokaryotes Objectives
Although prokaryotic organisms, such as bacteria, might seem simple ● Describe how the lac
because of their small size, prokaryotic cells typically have about operon is turned on
2,000 genes. The human genome, which is the largest genome or off.
sequenced to date, has about 30,000 genes. Not all of the genes, how- ● Summarize the role of
ever, are transcribed and translated all of the time; this would waste transcription factors in
the cell’s energy and materials. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells regulating eukaryotic gene
are able to regulate which genes are expressed and which are not, expression.
depending on the cell’s needs. ● Describe how
An example of gene regulation that is well understood in prokary- eukaryotic genes are
otes is found in the bacterium Escherichia coli. When you eat or drink organized.
a dairy product, the disaccharide lactose (“milk sugar”) reaches the ● Evaluate three ways
intestinal tract and becomes available to the E. coli living there. The that point mutations
bacteria can absorb the lactose and break it down for energy or for can alter genetic
making other compounds. In E. coli, recognizing, consuming, and material.
breaking down lactose into its two components, glucose and galac-
tose, requires three different enzymes, each of which is coded for by Key Terms
a different gene. operator
As shown in Figure 6, the three lactose-metabolizing genes are operon
located next to each other and are controlled by the same promoter lac operon
site. There is an on-off switch that “turns on” (transcribes and then repressor
translates) the three genes when lactose is available and “turns off” intron
the genes when lactose is not available. exon
point mutation
Figure 6 Turning prokaryotic genes on and off
The lac operon allows a bacterium to build the proteins needed for lactose
metabolism only when lactose is present.
Lactose absent—the lac operon is off.
Repressor protein
RNA polymerase
Genes Involved in lactose use
Promoter
Operator
1
2 3
Lactose present—the lac operon is on.
Promoter Lactose
Operator
1
2 3
Lactose bound to repressor protein Transcription proceeds
SECTION 2 Gene Regulation and Structure 215

The piece of DNA that overlaps the promoter site and serves as
the on-off switch is called an operator . Because of its position, the
operator is able to control RNA polymerase’s access to the three lac-
tose-metabolizing genes.
In bacteria, a group of genes that code for enzymes involved in the
same function, their promoter site, and the operator that controls
them all function together as an operon (AHP uhr ahn). The operon
that controls the metabolism of lactose is called the lac operon and
is shown in Figure 6.
What determines whether the lac operon is in the “on” or “off”
mode? When there is no lactose in the bacterial cell, a repressor turns
the operon off. A repressor is a protein that binds to an operator and
physically blocks RNA polymerase from binding to a promoter site.
The blocking of RNA polymerase consequently stops the transcrip-
tion of the genes in the operon, as shown in Figure 6.
When lactose is present, the lactose binds to the repressor and
changes the shape of the repressor. The change in shape causes
the repressor to fall off of the operator, as shown in Figure 6. Now
the bacterial cell can begin transcribing the genes that code for the
lactose-metabolizing enzymes. By producing the enzymes only
when the nutrient is available, the bacterium saves energy.
Importance of
Exploring Further Transposons
All organisms,
including humans,
Jumping Genes appear to have
transposons.
The spotted and streaked patterns seen in Transposons proba-
Indian corn result from genes that have moved bly play a role in
from one chromosomal location to another. spreading genes for
Such genes are called transposons (trans antibiotic resistance
POH zahns). When a transposon jumps to among bacteria.
a new location, it often inactivates a gene or Transposons that
causes mutations. In Indian corn, some affect flower color
pigment genes are not expressed in some in morning glory
cells because they have been disrupted by flowers have been
jumping genes. found. Transposons
The Discovery of Transposons may also have
In the 1950s, the geneticist Barbara medical applications, Barbara McClintock
McClintock discovered transposons while such as helping scien-
studying corn. Most scientists rejected her tists discover how white blood cells make antibod-
ideas for more than 20 years. The idea that ies and what causes cancer.
genes could change locations on the chromo- Although the movement of transposons is very
some contradicted the prevailing view that rare, transposons are important because they can
genes and chromosomes are stable parts cause mutations and bring together different
of the cell. Over time, additional research combinations of genes. The transfer of these mobile
supported her hypothesis, and her model genes could be a powerful mechanism in evolution
gradually gained acceptance. In 1983, and could help solve certain mysteries about evolu-
McClintock received a Nobel Prize for tion, such as how larger organisms developed from
her discoveries involving transposons. single cells and how new species arise.

Protein Synthesis in Eukaryotes
Eukaryotic cells contain much more DNA than prokaryotic cells do.
Like prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells must continually turn certain
Organizing Information
genes on and off in response to signals from their environment.
Make a table to organize
Operons have not been found often in eukaryotic cells. Instead, genes
information about the regu-
with related functions are often scattered on different chromosomes. lation of protein synthesis.
Because a nuclear envelope physically separates transcription Across the top write the
from translation in a eukaryotic cell, more opportunities exist for headings Prokaryotes and
regulating gene expression. For example, gene regulation can occur Eukaryotes. Along the sides
before, during, and after transcription. Gene regulation can also write Protein(s) that regu-
late(s) the genes and
occur after mRNA leaves the nucleus or after translation, when the
Details of regulation. Add
protein is functional. information to the table as
you read Section 2.
Controlling the Onset of Transcription
Most gene regulation in eukaryotes controls the onset of transcrip-
tion—when RNA polymerase binds to a gene. Like prokaryotes,
eukaryotic cells use regulatory proteins. But many more proteins are
involved in eukaryotes, and the interactions are more complex. These
regulatory proteins in eukaryotes are called transcription factors.
As shown in Figure 7, transcription factors help arrange RNA
polymerases in the correct position on the promoter. A gene can be
influenced by many different transcription factors.
An enhancer is a sequence of DNA that can be bound by a tran-
scription factor. Enhancers typically are located thousands of
nucleotide bases away from the promoter. A loop in the DNA may bring
the enhancer and its attached transcription factor (called an activator)
into contact with the transcription factors and RNA polymerase at
the promoter. As shown in Figure 7, transcription factors bound to
enhancers can activate transcription factors bound to promoters.
Figure 7 Controlling transcription in eukaryotes

Transcription factors bind to the enhancer and to the RNA polymerase. The
binding activates transcription factors bound to the promoter.
Activator RNA polymerase Transcription

factor
Enhancer
Promoter Coding region of gene
DNA
Enhancer Promoter Coding region of gene
Transcription begins

Intervening DNA
in Eukaryotic Genes
While it is tempting to think of a gene as an unbroken stretch of
nucleotides that code for a protein, this simple arrangement is usually
The “int” in the word intron found only in prokaryotes. In eukaryotes, many genes are interrupted
comes from the “int” in the by introns (IN trahnz)—long segments of nucleotides that have no
word intervening. The “ex”
coding information. Exons (EK sahnz) are the portions of a gene that
in the word exon comes
from the “ex” in the word are translated (expressed) into proteins. After a eukaryotic gene is
expressed. transcribed, the introns in the resulting mRNA are cut out by complex
assemblies of RNA and protein called spliceosomes. The exons that
remain are “stitched” back together by the spliceosome to form a
smaller mRNA molecule that is then translated.
Many biologists think this organization of genes adds evolution-
ary flexibility. Each exon encodes a different part of a protein. By
having introns and exons, cells can occasionally shuffle exons
between genes and make new genes. The thousands of proteins that
occur in human cells appear to have arisen as combinations of only
a few thousand exons. Some genes in your cells exist in multiple
copies, in clusters of as few as three or as many as several hundred.
For example, your cells each contain 12 different hemoglobin genes,
all of which arose as duplicates of one ancestral hemoglobin gene.
Modeling Introns and Exons

You can use masking tape to represent introns
and exons.
Transcription
Materials Exon Intron
masking tape, pens or pencils (two colors), metric
ruler, scissors
mRNA
Introns
removed
Procedure
1. Place a 15–20 cm strip of 3. Lift the tape. Working
masking tape on your desk. from left to right, cut
The tape represents a gene. apart the groups of letters mRNA
written in the same color. (exons spliced together)
2. Use two colors to write the
Stick the pieces of tape to
words appropriately joined on
your desk as you cut them, mRNA leaves
the tape exactly as shown in nucleus
making two strips according
the diagram below. Space the
to color and joining the pieces
letters so that they take up
in their original order.
the entire length of the strip
of tape. The segments in one Translation
color represent introns; those
Analysis
in the other color represent
exons. 1. Determine from the result- 2. Critical Thinking
ing two strips which strip is Predicting Outcomes
made of “introns” and which Predict what might happen to
is made of “exons.” a protein if an intron were not
removed.

Mutations
Although changes in an organism’s hereditary information are rel-
atively rare, they can occur. As you learned in Chapter 6, a change
in the DNA of a gene is called a mutation. Mutations in gametes
can be passed on to offspring of the affected individual, but muta-
tions in body cells affect only the individual in which they occur.
Mutations that move an entire gene to a new location are called
gene rearrangements. Changes in a gene’s position often disrupt the
gene’s function because the gene is exposed to new regulatory con-
trols in its new location—like what would happen if you moved to
France and couldn’t speak French. Two types of gene rearrange-
ments are shown in Figure 8. Genes sometimes move as part of a
transposon. That is, the genes are carried by the moving transposon
like fleas on a dog. Other times, the portion of the chromosome
containing a gene may be rearranged during meiosis.
Mutations that change a gene are called gene alterations. Gene
alterations such as those shown in Figure 8 usually result in the
placement of the wrong amino acid during protein assembly. This
error will usually disrupt a protein’s function. In a point mutation ,
a single nucleotide changes. In an insertion mutation, a sizable
length of DNA is inserted into a gene. Insertions often result when
mobile segments of DNA, called transposons, move randomly
from one position to another on chromosomes. Transposons
make up 45 percent of the human genome. In a deletion mutation,
segments of a gene are lost, often during meiosis.
Figure 8 Major types of mutations

The substitution, addition, or removal of one or more
nucleotides is called a gene alteration. If the mutation
changes the original position of a gene of the chromo-
some, the gene may not function normally.
No Mutation Gene Alterations

Point mutation
A B C
A B C
Gene Rearrangements Insertion

Transposition
A C B
A B B C
Chromosomal rearrangement Deletion
A C B A B C

Because the genetic message is read as a series of triplet nucleotides,
insertions and deletions of one or two nucleotides can upset the
triplet groupings. Imagine deleting the letter C from the sentence
“THE CAT ATE.” Keeping the triplet groupings, the message would
read “THE ATA TE,” which is meaningless. A mutation that causes
a gene to be read in the wrong three-nucleotide sequence is called a
frameshift mutation.
Gene Sequencing
M any genetic disorders, such

as sickle cell anemia, are
caused by single nucleotide
interest. The tagged and untagged
nucleotides compete to make the
primer longer by matching the
Base pairing
? A
Primer
T
mutations. Today, certain genetic nucleotides on the gene of inter-
? T Base-pairing A
disorders can be detected by est, according to the base-pairing
rules reveal
comparing the sequence of rules. The tagged nucleotides are ? C G
nucleotides in the genes involved altered so that once a tagged ? the gene’s C
to the sequence in corresponding nucleotide is added on to the G nucleotide
healthy genes. primer, the synthesis reaction ? sequence.
stops on that primer strand.
Special Nucleotides ?
“Tagged” Gene's
One technique to find the Base-Pairing Rules Help nucleotide sequence
sequence of nucleotides in a gene The researcher separates the Gene of interest
uses nucleotides that each have a different-sized strands using a (nucleotide sequence
different colored fluorescent dye method called gel electrophore- unknown)
“tagged” on. The tagged nucleo- sis. The different fluorescent dyes organisms are kept on databases
tides are added to a test tube con- help the researcher determine the on the Internet. Scientists use this
taining single strands of the gene sequence of the nucleotides on information to look for similarities
of interest, “untagged” nucleo- the gene. to the gene they are studying.
tides, enzymes needed to make Comparing the sequences can
DNA, and small single-stranded Sequence Information
help them find genes with similar
pieces of DNA called primers. is Important
functions, help them classify
The primers base-pair with the Today, the sequence of nucleo- organisms, and determine evolu-
single strands of the gene of tides in genes from many different tionary relationships.
Section 2 Review
Describe the effect a repressor has on the lac Critical Thinking Evaluating Significance
operon when lactose is present. Which type of mutation would have a greater
effect on the sequence of amino acids in a pro-
Explain the role of transcription factors and tein, a base-pair substitution or a frameshift
enhancers in eukaryotic gene expression. mutation? Explain your answer.
Differentiate between exons and introns. Standardized Test Prep A mutation in which one
nucleotide in a gene is replaced with a different
nucleotide is called
A a deletion. C a substitution.
B an insertion. D a frameshift mutation.

ZONE
1 From Genes to Proteins Section 1
ribonucleic acid (RNA) (208)
● The instructions needed to make proteins are coded in uracil (208)
the nucleotides that make up a gene. The instructions transcription (208)
are transferred to an mRNA molecule during transcrip- translation (208)
tion. The RNA is complementary to the gene, and the gene expression (208)
RNA polymerase (209)
RNA nucleotides are put together with the help of RNA messenger RNA (211)
polymerase. codon (211)
genetic code (211)
● During translation, the mRNA molecule binds to a ribo-
transfer RNA (212)
some, and tRNAs carry amino acids to the ribosome anticodon (212)
according to the codons on the mRNA. Each codon ribosomal RNA (212)
specifies an amino acid. The amino acids are joined to
form a protein.
● The genetic code (codons) used by most organisms to
translate mRNA is nearly universal.
2 Gene Regulation and Structure Section 2

operator (216)
● Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are able to control which
operon (216)
genes are expressed and which are not, depending on the lac operon (216)
cell’s needs. repressor (216)
intron (218)
● In prokaryotes, gene expression is regulated by operons. exon (218)
Gene expression is switched off when repressor proteins point mutation (219)
block RNA polymerase from transcribing a gene.
● In eukaryotes, an enhancer must be activated for a eukary-
otic gene to be expressed. Transcription factors initiate tran-
scription by binding to enhancers and to RNA polymerases.
● Many eukaryotic genes are interrupted by segments of
DNA that do not code for proteins; these segments are
called introns. The segments of DNA that are expressed are
called exons. After transcription, the introns are cut out,
and the exons are joined. The exons are then translated.
● Mutations are changes in DNA. Gene alterations are muta-
tions that change a gene. These mutations can involve a
change in a single nucleotide or an entire gene.
Unit 6—Gene Expression


ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Does the drawing below represent a strand

of RNA or a strand of DNA? Explain your
1. Anticodons are found on ______ molecules. answer.
a. mRNA
b. DNA
U C A U C G U C G A A C U C
c. rRNA
d. tRNA
2. Unlike DNA, RNA contains 9. A researcher trying to
a. the sugar deoxyribose. determine the sequence of nucleotides on
b. the nitrogen base uracil. a particular gene obtained the following
c. a phosphate group. sequence with the primer and tagged
d. nucleotides. nucleotide: TCCGGAAG. What was the
sequence of nucleotides on the gene?
3. A short chain of DNA has the nucleotide
sequence ATA CCG. Its complementary 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
mRNA nucleotide sequence is map that shows the role of RNA in gene
a. TAT GCC. expression. Try to include the following
b. UAU GCC. words in your map: transcription,
c. TUT GCC. translation, mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, gene,
d. UAU GGC. promoter, codons, anticodons, proteins,
4. The lac operon allows a bacterium to amino acids, ribosome, and cytoplasm.
build the proteins needed for lactose
metabolism when
Critical Thinking
a. RNA polymerase is not bound to the 11. Evaluating Results A molecular biologist
promoter. isolates mRNA from the brain and from
b. lactose is absent. the liver of a mouse and finds that the
c. lactose is present. mRNA molecules are different from each
d. the repressor is bound to the operator. other. Can these results be correct or has
the biologist made an error? Explain your
5. Transcription of lactose-metabolizing
answer.
genes is blocked when the _____ is bound
to the operator. 12. Evaluating an Argument A classmate
a. repressor states that damage to exons is very likely
b. operon to affect the synthesis of a protein, while
c. inducer damage to introns is not. Evaluate that
d. enhancer statement.
6. In eukaryotes, gene expression can be 13. Evaluating Significance Compare and
regulated by contrast chromosomal mutations with
a. mutations. point mutations, and evaluate the
b. transcription factors. significance of each.
c. repressors.
d. operons. Alternative Assessment
7. Compare the way 14. Interactive Tutor Unit 6 Gene Expression
transposons and exons affect genes. Write a report summarizing how
antibiotics inhibit protein synthesis in
bacteria. How do some antibiotics interfere
with translation?


correct answer.
Many antibiotics fight bacterial infections
1 Which of the following shows the correct by interfering with bacterial protein synthe-
order of events in producing a protein sis. Some antibiotics combine with ribosomal
from a DNA sequence? proteins. Erythromycin and chloramphenicol
A. exon splicing, transcription, translation combine with the 50S ribosomal subunit.
B. exon splicing, translation, transcription The tetracyclines, streptomycin, gentamicin,
C. transcription, exon splicing, translation kanamycin, and the nitrofurans combine with
D. translation, transcription, exon splicing the 30S ribosomal subunit. Mupirocin and
puromycin inhibit protein synthesis at the
2 What process involves making proteins
tRNA level.
from the information carried by mRNA?
F. DNA replication 7 How do the antibiotics mupirocin and
G. gene regulation erythromycin differ in the types of
H. transcription biological molecules they act on?
I. translation F. Mupirocin acts on nucleic acids while
erythromycin acts on proteins.
3 What is a change in the genetic material of
G. Mupirocin inhibits protein synthesis
an organism called?
while erythromycin inhibits DNA
A. codon C. operator
replication.
B. mutation D. operon
H. Mupirocin acts on the 30S subunit while
4 What term describes mutations that erythromycin acts on the 50S subunit.
change one nucleotide in a gene? I. Mupirocin inhibits bacterial protein
F. codon mutation synthesis while erythromycin inhibits
G. operon mutation human protein synthesis.
H. point mutation
I. repressor protein Interpreting Graphics
5 What process involves making RNA based
8 on the diagram below.
on the sequence of nucleotides in DNA?
A. DNA replication Translation Model
B. gene regulation D
C. transcription
E
D. translation

B
6 How does gene replication of the lac A

operon promote homeostasis in intestinal C
E. coli bacteria?
Test
Slow, deep breathing may help you relax. If you suf- 8 Which part of the model represents a
codon?
fer from test anxiety, focus on your breathing in order
A. A C. C
to calm down.
B. B D. E

Exploration Lab
Modeling Protein Synthesis
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Modeling • masking tape
• Using scientific methods • plastic soda-straw pieces
of one color
OBJECTIVES
• plastic soda-straw pieces
• Compare and Contrast of a different color
the structure and function
of DNA and RNA.
• paper clips
• pushpins of five different
• Model protein synthesis.
colors
• Demonstrate how a
• marking pens of the same
mutation can affect
colors as the pushpins
a protein.
• 3 5 in. note cards
• oval-shaped card
• transparent tape

The nature of a protein is determined by the PART A: Design a Model
sequence of amino acids in its structure. 1. Work with the members of your lab group
During protein synthesis , the sequence of to design models of DNA, RNA, and a cell.
nitrogen bases in an mRNA molecule is used Use the materials listed for this lab.
to assemble amino acids into a protein chain.
A mutation is a change in the nitrogen- You Choose
base sequence of DNA. Many mutations lead As you design your models, decide the following:
to altered or defective proteins. For example, a. what question you will explore
the genetic blood disorder sickle cell anemia b. how to represent DNA nucleotides
is caused by a mutation in the gene for c. how to represent RNA nucleotides
hemoglobin. d. how to represent five different nitrogen bases
In this lab, you will build models that will e. how to link (bond) nucleotides together
help you understand how protein synthesis f. how to represent tRNA molecules with
amino acids
occurs. You can also use the models to
g. how to represent the locations of DNA and
explore how a mutation affects a protein.
ribosomes
the paragraph above and for each of the 2. Write out the plan for building your mod-
following terms: transcription, translation, els. Have your teacher approve the plan
tRNA, ribosome, codon, anticodon. before you begin building the models.
2. Describe three differences between DNA 3. Build the models your group
and RNA. designed. CAUTION: Sharp or
3. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a pointed objects may cause injury. Handle
question you would like to explore about pushpins carefully. Start your model of
protein synthesis. DNA with a strand of nucleotides that has
the following sequence of nitrogen bases:
TTTGGTCTCCTC.
PART B: Model Protein Synthesis PART D: Cleanup and Disposal
4. Use your models and Figure 10-5 on pp. 8. Dispose of damaged pushpins in the
212–213 to demonstrate how transcription designated waste container.
and translation occur. Draw and label the 9. Clean up your work area and all lab
steps of each process. equipment. Return lab equipment to
5. Use your models to explore one of the its proper place. Wash your hands thor-
questions written for step 3 of Before oughly before you leave the lab and after
You Begin. you finish all work.
PART C: Test Hypothesis Analyze and Conclude

Answer each of the following questions by 1. Comparing Structures How did the
writing a hypothesis. Use your models to test nitrogen-base sequence of the mRNA you
each hypothesis, and describe your results. made compare with that of the DNA it was
6. The DNA model you built for step 3 repre- transcribed from?
sents a portion of a gene for hemoglobin. 2. Recognizing Relationships How is the
Sickle cell anemia results from the substi- nitrogen-base sequence of a gene related to
tution of an A for the T in the third codon the structure of a protein?
of the nitrogen-base sequence given in
3. Recognizing Patterns What is the rela-
step 3. How will this substitution affect a
tionship between the anticodon of a tRNA
hemoglobin molecule?
and the amino acid the tRNA carries?
7. The addition of a nucleotide to a strand of
4. Drawing Conclusions How does a
DNA is a type of mutation called an inser-
mutation in the gene for a protein affect
tion. What happens when an insertion
the protein?
occurs in the first codon in a DNA strand,
before the DNA strand is transcribed? 5. Further Inquiry Write a new question
about protein synthesis that could be
explored with your model.
Do You Know?
1. What are mutagens, and how do they
affect DNA?
2. What are two other genetic disorders
that result from mutations?
explore your own questions about DNA.
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Genetic Disorders
Keyword: HX4091
CHAPTER 10 How Proteins Are Made 225

Show jumper
Electrophoresis gels

CHAPTER
11 Gene
Technology
1. Define the term gene. (Chapter 6, Section 1)
Genetic Engineering
2. Describe the structure of DNA. (Chapter 9,
Basic Steps of Genetic Engineering
Section 2)
Confirmation of a Cloned Gene
3. State the base-pairing rules that determine the
structure of DNA. (Chapter 9, Section 1)
Section 2
4. Explain why the genetic code is said to be
universal. (Chapter 10, Section 1) Human Applications of
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Genetic Engineering
sections indicated. The Human Genome Project
Genetically Engineered Drugs and Vaccines
DNA Fingerprinting

Before you read this chapter, write a short list of Genetic Engineering
all the things you know about gene technology.
in Agriculture
Then, write a list of the things that you want to Improving Crops
know about gene technology. Save your list, and Risks of Genetically Modified Crops
to assess what you have learned, see how many Gene Technology in Animal Farming
of your own questions you can answer after Problems with Cloning
reading this chapter.
www.scilinks.org
Electrophoresis is a technique used in a laboratory
that results in the separation of charged particles.
DNA is a negatively charged molecule, and is moved
by electric current through an electrophoresis gel.

CHAPTER 11 Gene Technology 227
Section 1 Genetic Engineering
Objectives Basic Steps of Genetic Engineering
● Describe four basic Not too long ago, using bacteria to produce human insulin and
steps commonly used inserting genes into tomatoes and human cells were ideas that
in genetic engineering existed only in science fiction books and movies. But now, the tech-
experiments. niques required to carry out these ideas have been developed and
● Evaluate how restriction are used daily.
enzymes and the anti- In 1973, Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer conducted an experi-
biotic tetracycline are ment that revolutionized genetic studies in biology. They isolated
used in genetic the gene that codes for ribosomal RNA from the DNA of an African
engineering.
clawed frog and then inserted it into the DNA of Escherichia coli
● Relate the role of bacteria, as summarized in Figure 1. During transcription, the bac-
electrophoresis and teria produced frog rRNA, thereby becoming the first genetically
probes in identifying a altered organisms. The process of manipulating genes for practical
specific gene.
purposes is called genetic engineering. Genetic engineering may
involve building recombinant DNA —DNA made from two or more
Key Terms
different organisms.
genetic engineering The basic steps in genetic engineering can be explored by exam-
recombinant DNA ining how the human gene for insulin is transferred into bacteria.
restriction enzyme Insulin is a protein hormone that controls sugar metabolism.
vector
Diabetics cannot produce enough insulin, so they must take doses of
plasmid
gene cloning
insulin regularly. Before genetic engineering, insulin was extracted
electrophoresis from the pancreases of slaughtered cows and pigs and then purified.
probe Today, the human insulin gene is transferred to bacteria through
genetic engineering. Because the genetic code is universal, bacteria
can transcribe and translate a human insulin gene using the same
code a human cell uses in order to produce human insulin.
Figure 1 Genetic alteration of an organism

Cohen and Boyer produced the first genetically engineered organisms.
1. Cohen and Boyer used an African 2. They isolated an rRNA 3. They inserted the gene into
clawed frog as their experimental gene from one of its bacteria. The bacteria produced
organism. chromosomes. frog rRNA.
228 CHAPTER 11 Gene Technology

Steps in a Genetic Engineering Experiment
Genetic engineering experiments use different approaches, but
most share four basic steps, as illustrated in Figure 2.
Step Cutting DNA The DNA from the organism containing the
gene of interest (in our example, the insulin gene) is cut by
restriction enzymes. Restriction enzymes are bacterial
enzymes that recognize and bind to specific short sequences
of DNA, and then cut the DNA between specific nucleotides
within the sequences. The DNA from a vector also is cut. A
vector is an agent that is used to carry the gene of interest
into another cell. Commonly used vectors include viruses,
yeast, and plasmids. Plasmids,
Figure 2
shown in Figure 2, are circular
DNA molecules that can repli-
cate independently of the main
graph
BIO
ic
Genetic Engineering
Many genetic engineering experiments
chromosomes of bacteria.
use one or more of these basic steps.
Step Making recombinant DNA
The DNA fragments from the 1 DNA is cut.
organism containing the gene of Bacterium
Human
interest are combined with the Plasmid DNA
chromosome
DNA fragments from the vector. carrying
insulin gene
An enzyme called DNA ligase is
added to help bond the ends of
Cut with
DNA fragments together. In our restriction enzyme
TTAA A
example, human DNA frag- A TT
ments are combined with plas- AA

TT TT
mid DNA fragments. The host AA
cells then take up the recombi-

nant DNA.
2 Recombinant DNA is produced.
Step Cloning In a process called
gene cloning, many copies of Insert into
Human
the gene of interest are made insulin
bacteria
each time the host cell repro- gene
duces. Recall from your reading
that bacteria reproduce by
3 The gene is cloned when bacteria are allowed to reproduce.
binary fission, producing identi-
cal offspring. When a bacterial
cell replicates its DNA, its plas-
mid DNA also replicates.
Step Screening Cells that have
received the particular gene of 4 Cells undergo selection and then are screened.
interest are distinguished, or
separated, from the cells that did
not take up the vector with the Bacterial cells
gene of interest. The cells can with the insulin
gene are later
transcribe and translate the isolated.
gene of interest to make the
protein coded for in the gene.
SECTION 1 Genetic Engineering 229

Figure 3 Restriction enzymes cut DNA
The restriction enzyme EcoRI recognizes the nucleotide sequence
GAATTC and makes its cut between the G and the A.
Insulin gene Cut with
EcoRI
AA TT
TT AA
Human DNA
TT
A TA A
AA A
AT
T
DNA A
T
T T
A AT ligase
T
T TA A
Cut with
EcoRI
Recombinant
Gene for Gene for DNA
replication tetracycline
resistance
Plasmid DNA
Cutting DNA and Making Recombinant DNA

An example of how restriction enzymes work is shown in Figure 3.
The enzyme recognizes a specific sequence of DNA. The sequence
the enzyme recognizes and the sequence on the complementary
DNA strand are palindromes—they read the same backward as they
do forward (such as the word noon).
The cuts of most restriction enzymes produce pieces of DNA with
short single strands on each end that are complementary to each
other. The ends are called sticky ends. As illustrated in Figure 3, the
vectors that are used contain only one nucleotide sequence that the
restriction enzyme recognizes. Thus, vectors such as the circular
plasmids “open up” with the same sticky ends as those of the cut
human DNA. The two DNA molecules bond together by means of
complementary base pairing at the sticky ends. The plasmid DNA
Figure 4 Screening.
has both the gene for plasmid DNA replication and the gene that
Only the cells that take up makes the cell carrying the plasmid resistant to the antibiotic tetra-
the vectors are resistant cycline.
to tetracycline and survive
when tetracycline is added.
Cloning, Selecting, and Screening Cells
One difficult part in a genetic engineering experiment is find-
ing and isolating the cells that contain the gene of interest.
First, the cells that have taken up the plasmid must be identi-
fied. The bacterial cells that have taken up the plasmid are
identified by growing the bacteria on plates that contain the
antibiotic tetracycline. As shown in Figure 4, only the cells
that have taken up the vectors (which contain the gene for
tetracycline resistance) survive when exposed to tetracycline.
Each surviving cell makes a copy of the vector every time the
cell reproduces. Eventually, each surviving cell forms a colony
of genetically identical cells, or clones. Some vectors contain
the gene of interest, and some do not.

Confirmation of a Cloned Gene
The surviving bacterial colonies are tested for the presence of the
gene of interest. One method used to identify a specific gene is a
technique called a Southern blot, as summarized in Figure 5. The word electrophoresis is
from the Latin electrocus,
Step In a Southern blot, the DNA from each bacterial clone colony meaning “electricity,” and
is isolated and cut into fragments by restriction enzymes. the Greek phoresis, mean-
ing “to carry.” Knowing this
Step The DNA fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis makes it easier to remember
(ee LEK troh fuh REE sis), a technique that uses an electric that electrophoresis uses
field within a gel to separate molecules by their size. The electricity to separate
gel is a rectangular slab of gelatin with a line of little rec- DNA fragments.
tangular wells near the top edge. The DNA sample is placed
in the pits. Because DNA is negatively charged, it migrates
toward the positive pole when the electric field is applied.
The DNA fragments move through the gel, with the small-
est DNA fragments moving fastest. A pattern of bands is
formed. The gel is soaked in a chemical solution that sepa-
rates the double strands in each DNA fragment into single-
stranded DNA fragments.
Step The DNA bands are then transferred (blotted) directly onto
a piece of filter paper. The filter paper is moistened with
a probe solution. Probes are radioactive- or fluorescent-
labeled RNA or single-stranded DNA pieces that are
complementary to the gene of interest.
Step Only the DNA fragments complementary to the probe will
bind with the probe and form visible bands.
Figure 5
B IO Southern Blot: Identifying a Gene of Interest

g hic
rap A DNA or RNA probe can be used to identify a cloned gene.
DNA from each bacterial DNA fragments are DNA is transferred to Only DNA frag-
1 clone colony is cut with
2 separated by gel
3 filter paper (blotted).
4 ments that contain
restriction enzymes. electrophoresis. A probe is added. the gene of interest
bind to probes.
I II I II I II
Probe
–
I II
Colony I
has the
+ gene of
interest.
Gel Filter paper
SECTION 1 Genetic Engineering 231

Once the bacterial colonies containing the gene of interest are
identified, the researcher can manipulate the genetically engi-
www.scilinks.org
neered bacteria in many different ways. For example, the gene of
Topic: Genetic Engineering
Keyword: HX4092 interest can be isolated so that the researcher has pure DNA to use
in genetic studies. The researcher can then study how the gene is
controlled. Pure DNA allows the researcher to determine the
sequence of nucleotides that make up the gene. By comparing the
nucleotide sequence of several different organisms, researchers can
study the evolution of a particular gene.
The gene of interest can also be isolated and then transferred to
other organisms. The bacterial colonies can be used to produce
large quantities of the protein coded for by the gene so that the pro-
tein can be studied further or used to make drugs, such as insulin.
Modeling Gel Electrophoresis

You can use beads to model how DNA fragments are
separated in a gel during electrophoresis.
Materials
500 mL beaker, large jar, 3 sets of beads—each set a different
size and different color
Procedure
1. Fill a large jar with the largest 3. Observe the flow of the 3. Determine whether the top
beads. The filled jar repre- beads through the “gel.” or the bottom of the jar repre-
sents a gel. Lightly agitate the jar if the sents the side of the gel with
beads do not flow easily. the positively charged pole.
2. Mix the two smaller beads in
the beaker and then pour Analysis 4. Critical Thinking Forming
them slowly on top of the 1. Identify which beads flowed Conclusions Why do the
“gel.” The two smaller size through the “gel” the fastest. beads you identified in
beads represent DNA frag- Analysis question 1 pass
ments of different sizes. 2. Relate the sizes of the beads through the “gel”
to the sizes of DNA fragments. more quickly?
Section 1 Review
Apply the four steps commonly used in genetic Critical Thinking Evaluating Conclusions
engineering experiments to describe the cloning A student performing electrophoresis on a DNA
of a human gene. sample believes that her smallest DNA fragment is
the band nearest the negative pole of the gel. Do
Relate the role of DNA “sticky ends” in the mak- you agree with her conclusion? Explain.
ing of recombinant DNA.
Standardized Test Prep Many genetic engineering
Summarize how cells are screened in genetic experiments are performed in bacteria using
engineering experiments. circular DNA molecules called
A phages. C probes.
Evaluate the role of probes in identifying a
specific gene. B promoters. D plasmids.

Human Applications Section 2
of Genetic Engineering
The Human Genome Project Objectives
In February of 2001, scientists working on the Human Genome ● Summarize two major
Project published a working draft of the human genome sequence. goals of the Human
The sequence of an organism’s genome is the identification of all base Genome Project.
pairs that compose the DNA of the organism. The Human Genome ● Describe how drugs
Project is a research project that has linked over 20 scientific labo- produced by genetic
ratories in six countries. Teams of scientists, such as those shown engineering are
in Figure 6, cooperated to identify all 3.2 billion base pairs of the being used.
DNA that makes up the human genome. Scientists were surprised ● Summarize the steps
by some of the discoveries they made. involved in making a
genetically engineered
vaccine.
The Geography of the Genome
One of the most surprising things about the human genome is the ● Identify two different uses
large amount of DNA that does not encode proteins. In fact, only for DNA fingerprints.
1 to 1.5 percent of the human genome is DNA that codes for proteins.
Each human cell contains about six feet of DNA, but less than 1 inch
of that is devoted to exons. Recall that exons are sequences of
nucleotides that are transcribed and then translated. Exons are scat-
tered about the human genome in clumps that are not spread evenly Key Terms
among chromosomes. For example, chromosome number 19 is Human Genome
small and is packed with transcribed genes. The much larger chro- Project
mosomes 4 and 8, by contrast, have few transcribed genes. On most vaccine
human chromosomes, great stretches of untranscribed DNA fill the DNA fingerprint
chromosomes between scattered clusters of transcribed genes.
Figure 6 Genetic Research.
Hundreds of scientists around the
The Number of Human Genes world worked to identify the human
When they examine the complete sequence of the genome sequence.
human genome, scientists were surprised at how few
genes there actually are. Human cells contain only
about 30,000 to 40,000 genes. This is only about dou-
ble the number of genes in a fruit fly. And it is only
one-fourth of the 120,000 genes that scientists had
expected to find. How had scientists made this pre-
diction of the number of human genes, and why was
it wrong? When scientists had counted unique human
messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, they had found
over 120,000. Each of these different forms of mRNA
molecules can, in turn, be translated into a unique
protein. So the scientists expected to find as many
genes as there are types of mRNA molecules.
SECTION 2 Human Applications of Genetic Engineering 233

Genetically Engineered
Drugs and Vaccines
Much of the excitement about genetic engineering has focused on
its potential uses in our society. The possibilities for the applica-
tions of these techniques in medicine and research are endless.
Many applications are already commonplace, such as the produc-
tion of genetically engineered proteins used to treat illnesses and
the creation of new vaccines used to combat infections.
Drugs
Many genetic disorders and other human illnesses occur when the
body fails to make critical proteins. Juvenile diabetes is such an ill-
ness. The body is unable to control levels of sugar in the blood
because a critical protein, insulin, cannot be made. These failures
can be overcome if the body can be supplied with the protein it
lacks. The proteins that regulate the body’s functions are typically
present in the body in very low amounts. Today hundreds of
pharmaceutical companies around the world produce medically
important proteins in bacteria using genetic engineering tech-
niques as summarized in Figure 7.
Factor VIII, a protein that promotes blood clotting, is an example
of a GM medicine (genetically modified; a drug manufactured by
genetic engineering). A deficiency in factor VIII leads to one type of
hemophilia, an inherited disorder characterized by prolonged bleed-
ing. For a long time, hemophiliacs received blood factors that had
been isolated from donated blood. Unfortunately, some of the
donated blood was infected with viruses such as HIV and hepatitis
B. The viruses were sometimes unknowingly transmitted to people
who received blood transfusions. Today, the use of genetically engi-
neered factor VIII eliminates these risks.
Figure 7 Use of genetically Genetically Engineered Medicines

engineered medicines. Many
Product: Used for treatment of:
medicines, such as medicines
used to treat burns, are pro- • Erythropoetin Anemia
duced by genetic engineering • Growth factors Burns, ulcers
techniques. • Human growth Growth defects
hormone
• Insulin Diabetes
• Interferons Viral infections and cancer
• Taxol Ovarian cancer

Vaccines
Many viral diseases, such as smallpox and polio, cannot be treated
effectively by existing drugs. Instead they are combated by preven-
Real Life
tion—using vaccines. A vaccine is a solution containing all or part You might get a vaccine
of a harmless version of a pathogen (disease-causing microorgan- in a banana.
ism). When a vaccine is injected, the immune system recognizes the Genetic engineers
pathogen’s surface proteins and responds by making defensive pro- are putting genes from
disease-causing microbes
teins called antibodies. In the future, if the same pathogen enters
into fruits and vegetables
the body, the antibodies are there to combat the pathogen and stop to create vaccines that
its growth before it can cause disease. are inexpensive and
Traditionally, vaccines have been prepared either by killing a spe- easy to take. Clinical
cific pathogenic microbe or by making the microbe unable to grow. trials using different
This ensures that the vaccine itself will not cause the disease. The foods, including pota-
toes, are underway.
problem with this approach is that there is a small but real danger
Finding Information
that a failure in the process to kill or weaken a pathogen will result in
What are the most com-
the transmission of the disease to the very patients seeking protection. mon ways vaccines are
This danger is one of the reasons why, for example, rabies vaccines now administered?
are administered only when a person has actually been bitten by an
animal suspected of carrying rabies.
Vaccines made by genetic engineering techniques avoid this dan-
ger. As illustrated in Figure 8, the genes that encode the pathogen’s
surface proteins can be inserted into the DNA of harmless viruses
such as cowpox (Vaccinia). The modified but harmless cowpox
virus becomes an effective and safe vaccine, as illustrated in Figure
8. The surfaces of the modified virus display herpes surface pro-
teins in addition to the virus’s own surface proteins. When the mod-
ified virus is injected into a human body, the body’s immune system
quickly responds to this challenge. The immune system makes anti-
bodies that attack any virus displaying the herpes surface protein.
As a result, the body is thereafter protected against infection by the
herpes virus.
Figure 8 Making a genetically engineered vaccine

A person vaccinated with a genetically engineered vaccine, such as the genital
herpes vaccine, will make antibodies against the virus.
Herpes surface protein
Gene
1. Isolate the gene that 2. Insert the gene into a

codes for the herpes harmless cowpox virus.
surface protein. The virus makes the herpes
Genital herpes virus surface protein. Use this Cowpox virus
modified virus in a vaccine. (harmless)

Vaccines for the herpes II virus and for the hepatitis B virus are
now being made through genetic engineering. The herpes II virus
produces small blisters on the genitals (the external sex organs).
The hepatitis B virus causes an inflammation of the liver that can
be fatal. A major effort is underway to produce a vaccine that will
protect people against malaria, a protozoan-caused disease for
which there is currently no effective protection.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
A detective finds a single hair

as the only evidence left
behind at a crime scene. Will this
Heating and
Replication Cycles
tion process is repeated over and
over again. Every 5 minutes, the
sample of DNA doubles again,
In PCR the double-stranded DNA
hair provide enough DNA to ana- sample to be copied is heated, resulting in many copies of the
lyze? For DNA fingerprinting and which separates the strands. The sample in a short amount of time.
many of the genetic engineering mixture is cooled, and short Today, scientists use PCR
uses discussed throughout this pieces of artificially made DNA machines, which automatically
chapter, a certain amount of DNA called primers are added. The cycle the reaction temperature.
is needed. Sometimes, however, primers bind to places on the DNA PCR’s Many Uses
only a very tiny amount of DNA is where the copying can begin.
available. PCR can duplicate DNA from as
DNA polymerase and free
Today scientists use a tech- few as 50 white blood cells, which
nucleotides are added to the mix-
nique called the polymerase might be found in a nearly invisi-
ture. The DNA polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) to quickly ble speck of blood. PCR is impor-
extends the DNA by attaching
make many copies of selected tant for diagnosing genetic
complementary free nucleotides
segments of the available DNA. disorders and for solving crimes.
to the primer. The result is two
With PCR, a scientist can pro- PCR is also used in different types
strands of DNA that are identical
duce a billionfold increase in of research and for studying
to each other and to the original
DNA material within a few hours! ancient fragments of DNA found
strand. The heating and replica-
in fossils or in preserved material.
Primer
Add DNA DNA

polymerase, Cool to allow polymerase
free primers to adds free
nucleotides, bond to Add DNA
nucleotides Heat again
and primers. Cool, then
original polymerase
to completeand Repeat
to repeat
Heat
Heat. add strands
primers free nucleotides
the strands process
the process
Original DNA DNA Primer Each double-

sample to be strands stranded DNA
copied separate is identical to
original DNA

DNA Fingerprinting
Other than identical twins, no two individuals have the same
genetic material. Scientists use DNA sequencing gel technology to
determine a DNA fragment’s nucleotide sequence, as shown in
Figure 9. Because the places a restriction enzyme can cut depend
on the DNA sequence, the lengths of DNA restriction fragments
will differ between two individuals. Such DNA fragments of differ-
ent lengths (polymorphisms) are called restriction fragment length
polymorphisms, or RFLPs.
RFLPs can be used to identify individuals and to determine how Figure 9 DNA sequence.
closely related members of a population are to one another. The The nucleotide sequence of
DNA fragments can be deter-
Southern blot technique, shown in Figure 5, is used to show an
mined using DNA sequencing
individual’s RFLP profile. The result is called a gel technology.
DNA fingerprint. A DNA fingerprint is a pattern
of dark bands on photographic film that is
made when an individual’s DNA restriction
fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis,
probed, and then exposed to an X-ray film.
Because restriction enzymes cut the DNA from
different individuals into DNA fragments of dif-
ferent lengths (RFLPs), each individual (other
than identical twins) has a unique pattern of
banding, or DNA fingerprint.
The banding patterns from two individuals
can be compared to establish whether they are
related, such as in a paternity case. Because it
can be performed on a sample of DNA found in
blood, semen, bone, or hair, DNA fingerprinting
is useful in forensics. Forensics is the scientific
investigation of the causes of injury and death
when criminal activity is suspected. DNA finger-
prints are also valuable for identifying the genes
that cause genetic disorders, such as Hunting-
ton’s disease and sickle cell anemia.
Section 2 Review
Relate the use of genetic engineering to Critical Thinking Distinguishing Relevant
the treatment of human illnesses such Information A student states that genetic engi-
as hemophilia. neering is “perfectly safe and sound.” What
safety and ethical issues do you think might arise
Relate genetic engineering techniques to the over the use of genetic engineering?
making of vaccines.
Standardized Test Prep One medicine made in
List two ways in which DNA fingerprinting has bacteria using genetic engineering techniques is
been useful to society. insulin, which is used to treat
A heart attacks C diabetes
.
B smallpox D cystic fibrosis

Section 3 Genetic Engineering
in Agriculture
Objectives Improving Crops
● Describe three ways in Farmers began primitive genetic breeding by selecting seeds from
which genetic engineering their best plants, replanting them, and gradually improving the
has been used to improve quality of successive generations. In the twentieth century, plant
plants. breeders started using the principles of genetics to select plants.
● Summarize two ways in Today, genetic engineers can add favorable characteristics to a
which genetic engineering plant by manipulating the plant’s genes, as shown in Figure 10.
techniques have been Genetic engineers can change plants in many ways, including
used to modify farm making crop plants more tolerant to drought conditions and creating
animals.
plants that can adapt to different soils, climates, and environmental
● Summarize the cloning of stresses.
sheep through the use of Genetic engineers have developed crop plants that are resistant to
differentiated cells. a biodegradable weedkiller called glyphosate. This has enabled farm-
ers to apply glyphosate to kill weeds without killing their crops.
Key Terms Because the field does not need to be tilled to control weeds, less
transgenic animal topsoil is lost to erosion. Half of the 72 million acres of soybeans
planted in the United States in 2000 were genetically modified to be
glyphosate resistant.
Scientists have also developed crops that are resistant to insects
by inserting a certain gene isolated from soil bacteria into crop
plants. This gene makes a protein that injures the gut of chewing
insects. Crops that are resistant to insects do not need to be sprayed
with pesticides, many of which can harm the environment.
More Nutritious Crops

Genetic engineers have been able, in many
instances, to improve the nutritional value of
crop plants. For example, in Asia many peo-
ple use rice as a major source of food, yet rice
has low levels of iron and beta carotene,
which your body uses to make vitamin A
(necessary for vision). As a result, millions
suffer from iron deficiency and poor vision.
Genetic engineers have added genes to rice
from other plants, as shown in Figure 11, to
overcome this deficiency.
Figure 10 Genetically engineered plants. At

least 50 plants have been genetically engineered,
including potatoes, soybeans, and corn. The
researcher Athanasios Theologis genetically engi-
neered tomatoes to ripen without becoming soft.

S Fe A1 A2 A3 A4 Pt
Gene from wild rice Gene from beans Gene from daffodil helps make Gene from fungus helps
improves absorption of iron. increases iron. beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. absorption of iron.
Figure 11 Rice enriched

Risks of Genetically Modified Crops with iron and vitamin A.
Many people, including influential scientists, have expressed con- Genetically modified “golden”
cern that genetically modified crops (GM crops) might turn out to rice offers the promise of
improving the diets of people
be dangerous. What kind of unforeseen negative effects might in rice-consuming countries,
“improved” GM crops have? where iron and vitamin A defi-
ciencies are a serious problem.
Potential Problems
Some food crops, such as corn and soybeans, have been genetically
rendered resistant to glyphosate, a weed killer that is harmless to
humans. Glyphosate, when used on a food crop, will kill the weeds
but will not harm the GM crop, thus increasing food crop yields.
Some scientists are concerned that the use of GM crops and the sub-
sequent use of glyphosate will eventually lead to glyphosate-resistant
weeds. This will leave farmers with few weed-control alternatives.
Some GM crops have genes added to improve nutritional charac-
ter, as was done in rice. It is important to check that consumers are
not allergic to the product of the introduced gene. For this reason,
screening of GM crops for causes of allergy problems is now routine.
Are GM Crops Harmful to the Environment?

Will introduced genes pass from GM crops to their wild or weedy
relatives? This sort of gene flow happens naturally all the time, so
this concern is legitimate. For most crops, no closely related wild
plant is around to receive the gene. The GM gene cannot pass to a
nonrelative, because crop plants cannot successfully reproduce with
unrelated species, any more than a cat can breed with a giraffe.
There are wild relatives of corn in Mexico and Guatamala, which fre-
quently exchange genes with corn crops. Scientists are divided about
whether it makes any difference if one of the genes is a GM gene.
Might pests become resistant to GM toxins? Pests are becoming
resistant to GM toxins just as they have become resistant to the
chemical pesticides that are sprayed on crops.
Scientists, the public, and regulatory agencies must work together
to evaluate the risks and benefits of GM products.
SECTION 3 Genetic Engineering in Agriculture 239

Gene Technology in Animal Farming
Farmers have long tried to improve farm animals and crops through
traditional breeding and selection programs. In the past, the cow
www.scilinks.org that produced the most milk on a farm may have been mated to
Topic: Cloning
Keyword: HX4047
male offspring of high producers in hopes that the cow’s offspring
would also produce a lot of milk. But these traditional processes
were slow and inefficient.
Now, many farmers use genetic-engineering techniques to
improve or modify farm animals. Some farmers add growth hor-
mone to the diet of cows to increase milk production. Previously,
the growth hormone was extracted from the brains of dead cows.
But now the cow growth hormone gene is introduced into bacteria.
The bacteria produce the hormone so cheaply that it is practical to
add it as a supplement to the cows’ diet.
By altering the gene responsible for GH production, scientists
have stimulated natural GH in pigs, increasing their weight.
Though these procedures are still new, they may lead to the cre-
ation of new breeds of very large and fast-growing cattle and hogs.
Making Medically Useful Proteins

Another way in which gene technology is used in animal farming is
in the addition of human genes to the genes of farm animals in order
to get the farm animals to produce human proteins in their milk.
This is used especially for complex human proteins that cannot be
made by bacteria through gene technology. The human proteins are
Figure 12 Cloning a sheep from mammary cells

In 1997 scientists announced the first successful cloning using
differentiated cells—a lamb named Dolly.
Nucleus containing
source DNA
Mammary cells were

extracted and grown in
nutrient-deficient solution
that stops the cell cycle.
A mammary cell An electric shock opened up the cell

was placed next membranes so that the cells fused. Cell
to the “empty” division was triggered.
egg cell.
Egg cells were extracted

and the nucleus from
each removed and
discarded.

extracted from the animals’ milk and sold for pharmaceutical pur-
poses. The animals are called transgenic animals because they have
foreign DNA in their cells.
Most recently, scientists have turned to cloning animals as a way
of creating herds of identical animals that can make medically use-
ful proteins. The intact nucleus of an embryonic or fetal cell (whose
DNA has been recombined with a human gene) is placed into an
egg whose nucleus has been removed. The egg with the new
nucleus is then placed into the uterus of a surrogate, or substitute,
mother and is allowed to develop.
Cloning From Adult Animals

In 1997, a scientist named Ian Wilmut captured worldwide atten-
tion when he announced the first successful cloning using differen-
tiated cells from an adult animal. A differentiated cell is a cell that
has become specialized to become a specific type of cell (such as a
liver or udder cell). As summarized in Figure 12, a lamb was cloned
from the nucleus of a mammary cell taken from an adult sheep.
Previously, scientists thought that cloning was possible only using
embryonic or fetal cells that have not yet differentiated. Scientists
thought that differentiated cells could not give rise to an entire
organism. Wilmut’s experiment proved otherwise.
An electric shock was used to fuse mammary cells from one
sheep with egg cells without nuclei from a different sheep. The
fused cells divided to form embryos, which were implanted into
surrogate mothers. Only one embryo survived the cloning process.
Dolly, born on July 5, 1996, was genetically identical to the sheep
that provided the mammary cell.
Embryo
After a 5-month pregnancy,

a lamb was born that was
genetically identical to the
sheep from which the
mammary cell was extracted.
The embryo
developed in vitro
and was later implanted
into a surrogate mother.
SECTION 3 Genetic Engineering in Agriculture 241

Problems With Cloning
Since Dolly’s birth in 1996, scientists have successfully cloned ani-
mals. Only a few of the cloned offspring survived for long, however.
Many become fatally oversized. Others encounter problems in devel-
opment. For example, three cloned calves were born healthy in
March, 2001, only to die a month later of immune system failure.
The Importance of Genomic Imprinting

Technical problems in reproductive cloning lie within a developmental
process that conditions eggs and sperm so that the right combination
of genes are turned “on” or “off” during early development. When
cloned offspring become adults, a different combination of genes is
activated. The process of conditioning the DNA during an early stage
of development is called genomic imprinting.
RNA polymerase In genomic imprinting, chemical changes
made to DNA prevent a gene’s expression with-
out altering its sequence. Usually, a gene is
Gene
locked into the “off” position by adding methyl
(–CH3) groups to its cytosine nucleotides, as
shown in Figure 13. The bulky methyl groups
prevent polymerase enzymes from reading the
Gene
gene, so the gene cannot be transcribed. Later
in development, the methyl groups are removed
CH3
and the gene is reactivated.
Figure 13 Methylated
gene. In one model of
genomic imprinting, methyl Why Cloning Fails
groups attached to a gene Normal vertebrate development depends on precise genomic
prevent the gene from being imprinting. This process, which takes place in adult reproductive tis-
expressed. sue, takes months for sperm and years for eggs. Reproductive
cloning fails because the reconstituted egg begins to divide within
minutes. There is simply not enough time in these few minutes for
the reprogramming to process properly. Key genes fail to become
properly methylated, and this leads to critical errors in development.
Because of these technical problems, and because of ethical prob-
lems, efforts to clone humans are illegal in most countries.
Section 3 Review
List three ways in which food crops have been Critical Thinking Forming Reasoned
improved through genetic engineering. Opinions List reasons you would or would not
be concerned about consuming milk from cows
Compare the cloning of sheep through the use treated with growth hormone.
of differentiated cells with the cloning of sheep
through the use of embryonic cells. Standardized Test Prep Using genetic engineering
to produce rice with high levels of beta-carotene
Critical Thinking Analyzing Methods In the should help people who suffer from a deficiency in
movie Jurassic Park, scientists used DNA to bring A vitamin A. C glyphosate.
back extinct species. How is that different from the
B growth hormone. D complex proteins.
creation of cloned sheep using differentiated cells?

ZONE
1 Genetic Engineering Section 1
genetic engineering (228)
● Genetic engineers manipulate DNA for practical purposes. recombinant DNA (228)
● Restriction enzymes cleave DNA into fragments that have restriction enzyme (229)
short sticky ends. Sticky ends allow DNA fragments from dif- vector (229)
plasmid (229)
ferent organisms to join together to form recombinant DNA. gene cloning (229)
● Recombinant DNA is inserted into host cells. The cells are electrophoresis (231)
probe (231)
screened to identify cells that have the recombinant DNA.
Each time the cells reproduce, the gene of interest is cloned.
● Electrophoresis uses an electric field within a gel to separate
DNA fragments by their size.
● Specific genes can be identified with the Southern blot
technique.
2 Genetic Engineering in Medicine and Society Section 2

Human Genome Project (233)
● Genetic engineering is used to manufacture human proteins for vaccine (235)
use as drugs and to make safer and more effective vaccines. DNA fingerprint (237)
● Some human genetic disorders are being treated with
gene therapy.
● DNA fingerprinting is used to identify individuals and deter-
mine relationships between individuals.
● The Human Genome Project is an effort to determine the
nucleotide sequence of and map the location of every gene on
each human chromosome by the year 2003. The sequence of
the genomes of many organisms has already been determined.
3 Genetic Engineering in Agriculture Section 3

transgenic animal (241)
● Crop plants can be genetically engineered to have favorable
characteristics, including improved yields and resistance to
herbicides and destructive pests.
● Genetically engineered growth hormone increases milk pro-
duction in dairy cows and weight gain in cattle and hogs.
● Success in cloning animals using differentiated cells was
announced in 1997. In addition, transgenic animals can be
cloned and used to make proteins that are useful in medicine.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Describe how molecule A was produced.
1. Gel electrophoresis is used to _______ DNA

fragments.
a. separate c. cut
b. join d. copy
2. Which of the following human illnesses
can be treated using a product of genetic
engineering? A
a. malaria c. flu
b. hemophilia d. a sinus cold 9. You have discovered a
fossilized bone. How can you use PCR to
3. Injecting a healthy copy of a gene obtain sufficient DNA for DNA analysis?
into a person who has a defective
gene is called 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
a. probing. map about genetic engineering. Try to
b. gene therapy. include the following words in your map:
c. PCR. DNA of interest, vectors, recombinant DNA,
d. DNA cloning. plasmids, restriction enzymes, sticky ends,
4. The major effort to map and sequence all and research.
human genes is called
a. the RFLP Project.
Critical Thinking
b. the PCR Project. 11. Forming Reasoned Opinions In the United
c. the Human Genome Project. States, government regulations require
d. DNA fingerprinting. researchers to contain experimental
genetically engineered organisms inside
5. A transgenic organism is produced as a
a laboratory and to ensure that the
result of
organisms could not survive outside the
a. hybridization.
laboratory. Why do you think these strict
b. recombinant DNA.
regulations are necessary?
c. mutation.
d. RFLPs. 12. Distinguishing Fact from Opinion A judge
presiding over a highly publicized murder
6. The process of making recombinant
trial dismissed the prosecution’s request to
DNA is least related to
admit DNA fingerprints as evidence, call-
a. clones.
ing it “unproven.” Do you agree with the
b. DNA fragments.
judge? Explain your answer.
c. restriction enzymes.
d. sticky ends. 13. Distinguishing Relevant Information Orga-
nize and videotape a class debate about the
7. Genetic engineers can make plants
safety questions raised by the potential
a. resistant to insects.
release of genetically engineered plants,
b. more tolerant to droughts.
bacteria, and animals into the environ-
c. that are adapted to different soils.
ment. Use library references and on-line
d. All of the above
databases to back up your arguments.


correct answer.
The question of awarding patents on
1 What term describes a molecule contain- genetically engineered organisms arose when
ing DNA from two different organisms? a microbiologist named Ananda Chakrabarty
A. plasmid filed for a patent on a bacterium capable of
B. probe digesting the components of crude oil.
C. recombinant DNA Chakrabarty identified enzymes that degrade
D. RFLP DNA different components of crude oil and added
the enzymes to Pseudomonas bacteria. His
2 Which of the following is an extra ring of
patent request was brought before the U. S.
DNA in bacteria?
Supreme Court, which ruled in 1980 that
F. clone
human-engineered organisms are patentable
G. plasmid
under federal law.
H. probe
I. restriction enzyme 7 What type of genetic engineering did
Chakrabarty use to add enzymes to
3 What agent allows genetic engineers to cut
Pseudomonas bacteria?
DNA at specific sites?
A. DNA fingerprinting
A. DNA ligase
B. gel electrophoresis
B. DNA polymerase
C. human cloning
C. plasmid DNA
D. recombinant DNA
D. restriction enzyme
4 What technique is used to identify individ- Interpreting Graphics

uals in paternity cases and criminal cases? Directions (8): Base your answer to question
F. DNA fingerprinting 8 on the diagram below.
G. gene therapy
DNA Cut with a Restriction Enzyme
H. genomic imprinting
I. vaccination A
TGGCCA ACCGGT
Directions (5–6): For each question, write a
short response.
5 Examine how natural selection could be

affected by genetic engineering. B
6 Analyze the difference in the meanings

of the terms recombinant DNA and TGGCCA
restriction enzyme.
8 The diagram above shows two pieces of

DNA that have been cut with the same
restriction enzyme. What nucleotide
sequence must the sticky end labeled B
Test have if it is to bond with the sticky end
When answering short-response questions, be sure labeled A?
to write in complete sentences. F. ACCGGT H. TCCGGA
G. CTTAAG I. UGGCCU

Exploration Lab
Modeling Recombinant DNA
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Modeling • paper clips (56)
• Comparing • plastic soda straw
pieces (56)
OBJECTIVES
• pushpins (15 red, 15
• Construct a model that green, 13 blue, and
can be used to explore 13 yellow)
the process of genetic
engineering.
• Describe how recombinant
DNA is made.

Genetic engineering is the process of taking a PART A: Model Genetic Engineering
gene from one organism and inserting it into 1. Make 56 model nucleotides. To make
the DNA of another organism. The gene is a nucleotide, insert a pushpin midway
delivered by a vector , such as a virus, or a along the length of a 3 cm piece of a soda
bacterial plasmid. straw. CAUTION: Handle pushpins care-
First, a fragment of a chromosome fully. Pointed objects can cause injury.
that contains the gene is isolated by using a Push a paper clip into one end of the soda-
restriction enzyme , which cuts DNA at a spe- straw piece until it touches the pushpin.
cific nucleotide-base sequence. Some restriction
2. Begin a model of a bacterial plasmid by
enzymes cut DNA unevenly, producing single-
arranging nucleotides for one DNA strand
stranded sticky ends . The DNA of the vector is
in the following order: blue, red, green, yel-
cut by the same restriction enzyme. Next, the low, red, red, blue, blue, green, red, blue,
chromosome fragment is mixed with the cut green, red, blue, blue, green, yellow, and
DNA of the vector. Finally, an enzyme called red. Join two adjacent nucleotides by
DNA ligase joins the ends of the two types of
inserting the paper clip end of one into the
cut DNA, producing recombinant DNA . open end of the other.
In this lab, you will model genetic 3. Using your first DNA strand and the base-
engineering techniques. You will simulate pairing rules, build the complementary
the making of recombinant DNA that strand of plasmid DNA. Note: Yellow is
has a human gene inserted into the DNA complementary to blue, and green is comple-
of a plasmid. mentary to red.
1. Write a definition for each boldface term 4. Complete your model of a circular plasmid
in the paragraph above and for the term by joining the opposite ends of each DNA
base-pairing rules. strand. Make a sketch showing the sequence
2. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a of bases in your model plasmid. Use the
question you would like to explore about abbreviations B, Y, G, and R for the pushpin
the process of genetic engineering. colors. Your sketch should be similar to the
one at the top of the next page.

G Y PART B: Cleanup and Disposal
B R B G
R Y R
R
10. Dispose of damaged pushpins in the
G G designated waste container.
Y B 11. Clean up your work area and all lab
Y B
YB R G its proper place. Wash your hands thor-
GR R
G you finish all work.
G B
R
B Y
Y R G B Analyze and Conclude
G Y
R
1. Comparing Structures Compare your
5. Begin a model of a human chromosome models of plasmid DNA and human DNA.
fragment made by a restriction enzyme. 2. Relating Concepts What do the
Place nucleotides for one DNA strand in sections of four unpaired nucleotides
the following order: BBRRYGGBRY. Build in your model human DNA fragment
the second DNA strand by arranging the represent?
remaining nucleotides in the following 3. Comparing Structures How did your
order: BRRYGBYYGG. original model plasmid DNA molecule dif-
6. Match the complementary portions of the fer from your final model DNA molecule?
two strands of DNA you made in step 5. 4. Drawing Conclusions What does the
Pair as many base pairs in a row as you molecule you made in step 9 represent?
can. Make a sketch showing the sequence
of bases in your model of a human chro-
that could be explored with another
mosome fragment.
investigation.
7. Imagine that the restriction enzyme that
cut the human chromosome fragment you
made in steps 5 and 6 is moving around
your model plasmid until it finds the
sequence YRRBBG and its complementary
sequence, BGGYYR. This restriction
enzyme cuts each sequence between a B
and a G. Find such a section in your sketch
of your model plasmid’s DNA.
8. Simulate the action of the restriction
enzyme on the section you identified in
step 7. Open both strands of your model
plasmid’s DNA by pulling apart the adja-
cent green and blue nucleotides in each On the Job
strand. Make a sketch of the split plasmid Genetic engineering is used to produce
DNA molecule. many products that are useful to
9. Move your model human DNA fragment humans. Do research to discover how
into the break in your model plasmid’s DNA genetic engineering is used to better
molecule. Imagine that a ligase joins the our lives. For more about careers, visit
ends of the human and plasmid DNA. Make go.hrw.com and type in the keyword
a sketch of your final model DNA molecule. HX4 Careers.
CHAPTER 11 Gene Technology 247

Principles of
UNIT 3 Evolution
Chapters
38 History of Life
12
on Earth
13 The Theory of
Evolution
14 Classification of
Organisms
Tropical rain forests contain

more than one-half of all
the world’s animal and plant
species, such as this red-
eyed tree frog from Central
America.

Tropical Rain Forests
During their travels, early

European visitors were
fascinated by the variety
and number of tropical rain-forest plants and
animals so different from those they knew at
home. Discover how early scientists named
and classified living things.
Exploring the
Brazilian
jungle in 1820
Today’s explorers are faced with

the challenge of classifying living
things in lesser-known areas, such
as tropical rain forests, that have not
yet been studied by scientists. What
organisms are found in tropical rain
forests, and what is the impact of
human activity on these species?
Rain-forest researcher at Madre de Dios, Peru
To preserve species, new ways of pro-

tecting tropical habitats are being
explored. For example, modern coffee-
growing techniques eliminate native species as fields
are planted solely with coffee, a major
source of revenue for many tropical coun-
tries. But shade coffee plantations grow www.scilinks.org
Topic: Rain Forests
coffee in the midst of the forest canopy, Keyword: HX4155
thus preserving habitat for tropical species.
Coffee beans
249
Show jumper
Lightning at sea

CHAPTER
12 History of Life
on Earth

Answer the following without referring
to earlier sections of your book. Section 1
1. Compare the structure of proteins, lipids, and
nucleic acids. (Chapter 2, Section 3) How Did Life Begin?
The Age of Earth
2. Describe the role of enzymes in catalyzing
Formation of the Basic Chemicals of Life
chemical reactions. (Chapter 2, Section 4)
Precursors of the First Cells
3. Contrast prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
4. Identify the structure and function of
Section 2
chloroplasts and mitochondria. (Chapter 3, The Evolution of Cellular Life
Section 3) The Evolution of Prokaryotes
5. Summarize the role of DNA in heredity. The Evolution of Eukaryotes
(Chapter 9, Section 1) Multicellularity
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Mass Extinctions
sections indicated.
Section 3
Life Invaded the Land
Reading Activity The Ozone Layer
Plants and Fungi on Land
Before you begin to read this chapter, write Arthropods
down all of the key words for each section of Vertebrates
the chapter. Then, write a definition next to each
word that you have heard of. As you read the
chapter, write definitions next to the words that
you did not previously know, and modify as
needed your original definitions of words
familiar to you.
www.scilinks.org
Billions of years ago, the combination of simple
molecules and energy from sources such as lightning
may have given rise to the complex organic molecules
necessary for life.
CHAPTER 12 History of Life on Earth 251

Section 1 How Did Life Begin?
Objectives The Age of Earth
● Summarize how radioiso- When Earth formed, about 4.5 billion years ago, it was a fiery ball
topes can be used in of molten rock. Eventually, the planet’s surface cooled and formed
determining Earth’s age. a rocky crust. Water vapor in the atmosphere condensed to form
● Compare two models that vast oceans. Most scientists think life first evolved in these oceans
describe how the chemicals and that the evolution of life occurred over hundreds of millions of
of life originated. years. Evidence that Earth has existed long enough for this evolu-
● Describe how cellular tion to have taken place can be found by measuring the age of rocks
organization might have found on Earth.
begun.
● Recognize the importance Measuring Earth’s Age
that a mechanism for heredity Scientists have estimated the age of Earth using a technique called
has to the development radiometric dating. Radiometric dating is the estimation of the age
of life. of an object by measuring its content of certain radioactive isotopes
(IE soh tohps). An isotope is a form of an element whose atomic mass
Key Terms
(the mass of each individual atom) differs from that of other atoms
radiometric dating of the same element. Radioactive isotopes, or radioisotopes , are
radioisotope unstable isotopes that break down and give off energy in the form of
half-life charged particles (radiation). This breakdown, called radioactive
microsphere decay, results in other isotopes that are smaller and more stable.
For example, certain rocks contain traces of potassium-40, an iso-
tope of the element potassium. As Figure 1 shows, the decay of
potassium-40 produces two other isotopes, argon-40 and calcium-
40. The time it takes for one-half of a given amount of a radioisotope
to decay is called the radioisotope’s half-life . By measuring the
proportions of certain radioisotopes and their products of decay, sci-
entists can compute how many half-lives have passed since a rock
was formed.
Radioactive Decay
1/1
Newly formed rock
Amount (of remaining
potassium-40 atoms)
Potassium-40
Argon-40 (product)
Calcium-40 (product)
1/2
Figure 1 Rate of decay for 1/4

potassium-40. This graph 1/8
shows the rate of decay for the 1/16
radioisotope potassium-40. 1 half-life 2 half-lives 3 half-lives 4 half-lives
After one half-life has passed, 1.3 2.6 3.9 5.2
half of the original amount of Time passed (in billions of years)
the radioisotope remains.
252 CHAPTER 12 History of Life on Earth

Formation of the Basic
Chemicals of Life
Most scientists think that life on Earth developed through natural
chemical and physical processes. It is thought that the path to the
www.scilinks.org
development of living things began when molecules of nonliving Topic: Radioactive Decay
matter reacted chemically during the first billion years of Earth’s Keyword: HX4154
history. These chemical reactions produced many different simple,
organic molecules. Energized by the sun and volcanic heat, these
simple, organic molecules formed more-complex molecules that
eventually became the building blocks of the first cells. The hypoth-
esis that many of the organic molecules necessary for life can be
made from molecules of nonliving matter has been tested and sup-
ported by results of laboratory experiments.
Modeling Radioactive Decay

You can use some dried corn, a box, and a watch to
make a model of radioactive decay that will show
you how scientists measure the age of objects.
Materials
approximately 100 dry corn kernels per group, cardboard box,
clock or watch with a second hand
Procedure Analysis
1. On a separate sheet of 6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until all 1. Identify what the removed
paper, make a data table like kernels have been counted kernels represent in each step.
the one below. and removed.
2. Calculate the half-life of
2. Assign one member of your 7. Calculate the number of your sample, in seconds, that
team to keep time. kernels remaining for each is represented in this activity.
time interval.
3. Place 100 dry corn kernels 3. Calculate the age of your
into a box. 8. Make a graph using your sample, in years, if each
group’s data. Plot “Total 10-second interval represents
4. Shake the box gently from
shake time (seconds)” on 5,700 years.
side to side for 10 seconds.
the x-axis. Plot “Number
4. Evaluate the ability of this
5. Keep the box still and of kernels remaining” on the
model to demonstrate
remove and count the y-axis.
radioactive decay.
kernels that “point” to the
left side of the box, as shown
below. Record in your data
table the number of kernels
you removed. Total shake time Number of kernels Number of kernels
(seconds) removed remaining
10
20
30
SECTION 1 How Did Life Begin? 253

The “Primordial Soup” Model
In the 1920s, the Russian scientist A. I. Oparin and the British
Real Life scientist J.B.S. Haldane both suggested that the early Earth’s oceans
Is there life on other contained large amounts of organic molecules. This hypothesis
planets? became known as the primordial (prie MAWR dee uhl) soup model.
Many scientists think life Earth’s vast oceans were thought to be filled with many different
could have arisen on other organic molecules, like a soup that is filled with many different veg-
planets the same way it
etables and meats. Oparin and Haldane hypothesized that these
did on Earth.
molecules formed spontaneously in chemical reactions activated by
Analyzing Information
Find out about research energy from solar radiation, volcanic eruptions, and lightning.
on extraterrestrial life, Oparin, together with the American scientist Harold Urey, and
and compare scientists’ other scientists also proposed that Earth’s early atmosphere lacked
predictions about possible oxygen. They hypothesized that the early atmosphere was instead
life-forms on other planets. rich in nitrogen gas, N2; hydrogen gas, H2; and hydrogen-containing
gases such as water vapor, H2O; ammonia, NH3; and methane, CH4.
They reasoned that electrons in these gases would have been fre-
quently pushed to higher energy levels by light particles from the
sun or by electrical energy in lightning. Today, high-energy electrons
are quickly soaked up by the oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere because
oxygen atoms have a great “thirst” for such electrons. But without
oxygen, high-energy electrons would have been free to react with
hydrogen-rich molecules, forming a variety of organic compounds.
In 1953, the primordial soup model was tested by Stanley Miller,
who was then working with Urey. Miller placed the gases that he and
Urey proposed had existed on early Earth into a device like the one
seen in Figure 2. To simulate lightning, he provided electrical sparks.
After a few days, Miller found a complex collection of organic mol-
ecules in his apparatus. These chemicals included some of life’s basic
building blocks: amino acids, fatty acids, and other hydrocarbons
(molecules made of carbon and hydrogen). These results support the
Figure 2 Miller-Urey hypothesis that some basic chemicals of life could have formed spon-
experiment. Miller simulated taneously under conditions like those in the experiment.
an atmospheric composition
that Oparin and other scien-
tists incorrectly hypothesized
Reevaluating the Miller-Urey Model
existed on early Earth. His Recent discoveries have caused scientists to reevaluate the
experiment produced several Miller-Urey experiment. We now know that the reductant
different organic compounds. molecules used in Miller’s experiment could not have
existed in abundance on the early Earth. Four billion years
ago, Earth did not have a protective layer of ozone gas, O3.
Spark Today ozone protects Earth’s surface from most of the sun’s
N2
CH4 damaging ultraviolet radiation. Without ozone, ultraviolet
H2 radiation would have destroyed any ammonia and methane
NH3
Condenser
present in the atmosphere. When these gases are absent
H2O from the Miller-Urey experiment, key biological molecules
vapor are not made. This raises a very important question: If the
chemicals needed to form life were not in the atmosphere,
Hot where did they come from? Some scientists argue that the
Collecting
water chamber chemicals were produced within ocean bubbles. Others say
Organic that the chemicals arose in deep sea vents. The correct
compounds answer has not been determined yet.

The Bubble Model
In 1986, the geophysicist Louis Lerman suggested that the key
processes that formed the chemicals needed for life took place
Reading Effectively
within bubbles on the ocean’s surface. Lerman’s hypothesis,
Before reading this chapter,
also known as the bubble model, is summarized in Figure 3. write the Objectives for each
Step Ammonia, methane, and other gases resulting from section on a sheet of paper.
Rewrite each Objective as a
the numerous eruptions of undersea volcanoes were
question, and answer these
trapped in underwater bubbles. questions as you read the
Step Inside the bubbles, the methane and ammonia needed section.
to make amino acids might have been protected from
damaging ultraviolet radiation. Chemical reactions
would take place much faster in bubbles (where reac-
tants would be concentrated) than in the primordial
soup proposed by Oparin and Haldane.
Step Bubbles rose to the surface and burst, releasing simple
organic molecules into the air.
Step Carried upward by winds, the simple organic mol-
ecules were exposed to ultraviolet radiation and light-
ning, which provided energy for further reactions.
Step More complex organic molecules that formed by fur-
ther reactions fell into the ocean with rain, starting
another cycle.
Thus, the molecules of life could have appeared more quickly
than is accounted for by the primordial soup model alone.
Figure 3
B IO Lerman’s Bubble Model

gra hic
p Lerman proposed that gases formed simple organic molecules.
Gases underwent
Gases were ejected 4 further reactions.
3 into the atmosphere.
Simple and complex

5 compounds fell into
the oceans.
Gases underwent
2 chemical reactions.
Gases were trapped in

1 underwater bubbles.

Precursors of the First Cells
Figure 4 Proposed Scientists disagree about the details of the process that led to the
stages leading to RNA origin of life. Most scientists, however, accept that under certain con-
self-replication and protein ditions, the basic molecules of life could have formed spontaneously
synthesis. Chemical reactions
through simple chemistry. But there are enormous differences
between inorganic molecules
formed RNA nucleotides. The between simple organic molecules and large organic molecules
nucleotides assembled into found in living cells. How did amino acids link to form proteins?
RNA macromolecules. These How did nucleotides form the long chains of DNA that store the
molecules were able to self- instructions for making proteins? In the laboratory, scientists have
replicate and to catalyze the not been able to make either proteins or DNA form spontaneously in
formation of proteins.
water. However, short chains of RNA, the nucleic acid that helps
Inorganic carry out DNA’s instructions, have been made to form on their own
molecules in water.
A Possible Role As Catalysts

RNA In the 1980s, American scientists Thomas Cech of the University of
nucleotides
Colorado and Sidney Altman of Yale University found that certain
RNA molecules can act like enzymes. RNA’s three-dimensional
structure provides a surface on which chemical reactions can be
Self- RNA catalyzed. Messenger RNA acts as an information-storing molecule.
replication macromolecules As a result of Cech’s and Altman’s work and other experiments
showing that RNA molecules can form spontaneously in water, a
simple hypothesis was formed: RNA was the first self-replicating
information-storage molecule and it catalyzed the assembly of the
RNA molecules first proteins. More important, such a molecule would have been
catalyze protein
synthesis capable of changing from one generation to the next. This hypoth-
esis is illustrated in Figure 4.
Microspheres and Coacervates

Proteins
Observations show that lipids, which make up cell membranes, tend
to gather together in water. By shaking up a bottle of oil and vinegar,
you can see something similar happen—small spheres of oil form in
the vinegar. Certain lipids, when combined with other molecules,
can form a tiny droplet whose surface resembles a cell membrane.
Similarly, laboratory experiments have shown that, in water, short
chains of amino acids can gather into tiny droplets called
microspheres . Another type of droplet, called a coacervate (koh AS
suhr VAYT), is composed of molecules of different types, including
linked amino acids and sugars.
Scientists think that formation of microspheres might have been
the first step toward cellular organization. According to this hypoth-
esis, microspheres formed, persisted for a while, and then dispersed.
Over millions of years, those microspheres that could persist longer
by incorporating molecules and energy would have become more
common than shorter lasting microspheres were. Microspheres
could not be considered true cells, however, unless they had the
characteristics of living things, including heredity.

Origin of Heredity
Although scientists disagree about the details of the origin of hered-
ity, many agree that double-stranded DNA evolved after RNA and that
RNA “enzymes” catalyzed the assembly of the earliest proteins. Many
scientists also tentatively accept the hypothesis that some micro-
spheres or similar structures that contained RNA developed a means
of transferring their characteristics to offspring. But researchers do
not yet understand how DNA, RNA and hereditary mechanisms first
developed. Therefore, the subject of how life might have originated
naturally and spontaneously remains a subject of intense interest,
research, and discussion.
Modeling Coacervates
By using simple chemistry, you will see that some properties
of coacervates resemble the properties of cells.
Materials
safety goggles, protective gloves and lab apron, graduated
cylinder, 1 percent gelatin solution, 1 percent gum arabic solution,
test tube, 0.1 M HCl, pipet, microscope slide and
coverslip, microscope
Procedure Analysis
1. 3. Add 0.1 M HCl to the 1. Describe what happened to
gelatin–gum arabic the solutions after the acid
CAUTION: Hydrochloric solution one drop at a time was added.
acid is corrosive. Put on until the solution turns cloudy.
2. Compare the appearance of
safety goggles, gloves, and
4. Prepare a wet mount of the coacervates with that of cells.
apron. Avoid contact with
cloudy solution, and examine
skin and eyes. Avoid 3. Predict what would happen
it under a microscope at
breathing vapors. If any of to the coacervates if a base
high power.
this solution should spill on were added to the solution.
you, immediately flush the 5. Prepare a drawing of the
area with water, and notify structures that you see.
Evaluating Hypotheses
your teacher. They should resemble the
Based on the evidence
structures in the micrograph
2. Mix 5 mL of a 1 percent you obtained, defend the
above.
gelatin solution with 3 mL hypothesis that coacervates
of a 1 percent gum arabic could have been the basis
solution in a test tube. of life on Earth.
Section 1 Review
Explain how radioisotopes are used to Explain how heredity may have arisen.
determine the age of a rock.
Standardized Test Prep Miller and Urey’s model is
Critique two scientific models that explain inconsistent with the finding that Earth’s early
the origin of life. atmosphere lacked
A nitrogen. C water.
Describe the first step that may have led toward
B hydrogen. D ozone.
cellular organization.

Section 2 The Evolution of
Cellular Life
Objectives The Evolution of Prokaryotes
● Distinguish between When did the first organisms form? To find out, scientists study the
the two groups of best evidence of early life that we have, fossils. A fossil is the pre-
prokaryotes. served or mineralized remains (bone, tooth, or shell) or imprint of
● Describe the evolution of an organism that lived long ago. The oldest known fossils, which
eukaryotes. are microscopic fossils of prokaryotes, come from rock that is 2.5
● Recognize an evolutionary billion years old.
advance first seen Recall that prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that lack
in protists. internal membrane-bound organelles. Among the first prokaryotes
to appear were marine cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria (SIE an oh bak
● Summarize how mass
extinctions have affected the TIR ee ah) are photosynthetic prokaryotes. Before cyanobacteria
evolution of life on Earth. appeared, oxygen gas was scarce on Earth. But as ancient cyanobac-
teria carried out photosynthesis, they released oxygen gas into
Key Terms Earth’s oceans. After hundreds of millions of years, the oxygen pro-
duced by cyanobacteria began to escape into the air, as shown in
fossil
Figure 5. Over time, more oxygen was added to the air. Today oxygen
cyanobacteria
eubacteria gas makes up 21 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere.
archaebacteria
endosymbiosis Two Groups of Prokaryotes
protist
Early in the history of life, two different groups of prokaryotes
extinction
evolved—eubacteria (which are commonly called bacteria) and
mass extinction
archaebacteria. Living examples include Escherichia coli, a species of
eubacteria, and Sulfolobus, a group of archaebacteria. Eubacteria
are prokaryotes that contain a chemical called peptidoglycan (PEP tih
doh GLIE kan) in their cell walls. Eubacteria include many bacteria
that cause disease and decay.
Archaebacteria are prokaryotes that lack peptidoglycan in their
cell walls and have unique lipids in their cell membranes. Modern
archaebacteria are thought to closely resemble early archaebacteria.
Chemical evidence indicates that archaebacteria and eubacteria
diverged very early.
Figure 5 Evolutionary
timeline. This timeline shows
some of the major events that
occurred during the evolution
of life on Earth.
Age (in Millions of Years Ago)
Earliest fossil bacteria Origin of O2 by photosynthesis

•
3,500
• • • •
2,500
PRECAMBRIAN ERA

The Evolution of Eukaryotes
About 1.5 billion years ago, the first eukaryotes appeared. A eukary-
otic cell is much larger than a prokaryote is. Eukaryotic cells have
a complex system of internal membranes. Eukaryotic DNA is
enclosed within a nucleus. Almost all eukaryotes have mitochon-
dria. Chloroplasts, which carry out photosynthesis, are found only
in protists and plants. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are the size of
prokaryotes, and they contain their own DNA.
The Origins of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

Most biologists think that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated
as described by the theory of endosymbiosis that was proposed in
1966 by the American biologist Lynn Margulis. This theory proposes
that mitochondria are the descendants of symbiotic, aerobic (oxy-
gen-requiring) eubacteria and cholorplasts are the descendants of
symbiotic, photosynthetic eubacteria.
Magnification: 6930x
Analyzing Signs of Endosymbiosis

Background
You may recall that mitochondria have their own DNA and produce
0100010110 their own proteins. The data below were collected by scientists
011101010
0010010001001
studying the proteins produced by mitochondrial DNA. The scien-
1100100100010 tists found that the three-nucleotide sequences (codons) in the
0000101001001
1101010100100 nucleus of an organism’s cells can code for different amino acids
0101010010010
than those coded for in the cell’s mitochondria. Examine the data
below, and answer the questions that follow.
Analysis Amino Acids Made in the Nucleus and Mitochondria

1. Defend the theory of Amino acids or other Amino acids or other
endosymbiosis using instructions coded for instructions coded for
these data. in the nucleus in mitochondria
2. Infer what these data indicate Codon Plants and mammals Plants Mammals
about the evolution of plant cells. UGA Stop Stop Tryptophan
3. Describe how these data can AGA Arginine Arginine Stop

be used to support the idea that
AUA Isoleucine Isoleucine Methionine
more than one type of cell evolved
early in the history of life. AUU Isoleucine Isoleucine Methionine
CUA Leucine Leucine Leucine
First eukaryotes
• • • •
1,500
•
JURASSIC PERIOD
SECTION 2 The Evolution of Cellular Life 259

Small aerobic
prokaryote Mitochondrion
Large prokaryote Primitive eukaryote
Figure 6 Endosymbiosis
Mitochondria are thought to have evolved from small, aerobic prokaryotes that began to live inside larger prokaryotes.
According to Lynn Margulis’s theory of endosymbiosis, bacteria

entered large cells either as parasites or as undigested prey as illus-
www.scilinks.org
trated in Figure 6. Instead of being digested, the bacteria began to
Topic: Endosymbiosis
Keyword: HX4068 live inside the host cell, where they performed either cellular respi-
ration (mitochondria) or photosynthesis (chloroplasts). The invading
bacteria that became chloroplasts were probably closely related to
cyanobacteria. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts have character-
istics that are similar to those of bacteria. The following observations
support the idea that mitochondria and chloroplasts descended from
bacteria:
1. Size and structure. Mitochondria are about the same size as
most eubacteria, and chloroplasts are the same size as some
cyanobacteria. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts are sur-
rounded by two membranes. The smooth outer membrane of
mitochondria is thought to be derived from the endoplasmic retic-
ulum of the larger host cell. The inner membrane of mitochondria
is folded into many layers, so it looks like the cell membranes of
aerobic eubacteria. Inside this membrane are proteins that carry
out cellular respiration. Both chloroplasts and cyanobacteria con-
tain thylakoids, structures in which photosynthesis takes place.
2. Genetic material. Mitochondria and chloroplasts have circular
DNA similar to the chromosomes found in bacteria. Both
chloroplasts and mitochondria contain genes that are different
from those found in the nucleus of the host cell.
3. Ribosomes. Mitochondrial and chloroplast ribosomes have a
size and structure similar to the size and structure of bacterial
ribosomes.
4. Reproduction. Like bacteria, chloroplasts and mitochondria
reproduce by simple fission. This replication takes place inde-
pendently of the cell cycle of the host cell.
Early eukaryotes Diverse protists

•
1,500
• • • • •
1,000
PRECAMBRIAN ERA

Multicellularity Magnification: 230x
Many biologists group all living things into six
broad categories called kingdoms. The two oldest
kingdoms, Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, are
made up of single-celled prokaryotes. The first Magnification: 50x
eukaryotic kingdom was the kingdom Protista.
Protists make up a large, varied group that includes
both multicellular and unicellular organisms. The
other three kingdoms (fungi, plants, and animals)
evolved later and also consist of eukaryotes.
The unicellular body plan has been tremendously
successful, with unicellular organisms today consti- Paramecium bursaria
tuting about half the biomass (the total weight of all

living things) on Earth. But a single cell must carry Stentor coeruleus
out all of the activities of the organism. Distinct
types of cells in one body can have specialized func- Figure 7 Single-celled
tions. For example, some organisms may have specific cells that protists. Single-celled
help the organism protect itself from predators or disease. Other protists occur in many shapes
cells may help the organism resist drying out. Other examples of and can live in many different
specialized cells include cells that help a multicellular organism types of environments,
including water and land.
move about in order to find a mate or food. With all these
advantages, it is not surprising that multicellularity has arisen inde-
pendently many times.
Almost every organism large enough to see with the naked eye is
multicellular. Most protists, such as those shown in Figure 7, are
single celled, but there are many multicellular forms. The develop- Figure 8 Brown algae.
ment of multicellular organisms of the kingdom Protista marked an Brown algae, called kelps, are
important step in the evolution of life on Earth. The oldest known multicellular protists that form
fossils of multicellular organisms were found in 700 million year- vast underwater “forests” in
old rocks. some coastal waters.
Some of the multicellular lines that
resulted did not produce diverse groups of
organisms. Among those groups of organisms
that survive today are plantlike red, green,
and brown algae, shown in Figure 8. You may
know these algae as seaweed. Three of the
multicellular groups that evolved from the
protists were very successful, producing three
separate kingdoms—Fungi, Plantae, and Ani-
malia. Each of these three kingdoms evolved
from a protistan ancestor.
Earliest multicellular organisms Origin of all major animal phyla

• • • • •
500
•
PRECAMBRIAN ERA CAMBRIAN PERIOD ORDOVICIAN PERIOD

Origins of Modern Organisms
Most animal phyla that exist today probably originated during a rela-
tively short time (most estimates range from 10 to 100 million years)
during the late Precambrian and early Cambrian periods. This rapid
diversification of animals is sometimes known as the “Cambrian
explosion.” The Cambrian period was a time of great evolutionary
expansion, as shown in Figure 9. Many unusual marine animals also
appeared at this time, animals for which there are no close living rel-
atives. A very rich collection of Cambrian fossils was uncovered in
Figure 9 Appearance
of a Cambrian sea. By
1909 in a geological formation in Canada called the Burgess Shale.
studying fossils from the The fossils in the Burgess Shale include those of strange animals that
Cambrian period, such as are not like anything alive today.
the trilobite fossil below, The Ordovician period, which followed the Cambrian period,
artists re-create a scene lasted from about 505 million to 438 million years ago. During this
from the shallow seas of time, many different animals continued to abound in the seas.
the Cambrian period.
Among them were trilobites, marine arthropods that became
extinct about 250 million years ago, shown in Figure 9.
Origin of all major animal phyla

•
560
• • • • •
510
PRECAMBRIAN ERA CAMBRIAN PERIOD

Mass Extinctions
The fossil record indicates that a sudden change occurred at the end
of the Ordovician period. About 440 million years ago, a large per-
www.scilinks.org
centage of the organisms on Earth suddenly became extinct.
Topic: Extinction
Extinction is the death of all members of a species. This was the first Keyword: HX4078
of five major mass extinctions that have occurred on Earth. A
mass extinction is an episode during which large numbers of
species become extinct.
Another mass extinction of about the same size happened
about 360 million years ago. The third and most devastating of all
mass extinctions occurred at the end of the Permian period,
about 245 million years ago. About 96 percent of all species of Figure 10 Rain forests
animals living at the time became extinct. About 35 million years are being destroyed at an
alarming rate. Although
later, a fourth, less devastating mass extinction occurred.
tropical rain forests cover only
Although the specific causes of these extinctions are unknown, 7 percent of the Earth’s land
evidence indicates that worldwide geological and weather surface, they contain more
changes were likely factors. The fifth mass extinction will be dis- than one-half of all the world’s
cussed in more detail in a later chapter. It occurred 65 million animal and plant species.
years ago and brought about the extinction of about two-thirds of
all land species, including most of the dinosaurs.
Some scientists think that another mass extinction is occurring
today. These scientists reason that this new extinction is taking
place because the Earth’s ecosystems, especially tropical rain forests,
are being destroyed by human activity, as shown in Figure 10. The
world has already lost half its tropical rain forests. If the current
rate of destruction continues, from 22 percent to 47 percent of
Earth’s plant species will be lost, along with 2,000 of the world’s
9,000 species of birds and countless insect species. This would be
an astonishing loss of biodiversity.
Section 2 Review
Contrast the two major groups of prokaryotes. Critical Thinking Justify the argument that
today’s organisms would not exist if mass
Analyze Margulis’s theory of endosymbiosis, extinctions had not occurred.
citing its strengths and weaknesses.
Standardized Test Prep The kingdom that includes
Compare bacteria with eukaryotes. both multicellular and unicellular eukaryotes
is called
Summarize how multicellularity advanced the
A Plantae. C Eubacteria.
evolution of protists.
B Protista. D Archaebacteria.
▲
First mass
extinction
Animal diversity abounds; first jawless fishes
•
500
• • • • •
440
ORDOVICIAN PERIOD SILURIAN PE

Section 3 Life Invaded the Land
Objectives The Ozone Layer
● Relate the development of The sun provides both life-giving light and dangerous ultraviolet
ozone to the adaptation of radiation. Early in Earth’s history, life formed in the seas, where
life to the land. early organisms were protected from ultraviolet radiation. These
● Identify the first multicellular organisms could not leave the water because ultraviolet radiation
organisms to live on land. made life on dry ground unsafe. What enabled life-forms to leave
● Name the first animals to live the protection of the seas and live on the land?
on land.
● List the first vertebrates to Formation of the Ozone Layer
leave the oceans. During the Cambrian period and for millions of years afterward,
organisms did not live on the dry, rocky surface of Earth. However, a
Key Terms slow change was taking place. About 2.5 billion years ago, photosyn-
thesis by cyanobacteria began adding oxygen to Earth’s atmosphere.
mycorrhizae
mutualism As oxygen began to reach the upper atmosphere, the sun’s rays
arthropod caused some of the molecules of oxygen, O2, to chemically react and
vertebrate form molecules of ozone, O3. In the upper atmosphere, ozone blocks
continental drift the ultraviolet radiation of the sun, as shown in Figure 11. After mil-
lions of years, enough ozone had accumulated to make the Earth’s
land a safe place to live.
Figure 11 Ozone shields the Earth

As ancient cyanobacteria added oxygen to the atmosphere, ozone began to form.
Ultraviolet radiation Ultraviolet radiation
Ozone Ozone
absent present
Plants and arthropods invade land; jawed fishes first appear Bony fishes become abundant
•
440
•
430
• •
410
•
400
•
390
SILURIAN PERIOD DEVONIAN PERIOD

Plants and Fungi on Land
The first multicellular organisms to live on land may have been
fungi living together with plants or algae. Such paired organisms
were able to live on land because each group possessed a quality
needed by the other.
Plants, which likely evolved from photosynthetic protists, could
carry out photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, plants use the energy
from sunlight to make carbohydrates. Plants cannot, however, har-
vest needed minerals from bare rock. In contrast, fungi cannot
make nutrients from sunlight but can absorb minerals—even from
bare rock.
Early plants and fungi formed biological partnerships called my-
corrhizae (MIE koh RIE zee), which enabled them to live on the
harsh habitat of bare rock. Mycorrhizae , which exist today, are sym-
biotic associations between fungi and the roots of plants, as shown
in Figure 12. The fungus provides minerals to the plant, and the
plant provides nutrients to the fungus. This kind of partnership is
called mutualism. Mutualism is a relationship between two species
in which both species benefit. Plants and fungi began living together
on the surface of the land about 430 million years ago.
Fossilized Cooksonia
Example of living mycorrhizae

Magnification: 15x
Figure 12 Mycorrhizae
formed on the roots of the
first plants. This fossil is of
Cooksonia, the first known
vascular plant, which lived 410
Fungus million year ago. Cooksonia
Root
was only a few centimeters tall.
Cooksonia’s roots formed
mycorrhizae similar to the living
mycorrhizae shown in color
to the left.
▲
Second mass
extinction
Early amphibians Early reptiles
• •
370
•
360
•
350
• •
330
DEVONIAN PERIOD CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD
SECTION 3 Life Invaded the Land 265

Arthropods
By 100 million years after their first union with fungi, plants had cov-
ered the surface of the Earth, forming large forests. These land plants
provided a food source for land-dwelling animals. The first animals to
successfully invade land from the sea were arthropods. An arthropod
is a kind of animal with a hard outer skeleton, a segmented body, and
paired, jointed limbs. Examples of arthropods include lobsters, crabs,
insects, and spiders, like the one in Figure 13. Biologists think a type
of scorpion was the first arthropod to live on land.
A unique kind of terrestrial arthropod—the insect—evolved from
the first land dwellers. Insects have since become the most plenti-
Figure 13 An arthropod. ful and diverse group of animals in Earth’s history. The success of
This marbled spider is a the insects is probably connected to their ability to fly. Insects were
member of the phylum
the first animals to have wings. Flying allowed insects, like the
Arthropoda, which includes
about 1 billion billion (1018) dragonfly shown in Figure 14, to efficiently search for food, mates,
individuals in about 1.5 million and nesting sites. It also led to partnerships between insects and
described species. flowering plants. The oldest known fossils of flowering plants are
from about 127 million years ago, but flowering plants may be
much older than that.
Figure 14 Swamp
320 million years ago.
Forested swamps were
dominated by tall, seedless
canopy trees and shorter
tree ferns. Dragonflies had
wingspans of more than
1 m (about 3.25 ft).

▲
Third mass Fourth mass

extinction extinction
The first dinosaurs and mammals
•
300
•
280
•
260
•
240
•
220
•
200
CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD PERMIAN PERIOD TRIASSIC PERIOD

Vertebrates
A vertebrate is an animal with a backbone—vertebrates are the ani-
mals most familiar to us. Humans are vertebrates, and almost all other
land animals bigger than our fist are vertebrates as well.
Fishes
According to the fossil record, the first verte-
brates were small, jawless fishes that evolved
in the oceans about 530 million years ago.
Jawed fishes first appeared about 430 million
years ago. Jaws enabled fishes to bite and
chew their food instead of sucking up their
food. As a result, jawed fishes were efficient
predators. A fossilized example of a jawed
fish is shown in Figure 15. Fishes soon came Figure 15 Fossilized fish
to be among the most abundant animals in the seas, and for hun- skeleton. This fish skeleton
dreds of millions of years the sea is where vertebrates stayed. Fishes clearly shows the backbone,
are the most successful living vertebrates—they make up more than the structure that is character-
istic of all vertebrate animals.
half of all modern vertebrate species. After nearly 200 million years
of living in the sea, fishes have become uniquely adapted for success
in water. Major changes had to occur in fish body organization,
however, before some descendants of fishes became capable of liv-
ing on land.
Amphibians
The first vertebrates to inhabit the land did not come out of the sea
until 370 million years ago. Those first land vertebrates were early
amphibians. Amphibians are smooth-skinned, four-legged animals
that today include frogs, toads, and salamanders.
Several structural changes in the bodies of amphibians occurred
as they adapted to life on land. Amphibians had moist breathing
sacs—lungs—which allowed the animals to absorb oxygen from air.
The limbs of amphibians are thought to have derived from the bones
of fish fins. The evolution of a strong support system of bones in the
region just behind the head made walking possible. This system of
bones provided a rigid base for the limbs to work against. Because
of their strong, flexible internal skeleton, the bodies of vertebrates
can be much larger than those of insects. While amphibians were
well adapted to their environment, a new group of animals more
suited to a drier environment evolved from them.
Appearance of flowering plants

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200
•
180
•
160
•
140
•
120
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100
JURASSIC PERIOD CRETACEOUS
CRETACEOUS
PERIOD PERIOD
SECTION 3 Life Invaded the Land 267

Reptiles
Reptiles evolved from amphibian ancestors about 340 million years
ago. Modern reptiles include snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles.
Reptiles are better suited to dry land than amphibians because rep-
tiles’ watertight skin slows the loss of moisture. Reptiles also have
a watertight egg, such as the one shown in Figure 16. Unlike
amphibians, reptiles can lay their eggs on dry land. Amphibians
must lay their eggs in water or in very moist soil because their eggs
Figure 16 Reptiles. are unable to retain enough water to remain alive.
Reptiles, such as this
crocodile, were the largest
group of land-dwelling
Mammals and Birds
organisms until the end of Birds apparently evolved from feathered dinosaurs during or after
the Cretaceous period. the Jurassic period. Therapsids, reptiles with complex teeth and legs
positioned beneath their body, gave rise to mammals about the same
time dinosaurs evolved, during the Triassic period. Sixty-five million
years ago, during the fifth mass extinction, most species disappeared
forever. All of the dinosaurs except for the ancestors of birds became
extinct. The smaller reptiles, mammals, and birds survived. Although
many resources were available to the surviving animals, the world’s
climate was no longer largely dry. Thus the reptiles’ advantages in dry
climates were not so important. Birds and mammals then became
the dominant vertebrates on land.
Both extinctions and continental drift played important roles in
evolution. Continental drift is the movement of Earth’s land masses
over Earth’s surface through geologic time. Continental drift resulted
in the present-day position of the continents. The movement of con-
tinents helps explain why there are a large number of marsupial
(pouched) mammal species in both Australia and South America,
continents that were once connected.
Section 3 Review
Summarize why ozone was important in Critical Thinking Defend the argument that
enabling organisms to live on land. invasion of land could not have happened until
well after the evolution of cyanobacteria.
Name the first multicellular organisms that
colonized land. Standardized Test Prep Mycorrhizae are mutualistic
relationships between the roots of plants and
Identify the first kinds of animals to live on land. A amphibians. C cyanobacteria.
Describe the first kinds of vertebrates that B insects. D fungi.
inhabited land.

▲
Fifth mass Major mammal Appearance of First

extinction groups evolve Australopithecus Homo sapiens
Birds and mammals spread Mammals abundant on land
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70
•
60
•
50
•
40
•
30
•
20
•
10
• •
.5 Today
CRETACEOUS PERIOD TERTIARY PERIOD QUATERNARY PERIOD

ZONE
1 How Did Life Begin? Section 1
radiometric dating (252)
● The Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago according to radioisotope (252)
evidence obtained by radiometric dating. half-life (252)
● The primordial soup model and the bubble model propose microsphere (256)
explanations of the origin of the chemicals of life.

● Scientists think RNA formed before DNA or proteins
formed.
● Scientists think that the first cells may have developed from
microspheres.
● The development of heredity made it possible for organisms
to pass traits to subsequent generations.
2 Complex Organisms Developed Section 2

fossil (258)
● Prokaryotes are the oldest organisms and are divided into cyanobacteria (258)
two groups, archaebacteria and eubacteria. eubacteria (258)
archaebacteria (258)
● Prokaryotes likely gave rise to eukaryotes through the
endosymbiosis (259)
process of endosymbiosis. protist (261)
● Mitochondria and chloroplasts are thought to have evolved extinction (263)
mass extinction (263)
through endosymbiosis.
● Multicellularity arose many times and resulted in many
different groups of multicellular organisms.
● Extinctions influenced the evolution of the species alive
today.
3 Life Invaded the Land Section 3

mycorrhizae (265)
● Ancient cyanobacteria produced oxygen, some of which mutualism (265)
became ozone. Ozone enabled organisms to live on land. arthropod (266)
vertebrate (267)
● Plants and fungi formed mycorrhizae and were the first continental drift (268)
multicellular organisms to live on land.
● Arthropods were the first animals to leave the ocean.
● The first vertebrates to invade dry land were amphibians.
● The extinction of many reptile species enabled birds and
mammals to become the dominant vertebrates on land.
● The movement of the continents on the surface of the
Earth has contributed to the geographic distribution of
some species.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 9. Relate the order in which different types of

organisms invaded the land to the flow of
1. After three half-lives of a radioisotope have energy. (Hint: See Chapter 5, Section 1.)
passed, how much of the original
radioisotope has decayed? 10. Concept Mapping Construct a concept
a. 1/8 c. 3/4 map that shows how life might have origi-
b. 1/2 d. 7/8 nated by natural forces. Include the following
2. Unlike the primordial soup model, items in your map: spontaneous origin,
Lerman’s bubble model takes ______ primordial soup model, bubble model, RNA,
into account. proteins, microspheres, and radioisotopes.
a. ozone
b. ultraviolet radiation Critical Thinking
c. lightning 11. Evaluating Viewpoints Several scientists
d. volcanoes have said that if a large asteroid struck the
3. Cells are different from microspheres Earth, the impact could result in a mass
because cells extinction. If an asteroid impact did not
a. contain amino acids. kill all organisms, would evolution
b. have a two-layer outer boundary. continue or stop? Explain.
c. grow by taking in molecules from their 12. Recognizing Relationships Propose a
surroundings. hypothesis for the appearance of all animal
d. transfer information through heredity. phyla on Earth within a relatively short
4. Cell specialization came about as a result of period during the late Precambrian and
a. endosymbiosis. c. the Cambrian period. early Cambrian periods.
b. archaebacteria. d. multicellularity. Alternative Assessment
5. The first multicellular organisms to invade 13. Being a Team Member Work together in
the land were groups to design a poster to illustrate the
a. reptiles. c. fungi and plants. different models that describe how life’s
b. amphibians. d. mammals. chemicals may have originated. Show how
6. Describe the evidence that supports the the compounds on early Earth would have
theory of endosymbiosis. participated in each of these models.
7. The half-life of carbon-14 is 5,700 years. If a 14. Finding and Communicating Information
sample originally had 26 g of carbon-14, how Thomas Cech and Sidney Altman shared a
much would it contain after 22,800 years? Nobel prize in 1989 for their work on RNA.
Research their work and the rewards
8. What is the half-life of the radioisotope associated with winning a Nobel prize.
represented in the graph? Relate your findings in an oral report.
Radioactive Decay
15. Finding and Communicating Information
200 Use the media center or Internet resources
to study scientific hypotheses for the origin
material remaining)
150
of life that are alternatives to the hypothe-
(of radioactive
Grams
100 ses proposed by Oparin and Lerman. Ana-

lyze either Oparin’s or Lerman’s hypotheses
50
as presented in your textbook along with
0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 one alternative scientific hypotheses that
Time (in billions of years) you discover in your research.


correct answer.
Originally, there were no organisms living
1 What did the development of heredity on dry land. One factor that contributed to
allow organisms to store and pass on to this occurrence was that outside of an
their offspring? aquatic environment, organisms could not
A. energy get all of the nutrients and minerals they
B. information needed to survive. Then, a symbiotic rela-
C. radioisotopes tionship developed between plants and fungi,
D. UV radiation which provided nutrients for the fungi and
minerals for the plants. This allowed them to
2 A cell’s surface-area-to-volume ratio limits
colonize the bare land. Land plants served as
the size that unicellular organisms can
food for insects, which then served as food
achieve. How can multicellularity solve
for amphibians and other organisms.
this problem?
F. As a cell grows in size, its surface-area- 5 What type of relationship did the plants
to-volume ratio increases, which and fungi have?
improves the efficiency of the cell. F. aquatic H. mutualistic
G. Multicellular organisms tend to have G. microscopic I. predatory
larger cells than unicellular organisms,
which makes them stronger. Interpreting Graphics
H. Communication between the nucleus Directions (6): Base your answer to question
and other parts of the cell is faster in 6 on the diagram below.
larger cells than in smaller cells. Experimental Setup
I. An organism with many small cells has
a greater surface-area-to-volume ratio
than an organism with one large cell. N2 Spark
CH4
3 Photosynthesis in what organisms origi- H2
nally formed the oxygen that became NH3
Condenser
ozone in Earth’s atmosphere? H2O
A. archaebacteria vapor
B. arthropods
Collecting
C. cyanobacteria Hot
chamber
water
D. mycorrhizae
Organic
compounds
6 What conclusion could be drawn from the
4 Identify and describe the event that results of the experiment shown?
resulted in the origin of eukaryotes. A. Earth’s early atmosphere lacked N2.
B. N2 and H2 can be converted into NH3
when heated.
C. Water can be changed into organic
Test compounds if it is heated vigorously.
D. Organic compounds can form under
If time permits, take short mental breaks to improve
conditions such as those in the
your concentration during a test.
experiment.

Exploration Lab
Making a Timeline of Life on Earth
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Observing • 5 m roll of adding-
• Inferring relationships machine tape
• Organizing data • meterstick
• colored pens or pencils
OBJECTIVES
• photographs or
• Compare and contrast the drawings of organisms
distinguishing characteristics from ancient Earth to
of representative organisms present day
of the six kingdoms.
• Organize the appearance of
life on Earth in a timeline.

About 4.5 billion years ago, Earth was a ball PART A: Making a Timeline
of molten rock. As the surface cooled, a 1. Make a mark every 20 cm along a 5 m
rocky crust formed and water vapor in the length of adding-machine tape. Label one
atmosphere condensed to form rain. By 3.9 end of the tape “5 billion years ago” and
billion years ago, oceans covered much of the other end “Today.” Write “20 cm =
the Earth’s surface. Rocks formed in these 200 million years” near the beginning of
oceans contain fossils of bacterial cells that your timeline.
lived about 3.5 billion years ago. The fossil
2. Locate and label a point representing the
record shows a progression of life-forms and
origin of Earth on your timeline. Use your
contains evidence of many changes in Earth’s
textbook as a reference. See the timeline at
surface and atmosphere.
the bottom of Section 2 and Section 3 of
In this lab, you will make a timeline this chapter. Also locate and label the 11
showing the major events in Earth’s history periods of the geologic time scale begin-
and in the history of life on Earth, such as ning with the Cambrian period.
the evolution of new groups of organisms and
3. Using your textbook as a reference, mark
the mass extinctions. This timeline can be
the following events on your timeline:
used to study how living things have changed
the first cyanobacteria appear; oxygen
over time.
enters the atmosphere; the five mass
1. Write a definition for each boldface term extinctions; the first eukaryotes appear;
in the paragraphs above. the first multicellular organisms appear;
2. Make a data table similar to the one the first vertebrates appear; the first plants,
at right.
3. Based on the objectives for this lab, write
a question you would like to explore about Organism Kingdom Characteristics/adaptation
for life on Earth
the history of life on Earth.

fungi, and land animals appear; the first 2. Summarizing Information Identify the
dinosaurs and mammals appear; the major developments in life-forms that have
first flowering plants appear; the first occurred over the last 3.5 billion years.
humans appear. 3. Inferring Relationships How do mass
4. Look at the photographs of organisms pro- extinctions appear to be related to the
vided by your teacher. Identify the major appearance of new major groups of
characteristics of each organism. Record organisms?
your observations in your data table. 4. Justifying Conclusions Cyanobacteria
5. Lay out your timeline on the floor in your are thought to be responsible for adding
classroom. Place photographs (or draw- oxygen to Earth’s atmosphere. Use your
ings) of the organisms you examined on timeline to justify this conclusion.
your timeline to show when they appeared 5. Calculating Determine the amount of
on Earth. time, as a percentage of the time that life
6. Fold the timeline at the mark representing has existed on Earth, that humans (Homo
4.8 billion years ago. This leaves 24 seg- sapiens) have existed.
ments, each representing 200 million years, 6. Further Inquiry Write a new question
in your timeline. Now you can think of about the history of life on Earth that
each segment as 1 hour in a 24-hour day. could be explored in another investigation.
7. When you are finished, walk slowly along
your timeline. Note the sequence of events
in the history of life on Earth and the rela-
tive amount of time between each event.
PART B: Cleanup and Disposal

8. Dispose of paper scraps in the
designated waste container.
its proper place.

1. Analyzing Information Think of each
segment of your timeline as 1 hour in a
24-hour day as you answer each of the
following questions:
a. How long has life existed on Earth?
b. For what part of the day did only unicel-
lular life-forms exist?
c. At what time of day did the first plants On the Job
appear on Earth? Timelines are used to organize events in
d. At what time of day did mammals chronological order. Do research to dis-
appear on Earth? cover how other scientists use timelines
in their work. For more about careers,
visit go.hrw.com and type in the
keyword HX4 Careers.
CHAPTER 12 History of Life on Earth 273

Show jumper
Phyllium pulchrifolium
(beautiful moving leaf)
CHAPTER
13 The Theory
of Evolution
1. Describe the structure of proteins. (Chapter 2,
Section 3) The Theory of Evolution by
2. Relate the sequence of nucleotides in DNA Natural Selection
to the amino acid sequence in proteins. Darwin Proposed a Mechanism for Evolution
(Chapter 10, Section 2) Evolution by Natural Selection
3. Define genetic mutations. (Chapter 10, Darwin’s Ideas Updated
Section 2)
4. Describe gene sequencing. (Chapter 11, Section 2
Section 1)
Evidence of Evolution
5. Summarize the concept of radiometric dating. The Fossil Record
(Chapter 12, Section 1) Anatomy and Development
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Biological Molecules
sections indicated.
Section 3
Examples of Evolution
Reading Activity Natural Selection at Work
Formation of New Species
Create a Reader Response Log to record your
personal responses to the concepts presented
in this chapter. Divide your paper in half. On the
left side of the paper, copy a word, phrase, or
passage from the text. On the right side, write
your reactions, thoughts, or questions about
your entries from the text.
www.scilinks.org
The body of the beautiful moving leaf insect closely

resembles the leaves on which it lives. Camouflage
such as this helps protect animals from predators.
CHAPTER 13 The Theory of Evolution 275

Section 1 The Theory of Evolution
by Natural Selection
Objectives Darwin Proposed a
● Identify several observations Mechanism for Evolution
that led Darwin to conclude
The idea that life evolves may have been first proposed by Lucretius,
that species evolve.
a Roman philosopher who lived about 2,000 years ago before the
● Relate the process of natural modern theory of evolution was proposed. Then, in 1859, the Eng-
selection to its outcome. lish naturalist Charles Darwin, shown in Figure 1, published con-
● Summarize the main vincing evidence that species evolve, and he proposed a reasonable
points of Darwin’s theory mechanism explaining how evolution occurs.
of evolution by natural Like all scientific theories, the theory of evolution has developed
selection as it is stated through decades of scientific observation and experimentation. The
today.
modern theory of evolution began to take shape as a result of Dar-
● Contrast the gradualism win’s work. Today almost all scientists accept that evolution is the
and punctuated equilibrium basis for the diversity of life on Earth.
models of evolution. As a youth, Darwin struggled in school. His father was a wealthy
doctor who wanted him to become either a doctor or a minister.
Key Terms Not interested in the subjects his father urged him to study, Darwin
population frequently spent more time outdoors than in class. At the age of 16,
natural selection Darwin was sent to Edinburgh, Scotland, to study medicine.
adaptation Repelled by surgery, which at the time was done without anesthet-
reproductive isolation ics, Darwin repeatedly skipped lectures to collect biological speci-
gradualism mens. In 1827, Darwin’s father sent him to Cambridge University, in
punctuated
England, to become a minister. Although he completed a degree in
equilibrium
theology, Darwin spent much of his time with friends who were also
interested in natural science.
In 1831, one of Darwin’s
professors at Cambridge rec-
ommended him for a position
as a naturalist on a voyage of
HMS Beagle. Although the
ship had an official natural-
ist, the Beagle’s captain pre-
ferred to have someone
aboard who was of his own
social class. At the age of 22,
Darwin set off on a journey
that would both change his
life and forever change how
Figure 1 Charles Darwin. we think of ourselves. The
Darwin was born in England in ship and its route are shown
1809 and died in 1882. in Figure 2.
276 CHAPTER 13 The Theory of Evolution

North Europe Asia
America
Atlantic
Ocean Pacific
Africa Ocean
Indian
South
Ocean
Galápagos America
Islands
Australia
HMS Beagle
Science Before Darwin’s Voyage Figure 2 The route of

HMS Beagle. HMS Beagle
In Darwin’s time, most people—including scientists—held the view
sailed around the world along
that each species is a divine creation that exists, unchanging, as it the route shown on this map.
was originally created. But scientists had begun to seek to explain The purpose of the ship’s 5-
the origins of fossils. Some scientists tried to explain their observa- year voyage was to survey the
tions by altering traditional explanations of creation. Others coast of South America.
(including Darwin’s own grandfather) proposed various mecha-
nisms to explain how living things change over time.
In 1809, the French scientist Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829)
proposed a hypothesis for how organisms change over generations.
Lamarck believed that over the lifetime of an individual, physical
features increase in size because of use or reduce in size because of
disuse. Further, according to Lamarck, these changes are then
passed on to offspring. This part of Lamarck’s hypothesis is now
known to be incorrect. However, Lamarck correctly pointed out
that change in species is linked to the “physical conditions of life,”
referring to an organism’s environmental conditions.
Darwin’s Observations
During his voyage on the Beagle, Darwin found evidence that chal-
lenged the traditional belief that species are unchanging. During
the voyage, Darwin read Charles Lyell’s book Principles of Geology.
Lyell proposed that the surface of Earth changed slowly over many
years. As Darwin visited different places, he also saw things that he
thought could be explained only by a process of gradual change.
For example, in South America, Darwin found fossils of extinct
armadillos. These fossilized animals closely resembled, but were
not identical to, the armadillos living in the area.
SECTION 1 The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection 277

Cactus
Figure 3 Darwin’s finches. Small ground finch
Darwin discovered that these insectivorous
finches closely resembled tree finch
South American finches.
Insect
eaters
Vegetarian
tree finch Seed
Fruit eater eater Large
ground
finch
South American
warbler finch
Insect eater
Darwin visited the Galápagos Islands, located about 1,000 km (620

mi) off the coast of Ecuador. Darwin was struck by the fact that many
of the plants and animals of the Galápagos Islands resembled those
of the nearby coast of South America. Darwin later suggested that
the simplest explanation for this was that the ancestors of Galápagos
species such as those shown in Figure 3, migrated to the islands from
South America long ago and changed after they arrived. Darwin later
called such a change “descent with modification”—evolution.
When Darwin returned from his voyage at the age of 27, he con-
tinued his lifelong study of plants, animals, and geology. However,
he did not report his ideas about evolution until many years later.
During those years, Darwin studied the data from his voyage. As
Figure 4 Geometric and Darwin studied his data, his confidence that organisms had evolved
arithmetic progressions. grew ever stronger. But he was still deeply puzzled about how evo-
The blue graph line shows lution occurs.
uncontrolled population
growth, in which the numbers
increase by a multiplied con- Growth of Populations
stant. The red graph line The key that unlocked Darwin’s thinking about how evolution takes
shows increased food supply,
place was an essay written in 1798 by the English economist Thomas
in which the numbers increase
Malthus. Malthus wrote that human populations are able to increase
by an added constant.
faster than the food supply can. Malthus pointed
Two Rates of Progression out that unchecked populations grow by geometric
progression, as shown in Figure 4. Food supplies,
however, increase by an arithmetic progression at
Geometric best, also shown in Figure 4. He suggested that
progression human populations do not grow unchecked
Arithmetic because death caused by disease, war, and famine
progression
slows population growth.
The term population, as it is used in biology,
does not only refer to the human population. In
the study of biology, a population consists of all
Time the individuals of a species that live in a specific
geographical area and that can interbreed.

Evolution by Natural Selection
Darwin realized that Malthus’s hypotheses about human populations
apply to all species. Every organism has the potential to produce
www.scilinks.org
many offspring during its lifetime. In most cases, however, only a lim- Topic: Natural Selection
ited number of those offspring survive to reproduce. Considering Keyword: HX4128
Malthus’s view and his own observations and experience in breeding
domestic animals, Darwin made a key association. Individuals that
have physical or behavioral traits that better suit their environment are
more likely to survive and will reproduce more successfully than those
that do not have such traits. Darwin called this differential rate of
reproduction natural selection. In time, the number of individuals
that carry favorable characteristics that are also inherited will
increase in a population. And thus the nature of the population will
change—a process called evolution.
Darwin further suggested that organisms differ from place to place
because their habitats present different challenges to, and opportu-
nities for, survival and reproduction. Each species has evolved and
has accumulated adaptations in response to its particular environ-
ment. An adaptation is an inherited trait that has become common
in a population because the trait provides a selective advantage.
Publication of Darwin’s Work

In 1844, Darwin finally wrote down his ideas about evolution and nat-
ural selection in an early outline that he showed to only a few
scientists he knew and trusted. At about this time, both a newly
published book that claimed that
evolution occurred, and Lamarck’s
hypotheses about evolution were
harshly criticized. Shrinking from
such controversy, Darwin put aside
his manuscript.
Darwin decided to publish after he
received a letter and essay in June
1858 from the young English natu-
ralist Alfred Russel Wallace
(1823–1913), who was in Malaysia at
the time. Wallace’s essay described a
hypothesis of evolution by natural
selection! In his letter, he asked if
Darwin would help him get the essay
published. Darwin’s friends arranged
for a summary of Darwin’s manu-
script to be presented with Wallace’s
paper at a public scientific meeting.
Figure 5 Political cartoon of Charles

Darwin. This 1874 cartoon of Darwin with
a monkeylike “ancestor” is an example of
how some people ridiculed Darwin
because of his work.

Darwin’s Theory
Darwin’s book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
appeared in November of 1859. Many people were deeply disturbed
by Darwin’s theory, including the suggestion, made in a later work,
that humans are related to apes, as Figure 5 on the previous page sug-
gests. But Darwin’s arguments and evidence that evolution occurs
slowly convinced biologists around the world. Darwin’s theory of evo-
lution by natural selection is supported by four major points:
Inherited variation exists within the genes of every population or
species (the result of random mutation and translation errors).
In a particular environment, some individuals of a population
or species are better suited to survive (as a result of variation)
and have more offspring (natural selection).
Over time, the traits that make certain individuals of a population
able to survive and reproduce tend to spread in that population.
There is overwhelming evidence from fossils and many other
sources that living species evolved from organisms that are extinct.
Modeling Natural Selection

By making a simple model of natural selection you can
begin to understand how natural selection changes a
population.
Materials
paper, pencil, watch or stopwatch
Procedure
1. On a chalkboard or overhead 4. Look at your pieces of paper. Analysis
projector, make a data table If you have two pieces that 1. Identify what the four slips
like the one shown below. say “die” or two pieces that of paper represent.
say “mutate,” then sit down.
2. Write each of the following 2. Describe what happens to
If you do not, then you are a
words on separate pieces of most mutations in this model.
“survivor.” Record your
paper: live, die, reproduce,
results in your class table. 3. Identify what factor(s)
mutate. Fold each piece of
paper in half twice so that you 5. If you are a “survivor,” record determined who “survived.”
cannot see the words. Shuffle the words you are holding in Explain.
your folded pieces of paper. the data table. Then refold 4. Evaluate the shortcomings
your pieces of paper and of this model of natural
3. Exchange two of your pieces
repeat steps 2 and 3 two more selection.
of paper with those of a
times with other “survivors.”
classmate. Make as many
exchanges with additional DATA TABLE
classmates as you can in 30
seconds. Mix your pieces of Student name Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
paper between each
exchange you make.

Darwin’s Ideas Updated
Since the time Darwin’s work was published, his hypothesis—that
natural selection explains how evolution happens—has been care-
www.scilinks.org
fully examined by biologists. New discoveries, especially in the area
Topic: Theory of Evolution
of genetics, have given scientists new insight into how natural selec- Keyword: HX4175
tion brings about the evolution of species.
Change Within Populations

Darwin’s key inference was based on the idea that in any popula-
tion, individuals that are best suited to survive and do well in their
environment will produce the most offspring. So, the traits of those
individuals will become more common in each new generation.
Scientists now know that genes are responsible for inherited
traits. Therefore, certain forms of a trait become more common in
a population because more individuals in the population carry the
alleles for those forms. In other words, natural selection causes the
frequency of certain alleles in a population to increase or decrease
over time. Mutations and the recombination of alleles that occurs
during sexual reproduction provide endless sources of new varia-
tions for natural selection to act upon.
Species Formation
The environment differs from place to place. Thus, populations of the
same species living in different locations tend to evolve in different
directions. Reproductive isolation is the condition in which two pop-
ulations of the same species do not breed with one another because
of geographic separation, a difference in mating periods, or other bar-
rier to reproduction. As two isolated populations of the same species
become more different over time, they may eventually become unable
to breed with one another. Generally,
when the individuals of two related Figure 6 Reproductive isolation in action
populations can no longer breed with
These two squirrel populations became isolated from each other
one another, the two populations are
about 10,000 years ago, thus preventing their interbreeding.
different species. As shown in Figure
6, the Kaibab squirrel, which lives on
the North Rim of the Grand Canyon in
Arizona, has a black belly and other
characteristics that distinguish it from
the Abert squirrel. The Abert squirrel,
which has a white belly, lives on the
South Rim of the Grand Canyon.
Because they have been so isolated
from one another, they have become
different enough that some biologists
consider them separate species.
Kaibab squirrel Abert squirrel

The Tempo of Evolution
For decades, most biologists have understood evolution as a gradu-
al process that occurs continuously. The model of evolution in
www.scilinks.org
which gradual change over a long period of time leads to species
Topic: Fossil Record
Keyword: HX4088 formation is called gradualism . But American biologists Stephen
Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge have suggested that successful
species may stay unchanged for long periods of time. Gould and
Eldredge have hypothesized that major environmental changes in
the past have caused evolution to occur in spurts. This model of
evolution, in which periods of rapid change in species are separated
by periods of little or no change, is called punctuated equilibrium.
Exploring Further
Punctuated Equilibrium
How could major environmental changes lead to
spurts in evolution? The fossil record shows that
drastic environmental changes have occurred very
infrequently, separated by periods of time that
often last tens of millions of years. Events such as
volcanic eruptions, asteroid impacts, and ice ages
have been linked to sudden and drastic changes Gradualism Punctuated equilibrium
in climate. Such changes have also been linked to
the extinction of many groups of organisms. As a
result, environments that were once inhabited
change slowly through time, as predicted by the
became empty. This provided opportunities for
gradualism model of evolution. More study of the
colonization by species that could quickly adapt
fossil record may reveal additional examples of one
to the new conditions through natural selection.
or both types of evolution.
What Fossils Reveal
Despite large gaps, due most likely to poor condi-
tions for fossilization, there is some evidence of
www.scilinks.org
both gradualism and punctuated equilibrium in the
Topic: Evolution
fossil record. Many groups of organisms appear
Keyword: HX4074
suddenly in the fossil record. Some of these groups
remain virtually unchanged for millions of years,
while other groups disappear as suddenly as they
appear. Still other groups of organisms appear to
Section 1 Review
List two observations made by Charles Darwin Compare the punctuated equilibrium model of
during his 5-year voyage that led him to conclude evolution with the gradualism model.
that living species evolved from extinct species.
Standardized Test Prep Speciation can result when
Describe how natural selection occurs. two populations have become
A extinct. C interbred.
Summarize the modern theory of evolution by
B reproductively isolated. D one population.
natural selection.

Evidence of Evolution Section 2
The Fossil Record Objectives

Have you ever looked at a series of maps that show how a city has ● Describe how the fossil
grown? Buildings and streets are added, changed, or destroyed as record supports evolution.
the years pass by. In the same way, fossils of animals show a pattern ● Summarize how biological
of development from early ancestors to modern descendants. Fos- molecules such as proteins
sils offer the most direct evidence that evolution takes place. Recall and DNA are used as
that a fossil is the preserved or mineralized remains or imprint of evidence of evolution.
an organism that lived long ago. Fossils, therefore, provide an ● Infer how comparing the
actual record of Earth’s past life-forms. Change over time (evolu- anatomy and development
tion) can be seen in the fossil record. Fossilized species found in of living species provides
older rocks are different from those found in newer rocks, as you evidence of evolution.
can see in Figure 7.
After observing such differences, Darwin predicted that interme- Key Terms
diate forms between the great groups of organisms would eventually paleontologist
be found. Since Darwin’s time, some of these intermediates have vestigial structure
been found, while others have not. For example, fossil intermedi- homologous
aries have been found between fishes and amphibians, between rep- structure
tiles and birds, and between reptiles and mammals, adding valuable
evidence about the fossil history of the vertebrates.
Today, Darwin’s theory is almost universally accepted by scien-
tists as the best available explanation for the biological diversity on
Earth. Based on a large body of supporting evidence, most scien-
tists agree on the following three major points:
1. Earth is about 4.5 billion years old.
2. Organisms have inhabited Earth for most of its history.
3. All organisms living today share common ancestry with earlier,
simpler life-forms.
Figure 7 Fossils. Fossils

of early multicellular life-forms,
such as the crinoid, occur in
800-million-year-old rocks
found in Indiana. Fossils
of the pterodactyl, an extinct
reptile, occur in 140- to
210-million-year-old rocks.
Crinoid Pterodactyl
SECTION 2 Evidence of Evolution 283

Formation of Fossils
The fossil record, and thus the record of the evolution of life, is not
complete. Many species have lived in environments where fossils do
Reading Effectively
not form. Most fossils form when organisms and traces of organ-
Read the heading “Forma-
isms are rapidly buried in fine sediments deposited by water, wind,
tion of Fossils,” and ask one
or more Who, What, Where, or volcanic eruptions. The environments that are most likely to
When, Why, or How ques- cause fossil formation are wet lowlands, slow-moving streams,
tions. For example, How are lakes, shallow seas, and areas near volcanoes that spew out volcanic
fossils formed? As you read, ash. The chances that organisms living in upland forests, moun-
answer your questions. tains, grasslands, or deserts will die in just the right place to be
buried in sediments and fossilized are very low. Even if an organism
lives in an environment where fossils can form, the chances are slim
that its dead body will be buried in sediment before it decays. For
example, it is very likely to be eaten and scattered by scavengers.
Figure 8 Evidence of whale evolution

Whales are thought to have evolved from an ancestral line of four-legged mammals, which are represented here by
their fossils and artistic reconstructions showing what scientists think they may have looked like.
Mesonychids are one hypothesized link between

modern whales and certain hoofed mammals.
They were about 2 m (6 ft) long. They are thought
to have lived about 60 million years ago. Some
scientists favor an alternative hypothesis linking
whales to other ancestral hooved mammals.
These hooved mammals are also ancestral to
hippopotamuses or pigs.
Ambulocetus natans apparently walked on land

like modern sea lions and swam by flexing its
backbone and paddling with its hind limbs (as do
modern otters). They were about 3 m (10 ft) long.
They existed about 50 million years ago.

Furthermore, the bodies of some organisms decay faster than oth-
ers do. For example, an animal with a hard exoskeleton (such as a
www.scilinks.org
crab) would have a better chance of becoming fossilized than would
Topic: Paleontology
a soft-bodied organism, such as an earthworm. Keyword: HX4134
Although the fossil record will never be complete, it presents
strong evidence that evolution has taken place. When a fossil is dis-
covered, paleontologists (scientists who study fossils) analyze the
sediments around it. By radiometric dating certain types of rocks
and minerals in those sediments, paleontologists can arrange the
fossils in order from oldest to youngest. When this is done, orderly
patterns of evolution can be seen. Based on existing fossils,
Figure 8 shows an artist’s idea of the appearance of three extinct
species that might have been ancestral to modern whales. They are
arranged in the order that they evolved, based on their fossil’s age
as determined by radiometric dating.
Rodhocetus kasrani, a more recent ancestor of

modern whales, probably spent little time on land.
Its reduced hind limbs could not have aided in
walking or swimming. It is thought to have existed
about 40 million years ago.
Modern whales have forelimbs that are flippers

and hind limbs that have been reduced to only a
few internal functionless hind-limb bones.

Anatomy and Development
Comparisons of the anatomy of different types of organisms often
reveal basic similarities in body structures even though the structure’s
The word vestigial comes functions may differ between organisms. For example, sometimes
from the Latin word ves- bones are present in an organism but are reduced in size and either
tigium, meaning “footprint.”
have no use or have a less important function than they do in other,
Homologous is from the
Greek word homologos, related organisms. Such structures, which are considered to be
meaning “agreeing.” evidence of an organism’s evolutionary past, are called vestigial (vehs
TIJ ee uhl) structures. For example, the hind limbs of whales are ves-
tigial structures.
As different groups of vertebrates evolved, their bodies evolved
differently. But similarities in bone structure can still be seen,
suggesting that all vertebrates share a relatively recent common
ancestor. As you can see in Figure 9, the forelimbs of the vertebrates
shown are composed of the same basic groups of bones. Such struc-
tures are referred to as homologous (hoh MAHL uh guhs).
Homologous structures are structures that share a common ances-
try. That is, a similar structure in two organisms can be found in the
common ancestor of the organisms.
Most scientists believe that the evolutionary history of organisms
is also seen in the development of embryos. At some time in their
development, all vertebrate embryos have a tail, buds that become
limbs, and pharyngeal (fuh RIN jee uhl) pouches. The tail remains
in most adult vertebrates. Only adult fish and immature amphib-
ians retain pharyngeal pouches (which contain their gills). In
humans, the tail disappears during fetal development, and pharyn-
geal pouches develop into structures in the throat.
Figure 9 Homologous structures

The forelimbs of vertebrates contain the same kinds of bones, which form in the
same way during embryological development.
Humerus
Radius
Penguin Alligator Ulna
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Bat Human

Biological Molecules
The picture of successive change seen in the fossil record allows sci- Hemoglobin Comparison
entists to make a prediction that can be tested. If species have
Amino Acid
changed over time as the fossil record indicates, then the genes that Species
Differences
determine the species’ characteristics should also have changed by from Human
mutation and selection. As species evolved, one change after another Hemoglobin
should have become part of their genetic instructions. Therefore, Protein
changes in a gene’s nucleotide sequence should build up over time. Gorilla 1
Rhesus monkey 8
Proteins Mouse 27
This prediction was first tested by analyzing the amino acid
Chicken 45
sequences of similar proteins found in several species. If evolution
has taken place, then, in general, species descended from a recent Frog 67
common ancestor should have fewer amino acid differences Lamprey 125
between their proteins than do species that share a common ances-
tor in the more distant past. Figure 10 Hemoglobin
Comparing the same hemoglobin protein in several species differences. The more
similar organisms’ hemoglobin
reveals the pattern shown in Figure 10. Species that are thought to
proteins are, the more recent
have shared a common ancestor more recently (for example, the organisms’ common
humans and gorillas) have few amino acid sequence differences. ancestor is likely to have been.
However, those species that are thought to have shared a common
ancestor in the more distant past (such as humans and mice) have
many amino acid sequence differences.
DNA Sequences
This pattern, however, does not hold true for all proteins. A certain
protein may evolve more rapidly in some groups than others. Com-
parisons of proteins, therefore, may not reflect evolutionary rela-
tionships supported by the fossil record and other evidence.
Evolutionary histories, however, are generally not inferred from any
single protein’s amino acid sequences. More accurate hypotheses
about evolutionary histories are based on large numbers of gene
sequences. These evolutionary histories based on DNA sequences
tend be very similar to evolutionary histories inferred by biologists
based comparative anatomy and evidence from the fossil record.
Section 2 Review
Relate how the fossil record provides evidence Standardized Test Prep Which two organisms
that evolution has occurred. would likely have the least-similar nucleotide
sequences in a given gene?
State how comparing the amino acid sequence
A chimpanzee and gorilla
of a protein can provide evidence that evolution
has taken place. B gorilla and dog
C dog and shark
Describe how comparing the anatomy of living D shark and butterfly
species provides evidence of evolution.

Section 3 Examples of Evolution
Objectives Natural Selection at Work
● Identify four elements in the How does evolution occur? The heart of Darwin’s theory of evolu-
process of natural selection. tion is that natural selection is the mechanism that drives evolution.
● Describe how natural Darwin wrote: “Can we doubt . . . that individuals having any advan-
selection has affected the tage, however slight, over others, would have the best chance of
bacteria that cause surviving and of procreating their kind? On the other hand, we may
tuberculosis. feel sure that any variation in the least degree injurious would be
● Relate natural selection to rigidly destroyed. This preservation of favorable variations, I call
the beak size of finches. Natural Selection.” In his writings, Darwin offered examples of how
natural selection has shaped life on Earth. There are now many
● Summarize the process of
species formation. well-known examples of natural selection in action.
The key lesson scientists have learned about evolution by nat-
Key Terms ural selection is that the environment dictates the direction and
amount of change. If the environment changes in the future, the
divergence set of characteristics that most help an individual reproduce suc-
speciation
cessfully may change. For example, the polar bear’s white fur,
subspecies
shown in Figure 11, enables it to hunt successfully in its snowy
environment. In a warmer environment, having white fur would
no longer be an advantage.
Factors in Natural Selection

The process of natural selection is driven by four important points
that are true for all real populations:
All populations have genetic variation. That is, in any popu-
lation there is an array of individuals that differ slightly from
each other in genetic makeup. While this may be obvious in
humans, it is also true in species whose members may appear
identical, such as a species of bacteria.
Figure 11 Polar bear. The environment presents challenges to suc-
Camouflage benefits predators
cessful reproduction. Naturally, an organism
and prey alike.
that does not survive to reproduce or whose off-
spring die before the offspring can reproduce
does not pass its genes on to future generations.
Individuals tend to produce more offspring
than the environment can support. Thus indi-
viduals of a population often compete with one
another to survive.
Individuals that are better able to cope with
the challenges presented by their environment
tend to leave more offspring than those indi-
viduals less suited to the environment do.

Example of Natural Selection
The lung disease tuberculosis (TB) is usually caused by the bac-
terium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, shown in Figure 12, and it kills
more adults than any other infectious disease in the world. In the
1950s, two effective antibiotics, isoniazid and rifampin, became
available, and they have saved millions of lives. In the late 1980s,
however, new strains of M. tuberculosis that are largely or com-
pletely resistant to isoniazid and rifampin appeared. Rates of TB
infection began to skyrocket in many countries, and in 1993 the
World Health Organization declared a global TB health emergency.
How did antibiotic-resistant strains of M. tuberculosis evolve? A
detailed look at a single typical case reveals how: through natural
selection. This case is of a 35-year-old man living in Baltimore who
was treated with rifampin for an active TB infection. After 10 months,
the antibiotics cleared up the infection. Two months later, however,
the man was readmitted to the hospital with a severe TB infection,
and despite rifampin treatment, he died 10 days later. The strain of M.
tuberculosis isolated from his body was totally resistant to rifampin.
How had TB bacteria within his body become resistant to
rifampin? Doctors compared DNA of the rifampin-resistant bacteria
to DNA from samples of normal, rifampin-sensitive M. tuberculosis.
There seemed to be only one difference: a single base change from Figure 12 Tuberculosis.
TB may be diagnosed from an
cytosine to thymine in a gene called rpoB.
X-ray of the lungs. TB is
caused by Mycobacterium
Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance tuberculosis.
Rifampin acts by binding to M. tuberculosis RNA polymerase,
preventing transcription and so killing the bacterial cell. The
mutation in the polymerase’s rpoB gene prevents rifampin
from binding to the polymerase. The mutation, however, does
not destroy the polymerase’s ability to transcribe mRNA. The
mutation likely occurred in a single M. tuberculosis bacterial
cell sometime during the first infection. Because its poly-
merase function was no longer normal, the mutant bacterium
could not divide as rapidly as normal bacteria can, but it still
could divide. The antibiotic caused the normal bacterial cells
to eventually die. The mutant bacteria continued to grow and
reproduce in the antibiotic-containing environment.
Because the total number of M. tuberculosis bacteria was
reduced drastically by the first antibiotic treatment, the
patient’s infection had seemed to clear. However, mutant,
antibiotic-resistant bacteria survived and continued to grow
in his body. The mutant bacteria could reproduce more
effectively in the presence of the antibiotic than the normal
bacteria could. Therefore, the mutant bacteria became more
common in the bacterial population, and they eventually
became the predominant type. When the patient became
acutely ill again with TB, the M. tuberculosis bacterial cells
in his lungs were the rifampin-resistant cells. In this way,
natural selection led to the evolution of rifampin resistance
in M. tuberculosis. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
SECTION 3 Examples of Evolution 289

Evolution in Darwin’s Finches
Darwin collected 31 specimens of finches from three islands when
he visited the Galápagos Islands. In all, he collected 9 distinct
species, all very similar to one another except for their bills. Two
ground finches with large bills feed on seeds that they crush in their
beaks, while two with narrower bills eat insects. One finch is a fruit
eater, one picks insects out of cactuses, and yet another creeps up
on sea birds and uses its sharp beak to drink their blood.
Darwin suggested that the nine species of Galápagos finches evolved
from an original ancestral species. Changes occurred as different pop-
ulations accumulated adaptations to different food sources. This idea
was first tested in 1938 by the naturalist David Lack. He watched the
birds closely for five months and found little evidence to support Dar-
win’s hypothesis. Stout-beaked finches and slender-beaked finches
were feeding on the same sorts of seeds. A second, far more thorough
study was carried out over 25 years beginning in 1973 by Peter and
Rosemary Grant of Princeton University. The Grants’ study presents a
much clearer picture that supports Darwin’s interpretation.
It was Lack’s misfortune to study the birds during a wet year,
when food was plentiful. The size of the beak of the finch is of lit-
tle importance in such times. Slender and stout beaks both work
well to gather the small, soft seeds which were plentiful.
During dry years, however, plants produce few seeds, large or
small. During these leaner years, few small, tender seeds were avail-
able. The difference between survival and starvation is the ability to
eat the larger, tougher seeds that most birds usually pass by. The
Grants measured the beaks of many birds every year. They found that
after several dry years, the birds that had longer, more-massive beaks
had better feeding success and produced more offspring.
When wet seasons returned, birds tended to have smaller beaks
again, as shown in Figure 13. The numbers of birds with different
beak shapes are changed by natural selection in response to the
available food supply, just as Darwin had suggested.
Figure 13 Natural selection in finches

By relating the environment to beak size, the Grants showed that
natural selection influences evolution.
Beak-Size Variation
10.0
Wet year
Beak size
Beak size
(mm)
measured Dry Dry Dry

year year year
9.0
1977 1980 1982 1984
Year

Formation of New Species
Species formation occurs in stages. Recall that natural selection
favors changes that increase reproductive success. Therefore, a
Real Life
species molded by natural selection has an improved “fit” to its Why do we find certain
environment. The accumulation of differences between groups is people pretty or
called divergence (die VUHR jehns). Divergence leads to the for- handsome?
mation of new species. Biologists call the process by which new Some evolutionary
biologists think that many
species form speciation (spee see AY shun).
traits that contribute to a
person’s attractiveness
Forming Subspecies actually reveal the per-
Separate populations of a single species often live in several differ- son’s fitness as a mate.
ent kinds of environments. In each environment, natural selection Finding Information
Research and compare
acts on the population. Natural selection results in the evolution of hypotheses concerning
offspring that are better adapted to that environment. If their envi- biological and cultural
ronments differ enough, separate populations of the same species reasons that people judge
can become very dissimilar. Over time, populations of the same others as attractive.
species that differ genetically because of adaptations to different
living conditions become what biologists call subspecies. The mem-
bers of newly formed subspecies have taken the first step toward
speciation. Eventually, the subspecies may become so different that
they can no longer interbreed successfully. Biologists then consider
them separate species.
Maintaining New Species

What keeps new species separate? Why are even closely related
species usually unable to interbreed? Once subspecies become
different enough, a barrier to reproduction, like the one shown in
Figure 14, usually prevents different groups from breeding with
each other.
Figure 14 Mating activity

Pickerel frog Mating Activity in Frogs in various frogs. Though
they appear to be similar, pick-
erel frogs (Rana palustris) and
Leopard frog Pickerel frog leopard frogs (Rana pipiens)
Tree frog Bullfrog are different species. The
graph shows that the time of
peak mating activity varies
Mating activity
between four species of frogs.
Leopard frog
March 1 April 1 May 1 June 1 July 1

Month
SECTION 3 Examples of Evolution 291

There are several types of barriers that may isolate two or more
closely related groups. For example, groups may be geographically
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Species Formation
isolated or may reproduce at different times. Physical differences
Keyword: HX4167 may also prevent mating, or they may not be attracted to one another
for mating. The hybrid offspring may not be fertile or suited to the
environment of either parent.
Biologists have seen the stages of speciation in many different
organisms. Thus, the way that natural selection leads to the formation
of new species has been thoroughly documented. As changes continue
to build up over time, living species may become very different from
their ancestors and from other species that evolved from the same
recent common ancestor, leading to the appearance of new species.
8
0
493 2
5 Hind-Limb Length Variation
x2 + <
6x -
7 Analyzing Change in
Lizard Populations Each island's
lizard population
Original lizard
population
Background
perch diameter
In 1991, Jonathan Losos, an American sci-
Increasing
entist, measured hind-limb length of lizards
from several islands and the average perch
diameter of the island plants. The lizards
were descended from a common popula-
tion 20 years earlier, and the islands had
different kinds of plants on which the
lizards perched. Examine the graph at right
and answer the following questions: Increasing hind-limb length
Analysis
1. Interpreting Graphics 2. Predict what would happen 3. Justify the argument that
How did the average hind-limb to a population of lizards with this experiment supports the
length of each island’s lizard short hind limbs if they were theory of evolution by natural
population change from that of placed on an island with a selection.
the original population? larger average perch diameter
than from where they came.
Section 3 Review
List four elements of natural selection. Critical Thinking Evaluating Results Based
on the results of David Lack’s study and the
Describe the mechanism that causes Grants’ study of finches, what conclusion can
population changes in antibiotic-resistant you make about the length of time required for
bacteria. evolution of a new species to take place?
Identify what caused the change in the finch’s Standardized Test Prep The beaks of finches on
beaks as seen in the Grants’ study. the Galápagos Islands enlarged over generations
in response to
Describe how speciation takes place.
A isolation. C rain.
B pollution. D limited food supply.

ZONE
1 The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection Section 1
population (278)
● Charles Darwin concluded that animals on the coast of South natural selection (279)
America that resembled those on the nearby islands evolved adaptation (279)
differences after separating from a common ancestor. reproductive isolation (281)
gradualism (282)
● Darwin was influenced by Thomas Malthus, who wrote that punctuated equilibrium (282)
populations tend to grow as much as the environment allows.
● Darwin proposed that natural selection favors individuals
that are best able to survive and reproduce.
● Under certain conditions, change within a species can lead
to new species.
● Gradualism is a process of evolution in which speciation
occurs gradually, and punctuated equilibrium is a process
in which speciation occurs rapidly between periods of little
or no change.
2 Evidence of Evolution Section 2

paleontologist (285)
● Evidence of orderly change can be seen when fossils are vestigial structure (286)
arranged according to their age. homologous structure (286)
● Differences in amino acid sequences and DNA sequences
are greater between species that are more distantly related
than between species that are more closely related.
● Similarities of structures in different vertebrates provide
evidence that all vertebrates share a common ancestor.
3 Examples of Evolution
Section 3
● Individuals that have traits that enable them to survive in a
divergence (291)
given environment can reproduce and pass those traits to speciation (291)
their offspring. subspecies (291)
● Experiments show that evolution through natural selection
has occurred within populations of antibiotic-resistant
bacteria and in Darwin’s finches.
● Speciation begins as a population adapts to its environment.
● Reproductive isolation keeps newly forming species from
breeding with one another.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Explain the relationship between the

number of nucleotide differences between
1. According to the modern theory of evolution, two species and the time since the species
a. Lamarck was completely wrong. shared a common ancestor.
b. random gene mutation is a part
of evolution. 9. What is a subspecies, and how is forma-
c. punctuated equilibrium has replaced tion of a subspecies related to the process
natural selection. of speciation?
d. the diversity of life-forms resulted 10. How is meiosis beneficial to the evolution
from the inheritance of acquired of a species by natural selection? (Hint:
characteristics. See Chapter 7, Section 1.)
2. With respect to the problem of antibiotic- 11. Other than punctuated
resistant tuberculosis, which entity evolves? equilibrium, what naturally occurring
a. the patient phenomena might explain large gaps
b. the bacterium in the fossil record?
c. the antibiotic
d. None of the above. 12. Concept Mapping Make a concept
3. What is true about gradualism with respect map that shows how natural selection leads
to punctuated equilibrium? to speciation. Try to include the following
a. Each is a model of evolution. terms in your map: evolution, natural
b. Neither is a model of evolution. selection, genetic variation, environment,
c. Only gradualism portrays true evolution. speciation, and divergence.
d. Only punctuated equilibrium portrays
true evolution.
Critical Thinking
13. Applying Information If a favorable trait
4. The process by which isolated populations
increases the life span of an organism
of the same species become new species is
without affecting reproductive success,
called
does evolution occur?
a. speciation.
b. reproductive isolation. 14. Evaluating Analyze Darwin’s theory of
c. genetic variation. evolution by natural selection and describe
d. natural seclection. one strength and one weakness.
5. For each pair of terms, explain the 15. Justifying Conclusions About 40 years after
differences in their meanings. the publication of On the Origin of Species,
a. adaptation, natural selection genetics was recognized as a science.
b. extinction, reproductive isolation Explain how information about genetics
c. population, subspecies might support Darwin’s theory of evolution.
d. homologous, vestigial
e. divergence, speciation
16. Career Connection Paleontologist Research
6. Adult lobsters and barnacles look very
the field of paleontology, and write a report
different. The larvae of barnacles and on your findings. Your report should
lobsters, however, are practically identical. include a job description, training
What does this indicate about the evolu- required, kinds of employers, growth
tionary history of these organisms? prospects, and starting salary.
7. Could a population of identical organisms
undergo natural selection? Why or why not?


correct answer.
Alfred Russel Wallace was a biologist who
1 What term describes the process by which collected insects on an 1848 expedition to
a species becomes better suited to its the Amazon. He also made observations in
environment? the Malay Archipelago between 1854 and
A. adaptation C. gradualism 1862. Wallace discovered that animals on
B. equilibrium D. natural selection the western islands of the Malay Archipelago
differed sharply from those on the eastern
2 What are anatomical structures that share
islands.
a common ancestry?
F. analogous structures 6 What condition might have caused these
G. evolutionary structures animals to evolve into different species?
H. homologous structures A. fossilization
I. vestigial structures B. population growth
C. punctuated equilibrium
3 In the Grants’ study, the effect of climate
D. reproductive isolation
on the size of the finch’s beak provides an
example of which of the following? Interpreting Graphics
A. fossilization
B. natural selection
C. speciation
D. reproductive isolation Vertebrate Evolution
4 The woodpecker finch and the warbler

finch are different species. Which of the
following can you conclude about these
two birds?
Woodpecker Warbler
F. They cannot interbreed. finch finch Armadillo
G. The lack a common ancestor.
H. They lack homologous structures. Glyptodont
I. They have very different embryos.

Recent common
5 Generation time is the time from the ancestor
(finch-like bird)
beginning of an organism’s life to the point
of reproduction. What effect would the Recent common
ancestor
time from the beginning of an organism’s (armadillo-like
life to the point of reproduction have on mammal)
Remote common
the rate of evolution of a species? ancestor
(early vertebrate)
Test 7 Which organism has DNA that is probably

For a question about a structure or phenomenon that most similar to the glyptodont’s DNA?
has a complex name, write down the name and F. armadillo H. warbler finch
review its meaning before answering the question. G. finch-like bird I. woodpecker finch

Exploration Lab
Modeling Natural Selection
m
2c
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Modeling a process • scissors
m
• Inferring relationships • construction paper 2c
3c
m
• cellophane tape
OBJECTIVES
• soda straws
• Model the process of
selection. • felt-tip marker
• Relate favorable mutations to • meterstick or tape

m
measure 3c
selection and evolution.
• penny or other coin
Egyptian
• six-sided die origami bird
Before You Begin 1. Write a definition for each boldface term in

the preceding paragraph.
Natural selection occurs when organisms
that have certain traits survive to reproduce 2. Make a data table similar to the one shown
more than organisms that lack those traits below.
do. A population evolves when individuals 3. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a
with different genotypes survive or repro- question you would like to explore about
duce at different rates. In this lab, you will the process of selection.
model the selection of favorable traits in a
new generation by using a paper model of a Procedure
bird—the fictitious Egyptian origami bird
(Avis papyrus), which lives in dry regions of PART A: Parental Generation
North Africa. Assume that only birds that 1. Cut two strips of paper, 2 20 cm each.
can successfully fly the long distances Make a loop with one strip of paper, letting
between water sources will live long the paper overlap by 1 cm, and tape the
enough to breed successfully. loop closed. Repeat for the other strip.
Anterior wing (cm) Posterior wing (cm)

Bird Coin flip Die throw Average distance
(H or T) (1–6) Width Circum. Distance Width Circum. Distance flown (m)
from front from back
Parent NA NA 2 19 3 2 19 3
Generation 1
Chick 1
Chick 2
Chick 3
Generation 2
Chick 1
Chick 2
Chick 3

2. Tape one loop 3 cm from each end of the PART C: Subsequent Generations
straw, as shown above. Mark the front 8. Assume that the most successful bird in
end of the bird with a felt-tip marker. This the previous generation is the sole parent
bird represents the parental generation. of the next generation. Repeat steps 4–7
3. Test how far your parent bird can fly by using this bird.
releasing it with a gentle overhand pitch. 9. Continue to breed, test, and record data
Test the bird twice. Record the bird’s aver- for eight more generations.
age flight distance in your data table.
PART D: Cleanup and Disposal

PART B: First (F1) Generation
10. Dispose of paper scraps in the
4. Each origami bird lays a clutch of three designated waste container.
eggs. Assume that one of the chicks is a
11. Clean up your work area and all
clone of the parent. Use the parent to rep-
lab equipment. Return lab equip-
resent this chick in step 6.
ment to its proper place. Wash your
5. Make two more chicks. Assume that these hands thoroughly before you leave the lab
chicks have mutations. Follow Steps A–C and after you finish all work.
below for each chick to determine the
effects of its mutation.
Step A Flip a coin to determine which
end is affected by a mutation. 1. Analyzing Results Did the birds you
Heads = anterior (front) made by modeling natural selection fly
farther than the first bird you made?
Tails = posterior (back)
2. Inferring Conclusions How might this
Step B Throw a die to determine how the
lab help explain the variety of species of
mutation affects the wing.
Galápagos finches?
1 = Wing position moves 4 = Wing circumference 3. Further Inquiry Write another question
1 cm toward the end decreases by 2 cm.
of the straw.
about natural selection that could be
2 = Wing position moves 5 = Wing width increases
1 cm toward the mid- by 1 cm.
dle of the straw.
3 = Wing circumference 6 = Wing width decreases
increases by 2 cm. by 1 cm.
Step C A mutation is lethal if it causes a

wing to fall off the straw or a wing with a
circumference smaller than that of the
straw. If you get a lethal mutation, disre-
gard it and produce another chick.
On the Job
6. Record the mutations and the wing
Population biology is the study of
dimensions of each offspring.
populations. Do research to discover
7. Test each bird twice by releasing it with a how population biologists study evolu-
gentle overhand pitch. Release the birds tion. For more about careers, visit
as uniformly as possible. Record the dis- go.hrw.com and type in the keyword
tance each bird flies. The most successful HX4 Careers.
bird is the one that flies the farthest.
CHAPTER 13 The Theory of Evolution 297

Desert organisms

CHAPTER
14 Classification
of Organisms

1. Define the term species. (Chapter 13,
Section 2) Categories of Biological
2. Relate macromolecules to evolutionary history. Classification
(Chapter 13, Section 2) Taxonomy
3. Relate homologous structures to evolutionary Classifying Organisms
relationships. (Chapter 13, Section 2)
4. Summarize speciation. (Chapter 13, Section 2
Section 3) How Biologists Classify
sections indicated.
Organisms
What Is a Species?
Evolutionary History
Reading Activity
Take a break after reading each section of
this chapter, and closely study the figures in
the section. Reread the figure captions, and,
for each one, write out a question that can
be answered by referring to the figure and
its caption. Refer to your list of figures
and questions as you review the concepts
addressed in the chapter before you
complete the Performance Zone
chapter review.
www.scilinks.org
As illustrated by this variety of desert plants, most resources are located throughout this chapter.
of Earth’s surface—including its oceans—is populated
by a great diversity of organisms. Scientists have
developed systems of naming and classifying
organisms.
CHAPTER 14 Classification of Organisms 299

Section 1 Categories of Biological
Classification
Objectives Taxonomy
● Describe Linnaeus’s role Just as it is impossible for postal workers to sort mail bearing only
in developing the modern the addressee’s first name, it is impossible for biologists to memo-
system of naming rize every name of the estimated 10–30 million organisms on Earth.
organisms. To make sorting mail easier, postal workers sort first by zip code,
● Summarize the scientific then by street name and house number. In the same way, biologists
system for naming a group organisms into large categories that in turn are assigned to
species. smaller and more specific categories.
● List the seven levels of More than 2,000 years ago, the Greek philosopher and naturalist
biological classification. Aristotle grouped plants and animals according to their structural
similarities. Later Greeks and Romans grouped plants and animals
Key Terms into basic categories such as oaks, dogs, and horses. Eventually
taxonomy each unit of classification came to be called a genus (JEE nuhs)
binomial nomenclature (plural, genera), the Latin word for “group.” Starting in the Middle
genus Ages, genera were named in Latin. The science of naming and clas-
family sifying organisms is called taxonomy (tak SAH nuh mee).
order Until the mid-1700s, biologists named a particular type of organ-
class ism by adding descriptive phrases to the name of the genus. These
phylum phrases sometimes consisted of 12 or more Latin words. They were
kingdom
called polynomials (from poly, meaning “many,” and nomen, mean-
domain
ing “name”). As you can see in Figure 1, the polynomial for the
European honeybee became very large and awkward. Polynomials
were often changed by biologists, so organisms were rarely known
to everyone by the same name.
Figure 1 European
honeybee. The European A Simpler System
honeybee once had a 12-part
scientific name. A simpler system for naming organisms was devel-
oped by the Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus. His
ambition was to catalog all the known kinds of
organisms. In the 1750s, he wrote several books that
used the polynomial system. But Linnaeus also
included a two-word Latin name for each species.
Linnaeus’s two-word system for naming organisms
is called binomial (bie NOH mee uhl) nomenclature
(from bi, meaning “two”). His two-part name for
the European honeybee was Apis mellifera, the
genus name followed by a single descriptive word.
Over the past 250 years since Linnaeus first used
two-part binomial species names, his approach
Polynomial: Apis pubescens,
thorace subgriseo, abdomine has been universally adopted. Most of the species
fusco, pedibus posticis glabis, he described in 1753 still have the two-part names
untrinque margine ciliatus he gave them.
300 CHAPTER 14 Classification of Organisms

Scientific Names
The unique two-part name for a species is now referred to as its
scientific name. The first word is the genus to which the organism
belongs. A genus is a taxonomic category containing similar The word Quercus is Latin
species. Organisms in a genus share important characteristics. For for “oak.” The word rubra is
Latin for “red,” and the word
example, the genus Quercus is composed of oak trees. The second
phellos is Greek for “cork.”
word in a scientific name identifies one particular kind of organism (Cork is part of the bark
within the genus, called a species. A species is the basic biological of a tree.)
unit in the Linnaean system of classification. Table 1 lists and
describes two species of oaks in the genus Quercus.
The first letter of the genus name is always capitalized, and the
first letter of the second word is always lowercase. Scientific names
are italicized or underlined. After the first use of the full scientific
name, the genus name can be abbreviated as a single letter. For
example, Quercus rubra can be abbreviated Q. rubra.
The scientific name of an organism gives biologists a common
way of communicating, regardless of their native language. One
species may have many common names, and one common name
may be used for more than one species. For example, the bird called
a robin in Great Britain is Erithacus rubicula. The very different
bird called a robin in North America is Turdus migratorius.
The name given to a species must conform to the rules estab-
lished by an international commission of scientists. All scientific
names must have two Latin words or terms created according to www.scilinks.org
the rules of Latin grammar. Two different types of organisms can- Topic: Naming Species
not have the same scientific name. Since all the members of a genus Keyword: HX4127
share the genus name, the second word in the name of each mem-
ber of that genus must be different. For example, only one species
of the genus Homo can be given the name sapiens.
Table 1 Two Species of Oak

Common name Genus Scientific name Traits
Red oak Quercus Quercus rubra Lobed leaves;

produces acorns
approximately 25 mm
(1 in.) long
Willow oak Quercus Quercus phellos Unlobed leaves;

produces acorns
approximately 15 mm
(0.6 in.) long
SECTION 1 Categories of Biological Classification 301

Classifying Organisms
Linnaeus worked out a broad system of classification for plants and
animals in which an organism’s form and structure are the basis for
arranging specimens in a collection. The genera and species that he
described were later organized into a ranked system of groups that
increase in inclusiveness. The different groups into which organ-
isms are classified have expanded since Linnaeus’s time and now
consist of eight levels, as shown in Figure 2.
Similar genera are grouped into a family. Similar families are com-
bined into an order . Orders with common properties are united in a
class. Classes with similar characteristics are assigned to a phylum
(FIE luhm). Similar phyla are collected into a kingdom. Similar king-
doms are grouped into domains . All living things are grouped into
one of three domains. Two domains, Archaea and Bacteria, are each
composed of a single kingdom of prokaryotes. The third domain,
Eukarya, contains all four kingdoms of eukaryotes.
In order to remember the eight categories of classification in
their proper order, it may prove useful to memorize a phrase, such
as Do Kindly Pay Cash Or Furnish Good Security, to remember
Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species.
Figure 2 System of
classification. Each living
thing is assigned to a series of A domain
groups, beginning with domain contains kingdoms.
(most inclusive) and ending Kingdoms
with species (least inclusive).
A kingdom
contains phyla.
Phyla
A phylum
contains classes.
Classes
A class
contains orders.
Orders
An order
contains families.
Families
A family
contains genera.
Genera
A genus
www.scilinks.org contains species.
Topic: Systems of
Classification
Keyword: HX4173
A species

Classification of the Honeybee
Scientific names are particularly powerful because they tell you so
much about the organism. Each level of classification is based on
Real Life
characteristics shared by all the organisms it contains. For example, You named what
consider the classification of the honeybee, shown in Figure 3. after me?
The honeybee’s scientific name, Apis mellifera, indicates that it Several plant and animal
belongs to the genus Apis, which is classified in the family Apidae. names honor famous
people. Shakesperia was
Knowing the honeybee’s family is Apidae tells you a great deal about the original name of a
the honeybee. All members of the family Apidae are bees that live genus of parasitic wasp
either alone or in hives, as does Apis mellifera. (see The Taming of the
Knowing the order bees belong in tells you even more. The order to Shrew, Act 2, Scene I),
which the honeybee belongs, Hymenoptera, includes ants, bees, and and cartoonist Gary
wasps, which usually have two pairs of wings and are likely to be able Larson has both a beetle
and a biting louse named
to sting. At each higher level, the information becomes more general. for him.
At the next higher level of classification, A. mellifera belongs to
Finding Information
the class Insecta, meaning it is an insect with three major body Look up the
parts and three pairs of legs. Its phylum, Arthropoda, indicates that scientific name
A. mellifera is an arthropod, an organism with a coelom, segmented of your favorite
body, jointed appendages, and a hard outer skin made of a complex plant or animal,
and create a
binomial based
on your own
name.
Domain
Eukarya
Kingdom
Animalia
Phylum
Arthropoda
Class
Insecta
Order
Hymenoptera
Family
Apidae
Genus
Apis
Figure 3 Classification
Species
of a bee. The European
Apis mellifera honeybee is classified in eight
different levels of biological
classification.
SECTION 1 Categories of Biological Classification 303

carbohydrate called chitin. Arthropods have been the most suc-
cessful of all animals. Two-thirds of all the named species on Earth
are arthropods.
Its kingdom, Animalia, tells you that A. mellifera is a multicellular
heterotroph whose cells lack walls. And finally, A. mellifera is classified
in the domain Eukarya, which is composed of all eukaryotes. Recall
that eukaryotes are composed of one or more cells that have mem-
brane-bound organelles and whose DNA is enclosed within a nucleus.
Using a Field Guide

You can use a standard pictoral field guide or a
dichotomous key to help you identify species of
plants, animals, or other organisms.
Materials
paper and pencil, a plant or animal field guide
Procedure
1. CAUTION: Wear pro- specimen. Write these char- 3. Identify the key characteris-
tective gloves when acteristics in a table like the tics your field guide uses to
handling any wild plant. one below. tell these two species apart.
Keep your hands away
Analysis 4. Critical Thinking
from your face. Using a
1. List the characteristics Analyzing Data Based on
dichotomous key or other
shared by two specimens your observations, are two
field guide, identify several
that are in the same genus species from the same genus
species of plants that share
but are different species. more similar or less similar
the same phylum and class.
than two species from
Collect specimens only if your 2. Describe how the binomial different genera?
teacher tells you to do so. name of these two species
2. Try to identify two plants of show that they are members
the same genus. of the same genus.
3. In a table like the one on the Binomial Identifying

right, record the scientific Specimen Genus name
species name characteristics
name of each specimen.
A
4. Read the description of
each species in the field B
guide. Determine the set of
C
charateristics that fit each
Section 1 Review
Explain how Linnaeus helped develop the Standardized Test Prep Which organism
modern system of taxonomy. is most similar to the sandhill crane, Grus
canadensis ?
List rules that scientists use to name organisms. A Branta canadensis
Sequence the eight levels of biological B Falcipennis canadensis
classification, beginning with the most specific C Grus americana
level. D Recurvirostra americana

How Biologists Section 2
Classify Organisms
What Is a Species? Objectives
Have you ever wondered how scientists tell one species from ● List the characteristics that
another? For example, how can you tell a mushroom that can be biologists use to classify
eaten from a similar looking mushroom that is poisonous? Scien- organisms.
tists traditionally have used differences in appearance and structure ● Summarize the biological
to group organisms. Sometimes, however, these differences cannot species concept.
be used to determine if two organisms are of the same species. For ● Relate analogous struc-
example, all single-celled protists classified as Paramecium syngens tures to convergent
were once thought to be a single species. These organisms actually evolution.
represent several protistan species that look very similar but have
● Describe how biologists
other characteristics that differ. use cladograms to
In 1942, the biologist Ernst Mayr of Harvard University proposed determine evolutionary
a biologically based definition of species, which is called the biolog- histories.
ical species concept. Mayr defined a biological species as a group of
natural populations that are interbreeding or that could interbreed, Key Terms
and that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
biological species
Reproductive isolation occurs when a barrier separates two or phylogeny
more groups of organisms and prevents them from interbreeding. In convergent evolution
nature, however, reproductive barriers between sexually reproducing analogous character
species are not always complete. Sometimes individuals of different cladistics
species interbreed and produce offspring called hybrids. For exam- ancestral character
ple, wolves and dogs are members of separate species in the genus derived character
Canis. But interbreeding between wolves and dogs produces fertile cladogram
evolutionary
offspring, such as the hybrid shown in Figure 4. Another example of
systematics
a fertile hybrid is triticale, a hybrid of wheat and rye. It is important
phylogenetic tree
to remember that when reproductive barriers between two species
are not complete, the two species are closely related. Figure 4 Dog-wolf hybrid.
Wolves and dogs can produce
fertile offspring.
Dog (Canis familiaris) Wolf (Canis lupus) Dog-wolf hybrid
SECTION 2 How Biologists Classify Organisms 305

Evaluating the Biological Species Concept
The biological species concept works well for most members
of the kingdom Animalia, in which strong barriers to
hybridization usually exist. For example, Asian elephants and
African elephants do not interbreed in nature. But the biolog-
ical species concept fails to describe species that reproduce
asexually, such as all species of bacteria and some species of
protists, fungi, plants, and even some animals.
Within many groups of organisms, there are no barriers to
interbreeding between the species. Many species of plants, some
mammals, and many fishes are able to form fertile hybrids with
one or a few closely related species. In practice, modern biolo-
gists recognize species by studying an organism’s features.
Figure 5 New species of
tree kangaroo. Dendrolagus Number of Species
mbaiso is a black-and-white
tree kangaroo that lives in the
The number of species in the world is much greater than the num-
mountains of New Guinea. ber described. Large numbers of species, such as the kangaroo
shown in Figure 5, are still being discovered. Only about 1.5 million
species have been described to date. Scientists estimate that 5 mil-
lion to 10 million more species may live in the tropics alone. Since
no more than 500,000 tropical species have been named, it is clear
that our knowledge of Earth’s diversity of species is limited.
Analyzing Taxonomy of
Mythical Organisms
Background
0100010110
011101010 Classification of organisms often requires grouping
0010010001001
1100100100010 organisms based on their characteristics. Use the
0000101001001
1101010100100 following list of mythological organisms and their
0101010010010
characteristics to complete the analysis.
Analysis
• Pegasus stands 6 ft tall, has body, from 1–3 reptile-like 1. Identify the characteristics
a horse’s body, a horse’s heads, four legs, scales, and that you think are the most
head, four legs, and two breathes fire. useful for grouping the organ-
wings. • Chimera stands 6 ft tall, has a isms into separate groups.
• Centaur stands 6 ft tall, goat’s body, snake’s tail, four
2. Classify the organisms into
has a horse’s body with a legs, a lion’s head, fur on its
at least three groups based
human torso, a male human body and head, scales on its
on the characteristics you
head, and four legs. tail, and breathes fire.
think are most important.
• Griffin stands 4–6 ft tall, has • Hydra is several hundred feet
a lion’s body, an eagle’s head, long, has a long body with 3. Evaluate the use of the
four legs, two wings, fur on its four legs and a spiked tail, 100 biological species concept
body, and feathers on its snake heads, scales, and is to classify these mythical
head and wings. poisonous. organisms.
• Dragon can grow to several
hundred feet, has a snake-like

Evolutionary History
Linnaeus’s classification system was based on his observation that
organisms have different degrees of similarity. For instance, a tiger
resembles a gorilla more closely than either resembles a fish. Accord-
ing to Darwin’s views, organisms that are more similar to one
another than they are to other organisms have descended from a
more recent common ancestor. Therefore, classification based on
similarities should reflect an organism’s phylogeny , that is, its evolu-
tionary history. Inferring evolutionary connections from similarities,
however, can be misleading. Not all features—or characters—are
inherited from a common ancestor. Consider the wings of a bird and
the wings of an insect. Both enable flight, but the structures of the
two kinds of wings differ. Moreover, fossil evidence indicates that
they evolved independently of one another. Through the process
called convergent evolution , similarities evolve in organisms not
closely related to one another, often because the organisms live in
similar habitats. Similarities that arise through convergent evolution
are called analogous (ah NAHYL uh guhs) characters . Figure 6
shows an example of convergent evolution.
Cladistics
Most biologists today analyze evolutionary relationships using
cladistics (kluh DIHS tihks). Cladistics is a method of analysis that
reconstructs phylogenies by inferring relationships based on shared
characters. Cladistics can be used to hypothesize the sequence in
which different groups of organisms evolved. To do this, cladistics
focuses on the nature of the characters in different groups of organ-
isms. With respect to two different groups, a character is defined as
an ancestral character if it evolved in a common ancestor of both www.scilinks.org
groups. Thus when considering the relationship between birds and Topic: Taxonomy
mammals, a backbone is an ancestral character. Having feathers, Keyword: HX4174
however, is a derived character. A derived character evolved in an
ancestor of one group but not of the other. Feathers evolved in an
ancestor of birds that was not also ancestral to mammals.
Figure 6 Similar structures in the cactus and spurge families

Although they evolved in different parts of the world, cactuses and spurges
look similar.
Organ pipe cactus, Sternocereus thurber Gifboom, Euphorbia virosa

Cladistics is based on the principle that shared derived characters
provide evidence that two groups are relatively closely related.
Shared ancestral characters, however, do not. For example, lizards
and dogs have limbs, but a whale has no limbs. Having limbs does
not provide evidence that dogs and lizards are more closely related
than are dogs and whales. Recall that whales are descended from
an ancestor that had limbs. Therefore, the presence of limbs is a
shared ancestral character of all three groups. However, both dogs
and whales have mammary glands—a shared derived character
not found in lizards or lizard ancestors. This provides evidence
that dogs and whales share a more recent common ancestor than
either shares with lizards.
Exploring Further
Flowering
Cladograms plants
Pine trees
How many different ways can you organize your
possessions? For example, should all your clothes
Flowers
be grouped according to their type or according to
color? Biologists sometimes disagree about how Ferns
to organize groups of organisms.
Seeds
Why Study Cladograms? Mosses
Some biologists use cladograms to study the
evolutionary relationships among certain groups
of organisms, such as species within a genus or Vascular
tissue
genera within a family. Cladograms show how
closely two or more groups are related, based on
important characteristics. Cladograms convey
comparative information about relationships.
Organisms that are grouped more closely on a Constructing a Cladogram
cladogram share a more recent common ancestor This example shows the evolutionary relationships
than those farther apart. Because the analysis among plants.
is comparative, cladistic analysis deliberately 1. In the table at the left, the characters in the row
includes an organism that is only distantly related for the out-group are marked with a 0. A charac-
to the other organisms. This distantly related ter not found in the out-group is considered a
organism is called an out-group. The out-group derived character and is marked with a 1.
serves as a base line for comparisons with the
2. Starting with a diagonal line, as shown above,
other organisms being evaluated, the in-group.
the out-group (mosses) is placed on the first
branch. Just past this first branch, the most
common derived character is listed—vascular
Characters tissue. Vascular tissue is a series of tubes and
Vascular
vessels within a plant.
Organisms Seeds Flowers 3. Next the second most common derived charac-
tissue
ter—seeds—is listed. Ferns lack seeds and so are
Mosses (out-group) 0 0 0 placed on the second branch of the cladogram.
Pine trees 1 1 0 4. The third most common derived character—
flowers—is then listed. Conifers do not have
Flowering plants 1 1 1 flowers and so are placed on one branch, and
Ferns 1 0 0
the flowering plants are placed on the other.

A biologist using cladistics constructs a branching diagram
called a cladogram, which shows the evolutionary relationships
among groups of organisms. Organisms that share derived charac-
The numbered list in the
ters are grouped together on the cladogram. As groups evolve, new
Exploring Further feature
derived characters appear on the cladogram that were not present tells you how to make a
in earlier organisms. cladogram. Use this list to
prepare a cladogram of
the organisms listed in the
Considering Characters Data Lab.
The great strength of cladistics is objectivity. If a computer is fed
the same set of data repeatedly, it will make exactly the same clado-
gram every time. The disadvantage of cladistics is that the degree of
difference between organisms is not considered. Cladistic analysis
simply indicates that a character does or does not exist.
Cladistic analysis does not take into account variations in the
“strength” of a character, such as the size or location of a fin or the
effectiveness of a lung. Each character is treated equally. Thus in a
cladogram of vertebrate evolution, birds are grouped with reptiles.
This accurately reflects their true ancestry—birds evolved from
dinosaurs. The immense evolutionary impact of a derived charac-
ter like feathers, however, is ignored.
Evolutionary success often depends on high-impact events, such
as the evolution of feathers. Some modern cladistic studies there-
fore attempt to weigh the evolutionary significance of the characters
being studied.
Making a Cladogram
Background
A cladogram is a model that represents a hypothesis about
0100010110
011101010 the order in which organisms evolved from a common
0010010001001
1100100100010
ancestor. Scientists construct a cladogram by first analyzing
0000101001001 characters in a data table. The absence of a vascular system
1101010100100
0101010010010 and the absence of seeds is ancestral. Use the data below
to construct a cladogram on a separate sheet of paper.
Analysis
Horsetail
1. Identify the
out-group. Liverwort
2. Name the least Characters
common Plants Seeds Vascular system
derived trait.
Horsetails No Yes
3. List the order
in which the
plants in the Liverworts No No
table would be
placed on a Pine trees Yes Yes
cladogram. Pine tree

Evolutionary Systematics
In evolutionary systematics, taxonomists give varying degrees of
importance to characters and thus produce a subjective analysis of
www.scilinks.org
evolutionary relationships. In this type of analysis, evolutionary
Topic: Evolutionary
Systematics relationships are displayed in a branching diagram called a
Keyword: HX4077 phylogenetic tree. As you can see in Figure 7, evolutionary system-
atics places birds in an entirely separate class from reptiles, giving
more importance to characters like feathers that made powered
flight possible. Evolutionary systematics involves the full observa-
tional power of the biologist, along with any biases he or she may
have. A phylogenetic tree and a cladogram are similar in that each
represents a hypothesis of evolutionary history, which must be
inferred because it was not observed.
Figure 7 Evolutionary systematics and cladistic taxonomy

Biologists differ in the ways that they classify organisms.
Class Class Reptilia Class

Mammalia Aves
Lizards and Lizards and

Mammals Turtles snakes Crocodiles Birds Mammals Turtles snakes Crocodiles Birds
Evolutionary Cladistic taxonomy

systematics
Cladistic analysis places these animals in

taxonomic groups that differ from those
Evolutionary systematics places birds recommended by evolutionary systematics.
in their own class (Aves), giving more For example, crocodiles and birds are
importance to their unique characters, grouped closely together because they share
such as feathers. many derived characters.
Section 2 Review
Identify the kinds of information that scientists Critical Thinking Inferring Relationships
use when they classify organisms. Explain the relationship between convergent
evolution and analogous characters.
Summarize what scientists mean by the
biological species concept. Standardized Test Prep Different species are
placed in the same group on a cladogram if they
Define cladistics, and list the kind of information have the same
cladistic analysis reveals about evolutionary A appearance. C derived characters.
histories.
B scientific name. D analogous characters.

ZONE
1 Categories of Biological Classification Section 1
taxonomy (300)
● Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus developed binomial nomen- binomial nomenclature (300)
clature, the two-word system of naming organisms. genus (301)
● Scientific names are written in Latin and give biologists a family (302)
order (302)
common way of communicating, regardless of the language class (302)
they speak. phylum (302)
kingdom (302)
● The scientific name of an organism consists of its genus name
domain (302)
followed by a second name, which identifies its species.
● Each category of classification is based on characteristics
that are shared by all the organisms in the category.
● Scientists use an eight-level system to classify organisms.
● The modern system of classification includes the groups
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and
species.
2 How Biologists Classify Organisms Section 2

biological species (305)
● Biologists usually define species according to their phylogeny (307)
appearance and structure. convergent evolution (307)
● The biological species concept defines species according to analogous character (307)
cladistics (307)
their sexual reproductive potential. ancestral character (307)
● The biological species concept cannot be used to classify derived character (307)
cladogram (309)
asexually reproducing species.
evolutionary systematics (310)
● Similar organisms may have analogous structures that arose phylogenetic tree (310)
through convergent evolution.
● Cladistics focuses on sets of unique characteristics found
in a particular group of organisms to reconstruct an
evolutionary history.
● Evolutionary systematics is a more subjective method of
classification than is cladistics, but evolutionary systematics
allows greater evolutionary importance to be placed on
certain characters.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 6. Biologists classify organisms based on

a. their appearance.
1. The system of binomial nomenclature was b. their structure.
developed by c. their ability to interbreed.
a. Linneaus. c. Mayr. d. All of the above
b. Aristotle. d. Darwin.
7. What features common to both bats and
2. The scientific name for humans is birds suggest that convergent evolution
correctly written as has occurred?
a. Homo sapiens. c. Homo sapiens.
b. Homo Sapiens. d. Homo Sapiens. 8. Explain how constructing a
cladogram might help scientists understand
3. A difference between the scientific name of evolutionary relationships.
an organism and the classification of that
organism is that 9. Contrast analogous characters with
a. the scientific name includes the family homologous characters. (Hint: See
and class of the organism. Chapter 13, Section 2.)
b. the scientific name always contains
three words (trinomial nomenclature). 10. Concept Mapping Construct a
c. the classification includes more concept map that shows how biologists
categories than the scientific name. determine the classification of a new
d. classification can vary from place species. Use the following terms: genus,
to place. species, binomial nomenclature, kingdom,
biological species concept, derived characters,
4. Explain the relationship of domains cladogram, and evolutionary systematics.
to kingdoms.
5. The offspring of a donkey (Equus asinus)
Critical Thinking
and a horse (Equus caballus) is a mule, 11. Evaluating Hypotheses Scientists
shown below. The mule is sterile. Is the infer that groups of organisms that have
classification of donkeys and horses into homologous traits must be related, so they
different species justified according to the use cladograms to study relationships.
biological species concept? Explain. Explain the reasoning that supports
this inference.
12. Evaluating Viewpoints Explain this
statement: Diversity is the result of
evolution; classification systems are the
inventions of humans.
13. Forming Reasoned Opinions In the
laboratory, a scientist studied two
identical-looking daisies that belong to the
genus Aster. The two plants produce fertile
hybrids in the laboratory, but they never
interbreed in nature because one plant
flowers only in the spring and the other
only in autumn. Do the plants belong to
the same species? Explain.


correct answer.
Monotremes, such as the duckbill platypus
1 For grasshoppers and locusts to be in the and echidna, have hair and produce milk.
same family, what other category must Unlike other mammals, they reproduce by
they also share? laying eggs. Placental mammals (such as
A. genus horses and humans) and marsupials (such
B. group as kangaroos and koalas) have live birth.
C. order Marsupials differ from placental mammals
D. species in that marsupial young are born before
they are completely developed. They develop
2 In which category are two members most
outside of the mother’s body for several
closely related?
months in a pouch located on their mother’s
F. class
abdomen. A cladogram shows that in the
G. family
evolution of mammals, hair and milk
H. genus
production developed first. Then, live birth
I. order
and finally the placenta developed.
3 What kind of features can convergent
7 In what order did the ancestors of each of
evolution lead to?
these species first diverge from the mam-
A. analogous characters
mal ancestral line?
B. ancestral characters
A. echidna, koala, horse
C. derived characters
B. horse, echidna, koala
D. homologous structures
C. koala, echidna, horse
4 What kind of relationship does a D. koala, horse, echidna
cladogram reveal?
F. analogous Interpreting Graphics
G. binomial Directions (8): Base your answer to question
H. convergent 8 on the diagram below.
I. evolutionary
Seven Levels of Biological Classification
Directions (5–6): For each question, write a A
B
short response. C
D
5 What can be inferred about the relation- E
F
ship between Escherichia coli and G (Species)
Entamoeba coli from their names?
6 A derived character evolves in an ancestor

of one group but not another. Analyze
what shared derived characters in two
different groups provide evidence for.
8 What can be inferred about different
species that belong to the same group at
Test level D?
After you finish writing your answer to a short- F. They belong to the same group at C.
response question, proofread it for errors in spelling, G. They belong to different groups at C.
grammar, and punctuation. H. They belong to the same group at E.
I. They belong to different groups at E.

Skills Practice Lab
Making a Dichotomous Key
SKILLS A B C
• Identifying and comparing
• Organizing data
OBJECTIVES
• Identify objects using
dichotomous keys.
• Design a dichotomous key
for a group of objects.
MATERIALS D E F
• 6 to 10 objects found
in the classroom (e.g.,
shoes, books, writing
instruments)
• stick-on labels
• pencil
Before You Begin shown here. Identify one leaf at a time.

Always start with the first pair of state-
One way to identify an unknown organism is
ments (1a and 1b). Follow the direction
to use an identification key , which contains
beside the statement that describes the leaf.
the major characteristics of groups of organ-
Proceed through the key until you get to
isms. A dichotomous key is an identification
the name of a tree.
key that contains pairs of contrasting
descriptions. After each description, a key Key to Forest Trees
either directs the user to another pair of 1a Leaf edge has no teeth, waves, or lobes go to 2
descriptions or identifies an object. In this 1b Leaf edge has teeth, waves, or lobes go to 3
lab, you will design and use a dichotomous
2a Leaf has a bristle at its tip shingle oak
key. A dichotomous key can be written for
2b Leaf has no bristle at its tip go to 4
any group of objects.
3a Leaf edge is toothed Lombardy poplar
3b Leaf edge has waves or lobes go to 5
the paragraph above.
2. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a 4a Leaf is heart-shaped red bud
question you would like to explore about 4b Leaf is not heart-shaped live oak
making or using a dichotomous key. 5a Leaf edge has lobes English oak
5b Leaf edge has waves chestnut oak
Procedure PART B: Design a Dichotomous Key

PART A: Using a Dichotomous Key 2. Work with the members of your lab group
1. Use the Key to Forest Trees to identify the to design a dichotomous key using the
tree that produced each of the leaves materials listed for this lab.

You Choose
As you design your key, decide the following: 1. Drawing Conclusions What tree
a. what question you will explore produced each of the leaves shown in
b. what objects your key will identify this lab?
c. how you will label personal property 2. Forming Hypotheses What other
d. what distinguishing characteristics the characteristics might be used to identify
objects have leaves with a dichotomous key?
e. which characteristics to use in your key
3. Analyzing Methods How was the key
f. how you will organize the data you will
your group designed dichotomous?
need for writing your key
4. Evaluating Results Were you able to use
another group’s key to identify the objects
3. Before you begin writing your key, have for which it was written? If not, describe
your teacher approve the objects your the problems you encountered.
group has decided to work with.
5. Analyzing Methods Does a dichotomous
4. Using the Key to Forest Trees as a guide, key begin with general descriptions and
write a key for the objects your group then proceed to more specific descriptions
selected. Remember, a dichotomous key or vice versa? Explain your answer, giving
includes pairs of contrasting descriptions. an example from your key.
5. Use your key to explore one of the 6. Further Inquiry Write a new question
questions written for step 2 of Before about making or using keys that could be
You Begin. explored with another investigation.
6. After each group has completed step 5,
exchange keys and the objects they identify
with another group. Use the key you
Do You Know?
receive to identify the objects. If the key Do research in the library or media center
does not work, return it to the group so to answer these questions:
corrections can be made. 1. Are the identification keys used in
biology always dichotomous?
PART C: Cleanup 2. What other types of identification keys
do biologists use?
equipment. Return lab equipment Use the following Internet resources to
explore your own questions about the
to its proper place. Wash your hands diversity of life on Earth.
thoroughly before you leave the lab and
after you finish all work.
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Classification
Keyword: HX4044
CHAPTER 14 Classification of Organisms 315

Principles of
UNIT 4 Ecology
Chapters
38 Populations
15
16 Ecosystems
17 Biological Fewer than 4,000 gray

Communities wolves exist in the
lower 48 states.
18 The Environment

The Gray Wolf
The gray wolf once roamed North

America from coast to coast. In an
effort to protect their livestock, early
settlers hunted and killed wolves nearly
to the point of extinction. By the mid-
1950s, however, few wolves existed in
the lower 48 states. How does the relationship
between predator and prey help to maintain
balance in an ecosystem?
Steel trap
Gray wolves play a vital role in

ensuring the diversity and health
of ecosystems in which they live.
Because they tend to prey upon the old, the sick,
and the injured, wolves help to produce stronger
populations of deer, elk, and moose. Discover
how competition between species affects a
biological community. In each of the lower
48 states except Minnesota, the gray wolf is listed
as endangered.
Biologist David Mech
Because the numbers and range of the gray

wolf have been increasing, the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service is reviewing potential
changes to the Endangered Species Act protection
for gray wolves. Researchers must continue
to study wolf populations before a long-
term plan to conserve gray wolves can be www.scilinks.org
Topic: Wolves
implemented. Read to learn why species
Keyword: HX4191
diversity is important.
Wolf researcher Diane Boyd
317
Show jumper
Atlantic puffins

CHAPTER
15 Populations
1. Describe Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
(Chapter 8, Section 2) How Populations Grow
What Is a Population?
2. Define phenotype and genotype.
Modeling Population Growth
Growth Patterns in Real Populations
3. Define probability. (Chapter 8, Section 3)
4. Evaluate the significance of mutations.
Section 2
5. Define natural selection. (Chapter 13, Section 1) How Populations Evolve
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the The Change of Population Allele Frequencies
sections indicated. Action of Natural Selection on Phenotypes
Natural Selection and the Distribution of Traits
Reading Activity
Copy the following statements on a piece of
paper or in your notebook, leaving a few blank
lines after each statement.
1. Very small populations are more likely to
become extinct than larger populations.
2. A single bacterium that divides every
30 minutes will become a population of
more than a million in only 10 hours.
3. Natural selection acts only on genes them-
selves, not on phenotypes.
Before you read the chapter, write down whether
you agree or disagree with each statement. Save
your responses, and after you have finished
reading the chapter, decide whether or not you
still agree with your first response. www.scilinks.org
Individuals of a species that live together form
a population. This group of puffins is part of the
population of puffins that live on the far northern
Atlantic coast of North America.
CHAPTER 15 Populations 319

Section 1 How Populations Grow
Objectives What Is a Population?
● Distinguish among the The people on a city sidewalk shown in Figure 1 are members of a
three patterns of dispersion population. Since 1930, the world’s human population has nearly
in a population. tripled. What causes populations to grow? What determines how
● Contrast exponential growth fast they grow? What factors can slow their growth?
and logistic growth. A population consists of all the individuals of a species that live
together in one place at one time. This definition allows scientists to
● Differentiate r-strategists
from K-strategists.
use similar terms when speaking of the world’s human population,
the population of Escherichia coli bacteria that live in your intes-
Key Terms tine, or the population of Devil’s Hole pupfish that swim in the tiny
pool shown in Figure 1.
population Every population tends to grow because individuals tend to have
population size
multiple offspring over their lifetime. But eventually, limited
population density
dispersion
resources in an environment limit the growth of a population. The
population model statistical study of all populations is called demography (dih MAH
exponential growth gruh fee). Demographers study the composition of a population and
curve try to predict how the size of the population will change.
carrying capacity
density-dependent
factor Figure 1 Populations
logistic model
density-independent A population can be can be widely distributed, as is Earth’s human population.
factor Or a population can be confined to a small area, such as the population of
Devil’s Hole pupfish, which lives in this small pool and nowhere else.
r-strategist
K-strategist
320 CHAPTER 15 Populations

Three Key Features of Populations
Every population has features that help determine its future. One of
the most important features of any population is its size. The num-
www.scilinks.org
ber of individuals in a population, or population size, can affect the
Topic: Population
population’s ability to survive. Studies have shown that very small Characteristics
populations are among those most likely to become extinct. Random Keyword: HX4143
events or natural disturbances, such as a fire or flood, endanger
small populations more than they endanger larger populations.
Small populations also tend to experience more inbreeding (breed-
ing with relatives) because only relatives are available as mates.
Inbreeding produces a more genetically uniform population and is
therefore likely to reduce the population’s fitness—more individuals
will be homozygous for harmful recessive traits. For example, the
worldwide cheetah population is very small, and the individuals are
almost genetically identical. Many biologists think that a disaster,
such as a new disease, could cause their extinction.
A second important feature of a population is its density.
Population density is the number of individuals that live in a given
area. If the individuals of a population are few and are spaced
widely apart, they may seldom encounter one another, making
reproduction rare.
A third feature of a population is the way the individuals of the
population are arranged in space. This feature is called dispersion.
Three main patterns of dispersion are possible within a population,
and each is shown in Figure 2. If individuals are randomly spaced,
the location of each individual is self-determined or determined by
chance. If individuals are evenly spaced, they are located at regular
intervals. In a clumped distribution, individuals are bunched
together in clusters. Each of these patterns reflects the interactions
between the population and its environment.
Figure 2 Patterns of dispersion

These are the three possible patterns of dispersion in a population.
Pine trees in a random distribution Birds in an even distribution Buffalo in a clumped distribution
SECTION 1 How Populations Grow 321

Modeling Population Growth
When demographers try to predict how a population will grow, they
Real Life make a model of the population. A population model is a hypo-
Uncle Sam wants to thetical population that attempts to exhibit the key characteristics
count you. of a real population. By making a change in the model and observ-
The United ing the outcome, demographers can predict what might occur in a
States census, real population. To learn how demographers study a population,
conducted
every 10 years,
consider a simple model of population growth in three stages
collects of complexity.
detailed infor-
mation on the Growth Rate
country’s population.
A population grows when more individuals are born than die in a
Finding Information
Explore Internet resources given period. So a simple population model describes the rate of
to find out more about the population growth as the difference between the birthrate and the
United States census. Why death rate. For human populations, birth and death rates are
should every household usually expressed as the number of births and deaths per thousand
complete a census form? people per year.
What steps has the govern-
ment taken in the past
few years to improve Growth Rate and Population Size
the accuracy of the When population size is plotted against time on a graph, the popu-
census? lation growth curve resembles a J-shaped curve and is called an
exponential (ehks poh NEHN shuhl) growth curve. An exponential
growth curve is a curve in which the rate of population growth
stays the same, as a result the population size increases steadily.
Figure 3 shows an exponential growth curve. For example, a
single bacterial cell that divides every 30 minutes will produce
more than 1 million bacteria after only 10 hours. To calculate the
number of individuals that will be added to the population as it
grows, multiply the size of the current population (N) by the rate
of growth (r).
However, populations do not usually grow unchecked. Their
growth is limited by predators, disease, and the availability of
Figure 3 Exponential resources. Eventually, growth slows, and the population may sta-
growth. This J-shaped curve bilize. The population size that an environment can sustain is
is characteristic of exponential called the carrying capacity (K).
growth.
Exponential Growth Curve Resources and Population Size

As a population grows, limited resources
(that is, resources in short supply) eventually
Number of individuals
become depleted. When this happens, the

growth of the population slows. The popula-
tion model can be adjusted to account for
the effect of limited resources, such as food
and water. These resources are called
density-dependent factors because the rate
at which they become depleted depends upon
Time the population density of the population that
uses them.

The population model that takes into account
Logistic Growth
the declining resources available to populations is
called the logistic model of population growth,
after the mathematical form of the equation. The
Population size
logistic model is a population model in which Carrying capacity
exponential growth is limited by a density-
dependent factor. The everyday meaning of the
word logistics refers to the ability to obtain,
maintain, and transport materials. In other
words, logistics is about solving the day-to-day
problems of living. Unlike the simple model, the
Time
logistic model assumes that birth and death rates
vary with population size. When a population is
below carrying capacity, the growth rate is rapid. However, as the Figure 4 Logistic growth.
The curve of logistic growth
population approaches the carrying capacity, death rates begin to rise
looks like a stretched-out
and birthrates begin to decline. As a result, the rate of growth slows. letter S.
The population eventually stops growing when the death rate equals
the birthrate. In real situations, the population may, for a short time,
actually exceed the carrying capacity of its environment. If this
happens, deaths will increase and outnumber births until the
population falls down to the carrying capacity. Many scientists are
concerned that the Earth’s human population, which passed 6 billion
in 1999, may have exceeded its carrying capacity. A curve that shows
logistic growth is illustrated in Figure 4.
The logistic model of population growth, though simple, pro-
vides excellent estimates of how populations grow in nature.
Competition for food, shelter, mates, and limited resources tends to
increase as a population approaches its carrying capacity. The
accumulation of wastes also increases. Demographers try to make
logistic models based on current population sizes and predict how
much a population will increase. Figure 5 summarizes the three
stages of a population model.
Population Growth Models Figure 5 Population

model. A population model
• Simple model (part one): calculating the population can be described using three
growth rate stages.
r (rate of growth) birthrate death rate
The rate of population growth equals the rate of births
minus the rate of deaths.
• Simple model (part two): exponential growth curve
N (change in population, read as “delta N”) rN
Once r has been determined for a population (part one),
the number of individuals that will be added to a popula-
tion as it grows is equal to the rate of growth multiplied
by the number of individuals in the current population (N).
• More realistic model: logistic model
(K N)
N rN
K
Population size calculations often need to be adjusted
by the number of members of the population at carrying
capacity (K).

Growth Patterns in Real Populations
Many species of plants and insects reproduce rapidly. Their growth
is usually limited not by density-dependent factors but by environ-
www.scilinks.org
mental conditions, also known as density-independent factors.
Topic: Population Growth
Factors Weather and climate are the most important density-independent
Keyword: HX4145 factors. For example, mosquito populations increase in the summer,
while the weather is warm, but decrease in the winter. The growth
of many plants and insects is often described by an exponential
growth model. The population growth of slower growing organisms,
such as bears, elephants, and humans however, is better described
by the logistic growth model. Most species have a strategy some-
where between the two models; other species change from one strat-
egy to the other as their environment changes. (Note that the use of
the word strategy here means “pattern of living.” An organism does
not consciously plan its strategy.)
Rapidly Growing Populations

Many species, including bacteria, some plants, and many insects
like cockroaches and mosquitos, are found in rapidly changing envi-
ronments. Such species, called r-strategists, grow exponentially
when environmental conditions allow them to reproduce. This strat-
egy results in temporarily large populations. When environmental
conditions worsen, the population size drops quickly. In general,
r-strategists have a short life span. In addition they reproduce early
in life and have many offspring each time they reproduce. Their off-
spring are small, and they mature rapidly with little or no parental
care. The cockroaches shown in Figure 6 are r-strategists.
Figure 6 Different species have different growth patterns

Cockroaches are r-strategists, while whales are K-strategists.
Cockroaches Humpback whale

Slowly Growing Populations
Organisms that grow slowly, such as whales, often have small
population sizes. These species are called K-strategists because their
population density is usually near the carrying capacity (K) of their
environment. K-strategists are characterized by a long life span, few
young, a slow maturing process, and reproduction late in life.
K-strategists often provide extensive care of their young and tend to
live in stable environments. Many endangered species, such as tigers,
gorillas, and the whale shown in Figure 6, are K-strategists.
Population Pyramid
Population Pyramids Male Female
75+
60-74
A picture is worth a thousand From the late 1940s until 1960,
Age
45-59
words, according to an old for example, population pyra-
30-44
proverb. Some kinds of pictures mids for the United States were
are worth more. For example, one bottom-heavy with “baby boom” 15–29
way of representing the structure children, who were born up to 0–14
of a large human population is a 15 years after World War II. 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40
graph in which age groups are During this period, there was an
plotted on the y-axis and the increased demand for child-care Estimated 2010 United
numbers of individuals are plotted products and pediatric care. States population (millions)
on the x-axis. The younger age By 1997, the baby-boom seg-
groups appear at the bottom, and ment of the population had moved
the older groups appear at the up to the 30–54 age-group levels.
top. The resulting graphic often Baby boomers were competing
resembles a pyramid and thus is for opportunities to work, marry,
called a population pyramid. and buy houses. Demands for www.scilinks.org
goods and services by this age Topic: Population Pyramids
Predicting Future group showed increases over pre- Keyword: HX4146
Health Needs vious years. As the baby-boom
The construction of a population generation ages, the need for geri-
pyramid has many applications. atric medical care will increase.
Section 1 Review
Identify the pattern of dispersion of fans attend- Critical Thinking Applying Information
ing a basketball game as random, even, or If healthcare improvements lead to a decreased
clumped. Explain your answer. death rate, how must the birth rate change in
order to achieve a stable population size? Explain
Differentiate a logistic growth pattern from an your reasoning.
exponential growth pattern.
Standardized Test PrepWhich model best
Describe why an r-strategist might be better describes population growth that is limited by
suited for an unpredictable environment than a density-independent factors?
K-strategist is. A logistic model C stage I model
B exponential growth model D stage III model

Section 2 How Populations Evolve
Objectives The Change of Population
● Summarize the Hardy- Allele Frequencies
Weinberg principle. In the more than a century that has passed since Darwin’s death, the
● Describe the five forces that science of genetics has blossomed. This has allowed biologists to
cause genetic change in a better understand how natural selection changes the proportions of
population. alleles within populations. But before you can understand how pop-
● Identify why selection ulations change in response to evolutionary forces, you need to
against unfavorable recessive learn how populations behave in the absence of these forces.
alleles is slow.
● Contrast directional and Allele Frequencies
stabilizing selection. When Mendel’s work was rediscovered in 1900, biologists began to
study how frequencies of alleles change in a population. Specifically,
Key Terms they wondered if dominant alleles, which are usually more common
Hardy-Weinberg than recessive alleles, would spontaneously replace recessive alleles
principle within populations.
gene flow In 1908, the English mathematician G. H. Hardy and the German
nonrandom mating physician Wilhelm Weinberg independently demonstrated that dom-
genetic drift inant alleles do not automatically replace recessive alleles. Using
polygenic trait algebra and a simple application of the theories of probability, they
normal distribution
showed that the frequency of alleles in a population does not change.
directional selection
stabilizing selection
Moreover, the ratio of heterozygous individuals to homozygous indi-
viduals does not change from generation to generation unless the
population is acted on by processes that favor particular alleles. If a
dominant allele is lethal, for example, it will not become more com-
mon just because it is dominant. Their discovery, called the
Figure 7 Fruit fly mutation.
Drosophila melanogaster Hardy-Weinberg principle, states that the frequencies of alleles in
experiences about one muta- a population do not change unless evolutionary forces act on the
tion in every 840,000,000,000 population.
base pair replications.
The Hardy-Weinberg Principle
The Hardy-Weinberg principle holds true for any
population as long as the population is large enough
that its members are not likely to mate with relatives
and as long as evolutionary forces are not acting.
There are five principle evolutionary forces: muta-
tion, illustrated in Figure 7, gene flow, nonrandom
mating, genetic drift, and natural selection. These
evolutionary forces can cause the ratios of genotypes
in a population to differ significantly from those
predicted by the Hardy-Weinberg principle. The
Hardy-Weinberg principle can be expressed as an
equation that can be used to predict genotype fre-
quencies in a population.

Mutation
Although mutation from one allele to another can eventually change
allele frequencies, mutation rates in nature are very slow. Most
www.scilinks.org
genes mutate only about 1 to 10 times per 100,000 cell divisions, so Topic: Hardy-Weinberg
mutation does not significantly change allele frequencies, except Equation
over very long periods of time. Furthermore, not all mutations result Keyword: HX4095
in phenotypic changes. Recall that more than one codon can code
for the same amino acid. Therefore, some mutations may result in
no change in the amino acid coded for in a protein, and other
changes in an amino acid that do occur may not affect how the pro-
tein works. Mutation is, however, the source of variation and thus
makes evolution possible.
of alleles that are a. The sum of the allele frequen-

Exploring Further cies must always equal 1.
Individuals that are homozygous for allele A
occur at a frequency of p times p, or p2. Individ-
Using the Hardy-Weinberg uals that are homozygous for allele a occur at the
Equation frequency of q times q, or q2. Heterozygotes have
one copy of A and one copy of a, but heterozy-
You can use the Hardy-Weinberg principle to pre- gotes can occur in two ways—A from the father
dict genotype frequencies. The Hardy-Weinberg and a from the mother or a from the father and A
principle is usually stated as an equation. from the mother. Therefore, the frequency of het-
p2 + 2pq + q2 =1 erozygotes is 2pq.
frequency of frequency of frequency of Calculating the frequency of cystic fibrosis
individuals heterozygous individuals How do you calculate the number of people in a
that are individuals that are
crowd, like the one below, who are likely to be
homozygous with alleles A homozygous
for allele A and a for allele a carriers of the cystic fibrosis gene?
1. Calculate the frequency of the recessive
By convention, the frequency of the more com-
allele. Recall from Chapter 9 that cystic fibrosis is
mon of the two alleles is referred to as p, and the
caused by the recessive allele c. If q2, the fre-
frequency of the rarer allele is referred to as q. A
quency of recessive homozygotes, is 0.00048,
frequency is the proportion of a group that is of one
then q is 0.00048, or 0.022.
type. The frequency of allele A is the proportion of
all alleles that are A for this gene in the population. 2. Calculate the frequency of the dominant
Similarly, the frequency of allele a is the proportion allele C.
Because
p + q = 1, p = 1 – q.
So
p = 1 – 0.022,
or 0.978.
3. Determine the frequency of heterozygotes.
2pq = 2 0.978 0.022 = 0.043
This means that 43 of every 1,000 Caucasian
North Americans are predicted to carry the cystic
fibrosis allele unexpressed (without disease).
Hardy-Weinberg proportions seldom, if ever,
occur in nature because at least one of the five
causes of evolution is always affecting populations.
SECTION 2 How Populations Evolve 327

Gene Flow
The movement of individuals from one population to another
can cause genetic change. The movement of individuals to or
from a population, called migration, creates gene flow, the
movement of alleles into or out of a population. Gene flow occurs
because new individuals (immigrants) add alleles to the popula-
tion and departing individuals (emigrants) take alleles away.
Nonrandom Mating
Sometimes individuals prefer to mate with others that live
nearby or are of their own phenotype, a situation called
Figure 8 Nonrandom nonrandom mating. Mating with relatives (inbreeding) is a type
mating. Female widowbirds of nonrandom mating that causes a lower frequency of heterozy-
prefer to mate with males, gotes than would be predicted by the Hardy-Weinberg principle.
such as the one shown, that Inbreeding does not change the frequencies of alleles, but it does
have long tails over males that increase the proportion of homozygotes in a population. For exam-
have short tails. This increases
ple, populations of self-fertilizing plants consist mostly of homozy-
the proportion of alleles for
long tails in the population. gous individuals. Nonrandom mating also results when organisms
choose their mates based on certain traits. In animals, females often
select males based on their size, color, ability to gather food, or
other characteristics, as shown in Figure 8.
Genetic Drift
In small populations the frequency of an allele can be greatly
changed by a chance event. For example, a fire or landslide can
reduce a large population to a few survivors. When an allele is found
in only a few individuals, the loss of even one individual from the
population can have major effects on the allele’s frequency. Because
this sort of change in allele frequency appears to occur randomly, as
if the frequency were drifting, it is called genetic drift . Small
populations that are isolated from one another can differ greatly as
a result of genetic drift.
The cheetah, shown in Figure 9, is a species whose evolution has
been seriously affected by genetic drift. Cheetahs have undergone
drastic population declines over the last 5,000 years. As a result, the
Figure 9 Cheetahs are

endangered. Cheetahs have
gone through at least two
drastic declines in population
size.

cheetahs alive today are descendants of only a few individuals, and
each cheetah is almost genetically uniform with other members of
Compare and Contrast
the population. One consequence of this genetic uniformity is
To compare and contrast
reduced disease resistance—cheetah cubs are more likely to die
the five forces that cause
from disease than are the cubs of lions or leopards. This reduction evolution, list each force
in genetic diversity of cheetahs may hasten their extinction. and describe how it causes
populations to evolve. Write
the ways in which the five
Natural Selection forces are alike and the
Natural selection causes deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg pro- ways in which they are
portions by directly changing the frequencies of alleles. The frequency different.
of an allele will increase or decrease, depending on the allele’s effects
on survival and reproduction. For example, the allele for sickle cell
anemia is slowly declining in frequency in the United States because
individuals who are homozygous for this allele rarely have children.
Heterozygotes are resistant to malaria, a significant health problem
in many parts of the world. Heterozygotes, however, do not have an
advantage over normal homozygotes as they would have in a malaria
area. As a result, homozygotes are selected against in the United
States, and the frequency of the sickle cell allele decreases. Natural
selection is one of the most powerful agents of genetic change.
Demonstrating the Hardy-

Weinberg Principle
You can model the allele frequencies in a population
with this simple exercise.
Materials
equal numbers of cards marked A or a to represent the
dominant and recessive alleles for a trait, paper bag
Procedure
1. Make a data table like the cards, which represent a Analysis
one below. genotype. Record the geno- 1. Determine the genotype
type and phenotype in your and phenotype ratios in your
2. Work in a group, which will
data table. group for each trial. Do the
represent a population. Count
the individuals in your group, 4. Randomly exchange one ratios vary among the trials?
and obtain that number of “allele” with another individual
2. Hypothesize what could
both A and a cards. in your group. Record the
cause a change in the
resulting genotypes.
3. Place the cards in a paper “genetic makeup” of your
bag, and mix them. Have 5. Repeat Step 4 four more group. Test one of your
each individual draw two times. hypotheses.
DATA TABLE
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5
Genotype
Phenotype

Action of Natural Selection
on Phenotypes
Natural selection constantly changes populations through actions
on individuals within the population. However, natural selection
The word hemophilia is does not act directly on genes. It enables individuals who express
from the Greek words favorable traits to reproduce and pass those traits on to their off-
haima, meaning “flowing
blood,” and philos, mean-
spring. This means that natural selection acts on phenotypes, not
ing “loving.” Knowing this genotypes.
information makes it easier
to remember that in the How Selection Acts
human disease hemophilia,
uncontrollable bleeding Think carefully about how natural selection might operate on a
results from even minor mutant allele. Only characteristics that are expressed can be targets
injuries. of natural selection. Therefore, selection cannot operate against rare
recessive alleles, even if they are unfavorable. Only when the allele
becomes common enough that heterozygous individuals come
together and produce homozygous offspring does natural selection
have an opportunity to act. For example, Alexei Nikolayevich, the
only son of the last Tsar of Russia, shown in Figure 10, suffered from
hemophilia, a disease caused by a recessive gene. Without modern
medical care, a cut can lead to uncontrollable bleeding and death.
This kind of selection would remove a homozygous person from the
gene pool. However, such an act of natural selection does not affect
heterozygotes, who do not express hemophilia. Therefore, the gene
is not eliminated from the population.
Why Genes Persist

To better understand this limitation on natural selection, consider
this example. If a recessive allele (a) is homozygous in only 1 out of
100 individuals, then 18 out of 100 individuals
will be heterozygous (Aa) and will therefore carry
the allele unexpressed. So natural selection can
act on only 1 out of every 19 individuals that carry
the allele. As a result, this leaves 18 individuals
that maintain the allele in the population. Many
human diseases caused by recessive alleles have
frequencies similar to this. For example, cystic
fibrosis, the most common fatal genetic disorder
among Caucasians, produces a thick mucus that
clogs the lungs and other organs. About 1 in 25
Caucasians has a copy of the defective gene but
shows no symptoms. Homozygous recessive indi-
viduals, which include about 1 in 2,500, die from
the disease. Genetic conditions are not eliminated
Figure 10 Hemophilia in a family. The last Tsar of
Russia’s only son, Alexei Nikolayevich (yellow circle), by natural selection because very few of the
had hemophilia, a blood-clotting disorder that affects individuals bearing the alleles express the reces-
males who have a single copy of a recessive gene. sive phenotype.

Natural Selection and the
Distribution of Traits
Natural selection shapes populations affected by
Height Distribution
phenotypes that are controlled by one or by a large
number of genes. A trait that is influenced by several
individuals
Number of
genes is called a polygenic (pah lee JEHN ihk) trait.
Human height and human skin color, for example, are
influenced by dozens of genes. Natural selection can
change the allele frequencies of many different genes
governing a single trait, influencing most strongly Height
those genes that make the greatest contribution to the
phenotype. Like following one duck in a flock, it is dif- Figure 11 Normal
ficult to keep track of a particular gene. Biologists measure changes in distribution. This hill-shaped
a polygenic trait by measuring each individual in the population. curve represents a normal dis-
These measurements are then used to calculate the average value of tribution. The blue, dashed line
represents the average height
the trait for the population as a whole.
for this population.
Because genes can have many alleles, polygenic traits tend to
exhibit a range of phenotypes clustered around an average value. If
you were to plot the height of everyone in your class on a graph, the
values would probably form a hill-shaped curve called a normal
distribution, as illustrated in Figure 11.
8
0
493 2
5
x2 + <
6x -
7 Building a Normal
Distribution Curve
Background
You can help your class build a normal distribution
curve by measuring the length of your shoes and
plotting the data.
Materials DATA TABLE
paper, pencil, measur- Shoe length (centimeters) Gender
ing tape, graph paper
Procedure Analysis
1. Prepare a table like the one 5. Make a graph showing the dis- 1. Describe the shape of the
above. tribution of shoe length in your curve that resulted from the
class. Show the number of stu- graph you made in step 5.
2. Measure and record the length
dents on the y-axis and shoe
of one of your shoes to the 2. Distinguish how the distribu-
length on the x-axis. Your graph
nearest centimeter. Record your tion curve for shoe length of
should resemble the graph in
measurement and your gender. females differs from the curve
Figure 11.
for the shoe length of males.
3. Formulate a hypothesis about
6. Make a second graph using
whether female shoes as a 3. Predict how the distribution
data only from females.
group are longer, shorter, or curve that you made in step 5
the same as shoes from males. 7. Make a third graph using data would change if the data for
only from males. males were deleted.
4. Determine the number of shoes
of each length represented in
the class.

Directional Selection
When selection eliminates one extreme from a range of phenotypes,
the alleles promoting this extreme become less common in the pop-
ulation. In one experiment, when fruit flies raised in the dark were
exposed to light, some flew toward light and some did not. Only
those flies that had the strongest tendency to fly toward light were
allowed to reproduce. After 20 generations, the average tendency to
fly toward light increased.
In directional selection, the frequency of a particular trait moves
in one direction in a range. Directional selection is illustrated in the
upper panel of Figure 12. This type of selection has a role in the evo-
lution of single-gene traits, such as pesticide resistance in insects.
Stabilizing Selection
When selection reduces extremes in a range of phenotypes, the fre-
Figure 12 Two kinds of quencies of the intermediate phenotypes increase. As a result, the
selection on polygenic
population contains fewer individuals that have alleles promoting
traits. Directional selection is
the change of the average extreme types.
value of a population. As you can see in the lower panel of Figure 12, in stabilizing
Stabilizing selection is the selection, the distribution becomes narrower, tending to “stabilize”
increase of the number of the average by increasing the proportion of similar individuals.
average individuals in a Stabilizing selection is very common in nature.
population.
Two Kinds of Selection
Directional Average value

selection
Stabilizing Average value

selection
Section 2 Review
Describe the Hardy-Weinberg principle. Critical Thinking Justifying Conclusions
Individuals who are heterozygous for the allele
List the five forces that cause genetic change in for sickle cell anemia are resistant to malaria.
a population. Explain the effects of natural selection on the
frequency of the sickle cell allele in an area
Describe why natural selection against an
where malaria occurs.
unfavorable recessive allele is a slow process.
Standardized Test Prep Which evolutionary force
Critical Thinking Comparing Concepts
decreases the genetic diversity of a population by
Explain how directional selection and stabilizing increasing the proportion of similar individuals?
selection differ, and whether they tend to increase
A mutation C directional selection
or decrease diversity.
B gene flow D stabilizing selection

ZONE
1 How Populations Grow Section 1
population (320)
● A population consists of all the individuals of a species that population size (321)
live together in one place at one time. population density (321)
● A population’s future survival is determined by its size, dispersion (321)
population model (322)
density, and dispersion. exponential growth curve (322)
● Though a population’s growth is limited by factors such as carrying capacity (322)
density-dependent factor (322)
predation and availability of resources, a population can
logistic model (323)
grow rapidly and may eventually stabilize at a size that the density-independent factor (324)
environment can sustain. r-strategist (324)
K-strategist (325)
● Some populations grow quickly in response to density-
independent factors, and other populations grow more slowly
and their size is controlled by density-dependent factors.
2 How Populations Evolve Section 2

Hardy-Weinberg principle (326)
● The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that the frequencies gene flow (328)
of alleles and genotypes remain constant in populations in nonrandom mating (328)
which evolutionary forces are absent. genetic drift (328)
polygenic trait (331)
● Allele frequencies in a population can change if evolutionary normal distribution (331)
forces, such as mutation, migration, nonrandom mating, directional selection (332)
genetic drift, and natural selection, act on the population. stabilizing selection (332)
● Natural selection acts only on phenotype, not on genotype.
● Natural selection reduces the frequency of a harmful
recessive allele slowly; very few individuals are homozygous
recessive, so very few express the allele.
● The range of phenotypes that are controlled by polygenic
traits result in a normal distribution when plotted on a graph.
● Directional selection results in the range of phenotypes
shifting toward one extreme.
● Stabilizing selection results in the range of phenotypes
narrowing.
Unit 7—Ecosystem Dynamics
BIOLOGY Use Topic 2 in this unit to review the key


ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 6. Can evolution not be associated with

genetic change?
1. A colony of bacteria that has a limited food
supply likely will undergo _____ growth. 7. Relate the concept of directional selection
a. exponential c. natural to extreme traits.
b. logistic d. random 8. By the year 2030, where will
2. According to the Hardy-Weinberg principle, the “baby boom” age group be represented
allele frequencies in randomly mating on the population pyramid?
populations without selection 9. The frequency of homozy-
a. change when birth rate exceeds death rate. gous recessive albino rats in a population is
b. increase and then decrease. 0.01. Calculate the expected frequency of
c. decrease and then increase. the dominant allele in this population.
d. do not change.
3. Which of the following is not a cause of 10. Concept Mapping Draw a concept
genetic change? map that shows how the forces of genetic
a. genetic drift change cause evolution. Try to include
b. random mating the following terms in your map: Hardy-
c. natural selection Weinberg principle, genetic drift, nonrandom
d. mutation mating, natural selection, mutation, and
gene flow.
4. Why is it unlikely that natural selection will
quickly reduce the frequency of hemophilia? Critical Thinking
a. Natural selection acts only on recessive
11. Applying Information After a forest fire,
homozygotes.
certain plants quickly recolonize the
b. Hemophilia is not a genetic disorder.
burned area. Are these plants more likely to
c. The frequency of recessive homozygotes
be r-strategists or K-strategists? Explain
is too great.
your answer.
d. Dominant homozygotes can have
affected children. 12. Evaluating Models Is a population growth
model based on exponential growth more
5. Biologists introduced pheasants onto an
or less realistic than a logistic population
island in Washington State in the 1930s.
model? Explain your answer.
Using the data shown below, determine the
island’s carrying capacity. 13. Applying Information Why might purebred
dogs and cats be subject to more inherited
disorders than are mixed breeds?
Number of pheasants
2,000 Alternative Assessment

1,500 14. Identifying Variables Formulate a hypothe-
sis about human population growth. Then
1,000
use library or Internet resources to find
500 estimates of the current rate of human
population growth and forecasts for future
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 growth. Predict trends from the data and
Years since introduction communicate your conclusions in the form
of a report to your class.


correct answer.
The availability of resources on a ranch
1 What is an organism that tends to grow helps ranchers determine the carrying
exponentially when allowed to reproduce? capacity of the ranch. Ranchers consider
A. dispersed organism abundance and distribution of natural food
B. K-strategist sources and water, particularly if raising
C. polygenic organism livestock that roam freely and graze.
D. r-strategist Ranchers monitor these assets to be sure
that the population of livestock does not
2 In a population model, what is a limited
exceed the carrying capacity of the ranch.
resource known as?
F. density-dependent factor 7 What could happen if a rancher maintains
G. density-independent factor a population of livestock that exceeds the
H. logistic model carrying capacity of the ranch?
I. polygenic trait A. The population of livestock would
evolve to need fewer resources.
3 If spacing of individuals in a population is
B. There could be food and water short-
self-determined, what kind of dispersion is
ages or rapid spread of diseases.
occurring?
C. The population would increase causing
A. clumped
the depletion of even more resources.
B. exponential
D. The natural resources on the ranch
C. random
would increase naturally to compensate.
D. regular
4 Which of the following results in a Interpreting Graphics

population whose individuals have Directions (8): Base your answer to question
extreme traits? 8 on the chart below.
F. directional selection
Distribution of Body Colors in Bark Beetles
G. exponential growth
H. random mating
I. stabilizing selection
distribution present
Directions (5–6): For each question, write a 50 years distribution
short response. earlier
5 A scientist hypothesizes that natural

selection causes human populations to
evolve. Justify this hypothesis using the
bubonic plague in the Middle Ages. Light Dark
Body color
6 Differentiate between the terms popula-
tion size and population density.
8 Which evolutionary force is represented by
the chart?
Test F. gene flow
G. directional selection
For short-response questions, be sure to answer the H. mutation
prompt as fully as possible. Include supporting I. stabilizing selection
details in your response.

Exploration Lab
Observing How Natural Selection
Affects a Population
SKILLS • Predict how natural
• Using scientific methods selection can affect
• Collecting, graphing, and the variation in a
analyzing data population.
OBJECTIVES MATERIALS
• Measure and collect data for • metric ruler
a trait in a population. • graph paper (optional)
• Graph a frequency distribu- • green beans or
tion curve of your data. snow peas
• Analyze your data by deter- • calculator
mining its mean, median, • balance
mode, and range.

Natural selection can occur when there is PART A: Design an Experiment
variation in a population . You can analyze 1. Work with the members of your lab group
the variation in certain traits of a population to explore one of the questions written for
by determining the mean, median, mode, step 2 of Before You Begin. To explore the
and range of the data collected on several question, design an experiment that uses
individuals. The mean is the sum of all data the materials listed for this lab.
values divided by the number of values. The
median is the midpoint in a series of values.
You Choose
The mode is the most frequently occurring
As you design your experiment, decide the following:
value. The range is the difference between
the largest and smallest values. The variation
b. what hypothesis you will test
in a characteristic can be visualized with a
c. which trait (length, color, weight, etc.) you
frequency distribution curve . Two kinds of will measure
natural selection— stabilizing selection and d. how you will measure the trait
directional selection —can influence the fre- e. how many members of the population you
quency and distribution of traits in a popula- will measure (keep in mind that the more
tion. This changes the shape of a frequency data you gather, the more revealing your
frequency distribution curve will be)
distribution curve. In this lab, you will inves-
tigate variation in fruits and seeds. f. what data you will record in your data table

the paragraph above. 2. Write a procedure for your experiment.
2. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a will take. Have your teacher approve your
question you would like to explore about procedure and safety precautions before
variation in green beans or snow peas. you begin the experiment.
3. Conduct your experiment.
PART B: Cleanup and Disposal 6. Forming Hypotheses What type of selec-
4. Dispose of seeds in the designated tion (stabilizing or directional) would be
waste containers. Do not put lab indicated if the mean of a trait you mea-
materials in the trash unless your teacher sured shifted, over time, to the right of a
tells you to do so. frequency distribution graph?
5. Clean up your work area and all lab 7. Further Inquiry Write a new question
equipment. Return lab equipment to about variation in populations that could
its proper place. Wash your hands thor- be explored in another investigation.
you finish all work. Do You Know?
Analyze and Conclude to answer these questions:
1. Summarizing Results Make a frequency 1. What factors have contributed to the
distribution curve of your data. Plot the rise in bacterial resistance to antibiotic
trait you measured on the x-axis (horizon- drugs?
tal axis) and the number of times that trait 2. How do farmers use directional selec-
occurred in your population on the y-axis tion to improve domestic plants and
(vertical axis). animals?
2. Calculating Determine the mean, median, Use the following Internet resources to
explore your own questions about how
mode, and range of the data for the trait
populations change.
you studied.
3. Analyzing Results How does the mean
differ from the mode in your population?
4. Drawing Conclusions What type of www.scilinks.org
selection appears to have produced the type Topic: Populations
Keyword: HX4147
of variation observed in your experiment?
5. Evaluating Data The graph below shows
the distribution of wing length in a popula-
tion of birds on an island. Notice that the
mean and the mode are quite different. Is
the mean always useful in describing traits
in a population? Explain.
Distribution of Wing Length

Mode Mean
Wing length
CHAPTER 15 Populations 337

Show jumper
Coral-reef ecosystem

CHAPTER
16 Ecosystems
1. Contrast autotrophs with heterotrophs.
(Chapter 5, Section 1) What Is an Ecosystem?
Interactions of Organisms and Their
2. Summarize the process of photosynthesis.
Environment
Diverse Communities in Ecosystems
3. Describe the process of cellular respiration.
Change of Ecosystems over Time
4. Compare the energy flow in photosynthesis
with the energy flow in cellular respiration.
Section 2
(Chapter 5, Sections 2 and 3) Energy Flow in Ecosystems
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Movement of Energy Through Ecosystems
sections indicated. Loss of Energy in a Food Chain
Section 3
Reading Activity Cycling of Materials
in Ecosystems
Copy the following statements on a piece of
Biogeochemical Cycles
paper or in your notebook, leaving a few blank The Water Cycle
lines after each. The Carbon Cycle
1. In an ecosystem, more energy is stored in The Phosphorus and Nitrogen Cycles
plants than in consumers.
2. The extinction of one species in an ecosystem
can have an impact on all other species.
Before you read the chapter, write down whether
you agree or disagree with each statement. After
you have finished reading the chapter, decide
whether or not you still agree with your first
response.
www.scilinks.org
Materials and energy cycle continuously through the
components of this coral reef. The complex relation-
ship of organisms and their physical environment
makes up an ecological system, or ecosystem.
CHAPTER 16 Ecosystems 339

Section 1 What Is an Ecosystem?
Objectives Interactions of Organisms
● Distinguish an ecosystem and Their Environment
from a community.
It is easy to think of the environment as being around but not part
● Describe the diversity of us—something we always use, sometimes enjoy, and sometimes
of a representative damage. But in fact, we are part of the environment along with all
ecosystem. of Earth’s other organisms. All of Earth’s inhabitants are interwoven
● Sequence the process of in a complex web of relationships, such as the one illustrated in
succession. Figure 1. To understand how the interactions of the parts can affect
a whole system, think about how a computer operates. Removing
Key Terms one circuit from a computer can change or limit the interactions of
ecology the computer’s many components in ways that influence the com-
habitat puter’s overall operation. In a similar way, removing one species
community from our environment can have many consequences, not all of them
ecosystem easily predictable.
abiotic factor In 1866, the German biologist Ernst Haeckel gave a name to the
biotic factor study of how organisms fit into their environment. He called this
biodiversity
study ecology, which comes from the Greek words oikos, meaning
pioneer species
succession
“house,” or “place where one lives,” and logos, meaning “study of.”
primary succession Ecology is the study of the interactions of living organisms with one
secondary succession another and with their physical environment (soil, water, climate,
and so on). The place where a particular population of a species
lives is its habitat. The many different species that live together in a
habitat are called a community. An ecosystem, or ecological system,
consists of a community and all the physical aspects of its habitat,
such as the soil, water, and weather. The physical aspects of a habi-
tat are called abiotic (ay bie AHT ihk) factors , and the organisms in
a habitat are called biotic factors.
Figure 1 Organisms
interact within an
ecosystem. Organisms within
an ecosystem continually
change and adjust. This plant
species is dependent on the
bat for its reproduction, and
the bat uses part of the
flower for food.
340 CHAPTER 16
Diverse Communities
in Ecosystems
The variety of organisms, their genetic differ-
ences, and the communities and ecosystems in
which they occur is termed biodiversity.
Consider a pine forest in the southeastern
United States, such as the one shown in Figure
2. If you could fence in a square kilometer
(0.4 mi2) of this forest and then collect every
organism, what would you expect to get?
Which of the six kingdoms of organisms
would be represented in your collection? Figure 2 Pine forest.
Pine forests like this one are
Ecosystem Inhabitants common in the southeastern
United States.
Large animals in the forest might include a bear or a white-tailed
deer. The woods also contain smaller mammals—raccoons, foxes,
squirrels, rabbits, and chipmunks. Snakes and toads often remain
hidden among the leaves. Many birds can be found, including
hawks, warblers, and sparrows. If the square kilometer included a
lake, you might find catfish, bass, perch, a variety of turtles, and
perhaps an alligator.
There are pine trees, a variety of smaller trees, and shrubs. Beneath
the trees, grasses and many kinds of flowers grow on the forest floor.
The soil contains an immense number of worms. Hidden under
the bark of trees and beneath the leaves covering the ground are www.scilinks.org
many different species of insects and spiders, such as those shown Topic: Biodiversity
in Figure 3. Keyword: HX4020
Many of the life-forms in the soil and water of a pine forest are
too small to be seen without a microscope. Protists, which include
algae and related microscopic eukaryotes, thrive in water. There
may be billions of bacteria in a handful of soil.
Figure 3 Forest spider and insect

The jumping spider is found in sunny, dry parts of the forest. The larvae of the
stag beetle live in and eat decaying wood and bark.
Jumping spider Male stag beetle
SECTION 1 What Is an Ecosystem? 341

Figure 4 Forest fungi
These fungi digest plants and
other materials they find in the
forest.
Mushrooms are often found on moist Shelf fungi grow on and digest trees.
forest floors.
You might find many kinds of fungi growing on fallen trees and
spreading as fine threads through the decaying material on the forest
floor, as illustrated in Figure 4. Other fungi are found on the surface
of trees or rocks as lichens. Lichens are associations between fungi
and algae or cyanobacteria.
If you were to remove every organism from your square kilometer,
the nonliving surroundings that remain make up the abiotic factor.
This would include the minerals, organic compounds, water, wind
that blows over the Earth, rain, and sunlight.
Ecosystem Boundaries
The physical boundaries of an ecosystem are not always obvious,
and they depend on how the ecosystem is being studied. For exam-
ple, a scientist might consider a single rotting log on the forest floor
to be an ecosystem if he or she is interested only in the fungi and
insects living in the log. Often individual fields, forests, or lakes are
studied as isolated ecosystems. Of course, no location is ever totally
isolated. Even oceanic islands get occasional migrant visitors, such
as birds blown off course.
Evaluating Biodiversity
By making simple observations, you can draw
some conclusions about biodiversity in an ecosystem.
Materials
note pad, pencil
Procedure Analysis
1. CAUTION: Do 1. Identify the habitat and 3. Rank the importance of
not approach community that you observed. biotic factors within the
or touch any wild animals. ecosystem you observed.
2. Calculate the number of dif-
Do not disturb plants.
ferent species as a percentage 4. Infer what the relationships
Prepare a list of biotic and
of the total number of organ- are between biotic factors
abiotic factors that you
isms that you saw. and abiotic factors in the
observe around your home
observed ecosystem.
or in a nearby park.
342 CHAPTER 16 Ecosystems

Change of Ecosystems over Time
When a volcano forms a new island, a glacier recedes and exposes
bare rock, or a fire burns all of the vegetation in an area, a new
habitat is created. This change sets off a process of colonization
and ecosystem development. The first organisms to live in a new
habitat where soil is present tend to be small, fast-growing plants,
called pioneer species . They may make the ground more hos-
pitable for other species. Later waves of plant immigrants may
then outcompete and replace the pioneer species.
Succession Figure 5 Glacier Bay

A somewhat regular progression of species replacement is A receding glacier makes primary
called succession . Succession that occurs where life has succession possible.
not existed before is called primary succession. Succession
that occurs in areas where there has been previous growth,
such as in abandoned fields or forest clearings, is called
secondary succession. It was once thought that the stages of
succession were predictable and that succession always led to
the same final community of organisms within any particular
ecosystem. Ecologists now recognize that initial conditions
and chance play roles in the process of succession. For exam-
ple, if two species are in competition, a sudden change in the
climate may favor the success of one species over the other.
For this reason, no two successions are alike. Recently exposed land has few nutrients.
Glacier Bay: an Example of Succession

A good example of primary succession is a receding glacier
because land is continually being exposed as the face of the
glacier moves back. The glacier that composes much of the
head of Glacier Bay, Alaska, has receded some 100 km
(62 mi) over the last 200 years. Figure 5 shows the kinds of
changes that have taken place as time passed.
The most recently exposed areas are piles of rock and
gravel that lack the usable nitrogen essential to plant and ani-
mal life. The seeds and spores of pioneer species are carried Alders, grasses, and shrubs later take over
in by the wind. These include lichens, mosses, fireweed, wil- from pioneer plants.
lows, cottonwood, and Dryas, a sturdy plant with clumps
about 30 cm (1 ft) across. At first all of these plants grow
close to the ground, severely stunted by mineral deficiency,
but Dryas eventually crowds out the other plants.
After about 10 years, alder seeds blown in from distant
sites take root. Alder roots have nitrogen-fixing nodules, so
they are able to grow more rapidly than Dryas. Dead leaves
and fallen branches from the alder trees add more usable
nitrogen to the soil. The added nitrogen allows willows and
cottonwoods to invade and grow with vigor. After about 30
years, dense thickets of alder, willow, and cottonwood shade As the amount of soil increases, spruce and
and eventually kill the Dryas. hemlock trees become plentiful.
SECTION 1 What Is an Ecosystem? 343

About 80 years after the glacier first exposes the land, Sitka
spruce invades the thickets. Spruce trees use the nitrogen released
by the alders and eventually form a dense forest. The spruce blocks
the sunlight from the alders, and the alders then die, just as the
Dryas did before them. After the spruce forest is established, hem-
lock trees begin to grow. Hemlocks are very shade tolerant and have
a root system that competes well against spruce for soil nitrogen.
Hemlock trees soon become dominant in the forest. This commu-
nity of spruce and hemlock proves to be a very stable ecosystem
from the perspective of human time scales, but it is not permanent.
As local climates change, this forest ecosystem may change too.
Modeling Succession
You can create a small ecosystem and measure
how organisms modify their environment.
Materials
1 qt glass jar with a lid, one-half quart of pasteurized
milk, pH strips
Procedure
1. Prepare a table like the one when conditions no longer 2. Infer what the change in
below. favor their survival. pH means about the popu-
lations of microorganisms in
2. Half fill a quart jar with 4. Record any visible changes
the milk.
pasteurized milk, and cover in the milk each day.
the jar loosely with a lid. 3. Critical Thinking
Analysis
Measure and record the Evaluating Results How
pH. Place the jar in a 37°C 1. Identify what happened to does this model confirm the
incubator. the pH of the milk as time model of succession in
passed. Glacier Bay?
3. Check and record the pH of
the milk with pH strips every
day for seven days. As milk DATA TABLE
spoils, its pH changes. Day pH Appearance
Different populations of 1
microorganisms become 2
established, alter substances 3
in the milk, and then die off
Section 1 Review
Identify what components of an ecosystem are Critical Thinking Applying Information
not part of a community. Why do some ecosystems remain stable for
centuries, while others undergo succession?
Relate how gardening or agriculture affects
succession. Standardized Test Prep In the succession that
occurs as a glacier recedes, alders can grow
Differentiate primary succession from relatively rapidly because alders have
secondary succession. A nitrogen-fixing nodules. C no roots.
B no need for minerals. D shade tolerance.

Energy Flow Section 2
in Ecosystems
Movement of Energy Objectives
Through Ecosystems ● Distinguish between
producers and
Everything that organisms do in ecosystems—running, breathing,
consumers.
burrowing, growing—requires energy. The flow of energy is the
most important factor that controls what kinds of organisms live in ● Compare food webs with
an ecosystem and how many organisms the ecosystem can support. food chains.
In this section you will learn where organisms get their energy. ● Describe why food chains
are rarely longer than three
or four links.
Primary Energy Source
Most life on Earth depends on photosynthetic organisms, which cap- Key Terms
ture some of the sun’s light energy and store it as chemical energy in
organic molecules. These organic compounds are what we call food. primary productivity
The rate at which organic material is produced by photosynthetic producer
consumer
organisms in an ecosystem is called primary productivity. Primary
trophic level
productivity determines the amount of energy available in an ecosys- food chain
tem. Most organisms in an ecosystem can be thought of as chemical herbivore
machines driven by the energy captured in photosynthesis. carnivore
Organisms that first capture energy, the producers, include plants, omnivore
some kinds of bacteria, and algae. Producers make energy-storing detritivore
molecules. All other organisms in an ecosystem are consumers. decomposer
Consumers are those organisms that consume plants or other organ- food web
energy pyramid
isms to obtain the energy necessary to build their molecules.
biomass
Trophic Levels
Ecologists study how energy moves through an ecosystem by
assigning organisms in that ecosystem to a specific level, called a
trophic (TROHF ihk) level, in a graphic organizer based on the
organism’s source of energy. Energy moves from one trophic level to
another, as illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 6 Trophic levels

The sun is the ultimate source of energy for producers and all consumers.
Sun Producer Consumer Consumer
SECTION 2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 345

First Level The path of energy through the trophic levels of an
Real Life ecosystem is called a food chain. An example is shown in Figure 7.
Not all producers are The lowest trophic level of any ecosystem is occupied by the pro-
photosynthetic. ducers, such as plants, algae, and bacteria. Producers use the energy
At the bottom of oceans of the sun to build energy-rich carbohydrates. Many producers also
near volcanic absorb nitrogen gas and other key substances from the environment
vents live
bacteria that
and incorporate them into their biological molecules.
harvest Second Level At the second trophic level are herbivores (HUHR beh
energy from vohrz), animals that eat plants or other primary producers. They are
the reduced the primary consumers. Cows and horses are herbivores, as are cater-
sulfur compounds ejected
by these volcanic vents.
pillars and some ducks. A herbivore must be able to break down a
plant’s molecules into usable compounds. However, the ability to
Applying Information
Where in their food digest cellulose is a chemical feat that only a few organisms have
chains do these evolved. As you will recall, cellulose is a complex carbohydrate found
bacteria lie? in plants. Most herbivores rely on microorganisms, such as bacteria
and protists, in their gut to help digest cellulose. Humans cannot
digest cellulose because we lack these particular microorganisms.
Third Level At the third trophic level are secondary consumers, ani-
mals that eat other animals. These animals are called carnivores.
Tigers, wolves, and snakes are carnivores. Some animals, such as
bears, are both herbivores and carnivores; they are called omnivores
(AHM nih vohrz). They use the simple sugars and starches stored in
plants as food, but they cannot digest cellulose.
In every ecosystem there is a special class of consumers called detri-
tivores, which include worms and fungal and bacterial decomposers.
Detritivores (deh TRIH tih vohrz) are organisms that obtain their
energy from the organic wastes and dead bodies that are produced at
Figure 7 Aquatic food chain

This food chain shows one path of energy flow in an Antarctic ecosystem.
Killer whale
Algae
Krill
Leopard seal
Cod

all trophic levels. Bacteria and fungi are known as decomposers
because they cause decay. Decomposition of bodies and wastes releases
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nutrients back into the environment to be recycled by other organisms. Topic: Food Chains
Many ecosystems contain a fourth trophic level composed of and Webs
those carnivores that consume other carnivores. They are called ter- Keyword: HX4085
tiary consumers, or top carnivores. A hawk that eats a snake is a
tertiary consumer. Very rarely do ecosystems contain more than
four trophic levels.
In most ecosystems, energy does not follow simple straight paths
because individual animals often feed at several trophic levels. This
creates a complicated, interconnected group of food chains called a
food web , as illustrated in Figure 8.
Figure 8 Aquatic food web

This food web shows a more complete picture of the feeding relationships in an
Antarctic ecosystem.
Killer whale
Elephant seal
Crabeater seal
Leopard
seal
Adelie
penguin
Cod Squid
Algae
Krill
Small animals
and protists

Loss of Energy in a Food Chain
A deer browsing on leaves is acquiring energy. Potential energy is
stored in the chemical bonds within the molecules of the leaves.
The word ecosystem is Some of this energy is transformed to other forms of potential
from the Greek words
energy, such as fat. Some of it aids the deer in running and breath-
oikos, meaning “house,”
and systematos, meaning ing, and in fueling cellular processes. But much of the energy is
“to place together.” dispersed into the environment as heat.
Knowing this information
makes it easier to
remember that an
Energy Transfer
ecosystem includes a During every transfer of energy within an ecosystem, energy is lost as
community of living things heat. Although heat can be used to do work (as in a steam engine), it
as well as all physical is generally not a useful source of energy in biological systems. Thus,
aspects of its environment. the amount of useful energy available to do work decreases as energy
passes through an ecosystem. The loss of useful energy limits the
number of trophic levels an ecosystem can support. When a plant
harvests energy from sunlight, photosynthesis captures only about 1
percent of the energy available to the leaves. When a herbivore uses
plant molecules to make its own molecules, only about 10 percent of
the energy in the plant ends up in the herbivore’s molecules. And
when a carnivore eats the herbivore, about 90 percent of the energy
is lost in making carnivore molecules. At each trophic level, the
energy stored by the organisms in a level is about one-tenth of that
stored by the organisms in the level below.
The Pyramid of Energy

Ecologists often illustrate the flow of energy through ecosystems
with an energy pyramid. An energy pyramid is a diagram in which
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each trophic level is represented by a block, and the blocks are
Topic: Energy Pyramids
Keyword: HX4069 stacked on top of one another, with the lowest trophic level on the
bottom. The width of each block is determined by the amount of
energy stored in the organisms at that trophic level. Because the
energy stored by the organisms at each trophic level is about one-
tenth the energy stored by the organisms in the level below, the
diagram takes the shape of a pyramid, as shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9 Trophic levels of

a terrestrial ecosystem
Top carnivore
In this simple ecosystem, each
trophic level contains about 90
percent less energy than the
level below it.
Carnivore
Herbivores
Producers

Limitations of Trophic Levels Figure 10 Energy efficiency in food consumption
Most terrestrial ecosystems involve only Adding a trophic level to a food chain increases the
three or, on rare instances, four levels. Too energy demand of consumers by a factor of about 10.
much energy is lost at each level to allow
more levels. For example, a large human
population could not survive by eating
lions captured on the Serengeti Plain of
It takes 10 times
Africa because there are too few lions to It takes a certain more grain
make this possible. The amount of grass in amount of grain
that ecosystem cannot support enough
zebras to maintain a large enough popula-
tion of lions to feed lion-eating humans. In
other words, the number of trophic levels
that can be maintained in a community is to feed one cow
limited by the dispersal of potential energy.
Humans are omnivores, and unlike lions, to produce
enough bread
we can choose to eat either meat or plants.
As illustrated in Figure 10, about 10 kg
(22 lb) of grain are needed to build about
to make enough beef
1 kg (2.2 lb) of human tissue if the grain is
directly ingested by a human. If a cow eats
the grain and a human eats the cow, then
about 100 kg (220 lb) of grain are needed to
build about 1 kg (2.2 lb) of human tissue.
Also, the number of individuals in a
trophic level may not be an accurate indica-
to provide one
tor of the amount of energy in that level. person with a certain
Some organisms are much bigger than oth- amount of energy.
ers and therefore use more energy. Because to provide one
person with the same
of this, the number of organisms often does not form a pyramid when amount of energy.
one compares different trophic levels. For instance, caterpillars and
other insect herbivores greatly outnumber the trees they feed on. To
better determine the amount of energy present in trophic levels, ecol-
ogists measure biomass. Biomass is the dry weight of tissue and other
organic matter found in a specific ecosystem. Each higher level on the
pyramid contains only 10 percent of the biomass found in the trophic
level below it.
Section 2 Review
Explain how producers differ from consumers. Critical Thinking Justifying an Argument
Explain why scientists believe that most animals
Analyze the flow of energy through a food chain would become extinct if all plants died.
that contains four tropic levels, one of which is a
carnivore. Standardized Test Prep Which series shows a cor-
rect path of energy flow in a marine food chain?
Construct a food web, and explain the inter- A krill → cod → algae
actions of the organisms that compose it.
B cod → leopard seal → krill
List the reasons why food chains do not tend to C leopard seal → algae → krill
exceed four links. D algae → krill → cod

Section 3 Cycling of Materials
in Ecosystems
Objectives Biogeochemical Cycles
● Summarize the role of Humans throw away tons of garbage every year as unwanted,
plants in the water cycle. unneeded, and unusable. Nature, however, does not throw anything
● Analyze the flow of energy away. Most energy flows through the Earth’s ecosystems from the sun
through the carbon cycle. to producers to consumers. The physical parts of the ecosystems,
however, cycle constantly. Carbon atoms, for example, are passed
● Identify the role of bacteria in
the nitrogen cycle. from one organism to another in a great circle of use. Producers are
eaten by herbivores, herbivores are eaten by carnivores, and carni-
Key Terms vores are eaten by top carnivores. Eventually the top carnivores die
and decay; their carbon atoms then become part of the soil to feed the
biogeochemical cycle producers in a long and complex cycle that reuses this important ele-
ground water
ment. Carbon is not the only element that is constantly recycled in
transpiration
nitrogen fixation
this way. Other recycled elements include many of the inorganic (non-
carbon) substances that make up the soil, water, and air, such as
nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, and phosphorus.
All materials that cycle through living organisms are important in
maintaining the health of ecosystems, but four substances are partic-
ularly important: water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. All
organisms require carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
and sulfur in relatively large quantities. They require other elements,
such as magnesium, sodium, calcium, and iron, in smaller amounts.
Some elements, such as cobalt and man-
ganese, are required in trace amounts.
The paths of water, carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphorus pass from the nonliving environ-
ment to living organisms, such as the trees in
Figure 11, and then back to the nonliving
environment. These paths form closed cir-
cles, or cycles, called biogeochemical (bie
oh jee oh KEHM ih kuhl) cycles. In each
biogeochemical cycle, a pathway forms when
a substance enters living organisms such as
trees from the atmosphere, water, or soil;
stays for a time in the living organism; then
returns to the nonliving environment.
Ecologists refer to such substances as cycling
within an ecosystem between a living reser-
voir (an organism that lives in the ecosystem)
and a nonliving reservoir. In almost all bio-
Figure 11 Trees and the carbon cycle. Approximately
500 million tons of carbon were taken up as a result of geochemical cycles, there is much less of the
forest regrowth in the Northern Hemisphere between substance in the living reservoir than in the
1980 and 1989. nonliving reservoir.

The Water Cycle
Of all the nonliving components of an ecosystem, water has the great-
est influence on the ecosystem’s inhabitants. In the nonliving portion
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of the water cycle, water vapor in the atmosphere condenses and falls Topic: Water Cycle
to the Earth’s surface as rain or snow. Some of this water seeps into Keyword: HX4188
the soil and becomes part of the ground water, which is water
retained beneath the surface of the Earth. Most of the remaining
water that falls to the Earth does not remain at the surface. Instead,
heated by the sun, it reenters the atmosphere by evaporation. The
path of water within an ecosystem is shown in Figure 12.
In the living portion of the water cycle, much water is taken up by
the roots of plants. After passing through a plant, the water moves
into the atmosphere by evaporating from the leaves, a process called
transpiration. Transpiration is also a sun-driven process. The sun
heats the Earth’s atmosphere, creating wind currents that draw
moisture from the tiny openings in the leaves of plants.
In aquatic ecosystems (lakes, rivers, and oceans), the nonliving
portion of the water cycle is the most important. In terrestrial ecosys-
tems, the nonliving and living parts of the water cycle both play
important roles. In thickly vegetated ecosystems, such as tropical
rain forests, more than 90 percent of the moisture in the ecosystem
passes through plants and is transpired from their leaves. In a very
real sense, plants in rain forests create their own rain. Moisture trav-
els from plants to the atmosphere and falls back to the Earth as rain.
Figure 12 Water cycle

This diagram shows the major steps in the water cycle.
Water vapor
(clouds)
Precipitation
Transpiration
Runoff
Evaporation Evaporation
Lake
Ocean
Ground
water Percolation
into soil
SECTION 3 Cycling of Materials in Ecosystems 351

The Carbon Cycle
Carbon also cycles between the nonliving environment and living
organisms. You can follow the carbon cycle in Figure 13. Carbon
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dioxide in the air or dissolved in water is used by photosynthesizing
Topic: Carbon Cycle
Keyword: HX4031 plants, algae, and bacteria as a raw material to build organic mol-
ecules. Carbon atoms may return to the pool of carbon dioxide in
the air and water in three ways.
1. Respiration. Nearly all living organisms, including plants,
engage in cellular respiration. They use oxygen to oxidize organic
molecules during cellular respiration, and carbon dioxide is a
byproduct of this reaction.
2. Combustion. Carbon also returns to the atmosphere through
combustion, or burning. The carbon contained in wood may stay
there for many years, returning to the atmosphere only when the
wood is burned. Sometimes carbon can be locked away beneath
the Earth for thousands or even millions of years. The remains of
organisms that become buried in sediments may be gradually
transformed by heat and pressure into fossil fuels—coal, oil, and
natural gas. The carbon is released when the fossil fuels are burned.
3. Erosion. Marine organisms use carbon dioxide dissolved in sea
water to make calcium carbonate shells. Over millions of years,
the shells of the dead organisms form sediments, which form
limestone. As the limestone becomes exposed and erodes, the
carbon becomes available to other organisms.
Figure 13 Carbon cycle

This diagram shows the major
steps of the carbon cycle. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
in atmosphere
Photosynthesis
Cellular Dissolved
respiration CO2 in
Combustion water
Death and
decomposition
Marine
plankton
remains Limestone
Fossil
fuels

The Phosphorus and Nitrogen Cycles
Organisms need nitrogen and phosphorus to build proteins and
nucleic acids. Phosphorus is an essential part of both ATP and DNA.
Phosphorus is usually present in soil and rock as calcium phosphate,
Using your own words, write
which dissolves in water to form phosphate ions, PO43-. This phos- four sentences, each one
phate is absorbed by the roots of plants and used to build organic describing one of the four
molecules. Animals that eat the plants reuse the organic phosphorus. biogeochemical cycles.
The atmosphere is about 78 percent nitrogen gas, N2. However,
most organisms are unable to use it in this form. The two nitrogen
atoms in a molecule of nitrogen gas are connected by a strong triple
covalent bond that is very difficult to break. However, a few bacteria
have enzymes that can break it, and they bind nitrogen atoms to
hydrogen to form ammonia, NH3. The process of combining nitro-
gen with hydrogen to form ammonia is called nitrogen fixation.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and are also found within
swellings, or nodules, on the roots of beans, alder trees, and a few
other kinds of plants.
The nitrogen cycle, diagramed in Figure 14, is a complex process
with four important stages.
1. Assimilation is the absorption and incorporation of nitrogen
into organic compounds by plants.
2. Ammonification is the production of ammonia by bacteria dur-
ing the decay of organic matter. Figure 14 Nitrogen cycle
3. Nitrification is the production of nitrate from ammonia. Bacteria carry out many of
4. Denitrification is the conversion of nitrate to nitrogen gas. the important steps in the
nitrogen cycle, including the
conversion of atmospheric
nitrogen into a usable form,
ammonia.
Atmospheric
nitrogen (N2)
Plants
Animals
Denitrification Death Waste Death

(urine and feces)
Nitrogen
Assimilation fixation
Denitrifying
bacteria Decomposers
Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in
Nitrates Ammonification plant roots
(NO3)
Nitrifying Nitrogen Nitrogen-fixing

bacteria Nitrification bacteria in soil
fixation
Ammonia (NH3)
SECTION 3 Cycling of Materials in Ecosystems 353

The growth of plants in ecosystems is often limited by the
availability of nitrate and ammonia in the soil. Today most of the
ammonia and nitrate that farmers add to soil is produced chemi-
cally in factories, rather than by bacterial nitrogen fixation. Genetic
engineers are trying to place nitrogen-fixing genes from bacteria
into the chromosomes of crop plants. If these attempts are successful,
the plants themselves will be able to fix nitrogen, thus eliminating the
need for nitrogen-supplying fertilizers. Some farmers adjust their
farming methods to increase natural recycling of nitrogen.
Sustainable Agriculture
I n an ecosystem, decomposers
return mineral nutrients to the
soil. However, when the plants are
keep the soil from compacting
and washing away, and they help
the soil absorb water. They also
harvested and shipped away, provide a habitat for beneficial
there is a net loss of nutrients from insects, slow the growth of
the soil where the plants were weeds, and keep the ground
growing. The amount of organic from overheating. When cover
matter in the soil also decreases, crops are plowed under, as illus-
making the soil less able to hold trated in the figure at right, they
water and more likely to erode. return nutrients to the soil.
grazing than they do in feed lots
What is Sustainable Rotational Grazing or unmanaged pastures.
Agriculture? Farmers who raise cattle and There are many other methods
Sustainable agriculture refers to sheep can divide their pastures used in sustainable agriculture.
farming that remains productive into several grazing areas. By Farmers must determine which
and profitable through practices rotating their livestock from one methods work best for their crops,
that help replenish the soil’s area to another, they can prevent soil conditions, and climate.
nutrients, reduce erosion, and the animals from overgrazing the
control weeds and insect pests. pasture. This allows the plants
on which the animals feed to www.scilinks.org
Use of Cover Crops
live longer and be more produc- Topic: Sustainable Agriculture
After harvest, farmers can plant tive. Water quality improves as Keyword: HX4170
cover crops, such as rye, clover, the pasture vegetation becomes
or vetch, instead of letting the denser. Animals distribute manure
ground lie bare. Cover crops more evenly with rotational
Section 3 Review
Identify the role of energy in the part of the Critical Thinking Defend the argument that
water cycle in which plants transfer water to the nutrients can cycle but energy cannot.
atmosphere.
Standardized Test Prep Which component of the
Analyze the carbon cycle’s relationship to the carbon cycle removes carbon dioxide from the
flow of energy. atmosphere?
A combustion C erosion
Describe how bacteria participate in the
B cellular respiration D photosynthesis
nitrogen cycle.

ZONE
1 What Is an Ecosystem? Section 1
ecology (340)
● Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with each habitat (340)
other and with their environment. community (340)
● A community of organisms and their nonliving environment ecosystem (340)
abiotic factor (340)
constitute an ecosystem. biotic factor (340)
● Ecosystems contain diverse organisms. biodiversity (341)
pioneer species (343)
● Ecosystems change through the process of succession. succession (343)
● Succession on a newly formed habitat is primary succession. primary succession (343)
secondary succession (343)
● Secondary succession occurs on a habitat that has previously
supported growth.
2 Energy Flow in Ecosystems Section 2

primary productivity (345)
● Energy moves through communities in food chains, passing producer (345)
from photosynthesizers (producers) to herbivores (consumers) consumer (345)
to carnivores (consumers), creating a food web. trophic level (345)
food chain (346)
● Energy transfers between trophic levels transfer only 10 herbivore (346)
percent of the energy in a trophic level to the next level. carnivore (346)
omnivore (346)
● Most terrestrial communities have only three or four trophic detritivore (346)
levels because energy transfers between trophic levels are decomposer (347)
inefficient. food web (347)
energy pyramid (348)
biomass (349)
3 Cycling of Materials in Ecosystems
● Minerals and other materials cycle within ecosystems among
organisms and between organisms and the physical environment. Section 3
● In the water cycle, water falls as precipitation and either biogeochemical cycle (350)
ground water (351)
evaporates from bodies of water, is stored in ground water,
transpiration (351)
or cycles through plants and then evaporates. nitrogen fixation (353)
● Carbon enters the living portion of the carbon cycle through
photosynthesis. Organisms release carbon through cellular
respiration. Carbon trapped in rocks and fossil fuels is
released by erosion and burning.
● Bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen, thus making ammonia
available to other organisms.
BIOLOGY Use Topics 1, 3–6 in this unit to review the

key concepts and terms in this chapter.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 6. How much energy is available at the

third trophic level of an energy pyramid if
1. Ecosystems differ from communities in 1,000 kcal is available in the first level?
that ecosystems usually contain a. 1,000 kcal c. 10 kcal
a. several climates. b. 100 kcal d. 1 kcal
b. several communities.
c. only one habitat. 7. Humans, raccoons, and bears are
d. only one food web. omnivores. What adaptive advantage
might this feeding strategy provide?
2. What critical role is played by fungi and
bacteria in any ecosystem? 8. After harvesting, a farmer
a. primary production could either plow the remaining cornstalks
b. decomposition into the field or burn them. Which option
c. boundary setting is best for sustainable agriculture? Explain
d. physical weathering your answer.
3. Which sequence shows the correct order of 9. Relate photosynthesis to the nitrogen cycle.
succession at Glacier Bay, Alaska? (Hint: See Chapter 5, Section 2.)
a. alder, Dryas, hemlock
b. Dryas, hemlock, alder 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
c. Dryas, alder, Sitka spruce map that describes the flow of energy
d. mosses, hemlock, Sitka spruce through an ecosystem. Try to include the
following terms in your map: trophic level,
4. Which role is not performed by bacteria in food web, food chain, producer, consumer,
the nitrogen cycle? carnivore, detritivore, and herbivore.
a. fixing nitrogen
b. changing urea to ammonia Critical Thinking
c. turning nitrates into nitrogen gas
11. Inferring Relationships Analyze the flow of
d. changing nitrates to ammonia
energy between an ecosystem and one of its
5. How would the food web below be affected top carnivores, such as a hawk.
if the plants were eliminated?
12. Applying Information Is nitrogen cycling or
carbon cycling more important to a pio-
neer species during primary succession?
13. Predicting Results Describe the probable
effects on an ecosystem if all decomposers
were to die.
14. Identifying Functions Obtain photocopies
of nature paintings by American painters
a. Herbivores would become carnivores. such as John James Audubon or Edward
b. The food web would collapse. Hicks. Choose three animals, and write a
c. The herbivores would change report that compares the animals, the
trophic levels. ecosystems in which they live, their roles in
d. Nothing would happen. biogeochemical cycles, and the trophic
level they occupy.


correct answer.
Artificial ecosystems used in the
1 Which of the following situations treatment of waste water and pollutants
describes a carnivore and an herbivore? can demonstrate succession. Artificial
A. A horse eats an apple. wastewater-treatment ecosystems tend to
B. A rabbit eats a dandelion. undergo eutrophication, just as natural
C. A mountain lion eats a rabbit. wetlands do. However, the high nutrient
D. A fungus breaks down a dead oak tree. levels in waste water promote rapid algae
growth. If the systems are not manipulated,
2 What term applies to most humans?
they will eventually fill with algae and decay-
F. carnivore H. herbivore
ing organic matter, providing nutrients
G. detrivore I. omnivore
for other species. The system can then
3 What is an organism that obtains energy form a marsh and eventually a meadow.
from organic wastes and dead bodies
called? 7 Why don’t meadow grasses populate the
new ecosystem before the marsh plants
A. carnivore C. herbivore
and algae begin to grow there?
B. detrivore D. omnivore
F. The presence of algae is harmful to
4 What is the process by which materials meadow grasses.
pass between the nonliving environment G. The presence of decaying organic
and living organisms? matter is harmful to meadow grasses.
F. biogeochemical cycle H. Meadow grasses require that pioneer
G. energy pyramid species first make nutrient-rich soil.
H. food web I. Meadow grasses cannot compete with
I. primary succession marsh plants in established ecosystems.
5 Through what process do plants return Interpreting Graphics
water to the atmosphere?
A. assimilation
8 on the graph below.
B. nitrification
C. succession Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Variation
D. transpiration
Carbon dioxide concentration
358
356
(parts per million)
354
6 Ecologists once referred to stable ecosys-
352
tems as a final or climax community. Now
most ecologists say that no ecosystem can 350
truly have a final end point. Analyze why 348
ecologists have changed their viewpoint. Jan. March May July Sept. Nov.
Month
Test
For multiple-choice questions, try to eliminate any
8 During which of the following months is
the rate of photosynthesis greatest?
answer choices that are obviously incorrect, and A. January C. May
then consider the remaining answer choices. B. March D. September

Exploration Lab
Modeling Ecosystem Change
over Time
SKILLS • Predict how the number
• Using scientific methods of each species in a model
• Modeling ecosystem will change
over time.
• Observing
• Compare a model
OBJECTIVES ecosystem with a natural
• Construct a model ecosystem. • pinch of clover seeds
ecosystem. • rolled oats
MATERIALS
• Observe the interactions of • mung bean seeds
organisms in a model • coarse sand or pea gravel
• large glass jar with a lid • earthworms
ecosystem.
or terrarium • isopods (pill bugs)
• soil • mealworms (beetle larva)
• pinch of grass seeds • crickets
Before You Begin Notify your teacher promptly of any

broken glass or cuts. Do not clean up
Organisms in an ecosystem interact with broken glass or spills with broken glass
each other and with their environment. One unless your teacher tells you to do so.
of the interactions that occurs among the Cover the gravel with 2 in. of soil.
organisms in an ecosystem is feeding. A food
2. Sprinkle the seeds of two or three types of
web describes the feeding relationships
small plants, such as grasses and clovers,
among the organisms in an ecosystem. In
on the surface of the soil. Put a lid on the
this lab, you will model a natural ecosystem
jar, and place it in indirect sunlight. Let the
by building a closed ecosystem in a bottle
jar remain undisturbed for a week.
or a jar. You will then observe the interac-
tions of the organisms in the ecosystem and 3. After one week, place a handful of rolled
note any changes that occur over time. oats into the jar. Place the mealworms in
the oats, and then place the other animals
into the jar and replace the lid. Place the
the paragraph above and for each of the
lid on the jar loosely to enable air entry.
following terms: producer, decomposer,
consumer, herbivore, carnivore, trophic
level. You Choose
ecosystems.
c. how you will plant the seeds
d. where you will place the ecosystem for one
Procedure week so that it remains undisturbed and in
indirect sunlight
PART A: Building an Ecosystem in e. how often you will add water to the ecosys-
a Jar tem after the first week
1. Place 2 in. of sand or pea gravel in f. how many of each organism you will use
the bottom of a large, clean glass jar g. what data you will record in your data table
with a lid. CAUTION: Glassware is fragile.
PART B: Design an Experiment 6. Evaluating Methods Was your model
4. Work with the members of your lab group ecosystem truly a “closed ecosystem”? List
to explore one of the questions written for your model’s strengths and weaknesses as a
step 2 of Before You Begin. To explore the closed ecosystem.
question, design an experiment that uses 7. Further Inquiry Write a new question
the materials listed for this lab. about ecosystems that you could explore
5. Write a procedure for your experiment. with another investigation.
will take. Have your teacher approve your Do You Know?
procedure and safety precautions before Do research in the library or media center
you begin the experiment. to answer these questions:
6. Set up your group’s experiment. Conduct 1. What is Biosphere 2?
your experiment for at least 14 days. 2. What problems were encountered by
the Biosphere 2 crew during the
1991–1993 project?
7. Dispose of solutions, broken glass,
and other materials in the designated ecosystems.
waste containers. Do not put lab materials
in the trash unless your teacher tells you to
do so.
www.scilinks.org
8. Clean up your work area and all lab Topic: Ecosystems
equipment. Return lab equipment to Keyword: HX4066

1. Summarizing Results Make graphs
showing how the number of individuals of
each species in your ecosystem changed
over time. Plot time on the x-axis and the
number of organisms on the y-axis.
2. Analyzing Results How did your results
compare with your hypothesis? Explain
any differences.
3. Inferring Conclusions Construct a food
web for the ecosystem you observed.
4. Recognizing Relationships Does your
model ecosystem resemble a natural
ecosystem? Explain.
5. Analyzing Methods How might you have
built your model ecosystem differently to
better represent a natural ecosystem?
CHAPTER 16 Ecosystems 359

Show jumper
Desert biome in winter

CHAPTER
17 Biological
Communities

1. Compare the energy flow in photosynthesis
to the energy flow in cellular respiration. How Organisms Interact
(Chapter 5, Section 1) in Communities
2. Differentiate between the terms habitat, Evolution in Communities
community, and ecosystem. (Chapter 16, Symbiotic Species
Section 1)
3. Analyze the relationship between primary Section 2
productivity and energy flow in ecosystems.
(Chapter 16, Section 2) How Competition Shapes
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Communities
sections indicated. Common Use of Scarce Resources
and Competition
Competition and Limitations of Resource Use
Competition Without Division of Resources
Before you read this chapter, create a list of all
the ways that two species in an ecosystem can Major Biological Communities
interact. Then develop a list of all the different Climate’s Effect on Where Species Live
Terrestrial Biomes
types of communities or ecosystems you can
Aquatic Communities
think of. Can any of the ecosystems be grouped
into larger systems (biomes)? Read the chapter
to see how scientists have defined interactions
and biomes.
www.scilinks.org
Harsh and unforgiving, the desert is home to plants
and animals equipped to thrive in the face of environ-
mental challenges. No other terrestrial biome dis-
plays a wider range of extreme conditions.
CHAPTER 17 Biological Communities 361

Section 1 How Organisms Interact
in Communities
Objectives Evolution in Communities
● Describe coevolution. What are the most important members of an ecosystem? When you
● Predict how coevolution can try to answer this question, you soon realize that you cannot view an
affect interactions between ecosystem’s inhabitants as single organisms, but only as members of
species. a web of interactions.
● Identify the distinguishing
features of symbiotic Interactions Among Species
relationships. Some interactions among species are the result of a long evolutionary
history in which many of the participants adjust to one another over
Key Terms time. Thus, adaptations appeared in flowering plants that promoted
coevolution efficient dispersal of their pollen by insects and other animals. In turn,
predation adaptations appeared in pollinators that enabled them to obtain food
parasitism or other resources from the flowers they pollinate. Natural selection
secondary compound has often led to a close match between the characteristics of the flow-
symbiosis ers of a plant species and its pollinators, as you can see in Figure 1.
mutualism Back-and-forth evolutionary adjustments between interacting
commensalism
members of a community are called coevolution .
Predators and Prey Coevolve

Predation is the act of one organism killing another for food.
Familiar examples of predation include lions eating zebras and
snakes eating mice. Less familiar, but no less important, examples
occur among arthropods. Spiders are exclusively predators, as
are centipedes.
In parasitism , one organism
feeds on and usually lives on or
in another, typically larger,
organism. Parasites do not usu-
ally kill their prey (known as the
“host”). Rather, they depend on
the host for food and a place to
live. The host often serves to
transmit the parasite’s offspring
to new hosts. Many parasites
Figure 1 Coevolution. With
(such as lice) feed on the host’s
its long beak and tongue, the
hummingbird is able to reach the outside surface. Among the exter-
nectar deep within this flower. nal parasites that may have fed
on you at some time are ticks,
mosquitoes, and fleas. More
highly specialized parasites like
hookworms live entirely within
the body of their host.
362 CHAPTER 17 Biological Communities

Plant Defenses Against Herbivores
As you might expect, animal prey species have ways to escape, avoid,
or fight off predators. But predation is also a problem for plants,
Real Life
which live rooted in the ground. The most obvious way that plants Leaflets three, let it be.
protect themselves from herbivores is with thorns, spines, and prick- Members of the genus
les. But it is even more common for a plant to contain chemical Toxicodendron,
which includes
compounds that discourage herbivores. Virtually all plants contain poison ivy, pro-
defensive chemicals called secondary compounds . For some plants, duce a defensive
secondary compounds are the primary means of defense. chemical called
As a rule, each group of plants makes its own special kind of urushiol (OO
defensive chemical. For example, the mustard plant family produces roo shee awl), which
a characteristic group of chemicals known as mustard oils. These causes a severe, itchy
rash in some people.
oils give pungent aromas and tastes to such plants as mustard, cab-
Finding Information
bage, radish, and horseradish. The same tastes that we enjoy signal
Do research to discover
the presence of chemicals that are toxic to many groups of insects. effective treatments for the
rash caused by poison ivy.
How Herbivores Overcome Plant Defenses
Surprisingly, certain herbivores are able to feed on plants that are
protected by particular defensive chemicals. For example, the larvae
of cabbage butterflies feed almost exclusively on plants of the mus-
tard and caper families. Yet these plants produce mustard oils that
are toxic to many groups of insects. How do the butterfly larvae
manage to avoid the chemical defenses of the plants? Cabbage but-
terflies have the ability to break down mustard oils and thus feed on
mustards and capers without harm.
Predicting How Predation

Would Affect a Plant Species
0100010110
Background
011101010
0010010001001
Grazing is the predation of plants by animals. Some plant
1100100100010 species, such as Gilia, respond to grazing by growing
0000101001001
1101010100100 new stems. Consider a field in which a large number of
0101010010010
these plants are growing and being eaten by herbivores.
Analysis
Ungrazed Regrowth
1. Identify the plant that is likely to plant after
produce more seeds? grazing
2. Explain how grazing affects this

plant species.
3. Evaluate the significance to its envi-
ronment of the plant’s regrowth pattern.
Grazed
4. Hypothesize how this plant species plant
might be affected if individual plants
did not produce new stems in
response to grazing.
SECTION 1 How Organisms Interact in Communities 363

Symbiotic Species
In symbiosis (sim bie OH sis), two or more species live together in a
close, long-term association. Symbiotic relationships can be benefi-
cial to both organisms or benefit one organism and leave the other
harmed or unaffected. Parasitism, mentioned earlier, is one type of
symbiotic relationship that is detrimental to the host organism.
While it is relatively easy to determine that an organism in a symbi-
otic relationship is being helped, it can be difficult to determine that
an organism is neither harmed nor helped.
Mutualism
Figure 2 Mutualism. The Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both participating
small green insects on this species benefit. A well-known instance of mutualism involves ants
plant stem are aphids. They are and aphids, as shown in Figure 2. Aphids are small insects that use
protected by their ant guards. their piercing mouthparts to suck fluids from the sugar-conducting
vessels of plants. They extract a certain amount of the sucrose and
other nutrients from this fluid. However, much of the fluid—so-
called honeydew—runs out in an altered form through their anus.
Certain ants have taken advantage of this fact and “milk” the aphids
Figure 3 Commensalism. for the honeydew, which they use as food. The ants, in turn, protect
The clown fish can survive the the aphids against insect predators. Thus, both species benefit from
stings of the sea anemone, the relationship.
which protects it from predators.
Commensalism
A third form of symbiosis is commensalism , a symbiotic relation-
ship in which one species benefits and the other is neither harmed
nor helped. Among the best-known examples of commensalism are
the relationships between certain small tropical fishes and sea
anemones, marine animals that have stinging tentacles. These
fishes, such as the clown fish shown in Figure 3, have the ability to
live among and be protected by the tentacles of the sea anemones,
even though these tentacles would quickly paralyze other fishes.
Section 1 Review
Explain why predator-prey coevolution can be Critical Thinking Illustrating Principles
described as an “arms race.” In Japan, native honeybees have an effective
defense strategy against giant Japanese hornets.
Critical Thinking Applying Information Is Imported European honeybees, however, are
the relationship between a plant and its pollinator unable to defend themselves. Use this example
mutualistic? Why or why not. to illustrate the results of natural selection in
adaptation.
Critical Thinking Interpreting Interactions
In a relationship that is an example of commen- Standardized Test Prep Which pair of organisms
salism, would the species that is neither helped has a mutualistic relationship?
nor harmed evolve in response to the other A clown fish and C lion and zebra
species? Defend your answer. sea anemone
B aphid and ant D flea and dog

How Competition Section 2
Shapes Communities
Common Use of Scarce Resources Objectives
and Competition ● Describe the role of compe-
tition in shaping the nature
When two species use the same resource, they participate in a bio-
of communities.
logical interaction called competition. Resources for which species
compete include food, nesting sites, living space, light, mineral ● Distinguish between
nutrients, and water. Competition occurs for resources in short sup- fundamental and realized
niches.
ply. In Africa, for example, lions and hyenas compete for prey. Fierce
rivalry between these species can lead to battles that cause injuries ● Describe how competition
to both sides. But most competitive interactions do not involve affects an ecosystem.
fighting. In fact, some competing species never encounter one ● Summarize the importance
another. They interact only by means of their effects on the abun- of biodiversity.
dance of resources.
To understand how competition influences the makeup of Key Terms
communities, you must focus on the day-to-day events within the
competition
community. What do organisms eat? Where do they live? The func- niche
tional role of a particular species in an ecosystem is called its niche fundamental niche
(NICH). A niche is how an organism lives—the “job” it performs realized niche
within the ecosystem. competitive exclusion
A niche may be described in terms of space utilization, food con- biodiversity
sumption, temperature range, requirements for moisture or mating,
and other factors. A niche is not to be confused with a habitat, the
place where an organism lives. A habitat is a location; a niche is a
pattern of living. Figure 4 summarizes some aspects of the jaguar’s
niche in the Central American rain forest.
A niche is often described in terms of how the organism affects
energy flow within the ecosystem in which it lives. For example, the
niche of a deer that eats a shrub is that of a herbivore. The niches of
some organisms overlap. If the resources that these organisms share
are in short supply, it is likely that there will be competition between
the organisms.
A Jaguar’s Niche Figure 4 Each

organism has its own
• Diet Jaguars feed on
niche. All of the ways
mammals, fish, and
that this jaguar interacts
turtles.
with its environment
• Reproduction Jaguars make up its niche.
give birth from June to
August, during the rainy
season.
• Time of activity
Jaguars hunt by day
and by night.
SECTION 2 How Competition Shapes Communities 365

Size of a Species’ Niche
To gain a better understanding of what a niche is, you can look more
closely at a particular species. Imagine a Cape May warbler (a small,
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Symbiosis
insect-eating songbird) flying in a forest and landing to search for
Keyword: HX4171 dinner in a spruce tree. The niche of this bird is influenced by sev-
eral variables. These variables include the temperature it prefers,
the time of year it nests, what it likes to eat, and where on the tree it
finds its food. (The Cape May warbler spends its summers almost
exclusively in the northeastern United States and Canada. It nests in
midsummer, eats small insects, and searches for food high on
spruce trees at the tips of the branches.) The entire range of
resource opportunities an organism is potentially able to occupy
within an ecosystem is its fundamental niche .
Dividing Resources Among Species

Now reconsider what the Cape May warbler is doing. It feeds mainly
at the very top of the spruce tree even though insects that the war-
bler could eat are located all over the tree. In other words, Cape May
warblers occupy only a portion of their fundamental niche. Why?
Closer study reveals that this surprising behavior is part of a larger
pattern of niche restriction. In the late 1950s, the ecologist Robert
MacArthur, while a graduate student at Yale University, carried out a
classic investigation of niche usage, summarized in Figure 5. He stud-
ied the feeding habits of five warbler species—the Cape May warbler
and four of its potential competitors. MacArthur found that all five
species fed on insects in the same spruce trees at the same time. As
Figure 5 shows, however, each species concentrated on a different
part of the tree. Although all five species of warbler had very similar
fundamental niches, they did not use the same resources. In effect,
Figure 5 Niche restriction

Each of these five warbler species feeds on insects in a different portion of
the same tree, as indicated by the five colors shown below.
Cape May warbler Blackburnian Black-throated Bay-breasted Myrtle warbler

warbler warbler warbler

they divided the range of resources among them, each taking a dif-
ferent portion. A different color is used to represent the feeding areas
of each of the five warbler species shown in Figure 5.
The part of its fundamental niche that a species occupies is called Reading Effectively
its realized niche . Stated in these terms, the realized niche of the To better understand the
Cape May warbler is only a small portion of its fundamental niche. relationship between
How does this species of warbler benefit from hunting for food in fundamental and realized
only a portion of the tree? MacArthur suggested that this feeding niches, draw two circles,
pattern reduces competition among the five species of warblers. one within the other. Label
the larger circle “Funda-
Because each of the five warbler species uses a different set of mental niche, entire tree.”
resources by occupying a different realized niche, the species are Label the smaller circle
not in competition with one another. MacArthur concluded that “Realized niche.”
natural selection has favored a range of preferences and behaviors
among the five species that “carve up” the available resources. Most
ecologists agree with this conclusion.
Predicting Changes in
a Realized Niche
Background
0100010110
011101010 Two features of a niche that can be readily measured are
0010010001001
1100100100010 the location where the species feeds and the size of its pre-
0000101001001
1101010100100 ferred prey. The darkest shade in the center of the graph
0101010010010
below indicates the prey size and feeding location most
frequently selected by one bird species (called Species A).
Analysis Prey Length and Location for Species A

1. State the range of lengths of
Species A’s preferred prey. 11
2. Identify the maximum height 10
Height above ground (m)
at which Species A feeds. 9

8
3. Critical Thinking 7
Predicting Outcomes
6
Species B is introduced into
5
Species A’s feeding range.
4
Species B has exactly the same
3
feeding preferences, but it hunts
at a slightly different time of 2
day. How might this affect 1
Species A?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
4. Interpreting Graphics Prey length (mm)
Species C is now introduced
into Species A’s feeding range.
Species C feeds at the same 5. Critical Thinking 6. Interpreting
time of day as Species A, but it Predicting Outcomes Graphics What does
prefers prey that are between How would the introduction of the lightest shade at the
10 and 13 mm long. How a species with exactly the same edge of the contour
might this affect Species A? feeding habits as Species A lines represent?
affect the graph?

Competition and Limitations
of Resource Use
A very clear case of competition was shown by experiments carried
out in the early 1960s by Joseph Connell of the University of
The word niche is from California. Connell worked with two species of barnacles that grow
the Latin word nidus, on the same rocks along the coast of Scotland. Barnacles are marine
meaning “nest.” The place
animals that are related to crabs, lobsters, and shrimp. Young bar-
an organism occupies in
its environment is part nacles attach themselves to rocks and remain attached there for the
of its niche—its overall rest of their lives. As you can see in Figure 6, one species,
functional role. Chthamalus stellatus, lives in shallow water, where it is often
exposed to air by receding tides. A second species, Semibalanus bal-
anoides, lives lower down on the rocks, where it is rarely exposed to
the atmosphere.
When Connell removed Semibalanus from the deeper zone,
Chthamalus was easily able to occupy the vacant surfaces. This
indicates that it was not intolerance of the deeper environment that
prevented Chthamalus from becoming established there. Chthamalus’s
fundamental niche clearly includes the deeper zone. However, when
Semibalanus was reintroduced, it could always outcompete
Chthamalus by crowding it off the rocks. In contrast, Semibalanus
could not survive when placed in the shallow-water habitats where
Chthamalus normally occurs. Semibalanus apparently lacks the adap-
tations that permit Chthamalus to survive long periods of exposure to
air. Connell’s experiments show that Chthamalus occupies only a small
portion of its fundamental niche. The rest is unavailable because of
competition with Semibalanus. As MacArthur suggested, competition
can limit how species use resources.
Figure 6 Effects of competition on two species of barnacles

Chthamalus stellatus
The realized niche of Chthamalus is smaller than its fundamental niche because
of competition from the faster-growing Semibalanus. Semibalanus balanoides
Fundamental Realized
niches niches

Competition Without Division
of Resources
In nature, shortage is the rule, and species that use the same
resources are almost sure to compete with each other. Darwin noted
that competition should be most acute between very similar kinds of
organisms because they tend to use the same resources in the same
way. Can we assume, then, that when very similar species compete,
one species will always become extinct locally? In a series of care-
fully controlled laboratory experiments performed in the 1930s, the
Russian biologist G. F. Gause looked into this question.
In his experiments, Gause grew two species of Paramecium in the
same culture tubes, where they had to compete for the same food
(bacteria). Invariably, the smaller of the two species, which was more
resistant to bacterial waste products, drove the larger one to extinc-
tion, as shown in the first graph in Figure 7. Gause hypothesized that
if two species are competing, the species that uses the resource more Figure 7 Gause’s
efficiently will eventually eliminate the other. This elimination of a experiments. The outcome
of competition depends on the
competing species is referred to as competitive exclusion. degree of similarity between
the fundamental niches of the
When Can Competitors Coexist? competing species.
Is competitive exclusion the inevitable outcome of Effects of Competition
competition for limited resources, as Gause suggests?
No. When it is possible for two species to avoid com- When two species competed for the
same resource, one species drove the
peting, they may coexist. other to extinction.
In a revealing experiment, Gause challenged 150
Paramecium caudatum—the defeated species in his
earlier experiments—with a third species, P. bursaria. 100
These two species were also expected to compete for
Population density (measured by volume)
the limited bacterial food supply. Gause thought one 50

species would win out, as had happened in his previ-
ous experiments. 0
4 8 12 16 20 24
But that’s not what happened. As shown in the sec- Days
ond graph in Figure 7, both species survived in the
culture tubes. Like MacArthur’s warblers, the two P. caudatum P. aurelia
species of Paramecium divided the food resources. P. bursaria
How did they do it? In the upper part of the culture When two species used different
tubes, where oxygen concentration and bacterial resources, both were able to survive.
density were high, P. caudatum was dominant. It was 75
better able to feed on bacteria than was P. bursaria.
But in the lower part of the tubes, the lower oxygen
50
concentration favored the growth of a different
potential food—yeast. Paramecium bursaria was bet-
ter able to eat the yeast, so it used this resource more 25
efficiently. The fundamental niche of each species
was the whole culture tube, but the realized niche of
0
each species was only a portion of the tube. Because 4 8 12 16 20
the niches of the two species did not overlap too Days
much, both species were able to survive.

Predation and Competition
Many studies of natural ecosystems have demonstrated that preda-
tion reduces the effects of competition. A very clear example is
provided by the studies of Robert Paine of the University of
Washington. Paine examined how sea stars affect the numbers and
types of species within marine intertidal communities. Sea stars are
fierce predators of marine animals such as clams and mussels.
Figure 8 Effect of
removing sea stars. When When sea stars were kept out of experimental plots, the number of
the sea star Pisaster was their prey species fell from 15 to 8. The 7 eliminated species were
removed from an ecosystem, crowded out by the sea stars’ chief prey, mussels, shown in Figure 8.
the diversity of its prey species Mussels can outcompete other species for space on the rocks. By
decreased. Mussels, the preying on mussels, sea stars keep the mussel populations too low to
superior competitor, crowded
drive out other species.
seven other prey species out
of the ecosystem. Because predation can reduce competition, it can also promote
biodiversity , the variety of living organisms present in a community.
Biodiversity is a measure of both the number of different species in
a community (species richness) and the relative numbers of each of
the species (species diversity).
Biodiversity and Productivity

A key investigation carried out in the early 1990s by David Tilman
of the University of Minnesota illustrates the relationship between
biodiversity and productivity. Tilman and some co-workers and
students tended 207 experimental plots in a Minnesota prairie.
Each plot contained a mix of up to 24 native prairie plant species.
The biologists monitored the plots, measuring how much growth
was occurring. Tilman found that the greater the number of
species a plot had, the greater the amount of plant material pro-
duced in that plot. Tilman’s experiments clearly demonstrated that
increased species richness leads to greater productivity.
In addition to increased productivity, Tilman also found that
the plots with greater numbers of species recovered more fully
from a major drought. Thus, the biologically diverse plots were
also more stable than the plots with fewer species.
Section 2 Review
Distinguish between niche and habitat. Critical Thinking Evaluating Conclusions
A scientist finds no evidence that species in a
Describe the conclusions reached by Connell community are competing and concludes that
and Paine about how competition affects competition never played a role in the develop-
ecosystems. ment of this community. Is this conclusion valid?
Justify your answer.
Describe how Tilman’s experiments demon-
strate the effects of biodiversity on productivity Standardized Test PrepWhen two species use the
and stability. same resource, one species may drive the other to
extinction. This phenomenon is called
Critical Thinking Applying Information
A space utilization. C niche restriction.
Can an organism’s realized niche be larger than
its fundamental niche? Justify your answer. B competitive exclusion. D resource division.

Major Biological Section 3
Communities
Climate’s Effect on Where Objectives
Species Live ● Recognize the role of
climate in determining the
If you traveled across the country by car you would notice dramatic
nature of a biological
changes in the plants and animals outside your window. For example,
community.
the drought-tolerant cactuses in the deserts of Arizona do not live in
the wetlands of Florida. Why is this? The climate of any physical ● Describe how elevation
and latitude affect the
environment determines what organisms live there. Climate refers to
distribution of biomes.
the prevailing weather conditions in any given area.
● Summarize the key
features of the Earth’s
Temperature and Moisture major biomes.
The two most important elements of climate are temperature and
● Compare features of plants
moisture. Figure 9 illustrates the different types of ecosystems that
and animals found in differ-
occur under particular temperature and moisture conditions. ent biomes.
Temperature Most organisms are adapted to live within a particular
● Compare and contrast
range of temperatures and will not thrive if temperatures are colder the major freshwater and
or warmer. The growing season of plants, for example, is primarily marine habitats.
influenced by temperature.
Moisture All organisms require water. On land, water is sometimes Key Terms
scarce, so patterns of rainfall often determine an area’s life-forms. climate
The moisture-holding ability of air increases when it is warmed and biome
decreases when it is cooled. littoral zone
limnetic zone
profundal zone
plankton
Arctic
ld
Co
Tundra
e
ur
Subarctic Figure 9 Elements of

at
climate. Temperature and

r
pe
m
Taiga
moisture help determine
te
ecosystem distribution. For

g
sin
example, the asters and the

ea
Temperate
cr
saxifrage shown are able to

De
produce flowers and seeds

Temperate forest Temperate grassland Desert in the cold temperatures of
the tundra.
t
Tropical
Ho
Rain forest Savanna Desert
Wet Dry
Decreasing moisture
SECTION 3 Major Biological Communities 371

Major Biological Communities
If you were to tour the world and look at biological communities on
land and in the oceans, you would soon learn a general rule of ecol-
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Biomes
ogy: very similar communities occur in many different places that
Keyword: HX4023 have similar climates and geographies. A major biological commu-
nity that occurs over a large area of land is called a biome .
A biome’s structure and appearance are similar throughout its
geographic distribution. While there are different ways of classify-
ing biomes, the classification system used here recognizes seven of
the most widely occurring biomes: (1) tropical rain forest,
(2) savanna, (3) taiga, (4) tundra, (5) desert, (6) temperate grass-
land, and (7) temperate forest (deciduous and evergreen). These
biomes differ greatly from one another because they have devel-
oped in regions with very different climates. The global distribution
of these biomes is shown in Figure 10.
Many factors such as soil type and wind play important roles in
determining where biomes occur. Two key factors are particularly
important: temperature and precipitation. Figure 11 is based on the
work of ecologist Robert Whittaker. The graph shows the relation-
ship between temperature and humidity and the biological commu-
Figure 10 Earth’s biomes. nities that exist under different conditions. In general, temperature
Seven major biomes cover
and available moisture decrease as latitude (distance from the equa-
most of the Earth’s land
surface. Because mountainous tor) increases. They also decrease as elevation (height above sea
areas do not belong to any level) increases. As a result, mountains often show the same
one biome, they are given sequence of change in ecosystems that is found as one goes north or
their own designation. south from the equator.
60° N
Polar ice 30° N
Tundra
Taiga
Equator
Mountain zones
Temperate forest
30° S
Tropical forest
Temperate grassland
Savanna 60° S
Desert or semidesert

Temperature and Moisture in Biomes Figure 11 Conditions in
biomes. Different biomes have
characteristics of temperature
and humidity.
400
Average annual precipitation (cm)
300
Tropical
forest
200
Temperate
forest
HB04TS_C18000039a
100
Taiga Savanna
Temperate
grassland
Tundra Desert
-10 0 10 20 30
Average temperature (°C)
Terrestrial Biomes
Tropical Rain Forests Tropical rain forests
receive an average of as much as 450 cm (180 in.)
of rain per year, with little difference in distribu-
tion from season to season. The richest biome in
terms of number of species is the tropical rain-
forest. Tropical rainforests may contain at least
half of the Earth’s species of terrestrial organ-
isms—more than 2 million species. Tropical rain
forests have a high primary productivity even
though they exist mainly on quite infertile soils.
Most of the nutrients are held within the plants; Tropical rain forest in Puerto Rico
the soil itself contains few nutrients.

Savannas The world’s great dry grasslands,
called savannas, are found in tropical areas that
have relatively low annual precipitation or pro-
longed annual dry seasons. Annual rainfall is
generally 90 to 150 cm (35 to 60 in.) in savannas.
There is a wider fluctuation in temperature dur-
ing the year than in the tropical rain forests, and
there is seasonal drought. These factors have led
to an open landscape with widely spaced trees.
Many of the animals are active only during the
rainy season. Huge herds of grazing mammals
are found on the savannas of East Africa. Savanna in East Africa

Taiga Cold, wet climates promote the growth of
coniferous forests. A great ring of northern forests
of coniferous trees, primarily spruce and fir,
extends across vast areas of Eurasia and North
America. This biome, one of the largest on Earth,
is called by its Russian name, taiga (TIE guh).
Winters in the taiga are long and cold, and most of
the precipitation falls in the summer. Many large
mammals, including herbivores such as elk,
Taiga in Manitoba, Canada moose, and deer and carnivores such as wolves,
bears, lynxes, and wolverines live in the taiga.
Tundra Between the taiga and the permanent ice
surrounding the North Pole is the open, some-
times boggy biome known as the tundra. This
enormous biome covers one-fifth of the Earth’s
land surface. Annual precipitation in the tundra
is very low, usually less than 25 cm (10 in.), and
water is unavailable for most of the year because
it is frozen. The permafrost, or permanent ice,
usually exists within 1 m (about 3 ft) of the sur-
face. Foxes, lemmings, owls, and caribou are
Tundra in Denali National Park, Alaska among the vertebrate inhabitants.
Investigating Factors That

Influence the Cooling
of Earth’s Surface
You can discover how the amount of water in an environ-
ment affects the rate at which that environment cools.
Materials
MBL or CBL system with appropriate software, temperature
probes, test tubes, beaker, hot plate, one-holed stoppers, water,
sand, test-tube tongs, test-tube rack
Procedure Analysis
1. Set up an MBL/CBL system using one-holed stoppers to 1. Critical Thinking
to collect and graph data hold each temperature probe Analyzing Results Did the
from each temperature probe in place. two test tubes cool at the
at 5-second intervals for 240 same rate? Offer an explana-
4. Place both test tubes in
data points. Calibrate the tion for your observations.
a beaker of hot water.
probe using stored data.
Heat them to a temperature of 2. Critical Thinking
2. Fill one test tube with about 70ºC. Caution: Hot Predicting Outcomes
water. Fill another test water can burn skin. In which biome—tropical rain
tube halfway with sand. forest or desert—would you
5. Using test-tube tongs, remove
expect the air temperature to
3. Place a temperature probe in the test tubes and place them
drop most rapidly? Explain
the sand, and suspend in the test-tube rack. Record
your answer.
another temperature probe at the drop in temperature for
the same depth in the water, 20 minutes.

Terrestrial Biomes
Deserts Typically, less than 25 cm (10 in.) of pre-
cipitation falls annually in the world’s desert
areas. The scarcity of water is the overriding fac-
tor influencing most biological processes in the
desert. In desert regions, the vegetation is char-
acteristically sparse. Deserts are most extensive
in the interiors of continents. Less than 5 percent
of North America is open desert. The amount of
water that actually falls on a particular place in a
desert can vary greatly, both during a given year Desert in Texas
and between years.
Temperate Grasslands Moderate climates half-
way between the equator and the poles promote
the growth of rich temperate grasslands called
prairies. Temperate grasslands once covered
much of the interior of North America. Such
grasslands are often highly productive when
converted to agriculture. The roots of grasses
characteristically penetrate far into the soil,
which tends to be deep and fertile. Herds of
grazing animals often populate temperate
grasslands. In North America, huge herds of Temperate grasslands in Kansas
bison once inhabited the prairies.
Temperate Deciduous Forests Relatively mild
climates and plentiful rain promote the growth
of forests. Temperate deciduous forests (decidu-
ous trees shed their leaves in the fall) grow in
areas with relatively warm summers, cold win-
ters, and annual precipitation that generally
ranges from 75 to 250 cm (30 to 100 in.).
Temperate deciduous forests cover much of the
eastern United States and are home to deer,
bears, beavers, raccoons, and other familiar ani-
mals. The trees are hardwoods (oak, hickory, Temperate deciduous forest in Pennsylvania
and beech).
Temperate Evergreen Forests In other temper-
ate areas, drier weather and different soil
conditions favor the growth of evergreens.
Large portions of the southeastern and western
United States have temperate evergreen
forests—extensive areas where pine forests
predominate over deciduous forests. Where
conditions are even drier, temperate forests
give way to areas of dry shrubs, such as in the
chaparral areas of coastal California and in the
Mediterranean. Temperate evergreen forest in Washington

Aquatic Communities
At a glance, you might at first think that freshwater and marine com-
munities are separate from terrestrial biomes. Yet large amounts of
Organizing Information organic and inorganic material continuously enter both bodies of
Make a concept map that
fresh water and ocean habitats from communities on the land.
describes the zones of a
pond or lake as described
at right and in Figure 12. For Freshwater Communities
each zone, include the plant
Freshwater habitats—lakes, ponds, streams, and rivers—are very
and animal life found there.
limited in area. Lakes cover only about 1.8 percent of the Earth’s sur-
face, and rivers and streams cover about 0.3 percent. All freshwater
habitats are strongly connected to terrestrial ones, with freshwater
marshes and wetlands constituting intermediate habitats. Many
kinds of organisms are restricted to freshwater habitats, including
plants, fish, and a variety of arthropods, mollusks, and other
invertebrates too small to be seen without a microscope.
Ponds and lakes have three zones in which organisms live, as
illustrated in Figure 12. The littoral zone is a shallow zone near
the shore. Here, aquatic plants live along with various preda-
Figure 12 Three lake tory insects, amphibians, and small fish. The limnetic zone
zones. Each region, or
refers to the area that is farther away from the shore but close to
zone, of a lake contains
characteristic organisms. the surface. It is inhabited by floating algae, zooplankton, and
fish. The profundal zone is a deep-water zone that is below the
limits of effective light penetration. Numerous bacteria and
wormlike organisms that eat debris on the lake’s bottom live in
this zone. The breakdown of this debris releases large amounts
of nutrients. Not all freshwater systems are deep enough to
include a profundal zone.
Limnetic zone
Littoral zone
Profundal zone

Wetlands
Swamps, such as the one shown in Figure 13, as well as
marshes, bogs, and other communities that are covered with a
layer of water are called wetlands. Wetlands typically are cov-
ered with a variety of water-tolerant plants, called hydrophytes
(“water plants”). Marsh grasses and cattails are hydrophytes.
Wetlands are dynamic communities that support a diverse
array of invertebrates, birds, and other animals. Wetlands are
among the most productive ecosystems on Earth, exceeded
only by coral reefs in diversity and concentration of species.
They also play a key ecological role by providing water storage
basins that moderate flooding. Many wetlands are being dis- Figure 13 Forested wetlands.
rupted by human development of what is sometimes perceived This swampy terrain is typical of the
as otherwise useless land, but government efforts are now forested wetlands found in the south-
underway to protect the remaining wetlands. eastern United States.
Estuaries
I f you’ve ever eaten seafood

caught in a saltwater marsh,
you’ve experienced one of the
benefits of estuaries. Estuaries
are unique transition zones
between marine and freshwater
environments. Nutrients washed
from nearby land stimulate the
growth of plants and algae. As a
result, estuaries are among the
most productive ecosystems on
Earth. One hundred acres of
healthy estuary can produce 4 to provide jobs for people in the cleaning up pollutants and replant-
10 times as much organic matter seafood and recreation industries. ing native vegetation. For example,
as a cultivated cornfield of the restoration efforts in Tampa Bay,
Estuaries in Peril
same size! The estuary’s plants, Florida, improved sewage treat-
Sadly, the public has long ment facilities, enabling sea grass
invertebrates, fishes, birds, regarded estuaries as waste-
mammals, and other animals are meadows to return. When the sea
lands. People have drained estu- grasses returned, so did the fishes
part of a complex food web. aries to provide land for housing and other animals that depend
Where the River Meets and agriculture. Pollutants and on them.
the Sea improperly treated sewage have
In addition to serving as wildlife poisoned some estuaries’ habi-
habitats, estuaries filter sediment tats. As a result, estuaries in the www.scilinks.org
and nutrients, purifying the water United States have greatly Topic: Estuaries
that drains off the land. Porous salt- decreased in size over the past Keyword: HX4073
marsh soils absorb floodwaters century. However, a variety of envi-
and protect coastal communities ronmental organizations are now
from erosion. Estuaries also working to restore estuaries by

Marine Communities
Nearly three-fourths of the Earth’s surface is covered
by ocean, which consists of three major kinds of marine
communities.
Shallow Ocean Waters The zone of shallow water is small
in area, but compared with other parts of the ocean, it is
inhabited by large numbers of species. The seashore
between high and low tide, called the intertidal zone, is
home to many species of marine invertebrates. Coral reef
Blue stripe snapper from shallow ocean waters communities, the world’s most diverse, occur in shallow
tropical waters. The world’s great fisheries are located in
the coastal zones of cooler waters, where nutrients washed
out from land support huge numbers of fishes.
Surface of the Open Sea Drifting freely in the upper waters
of the ocean is a diverse community of plankton , composed
of bacteria, algae, fish larvae, and many small invertebrate
animals. Fishes, whales, and invertebrates such as jelly-
fishes feed on plankton. And larger fishes and birds, in turn,
feed on some of these animals. Photosynthetic plankton
(algae such as diatoms and some bacteria) that form the
base of this food chain account for about 40 percent of all
Diatoms from surface of the open sea the photosynthesis that takes place on Earth. Because light
penetrates water only to the depth of about 100 m (328 ft),
this rich community is confined to the ocean’s surface.
Ocean Depths In the deepest waters of the sea, the marine
community lives in total darkness, in deep cold, and under
great pressure. Despite what seem like hostile conditions,
the deep ocean supports a diverse community of bizarre
invertebrates and fishes. This includes great squids and
angler fishes that attract prey with projections from their
head that emit light. On the ocean floor, at an average
depth of more than 3 km (1.9 mi), researchers have found
an unexpected abundance of species, a diversity that rivals
Anglerfish from ocean depths the tropical rain forest.
Section 3 Review
Describe the relationship between climate and Critical Thinking Forming Reasoned
location of species. Opinions The equator passes across the
country of Ecuador. But the climate there can
Compare the tolerance to lack of water needed range from hot and humid to cool and dry.
by plants and animals in savannas and tropical What might explain this?
rain forests.
Standardized Test Prep In which biome would you
Critical Thinking Analyzing Information most likely find plants that are adapted to infertile
Why can’t photosynthesis occur in the deepest soils and fairly constant, plentiful precipitation?
parts of the ocean or in a deep lake? A tropical rain forest C temperate grassland
B tundra D savanna

ZONE
1 How Organisms Interact in Communities Section 1
coevolution (362)
● Species within communities coevolve, making many predation (362)
adjustments to living together. parasitism (362)
● In a predator-prey interaction, prey often evolve ways to secondary compound (363)
symbiosis (364)
escape being eaten. Predators evolve ways to overcome the mutualism (364)
defenses of the prey. commensalism (364)
● In mutualism and commensalism, species evolve in ways
that benefit one or both parties.
2 How Competition Shapes Communities Section 2

competition (365)
● Interactions among species help shape communities. niche (365)
● Competition occurs when two species use the same limited fundamental niche (366)
resource. realized niche (367)
competitive exclusion (369)
● An organism’s niche is its way of life. An organism may biodiversity (370)
occupy only a part of its fundamental niche, which is called
its realized niche.
● Competition can limit how species use resources.
● Biodiversity tends to promote stability and productivity.
3 Major Biological Communities Section 3

climate (371)
● Climate and genes largely determines where species live. biome (372)
● Temperature and moisture are key factors in determining littoral zone (376)
limnetic zone (376)
where biomes occur.
profundal zone (376)
● The seven major biomes are tropical rain forest, desert, plankton (378)
savanna, temperate deciduous forest, temperate grassland,
taiga, and tundra.
● Freshwater communities have three zones of life—littoral,
limnetic, and profundal.
● The three major marine communities are shallow ocean
waters, open sea surface, and deep-sea waters.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 7. Describe how elevation and latitude affect

the distribution of biomes.
1. In predator-prey coevolution, if the prey
gains a defense to stop predation, then the 8. Why might digging a deep
predator may evolve channel in an estuary change the types of
a. in a way that enables it to overcome the living things that thrive there?
prey’s defense. 9. How does the flow of energy through living
b. so that it can parasitize the prey. systems help determine the components of
c. secondary compounds. a biological community? (Hint: See
d. into a prey species. Chapter 5, Section 1.)
2. The principle of competitive exclusion indi-
cates that 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
a. a niche can be shared by two species if map that shows how the biomes can be
their niches are very similar. classified based on precipitation, tempera-
b. niche subdivision may occur. ture, and geographical location. Try to
c. one species will eliminate a competing include the following terms in your map:
species if their niches are very similar. tropical rain forest, savanna, desert, temper-
d. competition ends in worldwide ate deciduous forest, temperate grassland,
elimination of a species. taiga, and tundra.
3. Describe the niches of a lion, a zebra, and Critical Thinking

the grass that grows on the African plain in
11. Justifying Conclusions In Gause’s experi-
terms of how each species affects energy
ments, Paramecium caudatum could coexist
flow in the ecosystem.
with P. bursaria but not with P. aurelia.
4. Which abiotic factor is likely not a reason for Predict what would happen if P. aurelia and
the desert biome’s low primary productivity? P. bursaria were grown together, and justify
a. extreme temperatures your conclusions.
b. frequent flooding
12. Justifying Conclusions Newly introduced
c. high predation
predators often prove devastating to native
d. availability of sunlight
animals. Explain why prey are often more
5. When populations of similar species vulnerable to introduced predators than to
occupy the same area at the same time, native predators.
these populations often
13. Analyzing Data Using the data presented in
a. share all their resources equally.
this chapter, explain why many ecologists
b. divide their range of resources.
refer to the tundra as a frozen desert.
c. compete for resources to the death.
d. look in other areas for different Alternative Assessment
resources. 14. Summarizing Information Work with a
6. Which of the words sets below describes small group of students to develop a map
a vulture eating a dead rabbit? that shows the most prominent terrestrial
a. heterotroph, scavenger and aquatic communities within your state,
b. parasite, predator and for coastal states, those immediately
c. herbivore, mutualism offshore as well. Be certain to include any
d. competitor, commensalisms large swamps or wetlands that connect ter-
restrial and aquatic communities.


correct answer.
A keystone predator is one who regulates
1 Both a spruce tree and a hemlock tree the populations of various competitors in
require nitrogen from the soil. What is the an ecosystem. The Pisaster sea star is one
interaction between these two species? example of a keystone predator. The sea star
A. competition C. mutualism preys on mussels who might otherwise out
B. commensalism D. succession compete other species that live in a marine
intertidal community. Keystone predators
2 What term describes the ways in which an
reduce the occurrence of competitive
organism interacts with its environment?
exclusion of weak competitors.
F. ecosystem H. niche
G. habitat I. space 6 How does a keystone predator promote
biodiversity?
3 Which of the following is a transition zone
A. It reduces competition by decreasing
between tropical rain forest and desert?
the populations of superior competitors.
A. savanna
B. It reduces competition by decreasing
B. taiga
the populations of inferior competitors.
C. temperate deciduous forest
C. It increases competition by increasing
D. tundra
the populations of superior competitors.
4 Why is the open ocean biome considered D. It increases competition by decreasing
only slightly more productive than the the populations of inferior competitors.
desert biome?
F. Neither of these biomes receive very Interpreting Graphics
much rain, which restricts productivity. Directions (7): Base your answer to question
G. Light penetrates only the top 100 7 on the graph below.
meters of water in the open ocean, Comparative Productivity of Ecosystems
which restricts productivity.
H. The open ocean receives the same
amount of light, yet has significantly
Increasing primary
more water than the desert.

productivity
I. Both lack large trees that block sun-

light, but the open ocean lacks the soil
needed for plants to grow.
Directions (5): For the following question, Desert Open Savanna Estuary Tropical
write a short response. sea rain forest
5
Kind of biome
Compare and contrast mutualism and
commensalism.
7 Where would you place a bar representing
Test the primary productivity of the temperate
grassland biome, if it could be added to
If you are unsure of the correct answer to a multiple- this graph?
choice question, start by crossing out answers that F. between desert and open seas
you know are wrong. Reducing your choices in this G. between open seas and savanna
way may help you choose the correct answer. H. between savanna and estuary
I. between estuary and tropical rain forest

Skills Practice Lab
Observing How Brine Shrimp
Select a Habitat
SKILLS • screw clamps Magnification 20
• test tubes with stoppers
• Collecting, organizing, and and test-tube rack
graphing data
• pipet
OBJECTIVES • Petri dish
• Observe the behavior of • Detain™ or methyl
brine shrimp. cellulose
• Assess the effect of • aluminum foil
environmental variables • calculator
on habitat selection by • fluorescent lamp or
brine shrimp. grow light
MATERIALS
• funnel
• clear, flexible plastic tubing • graduated cylinder or

beaker
• metric ruler Brine shrimp
• marking pen • hot-water bag
• corks to fit tubing • ice bag
• brine shrimp culture • pieces of screen

• tape
Before You Begin 2. Place a cork in one end of the tubing.

Different organisms are adapted for life in Then transfer 50 mL of brine shrimp
different habitats. For example, brine shrimp culture to the tubing. Place a cork in the
are small crustaceans that live in salt lakes. open end of the tubing.
Given a choice, organisms select habitats that 3. When you are ready to count shrimp,
provide the conditions (e.g., temperature, divide the tubing into four sections by plac-
light, pH, salinity) to which they are adapted. ing a screw clamp at each mark on the tub-
In this lab, you will investigate habitat selec- ing. While someone holds the corks firmly in
tion by brine shrimp and determine which place, first tighten the middle clamp and
environmental conditions they prefer. then the outer clamps.
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in 4. Starting at one end, pour the contents of
the paragraph above. each section into a test tube labeled with
2. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a the same number. After you empty a sec-
question you would like to explore about tion, loosen the adjacent clamp and fill the
habitat selection by brine shrimp. next test tube.
Procedure
PART A: Making and Sampling
a Test Chamber
1. Divide a piece of plastic tubing into
4 sections by making a mark at 12 cm,
22 cm, and 32 cm from one end. Label
the sections 1, 2, 3, and 4.
5. Stopper one test tube, and invert it gently shrimp in the designated container. Do
to distribute the shrimp. Use a pipet to not pour chemicals down the drain or put
transfer a 1 mL sample of shrimp culture lab materials in the trash unless your
to a Petri dish. Add a few drops of teacher tells you to do so.
Detain™ to the sample. Count and record 12. Clean up your work area and all lab
the number of live shrimp. equipment. Return lab equipment to
6. Repeat step 5 three more times for the its proper place. Wash your hands thor-
same test tube. Record the average num- oughly before you leave the lab and after
ber of shrimp for this test tube. you finish all work.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for each of the
remaining test tubes. Analyze and Conclude
1. Summarizing Results Make a bar
PART B: Design an Experiment graph of your data. Plot the environmen-
8. Work with the members of your lab group tal variable on the x-axis and the number
to explore one of the questions written for of shrimp on the y-axis.
step 2 of Before You Begin. To explore 2. Analyzing Results How did the shrimp
the question, design an experiment that react to changes in the environment?
uses the materials listed for this lab.
3. Analyzing Methods Why was a control
necessary?
You Choose
4. Analyzing Methods Why was it neces-
sary to take many counts in each test tube
(step 6 of Part A)?
c. how to set up your control 5. Further Inquiry Write a new question
d. how to expose the brine shrimp to the con- about brine shrimp that could be
ditions you chose explored with another investigation.
e. how long to expose the brine shrimp to the
environmental conditions
f. how you will set up your data table
Do You Know?
9. Write a procedure for your group’s experi- Do research in the library or media center
ment. Make a list of all the safety precau- to answer these questions:
tions you will take. Have your teacher 1. What are some predators of brine
approve your procedure and safety pre- shrimp?
cautions before you begin the experiment. 2. What is the ideal habitat for one of
10. Set up and conduct your group’s experi- your favorite animals?
ment. Do not use water over 70°C, which Use the following Internet resources to
can burn you. CAUTION: If you are explore your own questions about habitat
working with the hot-water bag, handle selection.
it carefully. If you are working with a
lamp, do not touch the bulb. Light bulbs
get very hot and can burn your skin.
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Adaptation
PART C: Cleanup and Disposal Keyword: HX4002
11. Dispose of broken glass in the desig-

nated waste container. Put brine
CHAPTER 17 Biological Communities 383

Show jumper
Bald eagle

CHAPTER
18 The
Environment
1. Define pH and describe acid rain. (Chapter 1,
Section 3) Global Change
The Atmosphere and Ecosystems
2. Identify the role of the ozone layer in Earth’s
The Ozone Layer
atmosphere. (Chapter 12, Section 1)
Global Temperatures
3. Describe the relationship between the long-term
survival of species and the resources on which
they depend. (Chapter 15, Section 1) Section 2
4. Summarize the events of the water cycle and Effects on Ecosystems
the carbon cycle. (Chapter 16, Section 3) Effects of Chemical Pollution
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Loss of Resources
sections indicated. Growth of the Human Population
Section 3
Reading Activity Solving Environmental Problems
A Worldwide Effort
Before you read this chapter, write a short list Solving Environmental Problems
of environmental issues and efforts that you are
familiar with. Then, write a list of questions
about the environment and environmental
issues. Save your list, and to assess what you
have learned, see how many of your own
questions you can answer after reading
this chapter.
The bald eagle was a familiar sight in colonial America. www.scilinks.org

By 1963, however, fewer than 1,000 bald eagles National Science Teachers Association sci LINKS Internet
remained in the lower 48 states—their numbers resources are located throughout this chapter.
diminished by habitat loss, sport hunting, and, in the
mid-twentieth century, the pesticide DDT. After efforts
to protect and manage our national bird, the bald
eagle has made a remarkable comeback.
CHAPTER 18 The Environment 385

Section 1 Global Change
Objectives The Atmosphere and Ecosystems
● Recognize the causes and You may be surprised to learn that some kinds of human activity
effects of acid rain. can ultimately influence every ecosystem on Earth. Human-induced
● Evaluate the long-term con-
environmental changes are affecting ecosystems worldwide and
sequences of atmospheric may lead to global change.
ozone depletion.
● Explain how the burning of Acid Rain
fossil fuels has changed the Coal-burning power plants send smoke high into the atmosphere
atmosphere. through tall smokestacks, often more than 300 m (984 ft) tall. This
● Analyze the proposed smoke contains high concentrations of sulfur because the coal that
relationship between the the plant burns is rich in sulfur. The intent of those who designed
greenhouse effect and the power plant was to release the sulfur-rich smoke high into the
global warming. atmosphere, where winds would disperse and dilute it. Tall smoke-
stacks, first introduced in the mid-1950s, are common in the United
Key Terms States and in Europe.
acid rain Scientists have since discovered that the sulfur introduced into the
chlorofluorocarbon atmosphere by smokestacks can combine with water vapor to pro-
global warming duce sulfuric acid. Rain and snow carry the sulfuric acid back to
greenhouse effect Earth’s surface. This acidified precipitation is called acid rain. In
North America, acid rain is most severe in the northeastern United
States and in southeastern Canada, areas that are downwind from
coal-burning plants in the Midwest. Recall that the pH of pure water
is 7.0. In the northeastern United States, rain and snow have an aver-
age pH of about 4.0–4.5. This is over 10 times as acidic as the typical
pH values for precipitation in
the rest of the United States.
Figure 1 One effect of acid rain. Acid rain may have played a role in
What is the impact of acid
the death of these trees on Mount Mitchell, North Carolina. Scientists suspect
that other factors, including infestation by an insect pest, also contributed rain? Rainwater and some
to the trees’ decline. soils are naturally slightly
acidic. Research suggests,
however, that the acidity
added by human activity is
having a dramatic effect. In
the United States and Canada,
thousands of lakes are “dying”
as their pH levels fall below
5.0. Forests in the eastern
United States and southern
Canada are being damaged.
The acid pH may be harming
symbiotic fungi in tree roots.
The trees shown in Figure 1
may have been affected by acid
rain along with other factors.
386 CHAPTER 18 The Environment

The Ozone Layer
You may recall from your reading that organisms were able to leave
the oceans and colonize the land only after a protective shield of
Real Life
ozone, O3, had developed in the upper atmosphere. Imagine what Ozone can be harmful.
would happen if that shield were destroyed. Alarmingly, it appears In many cities and towns,
that this is just what is happening. The ozone layer is being reduced, summer weather reports
and human activity may play a large role in its reduction. include warnings of high
ozone levels. Ozone at
ground level irritates
The Ozone Hole people’s nasal passages,
In 1985, a researcher in Antarctica noticed that ozone levels in the throats and lungs and may
atmosphere seemed to be as much as 35 percent lower than the aver- harm the immune system.
age values during the 1960s. Satellite images taken over the South Finding Information
Find out why ground-level
Pole revealed that the ozone concentration was unexpectedly lower
ozone is increasing even
over Antarctica than elsewhere in the Earth’s atmosphere, as shown though the ozone
in Figure 2. It was as if an “ozone eater” were causing a mysterious layer in the upper
zone of below-normal concentration, an area that researchers called atmosphere is
the ozone hole. Alarmed, scientists examined satellite images taken decreasing.
in previous years. They found that the disintegration of the Earth’s
ozone shield was evident as far back as 1978. Every year since then,
more ozone has disappeared, and the ozone hole has grown larger.
Moreover, a smaller hole has appeared over the Arctic.
Because the decrease in ozone allows more ultraviolet radiation
to reach the Earth’s surface, scientists expect an increased incidence
of diseases caused by exposure to ultraviolet radiation. These dis-
eases include skin cancer, cataracts (a disorder in which the lens of
the eye becomes cloudy), and cancer of the retina, the light-sensitive
part of the eye. In fact, in the United States, the number of cases of
malignant melanoma, a potentially lethal form of skin cancer, has
almost doubled since 1980.
Figure 2 Ozone “hole”
What Is Destroying Ozone? over Antarctica. In this
The major cause of ozone destruction is a class of chemicals called satellite view of the South Pole,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Invented in the 1920s, CFCs were con- the pink area indicates the
sidered extremely stable, supposedly harmless, and a nearly ideal heat region with the least amount
of ozone.
exchanger. Throughout the world, CFCs were commonly
used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners, as
aerosol propellants in spray cans, and as foaming agents in
the production of plastic-foam cups and containers.
Though CFCs were escaping into the atmosphere, at first
no one worried.
By 1985, the scientific community had learned that
CFCs are the primary cause of the ozone hole. High in
the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation from the sun is able
to break the usually stable bonds in CFCs. The resulting
free chlorine atoms then enter into a series of reactions
that destroy ozone. As a result of this discovery, CFCs
have been banned as aerosol propellants in spray cans in
the United States. Today many countries limit or ban the
use of CFCs.
SECTION 1 Global Change 387

Global Temperatures
The average global temperature has been steadily increasing for more
than a century, particularly since the 1950s. In Earth’s long history
www.scilinks.org
there have been many such periods of global warming, often followed
Topic: Greenhouse Effect
Keyword: HX4094 by centuries of cold. Scientists hypothesize that sunspot cycles may
contribute to these cyclical changes in global temperature. Many sci-
entists suspect, however, that human activity may be significantly
contributing to global warming in modern times.
The Greenhouse Effect

Our planet would be as cold as the moon except for the insulating
effects of certain gases—called greenhouse gases—such as water
vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and nitrous oxide in the atmos-
phere. The chemical bonds in carbon dioxide molecules absorb solar
energy as heat radiates from Earth. As shown in Figure 3, this process,
called the greenhouse effect , traps heat within the atmosphere in the
same way glass traps heat within a greenhouse. There has been a large
increase in carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere in recent times.
This increase seems to be related to the burning of fossil fuels that has
accompanied clearing of forests and urban industrialization.
Is Global Warming Occurring?

Figure 4 shows the average change in global temperature since 1960,
and, on the same graph, the average concentration of atmospheric
Figure 3 Earth’s carbon dioxide. The correlation of increasing temperatures with
atmosphere traps heat.
increasing carbon dioxide levels is very close. Therefore many scien-
Just as the glass panes of a
greenhouse retain heat, CO2 tists are convinced temperature and carbon dioxide levels are related.
and other greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere capture heat
radiated from Earth’s surface.
The Greenhouse Effect
Some heat escapes

3 into space
Some heat is
4 absorbed by
re greenhouse gases and
p he
os returned to Earth.
m
at
in
ses
g a Some heat radiates
se 2 away from Earth
hou
n into the atmosphere.
ee
gr
Solar energy pen-

1
d
an
etrates Earth’s Earth

r
atmosphere and warms

po
va
its surface. As the concentration

5
er
at
of greenhouse gases
fw
increases, so does the

so
amount of heat retained.

ce
Tra

In science, however, correlation
does not prove cause and effect. Both
global temperature and levels of
greenhouse gases may be changing
because of other variables that have
not been recognized yet. Some coun-
tries take seriously the possibility
that increasing greenhouse gases
play a role in global warming. These
countries are attempting to formu-
late international treaties that place -
limits on greenhouse-gas emissions.
The matter remains controversial,
however, and the role of greenhouse
gases in global warming is hotly Figure 4 Global changes. Atmospheric CO2 concentration and
the average change in global temperature have risen together over
contested. the past several years.
Modeling the Greenhouse Effect

You can use a quart jar to explore the greenhouse effect.
Materials
MBL or CBL system with appropriate software, 2 temperature probes,
1qt jar, lid with a 0.5 cm hole in the center, tape, heat source
Procedure
1. Set up an MBL/CBL system 3. Place the jar about 30 cm 2. Critical Thinking
to collect data from two from a heat-radiating source, Comparing Functions
temperature probes at 6 and begin collecting data. How does carbon dioxide
second intervals for 150 gas in the atmosphere func-
4. After 5 minutes, turn off (or
data points. tion in a way similar to the
remove) the heat source.
glass jar?
2. Insert the end of one probe Collect data for another
into the hole in the lid of a 10 minutes. 3. Critical Thinking
quart jar, and tape the probe Predicting Outcomes
Analysis
in place. Place the other How would the temperature
probe about 4 in. from the 1. Propose an explanation for on Earth be different if there
jar and at the same height any differences between the were no carbon dioxide in
as the first probe. two probes. the atmosphere?
Section 1 Review
Summarize two harmful effects of acid rain. Critical Thinking Evaluating Models
Is the greenhouse-gases model adequate to
Differentiate the greenhouse effect from global explain all warming of Earth over its existence?
warming. Why or why not?
Critical Thinking Predicting Outcomes Standardized Test Prep Which activity might
How might the depletion of the ozone layer affect reduce the severity of the greenhouse effect?
human health? A cutting trees C promoting decomposition
B burning vegetation D planting more trees
SECTION 1 Global Change 389

Section 2 Effects on Ecosystems
Objectives Effects of Chemical Pollution
● Describe the effects of Examples of global change such as ozone depletion or global warm-
chemical pollutants on the ing occur on a large scale. But what about serious environmental
environment. problems that occur in our own backyard? For example, one impor-
● Identify three nonrenewable tant urban environmental problem is chemical pollution. Until
resources. recently, people assumed that the environment can absorb any
amount of pollution. Lake Erie and other large lakes became pol-
● Predict the potential conse-
quences of uncontrolled
luted because of the assumption that they could absorb unlimited
population growth. amounts of industrial chemicals. Because of this incorrect assump-
tion, pollution has often risen to a serious level.
● Contrast population growth
In a highly publicized example of pollution, a very large oil tanker
in developing countries
with that in industrialized ran aground off the coast of Alaska in 1989. Oil from the tanker heav-
countries. ily polluted 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of coastline and injured or killed
thousands of marine animals, such as the one shown in Figure 5.
Key Terms Despite costly and heroic cleanup efforts, damage to local wildlife
was extensive. This dramatic example is not an isolated occurrence.
biological
Smaller oil spills and leaks that receive little or no publicity account
magnification
aquifer for more than 90 percent of all pollution from oil seepage.
Many of the most disastrous incidents of pollution involve indus-
trial chemicals that are toxic or carcinogenic (cancer-causing). Until
recently, there has been relatively little regulation of the manufac-
Figure 5 Oil spill victim. ture, transportation, storage, and destruction of such chemicals. A
This common scoter was particularly clear example of this problem occurred in Basel,
one of thousands of animals Switzerland, in 1986. Firefighters putting out a warehouse fire acci-
injured or killed when an
dentally washed 27,000 kg (30 tons) of mercury and pesticides that
accident released a large
volume of oil off the Alaskan were stored in the warehouse into the Rhine River. These poisons
coast in 1989. flowed down the Rhine, through Germany and
the Netherlands, and into the North Sea,
killing fish and other aquatic animals and
plants. Today the river is recovering, but its
species diversity remains far lower than it was
before the disaster.
Agricultural Chemicals
In many countries, modern agriculture intro-
duces large amounts of chemicals into the
global ecosystem. These chemicals include
pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers. Indus-
trialized countries, like the United States, now
attempt to carefully monitor side effects of
these chemicals. Unfortunately, large quantities
of many toxic chemicals that are no longer
manufactured still circulate in the ecosystem.

Pesticides For example, molecules of chlorinated hydrocarbons—a
class of compounds that includes the pesticides DDT, chlordane, lin-
www.scilinks.org
dane, and dieldrin—break down slowly in the environment. They also
Topic: Chemical Pollution
accumulate in the fatty tissue of animals. As these molecules pass up Keyword: HX4039
through the trophic levels of the food chain, they become increasingly
concentrated. This process is called biological magnification, illus-
trated in Figure 6. The presence of DDT in birds causes thin, fragile
eggshells, which can break during incubation. Because of DDT use,
many predatory birds in the United States and elsewhere failed to
reproduce, and their numbers dwindled. In 1972, the use of DDT was
severely restricted in the United States, and threatened bird popula-
tions slowly began to increase. However, chlorinated hydrocarbons
are still manufactured in the United States and exported to other
countries, where their use continues.
In order for us to meet the needs of an increasingly crowded
world, the use of chemicals is necessary. We must learn to use them
as intelligently as possible. Doing so will enable us to protect the
productive capacity of the Earth. Failure is not a rational option.
Figure 6 Biological magnification of DDT

Because DDT accumulates in fatty tissue, DDT concentrations (in parts per
million, ppm) increase as this chemical moves up the food chain.
At the top of the

Fish-eating
food chain, DDT
birds
concentration
has increased
almost 10 million
times.
Large
fish
Small
fish
DDT is stored in
primary producers,
Zooplankton such as algae.
and primary
producers
DDT enters the

water through
Water ground water and
runoff from land.
Red dots represent DDT.
SECTION 2 Effects on Ecosystems 391

Loss of Resources
Among the many ways that ecosystems are being damaged, one
problem stands out as potentially more serious than the rest—the
Organizing Information consumption or destruction of resources that we cannot replace.
Make a table to organize Though a polluted stream can be cleaned up, no one can restore an
information about loss of
extinct species. Three kinds of nonrenewable resources are being
resources. Across the top,
write the headings Extinction consumed or destroyed at alarming rates: species of living things,
of species, Loss of topsoil, topsoil, and ground water.
and Ground-water pollution
and depletion. Along the
sides, write Causes, Effects,
Extinction of Species
and Possible solutions. Over the last 50 years, about half of the world’s tropical rain forests
Add information to the have been burned to make pasture and farmland or have been cut
table as you read for timber. Many thousands of square miles more will be destroyed
this chapter. this year. The people responsible, often poor farmers, view the for-
est lands as a resource to be developed, much as Americans viewed
North American forests a century ago.
The problem is that as the rain forests disappear, so do their
inhabitants. No one knows how many species are being lost. To find
out, scientists carefully catalogue all of the residents of one small
segment of forest and then extrapolate their data. That is, scientists
use what they know to predict what they don’t know. The resulting
estimates vary widely, but it is clear Earth is losing many species.
Some 10 percent of well-known species teeter on the brink of extinc-
tion. Worst-case estimates are that we will lose up to one-fifth of the
world’s species of plants and animals—about 1 million species—
during the next 50 years. An extinction of this size has not occurred
in at least 65 million
Figure 7 Beneficial years, since the end of
species. Two potent anti-
cancer drugs have been
the age of dinosaurs.
isolated from the leaves The tragedy of extinc-
of the rosy periwinkle, a native tion is that as species
of Madagascar. disappear, so do our
chances to learn about
them and their possible
benefits. This situation is
comparable to burning a
library before reading the
books—we lose forever
the knowledge we might
have gained. For example,
two potent anticancer
drugs have been isolated
from the rosy periwinkle,
shown in Figure 7, a
flower that occurs natu-
rally only on Madagascar,
an island being devastated
by deforestation.

Loss of Topsoil
The United States is one of the most productive agricultural coun-
tries on Earth, largely because of its fertile soils. These soils have
accumulated over tens of thousands of years. The Midwestern farm
belt sits astride what was once a great prairie. The topsoil of that
ecosystem accumulated slowly as the remains of countless animals
and plants decayed. By the time humans came to plow the prairie,
the topsoil was more than a meter thick.
This rich topsoil cannot be replaced, and it is being lost at a rate of
several centimeters each decade. Turning over the soil to eliminate
weeds, allowing animals to overgraze ranges and pastures, and prac-
ticing poor land management all permit wind and rain to remove
more and more of the topsoil. Since 1950, the world has lost one-
third of its topsoil, primarily because of human activity.
Ground-Water Pollution and Depletion

A third resource that we cannot replace is ground water. Much
ground water is stored within porous rock reservoirs called aquifers
www.scilinks.org
(AHK wuh furz), as shown in Figure 8. Water seeps into aquifers too
Topic: Aquifers
slowly to replace the large amount of water now being withdrawn. In Keyword: HX4013
most areas of the United States, there is relatively little effort to con-
serve ground water. Consequently, a very large portion of it is wasted
on watering lawns, on washing cars, and through leaky and ineffi-
cient faucets and toilets. A great deal more ground water is being
polluted by irresponsible disposal of chemical wastes. Once pollution
enters the ground water, there is no effective way to remove it.
Figure 8 Aquifer
Large amounts of ground water are being removed from many aquifers far faster
than natural processes can replenish it.
Water seeps through

soil into aquifer
Water used in homes,
businesses, industry,
agriculture and recreation
Soil
Pumping
station
Aquifer with wells
Impermeable
rock layer

Growth of the Human Population
If all of the problems associated with pollution mentioned earlier in
this chapter were solved, would the future of our environment be
free from danger? Not necessarily. Scientists recognize that we
would still need to address a more fundamental problem: the rapid
growth of the human population, as shown in Table 1.
Humans first reached North America at least 12,000 years ago, by
crossing the land bridge between Siberia and Alaska. Humans then
spread throughout North America and South America. Ten thou-
sand years ago the continental ice sheets that covered northern
Europe and North America receded, and agriculture soon devel-
oped. There were only about 5 million people on Earth then. As agri-
culture produced more dependable sources of food, the human
population began to grow. By about 2,000 years ago, there were an
estimated 130 million people on Earth. By 1650, the world’s popu-
Figure 9 Population growth. lation had reached 500 million.
The world’s population has
Since then, the average global birthrate has remained near 30
topped 6 billion.
births per 1,000 people per year. However, with the development of
technology to ensure better sanitation and improved medical care,
the death rate has fallen steadily. In 2002, the estimated death rate
was about 9 deaths per 1,000 people per year. The difference
www.scilinks.org between the annual birthrate in 2002 (now estimated to be 21 births
Topic: Population Growth per 1,000 people) and death rate results in an annual worldwide
Keyword: HX4144 increase in the human population of approximately 1.3 percent.
This number may seem small, but don’t be deceived. The world’s
population would double in just over 60 years if it continued to grow
at this rate!
Table 1 Number of Years to Add 1 Billion People

Human population Year Years to add
1 billion 1800 All of human history
2 billion 1930 130
3 billion 1960 30
4 billion 1974 14
5 billion 1987 13
6 billion 1999 12
Projected
7 billion 2009 11
8 billion 2021 11

Worldwide Rates of Growth
The world’s population exceeded 6 billion in October 1999, and the
annual increase is now about 94 million people. About 260,000 people
are added to the world population each day, or about 180 every
minute. Population growth is fastest in the developing countries of
Asia, Africa, and Latin America. It is slowest in the industrialized
countries of North America, Europe, Japan, and in New Zealand, and
Australia. In industrialized countries like the United States, about one Figure 10 World
fifth of the population is under 15 years of age. In developing countries population growth patterns.
Most of the world population
like Nigeria, the percentage is typically twice as high, which may lead increase since 1950 has been
to explosive population growth in coming decades. in developing countries.
Figure 10 shows the population growth rates of devel-
oping and developed countries. The population
10,000
growth rate in the United States is only 0.8 percent. World
Most European countries are growing even more Asia

slowly, and the populations of Germany and Russia
are actually declining. By contrast, as of 1996,
Nigeria’s population was increasing by about 3.05 per- Sub-Sahara Africa
cent per year.
Projected population (millions)

The global rate of population growth has been
declining. The United Nations projects that the world’s
Latin America
population will stabilize at 9.7 billion by the year 2050. 1,000
As you have read, however, population growth rates
Europe
are uneven across Earth. Population growth tends to U.S.
be the highest in countries that can least afford it.
Already limited resources are strained further, and
natural resources—ground water, land for farming,
forests—are ever more quickly depleted or polluted. Russia
No one knows whether the Earth can support six
billion people indefinitely, much less the far larger
100 Japan
population that lies in our future. Building a sustain-
able world is the most important task facing human-
ity’s future. The quality of life available to your
1950 2000 2050 2100 2150
children in the new century will depend to a large
Year
extent on our success.
Section 2 Review
Evaluate how research showing that chlorinated Critical Thinking Evaluating Viewpoints
hydrocarbons are an environmental threat may A classmate claims that the growth of the human
impact people in the United States. population will not affect populations of other
species. Evaluate this viewpoint.
Summarize why supplies of soil and ground
water are dwindling even though these resources Standardized Test Prep Which organism would
are replenished by natural processes. have the highest concentration of a pollutant that
enters the water and is absorbed by aquatic
Critical Thinking Inferring Relationships primary producers?
Describe two instances in which technology has A large fish C fish-eating bird
caused the growth rate of the human population
B small fish D zooplankton
to increase.

Section 3 Solving Environmental
Problems
Objectives
A Worldwide Effort
As you have seen, environmental problems affect all inhabitants of
● Describe two effective an ecosystem without regard to state or national boundaries. As
approaches that have been
human activities continue to place severe stresses on ecosystems,
taken to reduce pollution in
the United States and worldwide attention must be focused on solving these problems.
abroad. One of the most encouraging developments of the early 1990s was
the global increase in efforts to reduce pollution. International agree-
● Evaluate the five major
steps necessary to solve
ments to stop CFC production are one example. And the release of
environmental problems. many dangerous industrial and agricultural chemicals—notably the
insecticide DDT and the carcinogens asbestos and dioxin—has been
● Determine how individuals
restricted in the United States.
can take personal action to
help solve environmental A great deal of progress has also been made in reducing air and
problems. water pollution. The number of secondary sewage treatment facili-
ties, which remove chemicals as well as bacteria from sewage, is on
Key Terms the increase. Figure 11 shows a “scrubber,” a device that reduces
harmful sulfur emissions from industrial smokestacks. Emissions
None
of sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and soot—three pollutants pro-
duced by the burning of coal—have been cut by more than 30
percent in 10 years. However encouraging, this progress represents
only a beginning. Serious attempts to address the overall problem of
pollution have also brought about more fundamental changes in our
society. For example, a reduction of the number of automobiles on
the road is encouraged by providing dedicated lanes to cars with
several occupants, as shown in Figure 12.
Figure 11 Reducing pollution
Waste water is cleaned in several steps. Scrubbers remove many pollutants from factory emissions.
Sewage treatment plant Smokestacks with scrubbers

In the United States
Two effective approaches have been taken to reduce pollution in the
United States. The first approach has been to pass laws forbidding it. In
the last 30 years, laws have begun to significantly slow the spread of
pollution. These laws impose strict standards for what can be released
into the environment. For example, all cars are required to have cat-
alytic converters to reduce emissions. Similarly, the Clean Air Act of
1990 requires scrubbers on the smokestacks of power plants. Con-
verters and scrubbers make cars and energy more expensive. The effect
is that the consumer pays more to avoid polluting the environment.
A second effective approach to reducing pollution has been to
make it more expensive by placing a tax on it. The gasoline tax is a
good example of such a tax. To be fully effective, however, a tax must
be high enough to reflect the actual cost of the pollution. By adjust-
Figure 12 Carpooling.
ing the tax, the government attempts to balance the conflicting
Some cities reserve certain
demands of environmental safety and economic growth. Such taxes, lanes for carpool use during
often imposed on industry in the form of “pollution permits,” are peak travel times.
becoming increasingly common.
The Real Costs of Pollution
T o find economic solutions to

environmental problems, it is
first necessary to understand that
set a lower price and sell more of
the item. Stimulated by the lower
price, the buyer would purchase
the economy of much of the more of the item.
industrialized world is based on a
The True Cost of Pollution
system of supply and demand. As
something gets scarce, its price The true costs of energy and
increases. This increased profit on manufactured goods are com-
an item in short supply acts as an posed of direct and indirect
incentive for the production of production costs. Direct costs
more of the item. If too much of include materials and wages.
the item is available, the price falls. Indirect costs include pollution
Because it is less profitable to pro- and other damage to the envi-
duce the item, less of it is made. ronment. For example, the true
costs of fossil fuels include the must pay the bill in terms of
A Price Too Low? indirect costs of reduced har- damage to the ecosystems on
This system works very well and is vests of fish and shellfish due to which they depend.
responsible for the economic oil spills. But the indirect costs
strength of our nation. But if are not included in the price that
demand is set by price, then it is the consumer pays for fossil www.scilinks.org
very important that all of the pro- fuels. As a result, far more is Topic: Solving Environmental
duction costs be included in the consumed than if these costs Problems
price of an item. If a person selling were included. The indirect Keyword: HX4166
an item were able to pass off part costs do not disappear because
of its production cost to a third we ignore them. They are passed
person, the seller would be able to on to future generations, who
SECTION 3 Solving Environmental Problems 397

Solving Environmental Problems
It is easy to get discouraged when considering the world’s many
Real Life serious environmental problems. But do not lose track of the con-
Better the second clusion that emerges from our examination of these environmental
time around? problems—each of the world’s many problems is solvable. If one
Although many com- looks at how environmental problems have been overcome, a clear
munities have recycling pattern emerges.
programs, some
researchers argue that
recycling doesn’t pay off. Five Steps to Success
Evaluating Viewpoints Viewed simply, there are five components to successfully solving any
Find out the main environmental problem.
arguments for and against
recycling, and pro- 1. Assessment. The first stage is scientific analysis of the problem,
pose the kinds the gathering of information about what is happening. To con-
of waste- struct a scientific model of an ecosystem, data must be collected
management and analyzed. A model makes it possible to describe the current
programs state of the ecosystem. A model would also allow scientists to
that would
make predictions about the future of the ecosystem.
work in your
community. 2. Risk analysis. Using the information obtained by scientific
analysis, scientists predict the consequences of different types of
environmental intervention. It is also essential to evaluate any
negative effects associated with a plan of action.
3. Public education. When it is possible to describe alternative
courses of action, the public must be informed. This involves
explaining the problem in understandable terms, such as at the
public meeting shown in Figure 13, presenting the alternative
actions available, and explaining the probable costs and results
of the different choices.
4. Political action. The public, through its elected officials, selects
and implements a course of action. Individuals can be influential
at this stage by exercising their right to vote and by contacting
their elected officials.
5. Follow-through. The results of any action should be carefully
monitored to see if the environmental problem is being solved.
Figure 13 Public
participation. Public
discussion of environmental
problems helps citizens to
evaluate alternative courses
of action.
398 CHAPTER 18
Two Success Stories
The development of appropriate solutions to the
world’s environmental problems often rests partly
on the shoulders of politicians, economists,
bankers, scientists, and engineers. However, it is
important not to lose sight of the key role often
played by informed individuals. Two examples
serve to illustrate the point.
The Nashua River Running through the heart of
New England, the Nashua River was severely
polluted by mills established in Massachusetts in
the early 1900s. When Marion Stoddart, shown
in Figure 14, moved to a town along the river in
1962, she was appalled. Stoddart organized the Nashua River Figure 14 Marion
Stoddart. The recovery of
Cleanup Committee. The committee presented bottles of dirty river the Nashua River shows that
water to politicians, spoke at town meetings, recruited business peo- polluted environments can
ple to help finance a waste treatment plant, and began to clean be restored when committed
garbage from the Nashua River’s banks. This citizen’s campaign individuals, like Marion
contributed to the passage of the Massachusetts Clean Water Act of Stoddart, work to bring
1966. Industrial dumping into the river is now banned, and the river about a change.
has largely recovered.
Lake Washington Following World War II, this very large lake east of
Seattle became surrounded by a ring of 10 suburbs, each with its
own municipal sewage treatment plant. Between 1940 and 1953,
these 10 municipal sewage plants discharged their treated outflow
into the lake. Safe enough to drink, the outflow was believed to be
harmless. Starting in the early 1940s, the combined daily discharge
in the lake was 80 million liters (20 million gallons). Figure 15 Lake
In 1954, an ecology professor at the University of Washington in Washington. Once choked
Seattle, W. T. Edmondson, noted that his research students were with algae that were nourished
reporting blue-green algae growing in the lake. Such algae require by the outflow from sewage
an abundance of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus to grow. treatment plants, Lake
Washington is a healthy
Because deep freshwater lakes like Lake Washington usually lack
lake today.
these nutrients, the presence of the algae was sur-
prising. The researchers found that phosphates
and nitrates in the sewage had been fertilizing the
lake! Edmondson was alarmed and began a cam-
paign in 1956 to educate public officials about the
danger: Bacteria decomposing the dead algae
would soon deplete the lake’s oxygen. This would
kill all life in the lake, and it would never recover.
After five years, as a direct result of his efforts,
joint municipal taxes financed the cleanup of
Lake Washington with a massive trunk sewer that
rings the lake and carries treated discharge far
out into Puget Sound. Today, through the efforts
of many people, the lake is healthy, its waters
clean and blue, as shown in Figure 15.
SECTION 3 Solving Environmental Problems 399

Your Contribution
You cannot hope to preserve what you do not understand.
Humans rely on the Earth’s ecosystems for food and all of
the other materials our civilization depends on. It has been
said that we do not inherit the Earth from our parents but
borrow it from our children. Therefore, we must preserve
for them a world in which they can live.
Although solving the world’s environmental problems will
take the efforts of many people, including politicians, econo-
mists, and engineers, the issues are largely biological. When
all is said and done, your knowledge of ecology is the essential
tool that you can contribute to the effort. Figures 16 and 17
show some simple ways you can participate in solving the
problems described in this chapter by conserving energy and
Figure 16 Conserving
reducing pollution and waste. You can save energy by walking, riding
energy. By riding a bicycle
instead of traveling in a car, a bicycle, or taking public transportation to work or school.
bus, or train, this commuter Newspapers, aluminum products, glass containers, and many plastic
helps save energy. containers can be recycled. A resource- and energy-use inventory of
your home can identify additional ways to help the environment. For
example, installing inexpensive, low-flow shower heads can reduce
shower water use by up to 50 percent.
Figure 17 Your lifestyle You Can Help

affects the environment.
• Conserve energy by walking,
Choices that you make in
riding a bicycle, or taking public
your day-to-day activities can
transportation
benefit the environment.
• Do a resource- and energy-use
inventory of your home
• Learn about the environment
• Recycle newspapers,
aluminum products, glass,
and plastic
• Create rich soil by making
your own compost heap
from leaves, grass, and
fruit peelings
Section 3 Review
Describe how a tax can reduce pollution. How does the release of certain nutrients into a
lake harm the lake?
Critical Thinking Justifying Conclusions
Of the five steps listed in this chapter for solving Standardized Test PrepOne good way to conserve
environmental problems, which step might be the natural resources is to
most difficult to implement? A use high-flow shower heads.
B use public transportation.
Critical Thinking Analyzing Information
At which step in the solution of an environmental C throw away cans and jars.
problem could you have the greatest influence? D drive instead of walk.

ZONE
1 Global Change Section 1
acid rain (386)
● Acid rain, which is caused by airborne pollutants that chlorofluorocarbon (387)
lower the pH of rain, has damaged many forests and lakes, global warming (388)
especially in the Northeast. greenhouse effect (388)
● Destruction of the ozone layer is caused by chlorofluoro-
carbons (CFCs) and several other manufactured chemicals.
● The greenhouse effect occurs when greenhouse gases, such
as carbon dioxide, trap heat within Earth’s atmosphere.
● Many scientists think that increased concentrations of CO2
and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have led to
global warming.
2 Effects on Ecosystems Section 2

biological magnification (391)
● The release of toxic chemicals into the environment can aquifer (393)
have serious effects, particularly when their concentration
is magnified by food chains.
● Three nonreplaceable resources—species of living things,
topsoil, and ground water—are being consumed or
destroyed at a rapid rate.
● Rapid growth of the human population places serious stress
on the Earth’s ecosystems.
3 Solving Environmental Problems Section 3

None
● Worldwide efforts to reduce pollution are being made, but
they are only part of the solution to the overall pollution
problem.
● Taxing products or services that create pollution and
creating laws requiring pollution-control devices are two
methods that have been used to reduce pollution.
● Each of the world’s many environmental problems can be
solved if seriously addressed. A combination of scientific
investigation and public action can solve many
environmental problems.
BIOLOGY Use this unit to review the key concepts and terms in
this chapter.
ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Name some of the indirect

1. Which of the following causes acid rain? costs associated with recovering and using
a. releasing chlorofluorocarbons fossil fuels such as oil.
b. burning high-sulfur coal 9. Describe how the global decrease in available
c. polluting ground water ground water and the loss of topsoil could
d. scrubbing smokestack emissions affect the carrying capacity of the Earth.
2. The burning of fossil fuels has changed the (Hint: See Chapter 16, Section 1.)
atmosphere by
a. increasing the global concentration of
ozone in the upper atmosphere. map that shows how human activities are
b. reducing the amount of CFCs.
disrupting the atmosphere and that
c. producing an ozone hole.
describes the effects of these disruptions.
d. increasing the concentration of carbon
Try to use the following terms in your map:
dioxide. greenhouse effect, carbon dioxide, green-
house gases, global warming, CFCs, ozone
3. Which of the following statements about layer, acid rain, and high-sulfur coal.
the extinction of species that is now occur-
ring is not true? Critical Thinking
a. It is the largest extinction event since the 11. Evaluating an Argument Evaluate the
dinosaurs disappeared. statement that rising levels of carbon dioxide
b. One of its causes is the destruction of in the atmosphere might lead to increased
tropical rain forests. food production.
c. It is confined to tropical countries.
d. Potentially useful species are becoming 12. Predicting Outcomes How would stopping
extinct. all pesticide use likely affect rates of food
production and of diseases, such as
4. Which of these countries has the largest malaria, that are spread by insects?
population growth rate?
a. Germany Alternative Assessment
b. United States
13. Summarizing Information Write a report
c. Nigeria
that identifies several alternatives to CFCs
d. Russia
and describes the requirements established
5. Of the five major steps to solving environ- for CFC replacements.
mental problems, which involves deter-
14. Career Connection Environmental Scientist
mining the potential outcomes of an
Use library or Internet resources to
environmental plan before it is tried?
research the educational background neces-
a. assessment
sary to become an environmental scientist.
b. risk analysis
Describe the degrees or training that is rec-
c. follow-through
ommended for this career. Summarize the
d. political action
employment outlook for this field.
6. Explain why the loss of topsoil and the
15. Interactive Tutor Unit 7 Ecosystem
extinction of living species are a threat to
Dynamics Write a report summarizing ways
increased food production.
that humans can work to reduce the deple-
7. Analyze the relationship between biological tion and pollution of ground water. How
magnification and the reduction of the bald would more-efficient use and recycling of
eagle population by the pesticide DDT. ground water benefit ecosystems?


correct answer.
Species diversity has declined drastically
1 What is liquid precipitation with a low pH several times during Earth’s history. Each
that results from sulfur emissions reacting time, new species evolved. Many unique
with water usually called? species alive today are near extinction.
A. acid rain However, some people hypothesize that
B. greenhouse gas losing these organisms to extinction is not
C. sulfuric acid a great loss, because extinction ultimately
D. thermal pollution increases biodiversity.
2 What process involves the warming of 6 What is a weakness of this hypothesis?

Earth by radiated energy trapped by A. Evolution takes millions of years.
gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, B. Extinction does not affect ecosystems.
and nitrous oxide? C. Organisms that are near extinction
F. biological magnification always play a minor role in ecosystems.
G. greenhouse effect D. Damage to ecosystems can be easily
H. ozone destruction repaired by introducing new species.
I. thermal pollution
3 Which of the following is a class of stable Directions (7): Base your answer to question
chemicals that break down and release free 7 on the graph below.
chlorine atoms high in the atmosphere?
A. CFC Grain Production
B. DDT
World grain production Grain production per person
C. greenhouse gas
400
Grain production per person (kg)

D. hydrocarbon
Grain production (billion kg)
1,500
4 What term describes the increasing 350
concentration of substances in animal
tissue toward the top of the food chain? 1,000 300
F. biological magnification
G. chlorofluorocarbon toxicity 250
H. DDT concentration 500
200
I. hydrocarbon pollution
Directions (5): For the following question, 0 0

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
5 Tall smokestacks are part of many coal-

burning power plants. Define the purpose 7 How have world grain production and the
of these tall smokestacks and evaluate human population changed since 1980?
their effectiveness. F. Both have decreased at the same rate.
G. World grain production has increased;
Test the human population has decreased.
H. Both have decreased, but the grain pro-
When using a graph to answer a question, make duction has decreased more rapidly.
sure you know what variables are represented on I. Human population has increased more
the x- and y-axes before answering the question. rapidly than grain production.

Skills Practice Lab
Studying Population Growth
Magnification: 1100
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Using a microscope • safety goggles
• Collecting, graphing, and • lab apron
analyzing data • yeast culture
• Calculating • (2) 1 mL pipets
OBJECTIVES
• 2 test tubes
• Observe the growth and • 1% methylene blue

decline of a population of solution
yeast cells. • ruled microscope slide
(2 2 mm)
• Determine the carrying
capacity of a yeast culture. • coverslip
• compound microscope Yeast cells
ChemSafety

the previous paragraph.
Recall that population size is controlled by
limiting factors —environmental resources 2. Make a data table similar to the one below
such as food, water, oxygen, light, and living at left.
space. Population growth occurs when a pop- 3. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a
ulation’s birthrate is greater than its death question about population growth that you
rate . A decline in population size occurs would like to explore.
when a population’s death rate surpasses
its birthrate. In this lab, you will study the Procedure
concepts of population growth, decline, and
carrying capacity by growing and PART A: Counting Yeast Cells
observing yeast. 1. Put on safety goggles and a lab
apron.
DATA TABLE 2. Transfer 1 mL of a yeast culture to a test
Time Number of cells per square Population size tube. Add 2 drops of methylene blue to the
(hours) Squares 1–6 Average (cells/0.1 mL) tube. Caution: Methylene blue will stain
0 your skin and clothing. The methylene
24
blue will remain blue in dead cells but will
48
turn colorless in living cells.
72
96

3. Make a wet mount by placing 0.1 mL (one PART B: Cleanup and Disposal
drop) of the yeast and methylene blue mix- 10. Dispose of solutions and broken
ture on a ruled microscope slide. Cover the glass in the designated waste con-
slide with a coverslip. tainers. Do not pour chemicals down the
4. Observe the wet mount under the drain or put lab materials in the trash
low power of a compound microscope. unless your teacher tells you to do so.
Notice the squares on the slide. Then 11. Clean up your work area and all lab
switch to the high power. Note: Adjust the equipment. Return lab equipment to
light so that you can clearly see both stained its proper place. Wash your hands thor-
and unstained cells. Move the slide so that oughly before you leave the lab and after
the top left-hand corner of one square you finish all work.
is in the center of your field of view.
This will be area 1, as shown in the
diagram below. Analyze and Conclude
1. Analyzing Methods Why were several
areas and squares counted and then aver-
1 2 aged each day?
2. Summarizing Results Graph the
3 4 changes in the numbers of live yeast cells
and dead yeast cells over time. Plot the
number of cells in 1 mL of yeast culture
on the y-axis and the time (in hours) on
5. Count the live (unstained) cells and the
the x-axis.
dead (stained) cells in the four corners of
a square using the pattern shown in the 3. Inferring Conclusions What limiting
diagram above. In your data table, record factors probably caused the yeast popula-
the numbers of live cells and dead cells in tion to decline?
the square. 4. Further Inquiry Write a new question
6. Repeat step 5 until you have counted 6 about population growth that could be
squares on the slide. Complete Part B. explored in another investigation.
7. Find the total number of live cells in the
6 squares. Divide this total by 6 to find
the average number of live cells per
square. Record this number in your
data table. Repeat this procedure for
dead cells.
8. Estimate the population of live yeast cells
in 1 mL (the amount in the test tube) by
multiplying the average number of cells per
square by 2,500. Record this number in
On the Job
your data table. Repeat this procedure for
dead cells. Biologists must sometimes estimate
the number of cells in a given volume.
9. Repeat steps 1 through 8 each day for 4
Do research to discover how a hemacy-
more days.
tometer is used in medical tests. For
more about careers, visit go.hrw.com and
type in the keyword HX4 Careers.
CHAPTER 18 The Environment 405

Biologists race against time to

save species threatened with
extinction.
Saving
Biodiversity
ow many species of organisms live on
H Earth? That seems like a simple ques-

tion, but no one knows the answer. The
uncertainty over this basic question illus-
trates how little scientists actually know about
biodiversity.
One thing is certain about biodiversity, though: biodiversity and contain large numbers of
it is disappearing fast. Biologists need good infor- unique species. The aim is to survey as many of
mation about biodiversity in order to choose the these hot spots as possible and identify areas
actions that will save the most species. To focus that need to be protected.
conservation efforts, biologists agree that the first To conduct these surveys, Conservation
priority must be to take an inventory of global bio- International, the nonprofit organization that
diversity, determining which species live where. sponsors the program, brings together several of
the world’s leading tropical biologists. Each
A New Approach expedition also includes several scientists from
the country where the team is working. (One of
Beginning in the late 1980s, a group of biologists the goals of RAP is to train biologists in tropical
and conservationists decided a shortcut was countries.) The RAP team uses satellite photos,
needed. They launched the Rapid Assessment aerial observation, and discussions with scien-
Program, or RAP, to speed the study of biodiver- tists and government officials in tropical coun-
sity. RAP sends small teams of experts to tropical tries to choose the locations it will visit.
habitats to quickly determine what kinds of Instead of taking an exhaustive, time-
organisms live there. The program focuses on consuming inventory of all species, the team
“hot spots,” threatened areas that are high in may focus on a few familiar groups. An inven-
tory of mammals, birds, fishes, flowering plants,
butterflies, and reptiles gives a good indication
of an area’s total biodiversity. A habitat with
many species of plants and birds, for example,
also probably has many species of bacteria,
insects, and other less conspicuous organisms.
Rare treasures
Loss of habitat threatens many
tropical rain forest species.
406 UNIT 4
C a re e r
Tropical rain forest
Tropical rain forests are home
Biologist
to many species.
RAP biologists
The Rewards of RAP Profile
RAP scientists describe their work
as exhausting but exhilarating.
“It’s what we live for,” says Tom
W hen biologists recognized that traditional field
research was gathering data too slowly, the
Rapid Assessment Program was born. Biologists
Schulenberg, an ornithologist (a help conduct short, intensive surveys to quickly fill
biologist who studies birds) and some of the gaps in the knowledge of biodiversity.
RAP team leader. “We’re always
scheming to get back to the Job Description
field.” While exploring new places, Biologists study all aspects of the biology of living
Schulenberg feels “an incredible things—anatomy, physiology, behavior, ecology, and
sense of excitement, knowing no evolutionary relationships. Their research may involve
other biologist has been there and lab work, field studies, or a combination of both.
everything you see is being seen for Many biologists work for universities, museums, or
the first time.” government agencies.
Job Duties
How RAP Helps Conserve Biologists who are members of a RAP team apply their
Biodiversity knowledge of basic biology in parts of the world that
Though less exciting than explor- are most important for saving species for future gen-
ing a rain forest, the next stage of erations. Working in remote areas far from medical
RAP is just as important. The scientists return to care has its dangers. Team members have been laid
the United States to analyze their data. They then low by bubonic plague, malaria, and hepatitis. Besides
present a report containing their recommenda- disease, they must also watch out for poisonous
tions to the host country. RAP scientists stress snakes, biting insects and spiders, and falling trees.
that their role is to provide scientifically sound Science/Math Career Preparation
advice, not to tell tropical countries how to man- Biology Mathematics
age their natural resources. They leave all deci- Zoology Genetics
sions to the individual governments. Using the
Botany Biochemistry
information from RAP reports, tropical coun-
tries can guide their land-use decisions to help Evolutionary biology
preserve biodiversity. ■

Science and Society Technology: PCR
1 What are the benefits of preserving biodi- 3 Who should get the benefits of biodiver-
versity? About 25 percent of medicines are derived sity? The enzyme that copies DNA during the
from chemicals made by plants. Research a medicine polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was isolated from
derived from a tropical plant. What plant was it iso- an archaebacterium that lives in Yellowstone
lated from? Where does the plant live? What disease National Park. Although PCR generates more than
or diseases is the medicine used to treat? $200 million in income each year, the federal govern-
2 What are other countries doing to preserve ment receives no royalties from the use of the
biodiversity? The government of many countries enzyme. Research this issue and then write an essay
throughout the world are participating in the compre- supporting or opposing this statement: Companies
hensive protection of the Earth’s biological resources. that profit from PCR should be required to compen-
Using library resources or the Internet, research the sate the government for using a species discovered
various measures these governments have taken to on federal land.
catalog and preserve biodiversity and write a report
summarizing your findings.

Exploring
UNIT 5 Diversity
Chapters
38 Introduction to the
19
Kingdoms of Life
20 Viruses and Bacteria
21 Protists
22 Fungi
Surrounded by protective
gear, a worker in a bio-
technology clean room is
isolated from contami-
nants in the surrounding
environment.

Microbes: Unseen Agents of Disease
Surgeons worked without

masks, gowns, and gloves?
Although this early operation
looks strange to us today, Dr. Joseph Lister was
actually ahead of his time. In the mid-1860s, Dr.
Lister became the first physician to treat patients
with an antiseptic during surgery. Lister recognized
that spraying an airborne mist of carbolic acid over
a patient reduced the likelihood of infections.
Read to learn how bacteria can cause disease.
Dr. Joseph Lister and patient in 1867
Physicians fight bacteria with a far

more sophisticated array of weapons
than those used by Dr. Lister and his
colleagues. Antibiotic drugs target infec-
tions throughout the body. What is the
Gram reaction?
Antibiotics
Some kinds of bacteria have become resistant to

certain antibiotics. When an antibiotic fails to
stop a bacterial infection, a physician will usually
prescribe a different antibiotic—and hope that it works. As antibiotics
are used with increasing frequency, strains of antibi-
otic-resistant bacteria (such as those that cause
drug-resistant tuberculosis) continue to www.scilinks.org
become more widespread. Read to discover Topic: Bacteria
Keyword: HX4018
how antibiotics kill bacteria.
Tuberculosis bacterium
409
Show jumper
A meadow

CHAPTER
19 Introduction to
the Kingdoms
of Life
1. Calculate the surface area–to–volume ratio
of a cell. (Chapter 3, Section 2) Introduction to Kingdoms
2. Summarize the characteristics of prokaryotes and Domains
and eukaryotes. (Chapter 3, Section 2) The Six Kingdoms of Life
3. Differentiate introns from exons. (Chapter 10, The Three Domains of Life
Section 2) The Domain Bacteria
The Domain Archaea
4. Identify the terms bacteria and archaebacteria
(Chapter 12, Section 2) and kingdom. (Chapter 14, The Domain Eukarya
Section 2)
5. Summarize the system of classification of Section 2
organisms. (Chapter 14, Section 1) Advent of Multicellularity
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the The Many Forms of Multicellularity
sections indicated. Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Fungi

Complex Multicellularity
When you look at a living thing, how do know if Kingdom Plantae
it is an animal or some other type of organism? Kingdom Animalia
Animals have a particular set of characteristics
that distinguish them from other organisms.
Develop a list of the characteristics you
look for when determining whether a
living thing is an animal.
www.scilinks.org
Members of the plant kingdom, such as the trees and
herbs shown, have many similar features, including
body organization and mode of nutrition. Scientists
group organisms according to similarities.
CHAPTER 19 Introduction to the Kingdoms of Life 411

Section 1 Introduction to
Kingdoms and Domains
Objectives The Six Kingdoms of Life
● Identify the characteristics Biologists have long organized living things into large groups called
used to classify kingdoms. kingdoms. For example, a hummingbird, an earthworm, an ele-
● Differentiate bacteria from phant, and a butterfly are all members of the animal kingdom. But
archaebacteria. what is an animal? Given the diversity of living things, it is easy to
forget that all living things have much in common. Focusing on a
Key Terms few fundamental characteristics makes it easier to see the related-
ness within kingdoms.
None
Cell Type Organisms are either prokaryotes, which have prokaryotic
cells, or eukaryotes, which have eukaryotic cells. Scientists generally
recognize two kingdoms of prokaryotes and four kingdoms of
eukaryotes.
Figure 1 Six kingdoms.
Cell Walls In four of the six kingdoms organisms have cell walls. In
Living organisms are divided
into six kingdoms and are one of the six kingdoms, organisms lack cell walls. In the remain-
grouped according to their cell ing kingdom, some organisms have cell walls and some do not.
type, complexity, and method Body Type Organisms are either unicellular or
for obtaining nutrition.
multicellular. Two kingdoms consist only of uni-
cellular organisms. Two other kingdoms have
both unicellular and multicellular organisms.
The two remaining kingdoms consist entirely of
multicellular organisms, many of which have
Animalia Plantae Fungi tissues and organs.
Nutrition Many organisms are autotrophs. Auto-
trophs make nutrients from inorganic materials.
Many other organisms are heterotrophs. Hetero-
trophs get nutrients by consuming other
organisms. Three kingdoms consist of both
autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms. One
kingdom consists of autotrophs. The other two
Protista
kingdoms have only heterotrophic organisms.
Today, biologists group organisms into six
kingdoms, based on their similarities: Eubacte-
ria, Archaebacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae,
and Animalia. Eubacteria and the Archaebacte-
Eubacteria ria were once grouped in the kingdom Monera,
which contained all the prokaryotes. However,
Archaebacteria data from RNA and DNA sequencing led biolo-
gists to divide the monerans into two distinct
kingdoms. Figure 1 shows how biologists think
the six kingdoms are related to one another.
412 CHAPTER 19 Introduction to the Kingdoms of Life

The Three Domains of Life
For many decades, scientists recognized two basic forms of life,
prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Then in 1977, the American scientist
Carl Woese and his colleagues proposed that some prokaryotes are
so fundamentally different from others that they merit their own
broad division.
Woese and his team based their proposal on comparisons of ribo-
somal RNA sequences. The scientists showed that the group of
prokaryotes that make up the kingdom Archaebacteria are more
closely related to eukaryotes than they are to the other kingdom of
prokaryotes, Eubacteria.
In 1996, scientists made the first comparison between complete
DNA sequences of an archaebacterium and a bacterium. In recog-
nition of the vast differences between the two groups of prokary-
otes, biologists have adopted a classification system that divides all
organisms into three superkingdoms, or domains: Bacteria,
Archaea, and Eukarya. Figure 2 shows how the three domains
are related.
The domain thought to be the oldest is Bacteria, which is
composed of the organisms in the kingdom Eubacteria. Archaea is www.scilinks.org
the second prokaryotic domain and is also composed of a single king- Topic: Domains of Life
dom, Archaebacteria. A third domain, Eukarya, contains all four of Keyword: HX4060
the eukaryotic kingdoms: Animalia (animals), Fungi (fungi), Plantae
(plants), and Protista (protists). As you can see in Figure 2, the rRNA
sequences of protists indicate that they are a very diverse group.
Figure 2 Three domains

This phylogenetic tree, based on rRNA sequences, demonstrates the
division of all living things into three broad domains.
Eukarya
Animals
Archaea
Bacteria
Fungi
Plants
Protists
SECTION 1 Introduction to Kingdoms and Domains 413

The Domain Bacteria
The domain Bacteria contains a single kingdom, the kingdom Eubac-
teria. Some scientists call this kingdom Bacteria. The common name
for its members is bacteria. Bacteria are prokaryotes that have the
Draw two overlapping
same kind of lipid in their cell membranes as do eukaryotes. Most
circles. Label one circle
“Bacteria” and the other cir- bacterial cells vary in size from 0.1 to 15 µm. Bacteria are found in
cle “Archaea.” In the circle practically every environment on Earth, and they affect humans every
labeled “Bacteria,” write day. Bacteria are similar in physical structure, with no internal com-
down the characteristics of partments, and they obtain nutrients in one of many different ways.
bacteria. Do the same for There are several key characteristics common to all bacteria.
the circle labeled “Archaea.”
Finally, in the area where the
circles overlap, write down Characteristics of Bacteria
the characteristics that the
Cell Wall Bacteria have strong exterior cell walls made of peptido-
two kingdoms share.
glycan (pep tih doh GLY kan), a weblike molecule complex made of
carbohydrate strands cross-linked by short peptide bridges.
Gene Translation Apparatus Scientists infer evolutionary relation-
ships between organisms based in part on the amino acid sequences
in their proteins. The amino acid sequences of the ribosome proteins
and RNA polymerases found in bacteria differ from those found in
eukaryotes or in archaebacteria. This information, together with data
from ribosomal RNA, is used to infer evolutionary relationships of
groups within the kingdom Eubacteria.
Kinds of Bacteria
Bacteria are the most abundant organisms on Earth. There are more
bacteria living in your mouth than there are mammals living on Earth.
Some bacteria cause disease. Other bacteria are used by humans to
process foods, such as the bacterium shown in Figure 3. Bacteria are
used to control agricultural pests, to produce various chemicals, and
to perform genetic engineering. Traditionally, bacteria have been clas-
sified according to their shape, the nature of their cell wall, and their
type of metabolism. Traditional groupings of bacteria may change,
Figure 3 Useful bacterium. however, as we get more information about their DNA and RNA.
Bacteria, such as Lactobacillus Some bacteria obtain energy from inorganic compounds such
bulgaricus, which turns milk as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and methane. Some bacteria
into yogurt, can be are photosynthetic and are found
useful to humans. in ocean and freshwater ecosys-
tems, where they are primary
producers. Other bacteria are het-
Magnification: 3,150 erotrophs. Some heterotrophic
bacteria are capable of living in
the absence of oxygen, while oth-
ers must have oxygen to live. Het-
erotrophic bacteria are important
decomposers in many ecosys-
tems. They are responsible for the
recycling of carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphorus.

The Domain Archaea
The domain Archaea also contains a single kingdom, the kingdom
Archaebacteria. Archaebacteria are prokaryotes that seem to have
diverged very early from the bacteria. They are more closely related The word archaebacteria
to eukaryotes than to bacteria. Although they are a diverse group, is from the Greek words
archaios, meaning
all archaebacteria have certain features in common. “ancient,” and baktron,
meaning “a staff” (which
Characteristics of Archaebacteria refers to the rodlike shape
of some bacteria).
Cell Wall and Membrane The cell walls of archaebacteria do not con-
tain peptidoglycan, as the cell walls of bacteria do. Archaebacteria
contain lipids very different from those of bacteria or eukaryotes.
Gene Structure and Translation As with the genes of eukaryotes, the
genes of archaebacteria are interrupted by introns. The ribosomal
proteins of archaebacteria are very similar to those of eukaryotes
and different from those of bacteria.
Kinds of Archaebacteria
The archaebacteria first identified by scientists live in extreme envi-
ronments, such as hot springs and salty lakes. This led scientists who
studied archaebacteria to think that all of these unusual organisms
live in very harsh environments. In recent years, however, scientists
have learned that archaebacteria are much more common than was
first thought. Several “signature sequences” of DNA are common to
all archaebacteria. Using these sequences as probes, scientists were
surprised to find archaebacteria in ordinary soil and even in sea-
water. There are three basic kinds of archaebacteria. Figure 4 Thermophile.
This species of Acidianus
Methanogens These archaebacteria obtain energy by combining brierleyi is a thermophilic
hydrogen gas, H2, and carbon dioxide, CO2, to form methane gas, bacterium and is found near
CH4. Methanogens live deep in volcanic vents.
the mud of swamps and are poi-
soned by even traces of oxygen.
Extremophiles A group of extre-
mophiles called thermophiles lives
in very hot places—up to 106ºC.
Figure 4 shows a thermophilic
species. Halophiles inhabit very
salty lakes that can be three times
as salty as seawater. Still other
extremophiles live in very acidic
places—with a pH below 1—or
under enormous pressure—up to
800 atmospheres.
Nonextreme Archaebacteria Non-
extreme archaebacteria grow in
all the same environments that
bacteria do.

The Domain Eukarya
The third domain of life, Eukarya, is made up of four kingdoms: Pro-
tista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Members of the domain Eukarya
are eukaryotes, organisms composed of eukaryotic cells. A complex
internal structure enabled eukaryotic cells to become larger and,
eventually, led to the evolution of multicellular life. While different in
many fundamental respects, eukaryotes share several key features.
Characteristics of Eukarya
Highly Organized Cell Interior All eukaryotes have cells with a
nucleus and other internal compartments. This allows specialization
of functions within a single cell.
Multicellularity True multicellularity, in which the activities of indi-
vidual cells are coordinated and the cells themselves are in contact,
occurs only in eukaryotes.
Sexual Reproduction Although exchange of genes occurs in bacteria,
genetic exchange in eukaryotes is a more regular process. Eukaryotes
have a life cycle that involves sexual reproduction. In this type of
reproduction, meiotic cell division forms haploid gametes, and two
gametes unite to form a diploid cell in fertilization. Genetic recom-
bination during meiosis and fertilization causes the offspring of
eukaryotes to vary widely, thus providing raw material for evolution.
Kinds of Eukaryotes
A wide variety of eukaryotes are unicellular. Most unicellular
eukaryotes are grouped in the kingdom Protista. Protista contains
both unicellular and multicellular organisms, many of which are
aquatic. The protists are grouped together primarily because they do
not fit in any other kingdom of eukaryotes.
Fungi are a group of heterotrophs that are mostly multicellular.
Fungi are composed of cells with cell walls of chitin. One group of
fungi, the yeasts, is unicellular. Many fungi live on and decompose
dead organisms, and many other fungi are parasitic.
Figure 5 Multicellular
eukaryotes. This jaguar and
the vegetation it lives among
are examples of complex
multicellular eukaryotes.

Plants and animals, such as those in Figure 5, are all multicellular
organisms. Almost all plants are autotrophs and have cells with cell
walls composed of cellulose. All animals are heterotrophs composed
of cells that do not have cell walls. Most plants and animals have tis-
sues and organs.
Table 1 below summarizes the major characteristics of the organ-
isms in the six kingdoms and three domains. You will learn more
about the structure and diversity of living things as you continue to
study biology.
Table 1 Kingdom and Domain Characteristics

Domain Kingdom Characteristics
Cell type Cell structure Body type Nutrition Example
Bacteria Eubacteria Prokaryotic Cell wall, Unicellular Autotrophic Enterobacteria

peptidoglycan and Spirochetes
heterotrophic
Archaea Archae- Prokaryotic Cell wall, no Unicellular Autotrophic Methanogens

bacteria peptidoglycan and
heterotrophic
Eukarya Protista Eukaryotic Mixed Unicellular Autotrophic Amoebas

and and Euglenas
multicellular heterotrophic Kelps
Eukarya Fungi Eukaryotic Cell wall, Unicellular Heterotrophic Yeasts

chitin and Mushrooms
multicellular
Eukarya Plantae Eukaryotic Cell wall, Multicellular Autotrophic Ferns

cellulose Pine trees
Eukarya Animalia Eukaryotic No cell wall Multicellular Heterotrophic Birds

Earthworms
Section 1 Review
Analyze the relationship between kingdoms and Critical Thinking Evaluating Conclusions
domains. Justify the division of prokaryotes into two
kingdoms.
Identify the characteristics that distinguish the
six kingdoms. Standardized Test Prep Organism X is a multi-
cellular, heterotrophic eukaryote whose cells lack
Describe how kingdom Eubacteria differs from cell walls. To which kingdom does organism X
kingdom Archaebacteria. belong?
A Animalia C Fungi
B Plantae D Archaebacteria

Section 2 Advent of Multicellularity
Objectives The Many Forms of Multicellularity
● Contrast the terms colony More than half of the biomass on Earth is composed of unicellular
and aggregate. organisms—prokaryotes and some eukaryotes. For these organ-
● List the characteristics isms, unicellularity has been tremendously successful. However,
of protists. many other organisms have found success not as individual cells
but as members of a coordinated group of cells. Groups of cells that
● List the characteristics of
fungi. live together can have different levels of cooperation, as shown in
Figure 6.
Key Terms
colonial organism
Colonies
aggregation Occasionally, the cell walls of bacteria adhere to one another. Some
multicellular bacteria, such as cyanobacteria, form filaments, sheets, or three-
differentiation dimensional formations of cells. These formations are not
tissue considered multicellular if the cells do not communicate and coor-
organ dinate their activities. Such bacteria may properly be considered
organ system colonial. A colonial organism is a group of cells that are perma-
protist
nently associated but that do not communicate with one another. A
hypha
colonial in the kingdom Protista is shown in Figure 6.
Aggregations
An aggregation (a gruh GAY shuhn) is a temporary collection of
cells that come together for a period of time and then separate. For
Figure 6 Multicellularity.
example, a plasmodial slime mold, such as the one shown in
Volvox is a colonial organism. Figure 6, is a unicellular organism (a member of the kingdom
Each is a hollow ball of hun- Protista) that spends most of its life moving about and feeding as
dreds or thousands of flagel- single-celled amoebas. When starved, however, these cells aggre-
lated cells embedded in a gate into a large group. This weblike mass produces spores, which
jellylike layer. A plasmodial are then dispersed to distant locations where there may be
slime mold is an aggregate
organism. Its cells form a large
more food.
mass temporarily.
Volvox sp. Plasmodial slime mold

True Multicellularity
A multicellular organism is an organism composed of many
cells that are permanently associated with one another, such
as the green alga shown in Figure 7. Multicellularity occurs
only in eukaryotes. While single cells cannot grow larger than
a certain size, multicellular organisms can be large. True
multicellularity occurs when individual cells are in contact
with each other and when their activities are coordinated.
Multicellularity enables cells to specialize in different
functions. With this division of labor, a multicellular organ-
ism can have cells that protect it. Other cells help the
organism move about, and still others play roles in repro-
duction and feeding. Cell specialization begins as a new
organism develops. For example, as a chicken develops
from an egg, new cells form by cell division. These cells
grow and undergo differentiation , the process by which Figure 7 Cell specialization.
cells develop a specialized form and function. This green alga has specialized
cells that hold it to the bottom
of ocean tidal pools. It has many
Complex Multicellularity other specialized cells.
Plants and animals have complex multicellularity. The specialized
cells of most plants and animals are organized into structures
called tissues and organs. A tissue is a distinct group of cells with
similar structure and function. Muscle, for example, is a tissue
composed of many muscle cells that work together. Different
tissues may be organized into an organ , which is a specialized
structure with a specific function. An example of an organ is the
heart, which is composed of muscle, nerve, and other tissues that
work together as a pump. Various organs that carry out a major
body function make up an organ system. The circulatory system,
which is composed of the heart, the blood vessels, and the blood
within them, is an example of an organ system. The relationships
between tissues, organs, and organ systems are shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8 Complex multicellularity

Specialized cells form tissue that makes up an organ called the lung. The lungs
and other organs constitute an organ system.
Tissue Lung Organ system
SECTION 2 Advent of Multicellularity 419

Kingdom Protista
Of the six kingdoms of organisms, the kingdom Protista is the most
diverse. Members of the kingdom Protista, protists, are defined on
the basis of a single characteristic: they are eukaryotes that are not
fungi, plants, or animals. Many are unicellular; in fact, all single-
celled eukaryotes (except yeasts) are protists. Some protists, such
as some kinds of algae, have cell specialization. Protists can vary
widely in size, as shown in Figure 9. Most are microscopic, but
some are as large as trees.
Protists are very diverse in many other ways. While all protists have
a cell membrane, some—including algae and slime molds—have
strong cell walls. Others—including diatoms and forams—produce
shells of glassy silica. Some protists are photosynthetic autotrophs.
Other protists are heterotrophs. Many protists move about, using
structures such as flagella, cilia, or pseudopods. Protists normally
reproduce asexually by means of mitotic cell division. When they are
under stress, many protists reproduce sexually. The most ecologically
important protists are probably the algae that live in the ocean and
Figure 9 Protists range in form the base of many ocean food chains.
size. Protists can be so small
that a microscope is required Kinds of Protists
to see them. Some multicellular
algae, such as the giant kelp
Biologists recognize several general groups of protists. The six groups
can be as tall as 100 m. listed below are based on physical or nutritional characteristics.
Magnification: 1,500 Protists That Use Pseudopodia Amoebas are protists that have flex-
ible surfaces with no cell walls or flagella; they move by using
extensions of cytoplasm called pseudopodia (soo doh POH dee uh).
Forams, by contrast, have porous shells through which long, thin
projections of cytoplasm can be extended.
Protists That Use Flagella Many protists, including autotrophs and
heterotrophs, move by using flagella. The ciliates, which have large
numbers of cilia, are so different from other protists that some biol-
ogists place them in a separate kingdom.
Protists with Double Shells Diatoms are photosynthetic protists
with unique double shells made of silica, like boxes with lids.
Entamoeba histolytica Diatoms are part of the plankton and may be found in fresh water
or in marine environments.
Photosynthetic Algae Algae are photosynthetic and are distinguished
by the kinds of chlorophyll they contain. Many algae are multi-
cellular and reproduce sexually. Algae may be found in marine and
freshwater environments.
Funguslike Protists Slime molds and water molds are often con-
fused with fungi because they aggregate in times of stress to form
spore-producing bodies. Slime molds are often found in fresh
water, in damp soil, and on forest floors.
Spore-Forming Protists Sporozoans are nonmotile unicellular
parasites that form spores. Responsible for many significant dis-
Giant kelp eases, including malaria, sporozoans have complex life cycles.

Kingdom Fungi
Fungi are a very unusual and successful group of organisms.
Although most fungi are multicellular, one group, the yeasts,
are unicellular. The cell walls of all fungal cells contain chitin,
the same tough material found in a crab’s shell. The bodies of
fungi consist of long strands of cells that are connected end to
end and that share cytoplasm. The slender strands of fungi,
like those in Figure 10, are called hyphae (HIE fee) (singular,
hypha). Often, hyphae are packed together to form complex
reproductive structures, such as mushrooms. Fungi reproduce
by a variety of asexual and sexual methods.
In the past, fungi were classified in the plant kingdom. Like Figure 10 Fungus. The
plants, fungi do not move from place to place. In addition, the gen- hyphae of fungi look like
eral appearance of many fungi is similar to that of plants. But, fungi threads or filaments when they
are viewed up close.
lack the green pigment chlorophyll and the ability to conduct
photosynthesis. Like animals, fungi are heterotrophs. Unlike most
animals, however, fungi do not ingest their food. Instead, fungi
obtain food by secreting digestive enzymes onto whatever they
grow on. Many fungi are saprophytes that live on dead organisms.
Many other fungi are parasites that live on living organisms and
cause diseases that affect plants and animals.
Real Life
Some wild mushrooms
Kinds of Fungi are deadly.
There are three phyla of fungi, and they are distinguished by their Mushrooms, the fruiting
type of reproductive structures. bodies of some fungi, are
Zygomycetes Zygomycetes (zie goh MIE seets) form structures for eaten by many people
sexual reproduction called zygosporangia. Zygomycetes include throughout the world. In
the United States, how-
species such as Rhizopus stolonifer, common bread mold. ever, up to 100 people die
Basidiomycetes Basidiomycetes (buh sih dee oh MIE seets) include each year from eating poi-
fungi that make mushrooms. Mushrooms are the sexual reproduc- sonous mushrooms.
tive structures produced by basidiomycetes. Basidiomycetes almost Always consult an expert
before eating any wild
always reproduce sexually. mushrooms.
Ascomycetes Ascomycetes (as koh MIE seets) form sexual spores in Finding Information
special saclike structures called asci. The sexual reproductive struc- Read about a common
ture formed by ascomycetes often resembles a cuplike structure poisonous species,
called an ascocarp. Amanita sp.
Section 2 Review
Differentiate a colony from an aggregation. Standardized Test Prep The process by which
cells become specialized in form and function
Describe the characteristics of the protists. during development is called
Describe the characteristics of the fungi. A association.
B aggregation.
Evaluate the argument that insects and fungi C differentiation.
are closely related because both have chitin D coordination.
covering their bodies.
SECTION 2 Advent of Multicellularity 421

Section 3 Complex Multicellularity
Objectives Kingdom Plantae
● List the levels of cellular Plants are complex multicellular autotrophs; they have specialized
organization that occur in cells and tissues. Most plants have several different types of cells
plants and animals. that are organized into many specialized tissues. For example,
● Name the characteristics of vascular (VAS kyoo lur) tissue is made up of specialized cells that
plants. play a role in transporting water and dissolved nutrients. Plant cells
● Identify the characteristics are different from all other cells in that their cell walls are com-
of animals. posed of cellulose, a complex carbohydrate.
Unlike many other organisms, plants cannot move from one
● Differentiate plants from
place to another. A few groups have motile sperm, but most plants
animals.
are rooted in the ground. Portable reproductive structures, such as
spores and seeds, enable the dispersal of plants.
Key Terms
As autotrophs, plants are the primary producers in most terres-
vascular tissue trial food webs. Thus, they provide the nutritional foundation for
invertebrate most terrestrial ecosystems. Plants also release oxygen gas to the
vertebrate
atmosphere. They are also very important in the cycling of phos-
phorus, water, nitrogen, and carbon.
Like the fungi, plants evolved on land and are the dominant
organisms on the surface of Earth. Plants cover every part of the
terrestrial landscape, except for the extreme polar regions and the
highest mountaintops.
Plants are sources of food for humans and other animals. They
are also a source of medicines, dyes, cloth, paper, and many other
products. As shown in Figure 11, plants vary in size from the 1 mm
tall duckweed (Wolffia microscopica) to the giant sequoia redwood
(Sequoia sempervirens), which can grow to over 90 m (296 ft) tall.
Figure 11 Range of plant

size. Plants can be as small
as duckweed or as large as a
redwood.
Duckweed Redwood tree

Figure 12 Seedless
plants. Mosses and ferns are
two groups of plants that do
not produce seeds.
Mosses Ferns
Kinds of Plants
There are four basic kinds of plants, as shown in Figure 12 and
Figure 13. They differ from one another according to the type of Figure 13 Seed plants.
vascular tissue and reproductive structures that they have. Plants that make seeds are
Nonvascular Plants Plants without a well-developed system of vas- either nonflowering, such as
the pine trees, or flowering,
cular tissues are called nonvascular plants. These plants are all
such as these bluebonnets.
relatively small. They lack the tissue to transport water and
dissolved nutrients. They also lack true roots, stems, and leaves.
Mosses, such as the one shown in Figure 12, are the most familiar
example of nonvascular plants.
Plants with a well-developed system of vascular tissues are called
vascular plants. Their larger, more-complex bodies are organized
into roots, stems, and leaves. Most plants are vascular plants. One
group of vascular plants, called seedless vascular plants, does not
produce seeds.
Seedless Vascular Plants Ferns are the most common and familiar
seedless vascular plants. They have roots, stems, and leaves, and
their surfaces are coated with a waxy covering that reduces water
loss. They reproduce with spores that are resistant to drying. Both
haploid and diploid phases occupy significant parts of the life cycle.
Most vascular plants produce seeds. Vascular plants that produce
Pine trees
seeds are called seed plants. There are two general types.
Nonflowering Seed Plants Gymnosperms (JIHM noh spuhrmz) are
vascular plants that reproduce using seeds but do not produce
flowers. Gymnosperms include plants that produce seeds in cones,
such as pines and spruces. Seeds enable plants to scatter offspring
and to survive long periods of harsh environmental conditions,
such as drought and extreme temperatures.
Flowering Seed Plants Most plants that produce seeds also produce
flowers. Flowering plants are called angiosperms (AN jee oh
spuhrmz). Angiosperms, such as roses, grasses, and oaks, produce
seeds in fruits. Fruits are structures that enable the dispersal
of seeds. Bluebonnets
SECTION 3 Complex Multicellularity 423

Kingdom Animalia
Animals are complex multicellular hetero-
trophs. Their cells are mostly diploid, lack a cell
wall, and are organized as tissues. In addition,
their zygotes develop through several stages.
These adaptations have enabled animals to be
successful in different habitats. The specialized
tissue called muscle enables animals to move
about readily. As illustrated in Figure 14, the
ability of animals to move more rapidly and in
more complex ways than members of other
kingdoms is one of their most interesting char-
Figure 14 A running acteristics. A remarkable form of movement
animal. This impala is unique to animals is flight, an ability that is well developed among
demonstrating the ability to both insects and vertebrates. Movement enables animals to avoid
avoid predators. Running is predators and to look for food and mates.
the result of several organ Most animals reproduce sexually. In animals, cells formed in
systems working well
meiosis function directly as gametes. The haploid cells do not
together.
divide by mitosis first, as they do in plants and fungi, but rather
fuse directly with one another to form the zygote. The zygote then
gradually develops into an adult, going through several develop-
mental stages.
Almost all animals (99 percent) are invertebrates ; that is, they lack
a backbone. Of the more than 1 million living species, only about
42,500 have a backbone; they are referred to as vertebrates. The ani-
mal kingdom includes about 35 phyla, most of which live in the sea.
Far fewer phyla live in fresh water, and fewer still live on land.
Kinds of Animals
Animals are very diverse in form, as shown in Figure 15. They can
range in size from 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) microscopic mites (Demodex fol-
licularum) that live on your skin to enormous whales, which are ver-
Figure 15 Variety of
animals. Organisms as
tebrates, and giant squids, which are invertebrates. Blue whales can
small as the mite share basic reach a length of 30 m (100 ft) and weigh up to 220 tons. The many
characteristics with organisms kinds of animals can be grouped by phylum.
as large as the whale.
Demodex follicularum Blue whale

Sponges Sponges, like the one shown in Figure 16, are the only ani-
mals that do not have tissues, but they do have specialized cells.
Cnidarians Cnidarians (nih DAYR ee uhnz) are mostly marine ani- After reading this section,
mals; they include jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals. make a list of the questions
Flatworms Flatworms have flat, ribbonlike bodies. Some are para- you have about multicellu-
larity. Exchange your list
sitic and live inside the bodies of animals. Others are freeliving and
with a partner, and find
may live in soil or water. answers to the questions.
Roundworms Nematodes, or roundworms, are small worms that
have long, very slender bodies. Some roundworms are freeliving in
soil or water, while others are parasites of animals and plants.
Segmented Worms Annelids, or segmented worms, live in both
water and soil and include the familiar earthworm. Bristled marine
worms are segmented worms, as are leeches, which can be blood-
sucking parasites.
Mollusks Mollusks have a saclike cavity called a coelom that
encloses internal organs. Mollusks are very diverse aquatic and ter-
restrial animals. They include snails, oysters, clams, octopuses, and
squids. Most mollusks have a hard external skeleton (a shell).
Arthropods By far the most diverse of all animals, arthropods have
an external skeleton. They also have jointed appendages, such as
antennae and jaws. These structures enable arthropods to sense Figure 16 Sponge.
their environment and obtain food. Two-thirds of all named species A sponge has specialized
of animals are arthropods, most of them insects. The high rate of cells in its body that enable
reproduction of insects has contributed to their success. it to eat and reproduce
sexually.
Echinoderms This group of inverte-
brates includes sea stars, sea urchins,
and sand dollars. Many echinoderms
(ee KIE noh duhrmz) are able to regen-
erate a lost limb. In fact, some echino-
derms can lose a limb to a predator in
order to escape that predator.
Invertebrate Chordates Invertebrate
chordates are aquatic animals that have
much in common with vertebrates,
though they do not have a backbone.
Some invertebrate chordate are swim-
mers that resemble fish, while others
live attached to a rock or other object.
Vertebrates have an internal skeleton
made of bone, a vertebral column
(backbone) that surrounds and protects
the spinal cord, and a head with a brain
contained in a bony skull. Vertebrates
include mammals, fish, birds, reptiles,
and amphibians.
SECTION 3 Complex Multicellularity 425

Ecological Roles
Animals fulfill various roles in an ecosystem. Some
animals are detritivores, animals that feed on waste
and dead tissue. The microscopic mites that live on
your body and eat dead skin cells are detritivores.
Other animals, such as buffalo that eat grass, are pri-
mary consumers. Many animals, such as humans,
bears, and lions, are secondary consumers that eat
primary consumers. Finally, some animals, such as
intestinal worms, act as parasites and may cause dis-
ease in other animals.
Modeling True
Multicellularity
In order to understand the advantage
that true multicellular organisms have
over colonial organisms, you will model
multicellular and colonial life.
Materials
two 15 ft lengths of rope, several objects
in the classroom
Procedure
1. Working as a class, divide 3. As each group carries out its 2. Infer why the first group to
into two groups. One group instructions, students model- finish was able to accomplish
will model a colonial organ- ing the true multicellular its task so quickly.
ism, and the other will model organism may talk with one
3. Choose which type of
a true multicellular organism. another, but students model-
organism is more advanced.
Your teacher will loosely tie a ing the colonial organism
Explain.
rope around each group. must remain silent.
4. Predict how the more
2. One student in each group Analysis
advanced organism could
will receive a set of instruc- 1. Identify which group fin- become more efficient.
tions for collecting objects ished the assigned task first.
from around the classroom.
Section 3 Review
Identify the type of cellular organization found Compare the characteristics of plants
only in plants and animals. and animals.
Describe the identifying characteristics of Standardized Test Prep Tissues are composed of
plants. distinct types of
A cells. C organ systems.
Relate the characteristics of animals to a
B organs. D organisms.
dog or a cat.

ZONE
1 Introduction to Kingdoms and Domains Section 1
None
● Members of the six kingdoms are grouped according to
their cell type, cell complexity, body type, and nutrition.
● Bacteria are heterotrophic and autotrophic prokaryotes
that have peptidoglycan in their cell wall.
● Bacteria are classified according to their nutrition, their cell
shape, and the nature of their cell wall.
● Archaebacteria are prokaryotes that have unusual lipids in
their cell membrane, have no peptidoglycan in their cell
wall, and have introns in their genes.
2 Advent of Multicellularity
Section 2
● A colonial organism is a group of cells that live together
colonial organism (418)
permanently but do not coordinate most cell activity. aggregation (418)
Aggregations are collections of cells that come together for multicellular (419)
a limited period of time. differentiation (419)
tissue (419)
● Only eukaryotes exhibit true multicellularity, which occurs organ (419)
when the activities of the individual cells are coordinated organ system (419)
and the cells are in contact with one another. protist (420)
hypha (421)
● Protists include multicellular and unicellular eukaryotes
and can be heterotrophs or autotrophs.
● Fungi are eukaryotic, principally multicellular heterotrophs
that exist mainly as slender hyphae.
3 Complex Multicellularity
● Specialized cells are organized into structures called tissues, Section 3
vascular tissue (422)
organs, and organ systems. These cells have special func-
invertebrate (424)
tions and coordinate their activities with one another. vertebrate (424)
● Plants are photosynthetic eukaryotes with tissues. Their
cells have cell walls.
● Plants are the primary producers in most terrestrial food
webs. They release oxygen gas and aid in resource cycling.
● Animals are multicellular heterotrophs with cells that lack a
cell wall, that are organized as tissues, and that are mostly
diploid. They reproduce sexually, and their zygotes develop
through several stages.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 7. How do cell walls differ among bacteria,

fungi, and plants?
1. Which of the following characteristics is not
used to classify organisms into kingdoms? 8. What evidence led Carl Woese to propose
a. cell type that archaebacteria should be classified
b. photosynthetic pigment separately from other prokaryotes?
c. body type 9. What criteria are used to classify organ-
d. nutrition isms as members of the kingdom Protista?
2. Eubacteria exhibit all of the following
except 10. Concept Mapping Construct a
a. nuclei. concept map that shows the characteristics
b. strong exterior walls made of of protists and fungi. Try to include the
peptidoglycan. following terms in your map: protists,
c. a lack of internal compartments. fungi, multicellularity, tissues, organs, organ
d. size less than 15 µ. systems, and hyphae.
3. Archaebacteria differ from eubacteria Critical Thinking
because archaebacteria
11. Applying Information How did the advent
a. have cell walls made of peptidoglycan.
of multicellularity enable organisms to
b. have cell membranes made of
grow in complexity?
phospholipids.
c. contain genes interrupted by introns. Alternative Assessment
d. cannot live in harsh environments.
12. Finding Information Use the media center
4. Tissues occur only in or Internet resources to find out what kind
a. animals and plants. of cell types and cell organization occurs in
b. animals. different kinds of organisms. What kind of
c. protists and plants. animals are scientists using now to research
d. animals and protists. basic questions about embryo development?
What questions are scientists asking, and
5. Animals differ from plants in that animals
what information are they finding? Prepare
a. have chlorophyll.
a poster to summarize your findings.
b. have no cell walls.
c. have eukaryotic cells. 13. Comparing Structures Visit the zoo, and
d. reproduce sexually. list the scientific names of all the animals
you see, or use your library to research 10
6. What information can you find in the
organisms. Record the scientific and
photograph below that indicates that the
common names of these organisms. For
bird is a complex multicellular organism?
each organism, identify a trait that led
taxonomists to classify the organism in its
particular genus or family.
14. Career Connection Zoologist Research the
field of zoology, and write a report on your
findings. Your report should include a job
description, training required, kinds of
employers, growth prospects, and a
starting salary.


correct answer.
Developmental biologists often study
1 In which kind of organization does the tissues and cells of simple animals in
multicellularity occur? order to understand more complex animals.
A. aggregates For example, they might study embryonic
B. archaebacteria development in fruit flies and echinoderms
C. eukaryotes in order to understand embryonic develop-
D. prokaryotes ment of more-complex animals.
2 Through what process do cells become 6 Why are the mechanisms of the processes
specialized? in simple and complex organisms often
F. aggregation similar?
G. colonialism A. There is a correspondence between cell
H. differentiation structures and their functions.
I. vascularization B. Processes can have only one kind of
mechanism that functions.
3 What term is used to describe an organism
C. Simple and complex organisms gener-
with cells that are permanently associated
ally belong to the same kingdom.
but do not communicate with one
D. Simple organisms are usually smaller
another?
copies of more-complex organisms.
A. aggregate
B. colonial Interpreting Graphics
C. complex
D. heterotrophic
4 How are the cells of multicellular fungi Phylogenetic Tree of Kingdoms
arranged?
F. in sheets Animalia Plantae Fungi
G. in tissues
H. in colonies
I. in filaments Protista
Directions (5): For the following question, Eubacteria

Archaebacteria
5 Paleontologists think that many different
organisms evolved in the history of Earth,
but not one kind of cell nor level of com-
plexity completely dominated Earth at any
one time. What mechanism could explain 7 Archaebacteria and Protista are placed
the diversity of life? on the same branch in the phylogenetic
tree because organisms of both kingdoms
Test have what in common?
F. similar ribosomal proteins
When using an illustration that has labels to answer G. similar lipids in their cell membranes
a question, read the labels carefully, and then check H. similar nuclear structures
that the answer you choose matches your interpreta- I. similar forms of multicellular
tion of the labels. organization

Skills Practice Lab
Surveying Kingdom Diversity
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Using a microscope • specimens from each of
• Comparing the six kingdoms
• compound microscopes
OBJECTIVES
• hand lenses or stereo-
• Observe representatives of microscopes
each of the six kingdoms.
• Compare and contrast
the organisms within a
kingdom.
• Analyze the similarities
and differences among the
six kingdoms.
ChemSafety
Before You Begin of six kingdoms of organisms. You will see

that each kingdom is distinct from the others.
Many biologists classify living things into six
kingdoms . The organisms in a kingdom have 1. Write a definition for each boldface term in
fundamental characteristics in common. For the previous paragraph and for each of the
example, the organisms of two kingdoms are following terms: tissue, organ, organ sys-
made of prokaryotic cells, while the organ- tem, autotroph, heterotroph.
isms in the other four kingdoms are made of 2. Make a data table similar to the one below.
eukaryotic cells. Some kingdoms contain 3. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a
only unicellular or colonial organisms, while question you would like to explore about
others contain only multicellular organisms. the kingdoms of organisms.
In this lab, you will examine representatives
DATA TABLE
Kingdom name Type of cells Level of organization Other characteristics Examples

Procedure PART B: Cleanup and Disposal
PART A: Conducting a Survey 9. Dispose of broken glass and solu-
tions in the designated waste con-
1. Put on safety goggles and a
tainers. Do not pour chemicals down the
lab apron.
drain or put lab materials in the trash
2. Visit the station for each kingdom listed unless your teacher tells you to do so.
below, and examine the specimens there.
10. Wash your hands thoroughly
Answer the questions, and record observa-
before you leave the lab and after
tions in your data table.
3. Archaebacteria Examine the prepared slides.
a. What does a microscope reveal about
the structure of archaebacteria?
b. How do these organisms get energy for 1. Summarizing Data What are the main
life processes? differences observed among the six
4. Eubacteria Examine the prepared slides. kingdoms?
a. What does a microscope reveal about 2. Recognizing Patterns How does the
the structure of eubacteria? size of bacterial cells compare with the
b. Would you consider Anabaena to be uni- cell size in the other kingdoms?
cellular or multicellular? Explain. 3. Analyzing Methods How did you deter-
c. How does Anabaena appear to obtain mine the cell type for each kingdom?
energy for life processes? Explain. 4. Inferring Conclusions Which kingdom
5. Protists Examine the prepared slides. exhibits the most diversity?
a. What does a microscope reveal about 5. Further Inquiry Write a new question
the structure of protozoans? about the kingdoms of life that could be
b. How do protozoans appear to obtain explored with another investigation.
energy for life processes? Explain.
c. Are the algae unicellular or multicellular?
Explain.
d. How do algae differ from protozoans?
6. Fungi Examine the specimens.
a. Are fungi unicellular or multicellular?
Explain.
b. What does a microscope reveal about
the structure of fungi?
c. How do the fungi appear to obtain
energy for life processes? Explain.
7. Plants Examine the specimens.
a. What is the most striking characteristic
On the Job
shared by these plants? A survey is a detailed study that is
b. What does a microscope reveal about conducted through observation and
the structure of plants? analysis. Do research to learn about the
8. Animals Examine the specimens. surveys conducted by a famous biologist,
such as Charles Darwin, Carl Linnaeus,
a. What is the most striking characteristic
or John James Audubon. For more about
shared by these animals?
careers, visit go.hrw.com and type in the
b. What is the most striking difference
among these animals?
CHAPTER 19 Introduction to the Kingdoms of Life 431

Show jumper
Streptococcus bacteria (10,200)

CHAPTER
20 Viruses
and Bacteria
1. List the properties of life. (Chapter 1,
Section 1) Viruses
Is a Virus Alive?
2. Define prokaryote. (Chapter 3,
Viral Structure
Section 2)
Viral Reproduction
3. Describe a bacteriophage. (Chapter 9,
How HIV Infects Cells
Section 1)
Viral Diseases
4. Differentiate DNA from RNA. (Chapter 10,
Section 1)
Section 2
sections indicated. Bacteria
Bacterial Structure
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria
Reading Activity Pathogenic Bacteria
Antibiotics
Take a break after reading each section of this Importance of Bacteria
tion. Reread the figure captions, and, for each
review the concepts addressed in the chapter
before you complete the Performance Zone
chapter review.
www.scilinks.org
Streptococcus bacteria include a number of strains
that can produce a wide range of illnesses. Some, like
“strep throat,” are easily treated. Others are rare and
require immediate medical attention.
CHAPTER 20 Viruses and Bacteria 433

Section 1 Viruses
Objectives Is a Virus Alive?
● Describe why a virus is Throughout the book, you have learned about the properties of life.
not considered a living All living things are made of cells, are able to grow and reproduce,
organism. and are guided by information stored in their DNA. The smallest
● Summarize the discovery of organisms that have these properties are prokaryotes. Viruses are
the tobacco mosaic virus. segments of nucleic acids contained in a protein coat. Viruses are not
● Describe the basic structure cells. Viruses are smaller than prokaryotes and range in size from
of a virus. about 20 nm to 250 nm (0.02–0.25 µm) in diameter. (One nanometer
is equal to 0.001µm or 0.00000004 in.) Most viruses, such as the Ebola
● Summarize the steps of
virus shown in Figure 1, can be seen only with an electron micro-
viral replication.
scope. Viruses are pathogens —agents that cause disease. Viruses
● Explain how HIV infects replicate by infecting cells and using the cell to make more viruses.
immune system cells. Because viruses do not have all the properties of life, biologists do not
consider them to be living. Viruses do not grow, do not have home-
Key Terms
ostasis, and do not metabolize. Because they cause diseases in many
virus organisms, viruses have a major impact on the living world.
pathogen
capsid
envelope
Discovery of Viruses
glycoprotein Near the end of the nineteenth century, scientists were trying to find
bacteriophage the cause of tobacco mosaic disease, which stunts the growth of
lytic tobacco plants. Scientists filtered bacteria from the sap of infected
provirus plants. They were surprised to find that the filtered sap could still
lysogenic cause uninfected plants to become infected. The scientists con-
prion
cluded that the pathogen is
viroid
smaller than a bacterium. The
pathogen was called a virus, a
Latin word meaning “poison.”
For many years after this
discovery, viruses were thought
to be tiny cells. In 1935, biolo-
gist Wendell Stanley of the
Rockefeller Institute purified
tobacco mosaic virus (TMV).
He crystalized the purified
virus. Stanley concluded that
TMV is a chemical rather than
an organism.
Each particle of TMV is
composed of RNA and protein.
Scientists were able to separate
Figure 1 Ebola virus.
This virus causes an
the RNA from the protein and
often-fatal disease and has reassemble the virus so that it
been recognized only could infect plants.
since 1976.
434 CHAPTER 20 Viruses and Bacteria

Viral Structure
The virus protein coat, or capsid, may contain either RNA or DNA,
but not both. RNA viruses include the human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV), which causes AIDS, influenza viruses, and rabies virus.
DNA viruses include those viruses that cause warts, chickenpox, and the properties of life as
mononucleosis. Many viruses, such as the influenza virus shown in defined in Chapter 1 and the
Figure 2, have a membrane, or envelope, surrounding the capsid. properties of viruses, make
The envelope helps the virus enter cells. It consists of proteins, a two-column list. In one
lipids, and glycoproteins (glie koh PROH teenz), which are proteins column, write the properties
of life. In the other column,
with attached carbohydrate molecules. Some viruses also contain
write the properties of life
specific enzymes. that viruses have.
Viruses exist in a variety of shapes. Some viruses, such as the
Ebola virus, shown in Figure 1, are long rods that form filaments.
Spherical viruses, such as the influenza virus shown in Figure 2,
typically are studded with receptors. These receptors help the virus
enter cells. A helical virus, like the tobacco mosaic virus shown in
Figure 2, is rodlike in appearance, with capsid proteins winding
around the core in a spiral. Polyhedral viruses have many sides and
are roughly spherical. The capsid of most polyhedral viruses has 20
triangular faces and 12 corners. This odd shape is an efficient one
for containing a viral genome. Figure 2 shows the polyhedral shape
of an adenovirus, which can cause several different kinds of infec-
tions in humans.
Viruses that infect bacteria, called bacteriophages , have a compli-
cated structure. A T4 bacteriophage, for example, has a polyhedron
capsid attached to a helical tail. A long DNA molecule is coiled within
the polyhedron.
Figure 2 Viral structures

Viruses can have characteristic shapes.
Magnification: 202,500 Magnification: 1,250,000 Magnification: 135,000
Influenza (enveloped) Tobacco mosaic virus (helical) Adenovirus (polyhedral)
SECTION 1 Viruses 435

Viral Reproduction
Viruses lack the enzymes necessary for metabolism and have no
structures to make protein. Therefore, viruses must rely on living
cells (host cells) for replication, as shown in Figure 3. Before a virus
can replicate, it must first infect a living cell. A plant virus, like
TMV, enters a plant cell through tiny tears in the cell wall at points
of injury. An animal virus enters its host cell by endocytosis. A bac-
terial virus, or bacteriophage, punches a hole in the bacterial cell
wall and injects its DNA into the cell.
Lytic Cycle
Figure 3 Bacteriophage
infecting a bacterium. The reproduction of bacterial viruses has been well studied. Inside
Bacteriophages (pink) first a cell, some viruses, such as T4—a virus that infects E. coli— will
attach to a bacterial cell (blue) set out on one of two paths: the lytic cycle or the lysogenic cycle.
and then push their DNA into In bacterial viruses, the cycle of viral infection, replication, and
it. The cell then produces cell destruction is called the lytic cycle. After the viral genes have
more viruses.
entered the cell, they use the host cell to replicate viral genes and to
make viral proteins, such as capsid proteins. The proteins are then
assembled with the replicated viral genomes to form complete
viruses. The host cell is broken open and releases newly made
viruses. Though reproduction in a single bacterial virus is illus-
trated here, these stages are common to infections by some other
viruses as well. The lytic cycle is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 Viral replication

in bacteria. The bacterial Lysogenic Cycle
virus, T4, provides a model by During an infection, some viruses stay inside the cells but do not
which viruses replicate make new viruses. Instead of producing virus particles, the viral
through the lytic cycle or gene is inserted into the host chromosome and is called a provirus .
lysogenic cycle.
Lytic cycle Lysogenic cycle

The virus attaches Bacterial
1 The provirus may
to a cell and chromosome 5 enter the lytic cycle.
injects DNA.
Many
cell
divisions
4 The cell
breaks open 2 4 The host cell
and releases divides normally.
Viral DNA
viruses.
enters the
lytic cycle
or lysogenic Viral DNA integrates
3 New viruses are
cycle. 3 with host DNA.
made.

Whenever the cell divides, the provirus also divides, resulting in two
infected host cells. In this cycle, called the lysogenic (lie soh JEHN
ihk) cycle, the viral genome replicates without destroying the host
cell. This cycle is shown in Figure 4. In some lysogenic viruses, a
change in the environment can cause the provirus to begin the lytic
cycle. This results in the destruction of the host cell.
In animal cells, viruses can replicate slowly so that the host cell
is not destroyed by the virus. For example, the virus that causes
cold sores in humans hides deep in the nerves of the face. When the
conditions in the body become favorable for the virus, such as
when a person is under stress, the virus then begins to cause tissue
damage that is seen as a cold sore or fever blister.
Host Cell Specificity

Viruses are often restricted to certain kinds of cells. For example,
TMV infects tobacco and related plants, but does not infect animals.
Scientists hypothesize that this specificity may be due to the viruses’
origin. Viruses may have originated when fragments of host genes
escaped or were expelled from cells. The hypothesis that viruses
originated from a variety of host cells may explain why there are so
many different kinds of viruses. Biologists think there are at least as
many kinds of viruses as there are kinds of organisms.
Structure of HIV—an
Enveloped Virus
Many viruses that infect only animals, Figure 5 HIV. HIV infects
such as the influenza virus shown in human white blood cells.
Figure 2, have an exterior viral enve- Glycoprotein
lope. Figure 5 shows human immun- Envelope

odeficiency virus (HIV), the virus that
causes acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS). Figure 5 illustrates Capsid
the envelope and other features com-
mon to several animal viruses. In
many cases, the viral envelope is com-
posed of a lipid bilayer derived from
the membrane of the host cell. On the
surface of the virus, glycoproteins are
embedded within the envelope.
Within the envelope lies the capsid,
which in turn encloses the virus’s
genetic material. In the case of HIV,
the genetic material is composed of
two molecules of single-stranded
RNA. The approximately 9,000 nucle-
RNA
otides of HIV make up nine genes.
Three of these genes are common to
many different viruses.

How HIV Infects Cells
HIV, shown in Figure 6, provides a good example of how animal
viruses enter cells. HIV entry is a two-step process. First, the virus
attaches to the cell at specific sites called receptors. Second, the
viral envelope fuses with the cell membrane, opens, and releases
the capsid into the host cell.
Attachment
Studding the surface of each HIV are spikes composed of a glyco-
protein. This particular glycoprotein precisely fits a human cell sur-
face receptor called CD4. Thus the HIV glycoprotein can bind to
any cell whose membrane has CD4 receptors. In humans, immune
system cells called lymphocytes and macrophages, as well as cer-
tain cells in the brain, possess CD4 receptors.
Entry into Macrophages

HIV cannot enter a cell merely by docking onto a CD4 receptor.
Rather, the HIV glycoprotein must also bind to a co-receptor called
CCR5. This binding to CCR5 allows the viral capsid to enter the cell.
Figure 7 shows the process of HIV infecting a cell. Because human
macrophages possess both CD4 and CCR5 receptors, HIV can enter
macrophages. Lymphocytes, which are critical to immune system
function, do not have CCR5 receptors. HIV therefore does not enter
lymphocytes until later in the course of HIV infection.
Replication
Once inside a cell, the HIV capsid comes apart and releases its con-
tents, which include the viral RNA. Accompanying the RNA is an
enzyme called reverse transcriptase. Reverse transcriptase uses the
viral RNA as a template for making a DNA version of the viral
genome. This process is mistake prone, so it creates many new
mutations in the viral genome. The viral DNA molecule then enters
the cell nucleus and becomes a part of, or integrates into, the host’s
DNA. The integrated viral DNA uses the host cell’s machinery to
direct the production of many copies of the virus. HIV doesn’t kill
the macrophage by rupturing it; instead, the new viruses are
Figure 6 HIV. The spherical released from the cell by budding. The new virus particle’s envelope
structure of HIV is visible in this is thus derived from the cell membrane.
transmission electron micrograph
of individual virus particles.
438 CHAPTER 20
CCR5
receptor
CH4
HIV coreceptor
HIV RNA
New
DNA
Reverse
transcriptase
Immune
system cell
The glycoprotein on HIV’s surface docks at The viral envelope fuses with the cell membrane.
a CD4 receptor. A co-receptor, CCR5, The capsid enters the cell. A DNA copy of the HIV
helps HIV enter the cell. RNA is made by viral reverse transcriptase.
HIV
RNA
HIV
HIV
proteins
Budding
The viral DNA integrates into the host New HIV particles exit macrophages
genome and directs synthesis of HIV by budding. HIV particles exit T cells by
proteins and HIV RNA. budding or bursting through the membrane.
AIDS
For years after the initial infection, HIV continues to replicate (and Figure 7 HIV infection.
mutate). Eventually and by chance, HIV’s surface glycoproteins HIV docks at specific receptors
change such that they now recognize a new co-receptor. This co- on cell membranes. The virus
is reproduced by the infected
receptor is found on the subset of lymphocytes called T cells.
cell.
Unlike its activity in macrophages, HIV reproduces in T cells and
then destroys them. This increases the number of virus particles in
the blood, which then infect other T cells, widening the circle of cell
death. It is this destruction of the body’s T cells that blocks the body’s
immune response and signals the onset of AIDS. AIDS is a disease in
which a person’s immune system is unable to defend against infec-
tions that do not normally occur in healthy individuals.
Usually, HIV-infected people do not develop AIDS symptoms until
years after infection. As a result, an HIV-infected individual can feel
healthy and still spread the virus to others. HIV is not passed from an
infected person to a healthy one through casual contact. It is trans-
mitted in body fluids (such as semen or vaginal fluid) through sexual
contact and in blood through the sharing of nonsterile needles. It is
also transmitted to infants during pregnancy or through breast milk.

Viral Diseases
Diseases caused by viruses have been known and feared for thou-
sands of years. Perhaps the most lethal virus in human history is
the influenza virus. Commonly known as the flu, influenza is char-
acterized by chills, fever, and muscular aches. The virus infects cells
of the upper respiratory tract. There the viruses replicate and
spread to new cells. About 22 million Americans and Europeans
died of flu during an 18-month period in 1918–1919. Table 1 lists
some familiar viral diseases.
Certain viruses can also cause some types of cancer. Recall that
cancer is a condition in which cells reproduce uncontrollably as a
result of the failure of mechanisms that control cell growth and
division. Viruses associated with human cancers include hepatitis B
(liver cancer), Epstein-Barr virus (Burkitt’s lymphoma), and human
papilloma virus (cervical cancer).
Table 1 Important Viral Diseases

Disease Description of illness How the disease is transmitted
Sexual contact, contaminated

AIDS Immune system failure
blood, or contaminated needles
Common cold Sinus congestion, muscle aches, cough, fever Inhalation, direct contact
Ebola High fever, uncontrollable bleeding Body fluids
Flulike symptoms, swollen liver,

Hepatitis A Contaminated blood, food, or water
yellow skin, painful joints
Flulike symptoms, swollen liver, yellow skin, Sexual contact, contaminated

Hepatitis B
painful joints; can cause liver cancer blood, or contaminated needles
Fever, chills, fatigue, cough, sore throat,

Influenza (flu) Inhalation
muscle aches, weakness, headache
Mumps Painful swelling in salivary glands Inhalation
Polio Fever, headache, stiff neck, possible paralysis Contaminated food or water
Mental depression, fever, restlessness,

Rabies difficulty swallowing, paralysis, Bite of infected animal
convulsions; fatal
SARS (Severe acute

High fever, headache, dry cough; can be fatal Inhalation, direct contact
respiratory syndrome)
Blisters, lesions, fever, malaise, blindness,

Smallpox Inhalation
disfiguring scars; often fatal
Fever, weakness, yellow skin; often fatal Bite of infected mosquito

Yellow fever

Emerging Viruses
Newly recognized viruses or viruses that have reappeared or spread
to new areas are called emerging viruses. These new pathogens are
www.scilinks.org
dangerous to public health. People become infected when they have Topic: Viral Diseases
contact with the normal hosts of these viruses. Keyword: HX4186
In 1999, a mosquito-borne virus called West Nile virus began to
spread across the United States. West Nile virus probably was
brought from overseas to America by an infected bird. While it is an
emerging virus in North America, West Nile virus is common in
Africa, eastern Europe, and western Asia. People who are infected
with the virus from mosquito bites typically experience mild flulike
symptoms. In some people, particularly the elderly, inflammation
of the brain may occur, which can be fatal.
First detected in the southwestern United States, hantavirus is
spread in rodent droppings and can cause a lethal illness in humans.
At least 38 percent of its human victims die.
Prions and Viroids

In 1982, the American scientist Stanley Prusiner, of Stanford Uni-
versity, described a new class of pathogens that he called prions
(PREE awnz). Prions are composed of proteins but have no nucleic
acid. A disease-causing prion is folded into a shape that does not Figure 8 Infected cow.
allow the prion to function. Contact with a prion will cause a nor- This cow, which is unable to
stand and walk, is showing
mal version of the protein to misfold, too. In this way the misfold- signs of mad cow disease.
ing spreads like a chain reaction.
Prions were first linked to a brain disease in
sheep called scrapie. Later, brain diseases such
as mad cow disease, displayed by the cow shown
in Figure 8, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease were
also associated with prions. Eating meat con-
taining the disease-causing prion can cause
infection.
A viroid (VEER oid) is a single strand of RNA
that has no capsid. Viroids are important infec-
tious disease agents in plants. Viroids have
affected economically important plants such as
cucumbers, potatoes, avocados, and oranges.
Section 1 Review
Compare the properties of viruses with the Describe how HIV causes AIDS.
properties of cells.
Critical Thinking Evaluate the argument that
Describe Stanley’s experiment with the emerging viruses are new viruses.
tobacco mosaic virus.
Viruses differ from cells
Name the parts of a virus. because viruses
A can grow. C have homeostasis.
List the steps by which viruses replicate.
B do not metabolize. D lack nucleic acids.

Section 2 Bacteria
Objectives Bacterial Structure
● List seven differences The prokaryotes referred to in this chapter as bacteria include the
between bacteria and organisms that compose the kingdom Eubacteria (Domain Bacteria)
eukaryotic cells. and the organisms that compose the kingdom Archaebacteria (Domain
● Describe three different Archaea). Bacteria differ from eukaryotes in at least seven ways.
ways bacteria can obtain 1. Internal compartmentalization. Bacteria are prokaryotes. Un-
energy. like eukaryotes, prokaryotes lack a cell nucleus. Many species of
● Describe the external and bacteria have no internal compartments or membrane systems.
internal structure of 2. Cell size. Most bacterial cells range in size between 1 and 5 ,
Escherichia coli. while eukaryotic cells tend to range between 10 and 100 .
● Distinguish two ways that There are, however, some very large bacteria—up to 750 —and
bacteria cause disease. some very small eukaryotic cells.
● Identify three ways that 3. Multicellularity. All bacteria are single cells. Some bacteria may
bacteria benefit humans. stick together or may form strands. These formations, however,
are not truly multicellular, and the activities of individual cells
Key Terms are not specialized.
pilus 4. Chromosomes. Bacterial chromosomes consist of a single cir-
bacillus cular piece of DNA. Eukaryotic chromosomes are linear pieces
coccus of DNA that are associated with proteins.
spirillum 5. Reproduction. Bacteria reproduce by binary fission, a process
capsule in which one cell pinches into two cells. In eukaryotes, however,
antibiotic
microtubules pull chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell dur-
endospore
conjugation ing mitosis. Afterward, the cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cell
anaerobic divides in half, forming two cells.
aerobic 6. Flagella. Bacterial flagella are simple structures composed of a
toxin single fiber of protein that spins like a corkscrew to move the cell.
Eukaryotic flagella are more-complex structures made of micro-
tubules that whip back and forth
rather than spin. Some bacteria
also have shorter, thicker out-
growths called pili (PIHL ee)
(singular, pilus), shown in Figure
9. Pili enable bacteria to attach to
Pilus surfaces or to other cells.
7. Metabolic diversity. Bacteria
have many metabolic abilities
Flagellum that eukaryotes lack. For exam-
ple, bacteria perform several
Figure 9 Flagella and different kinds of anaerobic
pili. Bacteria have
and aerobic processes, while
flagella that provide them
with movement and pili eukaryotes are mostly aerobic
that enable adherence to organisms.
surfaces. Proteus mirabilis

Bacterial Cell Shapes
A bacterial cell is usually one of three basic shapes, as shown in
Figure 10: bacillus (buh SIHL uhs), a rod-shaped cell; coccus
(KAHK us), a round-shaped cell; or spirillum (spy RIHL uhm), a
Prepare flash cards for each
spiral cell. A few kinds of bacteria aggregate into strands. Species of the Key Terms in this
that form filaments are indicated by the prefix strepto-, while chapter. On each card, write
species that form clusters are indicated by the prefix staphylo-. the term on one side and its
Members of the kingdom Eubacteria have a cell wall made of pep- definition on the other side.
tidoglycan, a network of polysaccharide molecules linked together Use the cards to review
with chains of amino acids. Outside the cell wall and membrane, meanings of the Key Terms.
many bacteria have a gel-like layer called a capsule . Members of the
kingdom Archaebacteria often lack cell walls.
Cell walls Eubacteria can have two types of cell walls, distin-
guished by a dye staining technique called the Gram stain. One
group is called Gram-negative, and the other Gram-positive.
Gram staining is important in medicine because the two groups
of eubacteria differ in their susceptibility to different antibiotics.
Antibiotics are chemicals that interfere with life processes in bac-
teria. Thus, Gram staining can help determine which antibiotic
would be most useful in fighting an infection.
Endospores Some bacteria form thick-walled endospores (EHN
doh spohrz) around their chromosomes and a small bit of cyto-
www.scilinks.org
plasm when they are exposed to harsh conditions. These conditions Topic: Bacteria
can be the depletion of nutrients, a drought, or high temperatures. Keyword: HX4018
Endospores can survive environmental stress and may germinate
years after they were formed, releasing new, active bacteria.
Pili Pili enable bacteria to adhere to the surface of sources of nutri-
tion, such as your skin. Some kinds of pili enable bacteria to
exchange genetic material through a process called conjugation.
Conjugation (kahn juh GAY shuhn) is a process in which two
organisms exchange genetic material. In prokaryotes, pili from one
bacterium adhere to a second bacterium, and genetic material is
transferred from the first bacterium to the second bacterium. Con-
jugation enables bacteria to spread genes within a population. Figure 10 Bacterial
shapes. Bacteria are usually
one of three shapes.
Magnification: 117,300 Magnification: 2,295
Bacillus (rod-shaped) Coccus (round-shaped) Spirillum (spiral-shaped)

E. coli Micrococcus luteus Spirillum volutans
SECTION 2 Bacteria 443

Obtaining Energy
Over 4,000 species of bacteria have been named, and probably many
Real Life more haven’t yet been discovered. Bacteria occur in the widest pos-
Big, big bacteria sible range of habitats and play key ecological roles in nearly all of
In 1999, scientists them. As you may recall from an earlier chapter, bacteria thrive in
announced the discovery hot springs, frigid arctic seas, and groundwater. They are even found
of the largest bacteria ever at high pressures in the deep sea and inside solid rock.
discovered. Thiomargarita
Bacteria can be classified in several different ways. Classifying
namibiensis was found off
the coast of Namibia. bacteria by the different ways in which they obtain energy, for exam-
More than 100 times larger ple, gives a good general sense of the great diversity among bacteria.
than the previously known Bacteria can also be classified according to their phylogenetic
largest bacterium, T. nami- relationships. By comparing the sequence of their ribosomal RNA,
biensis is 0.5 mm wide. scientists have determined that there are at least 12 phyla of eubac-
teria and four phyla of archaebacteria.
Photosynthesizers
A significant fraction of the world’s photosynthesis is carried out by
bacteria. Photosynthetic bacteria can be classified into four major
groups based on the photosynthetic pigments they contain: purple
nonsulfur bacteria, green sulfur bacteria, purple sulfur bacteria,
and cyanobacteria. Green sulfur bacteria and purple sulfur bacteria
Figure 11 Photosynthetic grow in anaerobic (oxygen-free) environments. They cannot use
bacterium. Anabaena is a water as a source of electrons for photosynthesis and instead use
photosynthetic cyanobac- sulfur compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide, H2S. Purple nonsulfur
terium in which individual cells bacteria use organic compounds, such as acids and carbohydrates,
adhere in filaments. The two as a source of electrons for photosynthesis.
large orange-colored cells are
encased in a structure where
Of particular importance are the cyanobacteria, which
nitrogen fixation occurs. often clump together in large mats of filaments. Recall that
cyanobacteria are thought to have made the Earth’s oxygen
atmosphere. Each filament is a chain of cells encased in a
continuous jellylike capsule. Many cyanobacteria, such as
species of Anabaena, shown in Figure 11, are capable of fix-
ing nitrogen.
Chemoautotrophs
Bacteria called chemoautotrophs (KEE moh AW toh trohfs)
obtain energy by removing electrons from inorganic mol-
ecules such as ammonia, NH3, and hydrogen sulfide, H2S, or
from organic molecules such as methane, CH4. In the presence
of one of these hydrogen-rich chemicals, chemoautotrophic
bacteria can manufacture all their own amino acids and pro-
teins. Chemoautotrophic bacteria that live in the soil, such as
Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter, are of great importance to the
environment and to agriculture. They have an important role
in the nitrogen cycle called nitrification. Nitrification, as you
may recall from an earlier chapter, is the process in which bac-
teria oxidize ammonia into nitrate. Nitrate is the form of
nitrogen most commonly used by plants.

Heterotrophs
Most bacteria are heterotrophs. Together with fungi,
heterotrophic bacteria are the principal decomposers
of the living world; they break down the bodies of dead
organisms and make the nutrients available to other
organisms. Many are aerobic , that is, they live in the
presence of oxygen. Some other bacteria can live with-
out oxygen.
Other activities of heterotrophic bacteria may be
helpful or harmful to humans. For example, more
than half of our antibiotics are produced by several
species of Streptomyces, a filamentous bacterium
found in soil. On the other hand, one species of
Staphylococcus can secrete a poison into food. This
poison causes nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting in peo-
ple who eat the Staphylococcus-contaminated food.
Species of the symbiotic bacteria Rhizobium are by Magnification: 1,440ⴛ
far the most important of all nitrogen-fixing organ-
isms. Rhizobium species are heterotrophic bacteria
that usually live within lumps on the roots of legumes Figure 12 Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria. The bacteria inside
(plants such as soybeans, beans, peas, peanuts, alfalfa, and clover),
the lumps on these soybean
as shown in Figure 12. Farmers take advantage of Rhizobium’s roots contain Rhizobium, a
nitrogen-fixing abilities when they “rotate” their crops every few nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
years and grow legumes, which replenish the soil with nitrogen-
containing compounds.
Bioterror Detectives
W hen a criminal commits a

crime, investigators look
for fingerprints at the crime
Anthrax is a lethal
bacterium that pro-
duces tough spores.
scene. But what happens when When anthrax spores
the criminal is a bioterrorist and were sent through the
the weapon is a deadly bac- mail in the fall of 2001,
terium? five people died.
The new field of forensic Investigators wanted to know the compared it to the genome
genomics offers investigators a source of the bacterium. They sequence of a known strain. In
new way to track bacteria to their thought it might have been stolen this case, researchers identified
source. Forensic genomics uses from a research laboratory. more than 60 genetic markers
genome sequencing to identify a Because labs work with specific that differed between the two
specific bacterial type—a subset strains, a bacterium could possi- strains. With time, genome
of a species—called a strain. bly be linked to one—and only sequencing of other anthrax
Just as a fingerprint can belong one—lab. strains will create a “library” of
to only one individual, the Scientists sequenced the genome markers, increasing the
genomic sequence of each dif- genome of the anthrax strain speed and success rate of future
ferent strain is unique. from the first victim. Then they identification attempts.

Up Close
Escherichia coli
● Scientific name: Escherichia coli
● Size: Up to 1 µm
● Habitat: Inhabits the intestines of many mammals
● Mode of nutrition: Heterotrophic
Characteristics
Cell structure E. coli is a Gram- Genetic material Like all bacteria,

negative eubacterium. It has a rigid cell E. coli has a single DNA molecule in the
wall composed of peptidoglycan. Outside form of a loop. E. coli has approxi-
▲
the cell wall lies the outer membrane, Cell wall mately 5,000 genes.
which is composed of lipids Outer membrane
and polysaccharides.
▲ DNA
Cell membrane
Ribosome
▼ Flagellum
Locomotion By
rotating its slender,
whiplike flagella, E. coli
propels itself through
its environment. Peptidoglycan
▼ Pili
Adherence Like many Gram-negative
bacteria, E. coli has pili—short, thin, hairlike
appendages. Pili can adhere to surfaces,
Reproduction Most bacteria including the surfaces of intestinal-lining
reproduce by binary fission, a process cells. Pili also join bacterial cells prior to
by which a single cell divides into two conjugation.
identical new cells. E. coli can divide
as often as every 20 minutes.
446 CHAPTER 20
CHAPTER # Chapter
Viruses Title
and Bacteria
Pathogenic Bacteria
In order to understand infectious diseases, think of your
body as a treasure chest full of resources. Your body has pro-
tein, minerals, fats, carbohydrates, and vitamins. You may
want to keep and use these resources, but so do many other
organisms, including the bacteria on and in your body. Bac-
teria have evolved various means of obtaining these
resources from you. In some cases, the competition for the
resources in your body can result in your becoming ill.
Bacteria Can Metabolize Their Host

Heterotrophic bacteria obtain nutrients by secreting
enzymes that break down complex organic structures in
their environment and then absorbing them. If that envi- Figure 13 Tuberculosis
in a lung. The red-stained
ronment is your throat or lungs, this can cause serious problems.
structures in this light
For example, tuberculosis, a disease of the lungs, is caused by micrograph are Mycobacterium
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, shown in Figure 13. Tuberculosis was tuberculosis, which cause
once one of the most common causes of death. In most cases, infec- tuberculosis.
tion occurs when tiny droplets of moisture that contain the bacteria
are inhaled. Some bacteria settle in the lungs, where they grow
using human tissue as their nutrients. The bacteria may also spread
to other parts of the body. Symptoms may include coughing up spu-
tum and blood, chest pain, fever, fatigue, weight loss, and loss of
appetite. If left untreated, death may occur as quickly as within 18
months but more commonly within 5 years. Other important bacte-
rial diseases are described in Table 2.
Table 2 Important Bacterial Diseases

How the disease is
Disease Description of illness Bacterium transmitted or caused
Anthrax Fever, severe difficulty breathing Bacillus anthracis Inhalation of spores

(respiratory)
Fever, bleeding, lymph nodes that form

Bubonic plague Yersinia pestis Bite of an infected flea
swellings called buboes; often fatal
Severe diarrhea and vomiting;

Cholera Vibrio cholerae Drinking contaminated water
often fatal if not treated
Dense collections of bacteria

Dental cavities Destruction of minerals in tooth Streptococcus mutans
in mouth
Lyme disease Rash, pain, swelling in joints Borrelia burgdorferi Bite of an infected tick
Tuberculosis Fever, cough, difficulty breathing Mycobacterium Inhalation

tuberculosis
Typhus Headache, high fever Rickettsia Bite of infected flea or louse

prowazekii

Not all bacteria are lethal. For example, some bacteria cause
everyday health problems, such as acne. Acne occurs in about 85
percent of teenagers. Bacteria, such as Propionibacterium acnes,
normally grow in an oil gland of the skin. They metabolize a certain
kind of oil produced by those glands. During puberty the oil glands
increase the amount of oil produced, and the bacterial population
on the skin increases greatly. The bacteria grow in the pores where
the oil normally flows, forming pimples and blackheads.
Bacterial Toxins
The second way bacteria cause disease is by secreting chemical
compounds into their environment. These chemicals, called toxins,
Figure 14 The effect of are poisonous to eukaryotic cells, as shown in Figure 14. Toxins can
bacterial toxins. This species be secreted into the body of an infected person or into a food in
of Streptococcus secretes a which bacteria are growing.
toxin that destroys red blood When bacteria grow in food and produce toxins, the toxins can
cells. The agar contains red
cause illness in humans who eat those contaminated foods. This
blood cells and clearly shows a
zone around the bacteria kind of illness is called an intoxication. For example, Staphylococ-
where the toxin has destroyed cus aureus causes the most common type of food poisoning. The
the red blood cells. symptoms include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. This type of poi-
soning is painful but is seldom fatal.
Another type of intoxication that is fatal occurs when food is not
canned properly. Sometimes canned food is not heated enough to
kill endospore-forming bacteria, such as Clostridium botulinum.
The bacteria can then grow and produce a deadly toxin that affects
the nervous system. A person who eats food that contains this toxin
then becomes ill with a disease called botulism, whose symptoms
include double vision and paralysis. People with botulism may die
because they are unable to breathe.
Some bacteria are responsible for other diseases reported in the
news, such as E. coli O157:H7, the cause of several outbreaks of
food poisoning in the United States. E. coli normally lives in our
intestines. However, if it acquires DNA that codes for the toxin
through conjugation, it can produce the toxin. E. coli poisoning is
associated with raw or improperly cooked ground beef.
Most bacteria can be killed by boiling water or various chemi-
cals. Using hot, soapy water to prevent contamination of our food
utensils and food supply is one way of preventing disease. Many
commercial antibacterial products can also be used to prevent bac-
terial contamination in the kitchen and in industrial food factories.
Biowarfare
Biowarfare is the deliberate exposure of people to biological toxins or
pathogens such as bacteria or viruses. The United States government
is justifiably concerned about the use of bioweapons—biological
toxins or pathogens suitable for mass infection—against military
personnel overseas and against civilians within the United States.
Biologists are working on new approaches to recognize the onset of
an attack with a bioweapon, to treat infected people, and to slow the
spread of any outbreak of disease.
Fungus
Antibiotics
In 1928, the British bacteriologist Alexander Fleming
noticed a fungus of the genus Penicillium growing on a
culture of S. aureus. He saw that bacteria did not grow near
the fungus. He concluded that the fungus was secreting a
substance that killed the bacteria, as shown in Figure 15.
Fleming isolated the substance and named it penicillin.
In the early 1940s, scientists found that penicillin was effec-
tive in treating many bacterial diseases, such as pneumonia.
Different antibiotics interfere with different cellular
processes. Because these processes do not occur in viruses,
antibiotics are not effective against them. Other anti-
biotics, such as tetracycline and ampicillin, have been Bacteria
discovered in nature or imitated chemically. Figure 15 Antibiotics
are naturally produced.
Alexander Fleming saw a plate
Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria of agar very similar to this one.
In recent years, some bacteria have become resistant to antibiotics. Notice how the bacteria do
Susceptible bacteria are eliminated from the population, and resis- not grow next to this fungus.
tant bacteria survive and reproduce, thus passing on their resistance
traits. Mutations for antibiotic resistance arise spontaneously in
bacterial populations as errors in DNA replication. There are many
individuals in a bacterial population, and bacteria multiply very
rapidly (doubling their numbers in as few as 20 minutes). Therefore,
a mutation that gives the bacteria a selective advantage can quickly
spread throughout a population.
Antibiotic Misuse Mutations that confer resistance to antibiotics are
strongly favored in bacterial populations being treated with an anti-
biotic. Usually, if the full course of the antibiotic is administered, all
the targeted bacteria are killed and there is no chance for a resistant
strain to develop. If antibiotic treatment ends prematurely, some of
the bacteria may survive. Which ones? The ones most resistant to the
antibiotic. A patient who does not take the full course of a prescribed
antibiotic is setting the stage for the development of antibiotic-
resistant bacteria.
Multiple-antibiotic Resistance A related problem can arise in a
patient being treated with two or more antibiotics at the same time.
This practice selects for bacteria that have acquired several antibi-
otic-resistance genes. A number of strains of Staphylococcus aureus
associated with severe infections of hospital patients (so-called hos-
pital staph) have appeared in recent years. These strains are resis-
tant to penicillin and a wide variety of other antibiotics, so
infections caused by these strains are very difficult to treat.
Recently, concern has arisen over the common use of antibacter-
ial soaps. Antibacterial soaps are marketed as a means of protecting
people from harmful bacteria. Their routine use, however, may favor
bacteria resistant to the antibacterial agents in the soap. Ultimately,
routine use of antibacterial soaps could reduce our ability to treat
common bacterial infections.

Importance of Bacteria
Despite the misery that some bacteria cause humans in the form of
disease and food spoilage, much of what bacteria do is extremely
important to our health and economic well-being.
Food and Chemical Production

Many of the foods that we eat are processed by specific kinds of
bacteria. For example, many fermented foods are produced with
the assistance of bacteria, as shown in Figure 16. These foods
include pickles, buttermilk, cheese, sauerkraut, olives, vinegar,
Figure 16 Swiss cheese. sourdough bread, and even some kinds of sausages.
In making Swiss cheese, bac- Humans are able to use different bacteria to produce different
teria grow in the cheese and kinds of chemicals for industrial uses, as shown in Figure 17. For
produce gas. As the cheese
example, different kinds of Clostridium species can make either
hardens these pockets of gas
remain, giving the cheese its acetone or butanol. These chemicals can be used to produce a large
characteristic holes. variety of other useful chemicals.
Genetic engineering companies use genetically engineered
bacteria to produce their many products, such as drugs for
medicine and complex chemicals for research.
Mining and Environmental Uses of Bacteria

Mining companies can use bacteria to concentrate desired ele-
ments from low-grade ore. Low-grade ore has a low percentage
of the desired mineral, but it also has sulfur compounds.
Chemoautotrophic bacteria can convert the sulfur into a solu-
ble compound, leaving the desired mineral behind. The sulfur
compound can be washed away with water, leaving only the
desired mineral. This technique can be used to harvest copper
Figure 17 Industrial or uranium.
fermenter. Bacteria can be Bacteria metabolize different organic chemicals and are
used to produce useful chemi- therefore used to help clean up environmental disasters such as
cals such as in this fermenter. petroleum and chemical spills. Powders containing petroleum-
metabolizing bacteria are used to help clean oil spills.
Section 2 Review
Construct a table that lists the seven ways Critical Thinking Defending a Theory
bacteria differ from eukaryotic cells. How does the growth of antibiotic resistance in
bacteria support the theory of evolution by
List the structures found in E. coli. natural selection?
Identify the relationship between photosyn- Standardized Test Prep Which disease is caused
thesis, heterotrophic metabolism, and by inhaling a bacterium?
chemoautotrophic metabolism. A cholera
Describe the relationship between metabolism, B botulism
toxins, bacteria, and disease. C E. coli food poisoning
D tuberculosis
List three ways bacteria are helpful.

ZONE
1 Viruses Section 1
virus (434)
● Viruses consist of segments of a nucleic acid contained in a pathogen (434)
protein coat, and some have an envelope. capsid (435)
envelope (435)
● Viruses do not have all of the characteristics of life and are glycoprotein (435)
therefore not considered to be alive. bacteriophage (435)
● Viruses replicate inside living cells. They enter a cell by lytic (436)
provirus (436)
injecting their genetic material into the cell, by slipping
lysogenic (437)
through tears in the plant cell wall, or by binding to mol- prion (441)
ecules on the cell surface. viroid (441)
● Some viruses replicate through a lytic cycle or a lysogenic
cycle.
● HIV replicates inside immune system cells, eventually
destroying them, leaving the host without adequate defense
against disease.
● Emerging viruses are newly recognized viruses or viruses
that have reappeared or spread to new areas.
● Viroids are infectious RNA molecules that cause disease in
plants, and prions are infectious proteins that cause disease
in certain animals.
Section 2
2 Bacteria pilus (442)
bacillus (443)
● Bacteria differ from eukaryotes in their cellular organiza- coccus (443)
tion, cell structures, and metabolic diversity. spirillum (443)
capsule (443)
● Bacteria can be classified into two groups according to their antibiotic (443)
cell wall structure. Gram staining can be used to distinguish endospore (443)
these two groups. conjugation (443)
anaerobic (444)
● Bacteria can transfer genes to one another by conjugation. aerobic (445)
● Bacteria are grouped according to their ribosomal RNA toxin (448)
sequences and the way they obtain energy.
● Bacteria cause disease by metabolizing nutrients in their
host or by releasing toxins, which damage their host.
● Bacterial disease can usually be fought with soap, chemi-
cals, and antibiotics.
● Bacteria are used to make foods, antibiotics, and chemicals;
to fix nitrogen; to clean the environment; and to cycle
important chemicals in the environment.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. If cold viruses invade your body, your

body’s immune system may destroy most
1. Unlike cells, viruses do not but not all of these viruses. How does your
a. grow. body’s immune system affect the evolution
b. have homeostasis. of the cold viruses?
c. metabolize.
d. All of the above 9. How can a “library” of
anthrax genome markers help scientists
2. What evidence led Stanley to conclude that identify unknown anthrax strains?
TMV is not a living organism?
a. The extract of TMV crystallized. 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
b. TMV is made of RNA and protein. map describing the relationships of
c. TMV reproduces only in cells. bacteria and viruses to diseases. Try to
d. The virus poisons tobacco plants. include the following terms in your map:
3. HIV infects and destroys bacteria, viruses, pathogen, emerging
a. skin cells. c. immune cells. viruses, antibiotics, and toxin.
b. red blood cells. d. bacterial cells.
Critical Thinking
4. Bacteria
11. Applying Information How does the
a. always have flagella.
increase of resistance to antiviral drugs in
b. are smaller than viruses.
HIV relate to the theory of evolution by
c. have aerobic or anaerobic
natural selection?
metabolism.
d. have a nucleus. 12. Evaluating Results In the 1520s, the Spanish
explorer Cortés and his armies introduced
5. Bacteria that do not require sunlight and
smallpox to the Americas. The death rate
obtain energy by removing electrons from
among the Native American people ranged
hydrogen-rich chemicals are called
from 50 to 90 percent compared with a
a. heterotrophs.
death rate of about 10 percent among
b. photosynthetic bacteria.
people in Europe. What accounts for the
c. cyanobacteria.
difference in death rates?
d. chemoautotrophs.
13. Career Connection Virologist Research the
6. Environmental spills of petroleum are
field of virology. Write a report on your
sometimes cleaned up using
findings that includes job description,
a. viroids. c. bacteria.
training required, kinds of employers,
b. prions. d. bacteriophages.
growth prospects, and starting salary.
7. Identify the pilus in the photo below.
A 14. Finding Information Research and write a
report on a preventable viral disease, such
as polio or smallpox. In your report, dis-
cuss the process scientists followed in
identifying the cause of the disease, isolat-
B
ing the virus, formulating a vaccine, and
testing the vaccine.
C


correct answer.
Many microbiologists oppose the use of
1 Which of the following is a type of virus antibiotics in patients with viral infections.
that infects bacteria? They claim that antibiotics will not help the
A. bacteriophage C. glycoprotein patient, because a virus does not carry out
B. emerging virus D. viroid any of the life processes that antibiotics
interrupt. Such overuse of antibiotics
2 The basic components of all viruses are a
encourages the proliferation of resistant
nucleic acid and what other structure?
strains of bacteria.
F. endospore H. icosahedron
G. glycoprotein I. protein coat 7 How does using an antibiotic promote
the proliferation of resistant strains of
3 What structure allows E. coli to move?
bacteria?
A. flagellum C. peptidoglycan
F. A virus is more effective at reproducing
B. nucleus D. pili
when there is an antibiotic.
4 When does a bacteriophage kill its host G. Antibiotics cause some bacteria to
cell? change into more dangerous bacteria.
F. while conjugating H. Mutated bacteria that are resistant to
G. during the lytic cycle the antibiotic will be naturally selected.
H. during the lysogenic cycle I. Antibiotics weaken the immune system,
I. while assembling the capsid which helps bacterial reproduction.
5 A person is infected by HIV, and the virus Interpreting Graphics
does not mutate while in the person’s
body. Why would that person not likely
experience immune system failure?
A. HIV must mutate before entering the Viral Replication in Bacteria
human body.
1
B. Only mutant HIV can be picked up by
the body’s macrophages.
C. Only after HIV mutates does it infect T
cells and destroy the immune system.
D. The immune system fails only when the
person is infected with a cold virus. 2
4
Directions (6): For the following item, write
a short response.
6 Compare and contrast prions, viroids, and

viruses. 3
Test 8 What is the virus doing to the bacteria in

step 1?
When using a diagram to answer a question, look in A. injecting its DNA
the image for evidence that supports your potential B. injecting its capsid
answer. C. withdrawing DNA
D. withdrawing proteins

Skills Practice Lab
Staining and Observing Bacteria
SKILLS • rubbing alcohol
• Using aseptic techniques
• paper towels
• Using a microscope
• 3 culture tubes of
bacteria (A, B, and C)
OBJECTIVES
• Prepare and stain wet • test-tube rack
mounts of bacteria. • sterile cotton swabs
• Identify different types of • Bunsen burner with
bacteria by their shape. striker
• microscope slide
MATERIALS
• forceps or wooden
• wax pencil alligator-type clothespin
• 3 microscope slides
• 150 mL beaker
• safety goggles
• methylene blue stain in
• lab apron dropper bottle
• disposable gloves • compound microscope
ChemSafety

Like all prokaryotes , bacteria are unicellular PART A: Observing Live Bacteria
organisms that sometimes form filaments or 1. Put on safety goggles, a lab
loose clusters of cells. They are prepared for apron, and disposable
viewing by making a smear , a slide on which gloves.
cells have been spread and dried. Treating
2. Use a wax pencil to label three micro-
the cells with a stain makes them more visi-
scope slides A, B, and C.
ble under magnification. In this lab, you will
stain, identify, and compare and contrast dif- 3. Use rubbing alcohol and paper towels
ferent types of bacteria. to clean the surface of your lab table
and gloves. Allow the table to air dry.
CAUTION: Alcohol is flammable. Do not
the paragraph above and for each of the
use alcohol near an open flame.
following terms: strepto, staphylo, coccus,
bacillus, spirillum. 4. Light a Bunsen burner with a striker.
CAUTION: Keep combustibles away
from flames. Do not light a Bunsen burner
when others in the room are using alcohol.
different kinds of bacteria.
5. Beginning with culture A, make a 11. Clean up your work area and all lab
smear of three different bacteria as equipment. Clean the surface of your
follows. Remove the cap from a culture lab table with rubbing alcohol. Return lab
tube. Note: Do not place the cap on the equipment to its proper place. Wash your
table. Pass the opening of the tube hands thoroughly before you leave the lab
through the flame of a Bunsen burner. and after you finish all work.
Lightly touch the tip of a sterile swab to
the bacterial culture. Pass the opening of
the tube through the flame again, and
replace the cap. Transfer a small amount 1. Summarizing Results Describe the
of the culture to the appropriately labeled shape and grouping of the cells of each
microscope slide by rubbing the swab on type of bacteria you observed.
the slide, and spread out to cover about 2. Analyzing Methods Why should the
half of the total slide area. Dispose of the test tube caps from the culture tubes (in
swab in a proper container. Repeat for Part B) not be placed on the table?
cultures B and C. 3. Evaluating Viewpoints Evaluate the
6. Allow your smears to air dry. Using micro- following advice: Always use caution
scope slide forceps, pick up each slide one when handling bacteria, even if the
at a time and pass it over the flame sev- bacteria is known to be harmless.
eral times. Let each slide cool. 4. Drawing Conclusions How did you
7. Using microscope slide forceps, classify the bacteria in cultures A, B, and
place one of your slides across the C, as a coccus, a bacillus, or a spirillum?
mouth of a 150 mL beaker half-filled with 5. Further Inquiry Write a new question
water. Place 2–3 drops of methylene blue about bacteria that could be explored
stain on the dried bacteria. Note: Do not with another investigation.
allow the stain to spill into the beaker.
CAUTION: Methylene blue will stain
your skin and clothing. Let the stain stay
on the slide for 2 minutes. Then dip the
slide into the water in the beaker several
times to rinse it. Blot the slide dry with a
paper towel. Note: Do not rub the slide.
8. Repeat step 7 for your other two slides.
9. Allow each slide to air dry, and then
observe them with a microscope. Make a
sketch of a few cells on each slide.
Compare your sketches to Figure 10, and
identify the type of bacteria on each slide.
PART B: Cleanup and Disposal On the Job

10. Dispose of slides, used swabs, solu- Microbiologists are scientists who study
tions, and broken glass in the desig- organisms too small to be seen by the
nated waste containers. Do not pour naked eye. Do research to discover how
chemicals down the drain or put lab microbiologists better our lives. For
materials in the trash unless your teacher more about careers, visit go.hrw.com and
tells you to do so. type in the keyword HX4 Careers.
CHAPTER 20 Viruses and Bacteria 455

A thorough knowledge of biology—

coupled with insight and hard
work—helped scientists track
down a killer.
Disease
Detectives
n May of 1993, a killer was on the loose in the As doctors and researchers began to investigate
I Four Corners area—New Mexico, Arizona, Utah,

and Colorado—in the southwestern United
States. Over the previous month, three young,
previously healthy people had died in a disturbingly
similar way in northwestern New Mexico. All of the
further, additional deaths came to light. Fearing
that these cases might signal the beginning of a
disease outbreak, officials decided to ask for help
from the federal Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia.
victims had come down with what seemed to be a
mild case of the flu—with fever, muscle aches, Catching a Killer Virus
weakness, and lung congestion. All three had been
rushed to the hospital gasping for breath, but even The CDC sent a team of disease investigators to
emergency treatment could not save them. the Four Corners area while researchers in
Autopsies revealed that all three victims had Atlanta tested blood and tissue samples from the
drowned. Their lungs had filled with plasma—the victims. One of the tests revealed that the victims
liquid part of the blood—that had leaked from the had been exposed to a kind of virus known as
tiny blood vessels within the lungs. What could a hantavirus.
cause such severe damage? Laboratory tests ruled This result was surprising. All known hanta-
out diseases with similar symptoms, including viruses from North America were harmless to
influenza, bubonic plague, and anthrax. humans. Furthermore, the hantaviruses that
cause disease in Asia and Europe attack the kid-
neys, not the lungs. But further testing
confirmed the result. The killer was a
hantavirus.
What is the virus like? Scientists
used one of biology’s most powerful
tools to find out—the polymerase chain
reaction, or PCR. PCR is a method of
making many copies of a particular
Source of the virus

Deer mice, which thrive on the seeds
of pinyon pine, were found to carry
Pinyon pine seeds
hantavirus, a dangerous pathogen.
456 UNIT 5
C a re e r
Four Corners area
Researchers were surprised to find Infectious
a deadly hantavirus here. Disease
Investigator
Disease investigator
DNA strand. The copying process Profile
requires a primer, a short piece of
DNA only a few nucleotides long
that becomes the beginning of the
D isease investigators never know what kind of
phone calls they will get. Their work is often like
detective work—trying to piece things together as
new strand. To investigate the char-
they seek to find out who has been infected, where,
acteristics of the new hantavirus,
and who else might have been exposed. The field of
CDC researchers made several
primers that shared nucleotide study that investigates the causes and controls of
sequences with known hantaviruses. disease outbreaks is called epidemiology.
By adding different primers to tissue Job Description
samples from the victims, the scien- Disease investigators are involved in preventing dis-
tists could “fish out” pieces of the ease outbreaks and in stopping outbreaks that do
virus’s genes and then determine occur from spreading. If there is an outbreak, these
their nucleotide sequence. scientists have to quickly identify the disease, deter-
mine how people are being infected, and take action
Determining the Cause to prevent more people from getting sick. Most dis-
of the Outbreak ease investigators work for local, state, or federal
government agencies.
Within a month of being called in, CDC scientists
had caught the killer and sequenced much of its Science/Math Career Preparation
genetic material. They called this new disease Microbiology Mathematics
hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, or HPS. Zoology Genetics
But scientists still needed to learn how HPS is Botany Biochemistry
transmitted and why the outbreak occurred
when it did. Elsewhere, researchers knew that
hantaviruses are carried by rodents—rats, mice,
and their relatives. To find out whether rodents Why had the disease not appeared before in the
also carried the new hantavirus, researchers Four Corners area? An unusually wet winter the
trapped thousands of rodents in and around the year before led to a bumper crop of pinyon pine
homes of the victims. About 30 percent of the seeds, the deer mouse’s favorite food. In turn, the
deer mice they caught tested positive for the deer mouse population boomed. The larger pop-
virus. These small mice—about 15 cm long—live ulation probably meant that mice entered homes
throughout most of the United States. more often and people were more likely to con-
tact them outdoors. ■
Science and Society Technology: PCR
1 What does the CDC do? Researchers from the 3 What are some other newly discovered dis-
CDC played a key role in solving the hantavirus mys- eases? HPS is just one of many emerging, or newly
tery. Use library resources or the Internet to find out discovered, diseases. Use library resources or the
more about the CDC. What is the CDC’s mission? Internet to research three other emerging diseases
What kinds of people work there? Where does the that have come to light in the last 30 years. Find out
CDC get its funding? where each disease was discovered, its cause, and
2 How is the hantavirus controlled? While its symptoms. How is PCR used in the study of
researching the CDC, investigate further for informa- emerging diseases?
tion on the hantavirus. Hantavirus infections come
from activities that involve humans and infected
rodents coming into contact with one another. What
measures can be taken to limit exposure to rodents?

Show jumper
Pond water protists

CHAPTER
21 Protists
1. Label the structures of a eukaryotic cell.
(Chapter 3, Section 3) Characteristics of Protists
Diversity
2. Describe the different kinds of photosynthetic
Reproduction
pigments that make photsynthesis possible.
3. Summarize the importance of sexual Section 2
reproduction. (Chapter 7, Section 2) Protist Diversity
4. Define the term plankton. (Chapter 16, Section 3) Ameboid Movement
5. Summarize the advantage of multicellularity. Algae
(Chapter 18, Section 2) Diatoms
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Flagellates
sections indicated. Protistan Molds
Sporozoans
Section 3
Reading Activity Protists and Health
List on a separate piece of paper all the words, Protists and Humans
phrases, and ideas that you associate with the Malaria
word protist. Share one or two of your ideas with
your classmates. Inquire of each other or the
teacher to clarify each of the ideas listed. After
all discussion is completed, write notes on your
paper about what you remember. Look over your
notes to see what you know about protists
based on your experience and discussion.
www.scilinks.org
An amazing world exists in a drop of pond water.
There you will find a whole landscape of single cells
that are independent organisms—the protists—the
most diverse of all the kingdoms.
CHAPTER 21 Protists 459

Section 1 Characteristics
of Protists
Objectives Diversity
● List the characteristics The most diverse of all organisms, protists are mostly unicellular,
of protists. microscopic organisms, such as the green scum you might find
● List three environments
growing on a rock in a pond. But a few protists are as complex and
where protists can be multicellular as the massive house-high seaweed called kelp, which
found. is found in the oceans.
● Identify the unifying features
of protists. Characteristics
● Distinguish asexual and The kingdom Protista (proh TEES tuh) consists of an unusually
sexual reproduction of diverse assortment of eukaryotes that exhibit a broad array of char-
Chlamydomonas. acteristics, as summarized in Figure 1. For example, some protists
are photosynthetic (like plants), some ingest food (like animals),
● Differentiate two ways
multicellular protists and some absorb their food (like fungi).
reproduce sexually. Some protists have flagella or cilia, which they can use for loco-
motion or to collect nutrients. Other protists use other means of
Key Terms locomotion. Protists are found almost everywhere there is water.
Many live in lakes and oceans, floating as plankton or anchored to
protozoan
rocks. They are also common inhabitants of damp soil and sand,
alga
zygospore
and they thrive in moist environments, such as leaf litter. Some
alternation of species are parasites.
generations Many protists have mechanisms for monitoring and responding
sporangium to stimuli in their environment. For example, some protists have
eyespots, small organelles containing light-sensitive pigments that
detect changes in the quality and intensity of light.
The First Eukaryotes

Protists—the first eukaryotes—are thought to have evolved about
1.5 billion years ago through the process of endosymbiosis. The
kingdom Protista contains life-forms similar to those that gave rise
to the three kingdoms of multicellular organisms—fungi, plants,
and animals.
Figure 1 Protist Protist Characteristic
characteristics. These char-
• Sexual reproduction
acteristics, which are found in
many eukaryotes, first evolved • Multicellularity
in protists. • Mitosis and meiosis
• Complex flagella and cilia
460 CHAPTER 21 Protists

Two important eukaryotic features that evolved among the pro-
tists are sexual reproduction and multicellularity. Many protists
www.scilinks.org
reproduce only asexually, by mitosis; some use meiosis and sexual
Topic: Protista
reproduction only in times of environmental stress; and others Keyword: HX4152
reproduce sexually most of the time.
Multicellularity involves a significant amount of coordination
among specialized cells. This trait evolved independently in differ-
ent groups of protists at different times. Early during the evolution
of protists, complex flagella and cilia also appeared.
What Unites Protists?

The kingdom Protista contains all eukaryotes that cannot be classi-
fied as animals, plants, or fungi. Protists lack the specialized
features that characterize the three other multicellular kingdoms.
Unlike plants and animals, protists do not reproduce by forming
embryos. Protists do not develop complex multicellular reproduc-
tive structures. The major phyla of protists are very different from
one another and, with a few exceptions, are only distantly related.
Historically, scientists have referred to heterotrophic protists as
protozoa and to photosynthetic protists as algae . These commonly
used terms are not formal classification categories. The major
phyla of protists are classified according to some of their distin-
guishing features in Table 1. This classification, however, does not
reflect the evolutionary relationships of protists.
Table 1 Some Important Protistan Phyla

Phylum Distinguishing features Mode of nutrition
Rhizopoda (amoebas) Move using

Heterotrophic
Foraminifera (forams) pseudopodia
Chlorophyta (green algae)

Rhodophyta (red algae) Typically multicellular Photosynthetic
Phaeophyta (brown algae)
Bacillariophyta (diatoms)
Dinoflagellata Typically unicellular Typically photosynthetic
Euglenophyta
Kinetoplastida
Move using flagella/cilia Heterotrophic
Ciliophora (ciliates)
Acrasiomycota
(cellular slime molds)
Myxomycota Funguslike Heterotrophic
(plasmodial slime molds)
Oomycota
Apicomplexa (sporozoans) Form spores Heterotrophic
SECTION 1 Characteristics of Protists 461

Reproduction
Reproduction in the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas is typi-
cal of unicellular protists. Chlamydomonas is unusual in that some
www.scilinks.org
species can form colonies. Colonial Chlamydomonas lose their fla-
Topic: Reproduction
in Protists gella and secrete a sticky fluid that binds each cell to its neighbors.
Keyword: HX4158 Chlamydomonas species reproduce sexually and asexually.
As a mature organism, the single-celled protist is haploid. When
it reproduces asexually, Chlamydomonas first absorbs its tail and
divides by mitosis, producing two to eight haploid cells called zoo-
spores, which remain within the wall of the parent cell. Mature
zoospores break out of the parent cell and grow to become
mature haploid cells.
Sexual Reproduction in
Unicellular Protists
During environmental stress, such as a shortage of nutrients,
Chlamydomonas species reproduce sexually. The haploid cell
divides first by mitosis to produce haploid gametes. After they are
released, a pair of gametes from different Chlamydomonas individ-
uals fuse to form a pair. This pair of gametes then shed their cell
walls and fuse into a diploid zygote with a thick protective wall
called a zygospore (ZIE goh spohr).
A zygospore can withstand unfavorable environmental condi-
tions for long periods of time. When environmental conditions
become favorable again, meiosis within the zygospore produces
haploid cells, which break out of the zygospore wall. These haploid
cells grow into mature cells, completing the sexual life cycle, as
Figure 2 Chlamydomonas shown in Figure 2.
reproduction. The unicellular
green algae in the genus
Chlamydomonas reproduce
sexually and asexually.
Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction
Meiosis Mitosis
Zygote
(2n)
Mature cell
(n)
Gametes
+ Mitosis
– Zoospores

Mature
sporophyte Meiosis
Mitosis
Zygote
Sporangia
Zoospores
Mitosis
Gametes
Fusion Gametophyte
Figure 3 Life cycle of

Sexual Reproduction in Multicellular Protists Ulva. The multicellular green
Sexual reproduction among multicellular protists occurs in many alga Ulva, or sea lettuce, has a
life cycle in which haploid and
different ways. Two of these are alternation of generations and
diploid individuals alternate.
conjugation.
Alternation of generations Ulva is a common genus of marine green
alga. Figure 3 shows that the reproductive cycle of Ulva, called
alternation of generations , is characterized by two distinct multi-
cellular phases. The diploid, spore-producing phase is called the
sporophyte generation. The haploid, gamete-producing phase is
called the gametophyte generation. The adult sporophyte alga has
reproductive cells called sporangia (spoh RAN jee uh), which pro-
duce haploid spores by meiosis. The spores grow into multicellular
haploid gametophytes. The mature gametophyte produces haploid
gametes that fuse and complete the life cycle by dividing through
mitosis to form a new diploid sporophyte.
Conjugation Spirogyra, a filamentous green alga species, reproduces
sexually by conjugation. Conjugation is the temporary union of two
protists to exchange nuclear material. The process begins when two
filaments align side by side. Part of the cell walls between adjacent
algae form a bridge between the cells. The nucleus of one cell then
passes through the tube into the adjacent cell. The two nuclei even-
tually form a resting spore, which produces a new haploid filament.
Section 1 Review
Critical Thinking Relating Concepts List three characteristics of protists.
Describe two ways sexual reproduction can
Standardized Test Prep All organisms in the
occur in multicellular protists.
kingdom Protista are
Summarize why protists are not classified with A unicellular. C eukaryotic.
the other three eukaryotic kingdoms. B parasitic. D photosynthetic.
SECTION 1 Characteristics of Protists 463

Section 2 Protist Diversity
Objectives Ameboid Movement
● Identify how amoebas and One of the most easily recognized groups of protists consists of
forams move. amoebas (uh MEE buhs) and forams. Amoebas and forams are uni-
● Describe the structure
cellular heterotrophs that have a unique form of locomotion called
of diatoms. ameboid movement.
● Contrast three kinds

of algae. Amoebas
Amoebas , members of the phylum Rhizopoda (RIE zoh POH duh),
● Differentiate three different
kinds of flagellates. are protists that move by using flexible, cytoplasmic extensions.
These extensions are called pseudopodia (soo doh POH dee uh),
● Summarize the general from the Greek words pseudo, meaning “false,” and podium, mean-
characteristics of a
ing “foot.” Because an amoeba has no cell walls or flagella, it is
Paramecium.
extremely flexible. During ameboid movement, a pseudopodium
bulges from the cell surface, stretches outward, and anchors itself
Key Terms
to a nearby surface. The cytoplasm from the rest of the amoeba
amoeba then flows into the pseudopodium. Pseudopodia can surround and
pseudopodium engulf food particles, as shown in Figure 4. Amoebas live in both
diatom
fresh water and salt water and are especially abundant in soil.
euglenoid
Meiosis and sexual reproduction do not occur in most amoebas.
kinetoplastid
cilium They reproduce by fission, dividing into two new cells. The major-
plasmodium ity of amoebas are free-living, but some species are parasites, such
as Entamoeba histolytica, the protist that causes amebic dysentery
in humans. These organisms are transmitted in contaminated food
or water.
Foraminifera
Figure 4 Pseudopodia.
Members of the phylum Foraminifera (foh ram ih NIHF ur uh), or
This amoeba is using its
pseudopodia to engulf a forams, are marine protists that typically live in sand or attach
smaller organism (in themselves to other organisms or rocks. Forams are characterized
yellow circle). by their porous shells, called tests. Tests usu-
Magnification: 205
ally have many chambers arranged in a
spiral shape. They resemble a tiny snail and
consist of organic material that contains
grains of calcium carbonate. Long, thin pro-
jections of cytoplasm extend through the
pores in the tests to aid in swimming and in
catching prey. Some forams also obtain
nourishment from algae that live symbioti-
cally under their tests.
The tests of dead forams have accumu-
lated on ocean floors over millions of years.
Their calcium carbonate shells helped form
the limestone deposits that are important
components of many land formations.

Algae
Algae are protists that are strict phototrophs. Some are unicellular,
others are multicellular. Algae are distinguished by the type of
Real Life
photosynthetic pigment they contain and by their cell or body shape. People eat and
use algae.
Many red algae are used
Green Algae in making food and food
Most green algae (phylum Chlorophyta) are freshwater unicellular additives. Agar is used to
organisms, but some are large, multicellular marine organisms, as prevent baked goods from
shown in Figure 5. They also exist as a major part of microscopic drying, to grow bacteria
marine plankton, inhabit damp soil, or even thrive within the cells in Petri dishes, and to
of other organisms as symbionts. Green algae contain the same pig- make gelatin capsules.
Carrageenan is used in
ments found in the chloroplasts of plants. Most green algae have paints, dairy products, and
sexual and asexual reproductive stages. cosmetics to help stabilize
their different ingredients.
Red Algae Finding Information
Read the labels on pack-
Red algae (phylum Rhodophyta) are mostly multicellular organ-
ages and cans at home,
isms found in warm ocean waters. Their red pigments are efficient to find out if they contain
at absorbing the light that penetrates deep waters. Some red algae, any agar or carrageenan.
as shown in Figure 5, have calcium carbonate in their cell walls.
Others are used to make agar and carrageenan (kayr uh GEE
nuhn). Red algae have a complex life cycle, usually involving alter-
nation of generations.
Figure 5 Three phyla of
algae. Ulva is a species of
Brown Algae green algae composed of a
Brown algae (phylum Phaeophyta) are multicellular and are found sheet of cells that is only two
cells thick. Coralline alga is a
mostly in marine environments. The larger brown algae known as
red alga that contributes to
kelp grow along coasts and provide food and shelter for many dif- the great coral reefs. Some
ferent kinds of organisms. They are among the largest organisms on species of the brown algae
Earth. Most brown algae reproduce by alternation of generations. Macrocystis can grow to a
length of more than 60 m.
Ulva species
Macrocystis species
Coralline alga
SECTION 2 Protist Diversity 465

Diatoms
Diatoms (DIE uh tahmz), members of the phylum Bacillariophyta,
are photosynthetic, unicellular protists with unique double shells.
The word amoeba is from The shells are made of silica and often have unique markings. Their
the Greek amoibe, meaning shells are like small boxes with lids, one half fitting inside the other.
“change.” Knowing this
Abundant in oceans and lakes, diatoms are important producers in
makes it easier to remem-
ber that amoebas are able the food chain. Diatoms can have one of two types of symmetry:
to change their shape. radial (like a wheel) or bilateral (two-sided). The empty shells of
diatoms form thick deposits that are mined commercially as
diatomaceous earth. Diatomaceous earth is used as an abrasive or
to add the sparkling quality to paint used on roads. Diatomaceous
earth is also sold as a natural control for pests, such as slugs, and
some insects, such as fleas. The sharp edges of the diatom shells cut
into the body of the pest, leading to its death.
Diatoms secrete chemicals through holes in their shells, enabling
them to move by gliding. Individuals are diploid and usually repro-
duce asexually. The two halves of the shell separate, and each half
regenerates another matching half. As a consequence of this model
of reproduction, diatoms tend to get smaller and smaller with each
generation. When an individual gets too small because of repeated
division, it slips out of its shell, grows to full size, and regenerates
a new shell. Sexual reproduction in diatoms is rare.
Magnification: 240
Observing Characteristics
of Diatoms
Try this activity to find out why diatomaceous
earth is used to make abrasives, fine filters,
and reflective paints.
Materials
pipet, water, microscope slide, toothpick, diatomaceous
earth, coverslip, compound microscope
Procedure Analysis
1. Using a pipet, place a drop of 4. Draw some of the diatoms 1. Label your drawings as
water in the center of a clean you see. radial or bilateral. Find out the
microscope slide. meanings of these terms and
5. Observe the wetmount under
how they apply to your
2. Use a toothpick to scoop up a low power as your partner
diatom drawings.
small amount of diatomaceous shines a flashlight (at a 45º
earth and mix it with the water angle) on the slide. Turn off 2. Select some characteristics
drop. Add a coverslip. the microscope’s light source you observed that are useful
so that only the flashlight is in classifying particular
3. Observe your wet mount
lighting the slide. Record your species of diatoms.
under both low and high
observations.
power of a compound 3. Interpret what you
microscope. observed when the flashlight
was shone on the slide.

Flagellates
Flagellates are protists that move using flagella. The three major
phyla of flagellates are the dinoflagellates, the zoomastigotes, and
the euglenoids.
Magnification: 450
Dinoflagellates
Dinoflagellates (DIE noh FLAJ uh layts), members of the phylum
Dinoflagellata are unicellular and most have two flagella. A few
kinds of dinoflagellates are found in fresh water, but most are
marine and make up part of the plankton. Most dinoflagellates
have a protective coat made of cellulose that is often encrusted
with silica, giving them unusual shapes, as shown in Figure 6.
Their flagella beat in two grooves—one encircling the body like
a belt, the other perpendicular to it. As a result, dinoflagellates
spin through the water like a top. A few dinoflagellates produce
powerful toxins. The poisonous “red tides” that occur frequently
in coastal areas are often associated with population explosions
of dinoflagellates. Dinoflagellates usually reproduce asexually by
mitosis, and they can be photosynthetic, heterotrophic, or both.
Figure 6 Dinoflagellates.
Euglenoids This dinoflagellate, Gonyaulax
Euglenoids (yoo GLEE noyds), members of the phylum Eugleno- tamarensis, moves using
phyta, are freshwater protists with two flagella. This group clearly flagella.
shows the difficulty of classifying protists as animals or plants.
About one-third of the 1,000 known species of euglenoids have
chloroplasts and are photosynthetic; other species lack chloro-
plasts, ingest their food, and are heterotrophic. A member of
Euglena, shown in Figure 7, has a protein scaffold called a pellicle
(PEHL ih kuhl) inside the cell membrane. Since the pellicle is flex-
ible, the euglenoid can change shape. A light-sensitive organ called
the eyespot helps orient the movements of these organisms toward
light. Reproduction in this phylum occurs by mitosis.
Figure 7 Euglena.
Euglena is a versatile protist. It
Kinetoplastids contains chloroplasts and is
Kinetoplastids , members of the phylum Kinetoplastida, are unicel- photosynthetic, but it is also
heterotrophic and can live
lular heterotrophs that have at least one flagellum, and some species
without light.
have thousands. While most reproduce only asexually, some are
Flagellum
known to produce gametes and
reproduce sexually. Kinetoplastids Pellicle
Food
are clearly related to euglenoids, reserve
and many taxonomists merge the Chloroplast
two phyla together. Some kineto-
plastids, such as the trypanosomes,
cause diseases such as African Eyespot
sleeping sickness in humans and Contractile
domestic animals. vacuole
Nucleus

Magnification: 148
Ciliates
Ciliates are the most complex and unusual of the pro-
tists. All members of the phylum Ciliophora (sih lee
AWF oh ruh) have large numbers of cilia , tightly packed
rows of short flagella used for movement, as shown in
Figure 8. Ciliates are complex unicellular heterotrophs.
The body wall of ciliates is a tough but flexible outer
pellicle that enables the organism to squeeze through or
move around many obstacles. The pellicle consists of
an outer membrane with numerous fluid-filled cavities
beneath it. Ciliates, such as Paramecium, shown in Up
Close: Paramecium, on the following page, form vac-
uoles for ingesting nutrients and regulating their water
balance.
Most ciliates have two types of nuclei within their
Figure 8 Ciliate. The cilia cells: micronuclei and larger macronuclei. The micro-
that surround this ciliate nuclei contain normal chromosomes that divide by
enable it to move and feed. mitosis. Macronuclei contain small pieces of DNA derived from the
micronuclei.
Reproduction in ciliates is usually by mitosis, with the body split-
ting in half. Cells divide asexually for about 700 generations and
then die if sexual reproduction has not occurred. Most ciliates can
engage in sexual reproduction through conjugation, a process in
which two cells unite and exchange genetic material.
Interpreting Competition Among Protists

Background
Protists, like all organisms, must compete
0100010110 Competition in Paramecia
011101010 with one another for nutrients. To examine
0010010001001 the effects of competition between two
1100100100010 P. aurelia
0000101001001 species of Paramecium, equal numbers of 100
Number of live organisms
1101010100100 alone
0101010010010 the paramecia were grown together P. aurelia
(dashed lines) and separately (solid lines). 80
Study the graph at right, and answer the
following questions. 60
P. caudatum
40
Analysis alone
1. Identify the Paramecium 4. Critical Thinking 20

that grew best alone. Predicting Outcomes
P. caudatum
In a natural setting there
2. Identify the variables in
would be more than two 2 4 6 8 10 12
this experiment.
organisms present. Predict Number of days
3. Critical Thinking the effect that the presence
Analyzing Data How of other organisms would
would you explain the differ- have on the growth of the
ence in the growth curves two species of Paramecium.
in the group that had both
organisms?

Up Close
Paramecium
● Scientific name: Paramecium caudatum
● Size: Microscopic; up to 1 mm long
● Habitat: Lives in freshwater streams and ponds
● Diet: Bacteria, small protists, organic debris
Characteristics
Nuclei Members of the genus Paramecium have two Surface P. caudatum, a ciliate, is covered with
nuclei. The macronucleus contains fragmented chromo- thousands of cilia arranged in rows along the cell.
somes used in routine cellular functions, and it divides Cilia beat in waves that move diagonally across the
by pinching in two. The micronucleus contains the cell’s cell, causing the protist to spin through the water.
chromosomes and divides by mitosis. P. caudatum is surrounded by a rigid protein
▲ Macronucleus covering called a pellicle.
▲ Cilia
Maintaining water concentration

Like other freshwater protists, P. caudatum
constantly absorbs water by osmosis.
P. caudatum gets rid of excess water
using its contractile vacuoles, saclike
organelles that expand, collecting
excess water, and then contract,
squeezing water out
of the cell.
▲ Contractile vacuole
Micronucleus
▼ Oral groove
Food vacuole
Nutrition Cilia lining the oral groove
create a “whirlpool” that helps capture
small bits of food. Food moves down
the funnel-shaped groove and is
Genetic variation P. caudatum generally reproduces asexually engulfed in a food vacuole combining
by binary fission. Genes are shuffled during a sexual process with digestive enzymes as it moves
called conjugation. through the cell. Undigested food is
released from the cell by exocytosis.

Protistan Molds
Protistan molds are heterotrophs with some mobility. They were
once thought to be related to fungi because of a similar appearance
and reproductive structures. However, the cell walls of protistan
molds contain different carbohydrates than fungal cell walls. Also,
protists carry out normal mitosis, whereas mitosis in fungi is
unusual, as you will learn later in this book.
Cellular Slime Molds

Cellular slime molds, members of the phylum Acrasiomycota (uh
KRAZ ee oh mie koh tuh), resemble amoebas but have distinct fea-
tures. The individual organisms behave as separate amoebas, moving
through the soil and ingesting bacteria. During environmental stress,
the individual amoebas gather together and move toward a fixed cen-
ter. There they form multicellular colonies called slugs. Each slug
develops a base, a stalk, and a swollen tip that develops spores, as
shown in Figure 9. Each of these spores, when released, becomes a
new amoeba, which then begins to feed and repeat the life cycle.
Plasmodial Slime Molds

Plasmodial slime molds, members of the phylum Myxomycota
Figure 9 Cellular (MIHKS oh MIE koh tuh), are a group of organisms that stream
slime mold. The individual along as a plasmodium , a mass of cytoplasm that looks like an ooz-
amoebas of Dictyostelium ing slime. As they move, they engulf bacteria and other organic
discoideum aggregate, move material, as shown in Figure 10. A plasmodial slime mold contains
in a mass called a slug, and many nuclei, but they are not separated by cell walls. If the plas-
form a stalked structure that
modium begins to dry out or starve, it divides into many small
contains spores.
mounds. Each mound produces a stalk tipped with a capsule in
which haploid spores develop. The spores are highly resistant to
hostile environmental conditions. When conditions are favorable,
Figure 10 Plasmodial the spores germinate and become haploid cells that are either
slime mold. A plasmodial amoeboid or flagellated. These haploid cells are able to fuse into
slime mold is a mass of cyto- diploid zygotes, which undergo mitosis and form a new plasmodium.
plasm containing many nuclei.
Other Molds
Oomycetes (oh oh MIE seets), members of the
phylum Oomycota, are the water molds, white
rusts, and downy mildews that often grow on dead
algae and dead animals in fresh water. All mem-
bers of the group either are parasites or feed on
dead organic matter. Oomycetes are unusual in
that their spores have two flagella: one pointed
forward, the other pointed backward. Many
oomycetes are plant pathogens, including
Phytophthora infestans, which causes late blight in
potatoes. This protist caused the failure of potato
crops in Ireland between 1845–1850, which led to
a famine that killed about 1 million people.

Sporozoans
Parasitic protists that form spores during their reproduction cycle
are called sporozoans. They are members of the phylum Apicom-
plexa and are nonmotile, unicellular parasites. All sporozoans are
parasitic and cause many serious diseases. Malaria, a sporozoan
disease, kills more people than any other infectious disease. Sporo-
zoans infect animals and are transmitted from host to host. There
are about 4,500 named species in the phylum Apicomplexa.
Sporozoans have complex life cycles that involve both asexual
and sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction involves the fertil-
ization of a large female gamete by a small, flagellated male
gamete. The resulting zygote forms a thick-walled structure that
makes the zygote resistant to drought and other unfavorable envi-
ronmental conditions. A few sporozoans are listed in Table 2.
Many sporozoans are transmitted from one host to another by
blood-feeding insects, such as mosquitoes, black flies, and midges.
Other sporozoans are transmitted in the feces of an infected ani-
mal, such as the one shown in Figure 11. The parasites infect a new
individual when that individual eats or drinks food or water that
has been contaminated with infected feces. Some sporozoans are
even transmitted through predation, such as when a cat becomes
infected by eating an infected mouse.
Figure 11 Cryptosporidium.
Cryptosporidia (stained purple)
Table 2 Some Sporozoans and Their Hosts are found in the feces of
infected animals. In the 1980s
Sporozoans Disease Hosts and 1990s, water supplies in
several cities in the United
States became infected with
Plasmodium sp. Malaria Humans and other vertebrates these sporozoans.
Toxoplasma sp. Toxoplasmosis Humans and cats
Babesia sp. Cattle tick fever Cattle, mice, humans, deer, dogs
Cryptosporidium Cryptosporidiosis Cattle, humans, birds, deer,

sp. (diarrhea) dogs, cats
Section 2 Review
Describe a pseudopodium. Critical Thinking Evaluating Viewpoints
“Euglena is a protozoan, not an alga.” Is this an
Identify the role of diatoms in the aquatic accurate statement? Why or why not?
food chain.
Standardized Test Prep The disease cryp-
Construct a table that compares three kinds tosporidiosis is caused by a parasitic protist
of algae. that forms resistant stages called
A spores. C kinetoplastids.
Explain how protistan molds differ from fungi.
B slime molds. D pseudopodia.

Section 3 Protists and Health
Objectives Protists and Humans
● Identify two ways that One of the greatest effects protists have on humans is that they
protists affect human cause disease. This effect can be measured in pain, death, and the
health. medical costs of preventing and treating diseases. Some diseases
● Name three human diseases, caused by protists are listed in Table 3.
other than malaria, caused Protists also affect humans through the diseases they cause in
by protists. livestock. The added cost of treating diseased livestock is passed on
● Summarize how malaria
to consumers in the form of higher meat prices. This increased cost
is transmitted. of living hinders progress in the developing world.
● Evaluate the methods used

to control malaria. Beneficial Protists
There are many commensal protists that live in the digestive tracts
Key Terms of humans and in the digestive tracts of the animals that humans
eat. Cattle could not digest the cellulose in the hay and grass they
sporozoite
merozoite
eat without the aid of commensal protists in their digestive tract.
Protists, which make up much of the plankton in the ocean, help
to support food chains. Protists are also the single largest group of
photosynthesizers on the planet. Because we all breathe oxygen, we
all benefit from the gas that protists produce. Many protists are also
detritivores, so they help recycle important chemicals, such as
nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus, in the environment.
Table 3 Diseases Caused by Protists
Disease Description of illness Protist How the disease

is transmitted
African
Fever, weakness, Trypanosoma gambiense, Bite from infected
sleeping
lethargy Trypanosoma rhodesiense tsetse fly
sickness
Bloody diarrhea, vomiting,

Amebic Contaminated food
extremely strong stomach Entamoeba histolytica
dysentery or water
cramps, fever
Cramps, nausea, diarrhea, Contaminated food

Giardiasis Giardia lamblia
vomiting or water
Bite from infected

Malaria Fever, chills, sweats Plasmodium sp.
mosquito
Primary danger is fetal

Contact with infected
infection; can cause convulsions,
Toxoplasmosis Toxoplasma gondii cats or improperly
brain damage, blindness,
cooked meat
and death in fetuses

Malaria
Malaria is one of the most deadly diseases in humans. Over 100 mil-
lion people have malaria at any one time, and up to 3 million
people, mostly children, die from it every year.
The symptoms include severe chills, fever, sweating, confusion,
and great thirst. Victims die of anemia, kidney failure, or brain
damage unless the disease is treated.
Malaria Life Cycle

Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium and is spread by
the bite of certain mosquitoes. There are three stages in the
Plasmodium life cycle, as shown in Figure 12. When an infected
mosquito bites a human to obtain blood, it injects saliva that
contains a chemical that prevents the blood from clotting. If the Figure 12 Life cycle of
mosquito is infected with Plasmodium, it will also inject about 1,000 Plasmodium. Plasmodium
protists with its saliva. This infective stage of Plasmodium is called has a complex life cycle that
involves a mosquito, human
the sporozoite . Sporozoites blood, and liver cells.
infect the liver, where they
rapidly divide and produce mil- Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction
lions of cells of the second
stage of the life cycle, called the
merozoite . Merozoites infect 1 As an infected mosquito
red blood cells and divide bites a human, it injects
Plasmodium sporozoites.
rapidly. In about 48 hours, the
blood cells rupture, releasing
more merozoites and toxic sub- 2 The sporozoites infect
stances. This begins a cycle of the liver cells and develop
into merozoites, which
fever and chills that character- are released.
izes malaria. The cycle repeats
every 48–72 hours (depending 5 The gametes Sporozoites
on which species is causing the join inside Liver
the mosquito
infection) as more blood cells and produce
are infected and destroyed. sporozoites. Merozoites
In the third stage, some of
the merozoites in the blood
develop into gametes. After
these gametes are eaten by a
mosquito, male and female
gametes fuse to form zygotes. 48 –72 hour
cycle
The zygotes divide many times
to form many sporozoites, 4 Some of the
which migrate to the salivary merozoites develop
into gametes. When Red blood
glands of the mosquito. Unlike the infected person is cells
humans, the mosquito cannot bitten by a mosquito,
3 The merozoites infect red
the gametes are
regurgitate food or mix saliva blood cells, multiply, and
taken up.
and food in its mouth; there- infect new red blood cells.
fore, the malaria parasite must

mature in the mosquito before
it can infect another human.
SECTION 3 Protists and Health 473

Treating and Preventing Malaria
In the middle of the seventeenth century, quinine (KWIE nien), a
chemical derived from the bark of the cinchona tree (Cinchona offi-
cialis, found in South America) was discovered to be a remedy for
malaria. Derivatives of quinine, such as chloroquine and pri-
maquine, are now used to treat malaria.
Malaria can also be controlled by reducing mosquito populations.
This is done by spraying insecticides, reducing mosquito breeding
places, and introducing animals that will eat mosquito larvae, such
as mosquito fish.
Making a Malaria Vaccine
W ith their bodies racked by

fever as high as 40°C
(104°F) and chills so intense that
immune system to attack only
one stage. If a few parasites sur-
vive, they could produce millions
their teeth chatter, up to 3 million of new parasites. A second prob-
people needlessly die of malaria lem is that Plasmodium parasites
every year. The worldwide epi- spend much of their time inside
demic of malaria is becoming human liver and red blood cells,
more dangerous as malaria para- where the immune system cannot
sites become resistant to the find them. World-wide efforts to develop
standard drug treatments. To con- an effective malaria vaccine have
Current Approaches
trol the epidemic, scientists are produced many failures and a
trying to make a malaria vaccine. Scientists have identified surface few partial successes. Scientists
proteins of Plasmodium sporo- are still working on ways to make
Making the Malaria zoites and merozoites and can the immune system’s response
Vaccine Work make large amounts of these to the vaccines stronger and
For a vaccine to work against a proteins. They hope that an injec- longer lasting.
parasite, it must stimulate the tion of these proteins into human
body’s immune cells to recognize volunteers will give the volun-
and attack specific molecules on teers’ immune cells a chance to
the surface of the parasite. But recognize the proteins and pre- www.scilinks.org
Plasmodium goes through several pare for infection. If these people Topic: Malaria Vaccine
stages inside the human body, are later infected by a mosquito, Keyword: HX4117
and each stage can have many their cells may be able to attack
different surface molecules. There- Plasmodium before the para-
fore, a vaccine may cause the site can enter their liver cells.
Section 3 Review
Summarize two different ways protists affect Standardized Test Prep In the life cycle of Plasmo-
human health. dium, the parasite that causes malaria, where do
the parasite’s gametes combine to form a zygote?
Describe three human diseases caused by
A in the human liver C inside a tsetse fly
protists.
B inside human D inside a mosquito
Describe how malaria is transmitted. blood cells

ZONE
1 Characteristics of Protists Section 1
protozoan (461)
● The kingdom Protista contains the most diverse groups alga (461)
of eukaryotic organisms of any kingdom. zygospore (462)
● Protists live in moist environments and can be either alternation of generations (463)
sporangium (463)
free-living or parasitic.
● Some protists are able to reproduce sexually in times of
stressful environmental conditions.
2 Protist Diversity Section 2

amoeba (464)
● Amoebas and forams are protists that move using pseudopodium (464)
cytoplasmic extensions called pseudopodia. diatom (466)
euglenoid (467)
● Diatoms are unicellular protists with glasslike double shells.
kinetoplastid (467)
● Algae are strictly photosynthetic protists that can be multi- cilium (468)
cellular or unicellular. Algae are classified according to the plasmodium (470)
type of photosynthetic pigment they contain.
● Flagellates move with the use of flagella.
● Ciliates are unicellular protists that use cilia to move.
● Protistan molds resemble fungi, but they are considered
protists.
● Cellular slime molds normally live as individual cells and
aggregate during times of stress.
● Plasmodial slime molds live as colonial organisms and form
sexual reproductive structures that form and spread spores.
● Oomycetes are molds that live as saprophytes or parasites.
● All sporozoans are parasitic and have complex life cycles.
3 Protists and Health Section 3

sporozoite (473)
● Protists negatively affect human health by causing diseases merozoite (473)
in humans and their food sources.
● Protists positively affect human health through their
participation in food webs, through commensal relationships
with humans and their food sources, and by recycling
vital resources.
● Protists cause diseases such as dysentery, giardiasis,
malaria, and toxoplasmosis.
● Malaria is the most serious protist disease that affects
humans. Drugs and mosquito control can be used to
control malaria.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Why has a successful

1. Two important eukaryotic features that malaria vaccine been so difficult to make?
evolved among protists are
a. photosynthesis and silica shells. 9. Concept Mapping Make a concept
b. forams and pseudopodia. map describing the protists. Try to include
c. sexual reproduction and multicellularity. the following terms in your map: red algae,
d. spores and microtubules. malaria, protozoa, slime mold, autotrophs,
plants, diseases, heterotrophs, and animals.
2. Which habitat is least likely to harbor any Include additional terms as needed.
species of protist?
a. ocean waters Critical Thinking
b. the human liver 10. Evaluating Methods People in a small
c. a desert village were being infected with a parasitic
d. leaf litter protist from water in a nearby river.
3. Which pair is not a correct match Scientists decided to dump a large amount
between a protist and its manner of sulfur into the river to kill the protists.
of reproduction? What possible errors are there in using this
a. Spirogyra: conjugation method to prevent sickness?
b. Ulva: alternation of generations 11. Justifying Conclusions A scientist found
c. Paramecium: alternation of generations two euglenas, below, and concluded that
d. Chlamydomonas: gametes specimen A is heterotrophic, but specimen
4. Pseudopodia are used by members of the B is not Justify the scientist’s conclusions.
phylum Magnification: 206ⴛ
a. Bacillariophyta.
b. Euglenophyta.
c. Rhizopoda.
d. Chlorophyta.
5. Red algae differ from green in that A B
red algae
a. always inhabit marine environments. 12. Applying Information If while drawing
b. lack pigment. blood from a patient with malaria, some of
c. are always multicellular. the blood splattered on your bare arm,
d. display alternation of generations. could you catch this disease?
6. A photosynthetic single-celled protist that Alternative Assessment
moves using flagella would likely be classi- 13. Finding Information Use the media
fied as a member of which phylum? center or Internet resources to learn
a. Apicomplexa more about the history of plant diseases
b. Oomycota caused by protistan molds. Present an
c. Bacillariophyta oral report that describes how scientists
d. Euglenophyta controlled these diseases in the past and
7. How is amebic dysentery spread? how the information gained through
a. by drinking contaminated water research has created new strategies for
b. from the bite of a mosquito disease prevention. Use photos, illustra-
c. from the bite of the tsetse fly tions, and graphics to enhance your
d. by eating overcooked meat presentation.


correct answer.
The Irish potato famine of 1845–1850
1 What are photosynthetic protists with box- resulted in many deaths and an increase in
like double shells? Irish immigration to the United States. The
A. diatoms C. kinetoplastids famine was caused by a protist called
B. euglenoids D. plankton Phytophthora infestans, which caused pota-
toes to turn black and mushy in a disease
2 What do slime molds form in order to
called late blight. Phytophthora infestans is
reproduce?
part of the phylum Oomycota, which are
F. plasmodia H. slugs
water molds. Like fungi, water molds have
G. pseudopodia I. spores
thread-like structures that produce spores.
3 Which of the following is not a character- Oomycetes are unusual in that their spores
istic of paramecia? have two flagella that point in opposite
A. chloroplasts C. micronucleus directions.
B. cilia D. pellicle
7 Why were members of the phylum
4 In what stage is Plasmodium infective? Oomycota once thought to be related to
F. larva H. mosquito fungi?
G. merozoite I. sporozoite F. The carbohydrates in their cell walls
are similar to that of fungi.
5 Malaria-transmitting mosquitoes prefer a
G. Like fungi and unlike most protists,
warm climate. What might happen to the
incidence of malaria in the world if global they carry out normal mitosis.
H. Their appearance and reproductive
warming continues?
A. The geographical range of the disease
structures are similar to fungi.
I. Like most fungi, their spores have two
might expand, possibly increasing the
incidence of malaria. flagella pointing in opposite directions.
B. Fewer mosquitoes would carry the Interpreting Graphics
disease, so the incidence of malaria
would possibly decrease.
C. Fewer people would be infected by the
disease, because the increased tempera- Daily Temperature of a Malaria Patient
tures would kill the protist.
D. Malaria-transmitting mosquitoes
would not be able to breed, possibly 40
Temperature (ºC)
decreasing the incidence of malaria.

Directions (6): For the following question, 38
6 How are kinetoplastids and dinoflagellates 36

Mon Tue Wed Thur Fri Sat Sun
alike and different?
Test 8 At this rate, what will be the approximate

temperature of the patient on Monday?
If time permits, take short mental breaks to improve A. 37°C C. 41°C
your concentration during a test. B. 39°C D. 45°C

Exploration Lab
Observing Protistan Responses to Light
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Using scientific methods • Detain™ (protist-
• Using a microscope slowing agent)
• microscope slides
OBJECTIVES
• plastic pipets with bulbs
• Identify several different • mixed culture of
types of protists.
protists
• Compare the structures,
• toothpicks
methods of locomotion and
feeding, and behaviors of • coverslips
several different protists. • compound microscope
• Relate a protist’s response to • protist references
light to its method of • black construction paper
feeding. • scissors
• paper punch
• white paper
• sunlit window sill or lamp
• forceps

Protists belong to the kingdom Protista , PART A: Make Observations
which is a diverse group of eukaryotes that 1. Caution: Do not touch your face while
cannot be classified as animals, plants, or handling microorganisms. Place a drop
fungi. Many protists are unicellular. Among of Detain™ on a microscope slide. Add a
the protists, there are producers, consumers, drop of liquid from the bottom of a mixed
and decomposers . In this lab, you will culture of protists. Mix the drops with a
observe live protists and compare their toothpick. Add a coverslip. View the slide
structures, methods of locomotion and under low power of a microscope. Switch
feeding, and behaviors. to high power.
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in 2. Use references to identify the protists.
the paragraph above and for each of the Record data for each type of protist.
following terms: cilia, flagellum, pseudopod. 3. Repeat step 1 without using Detain™.
2. Make a data table similar to the one below. 4. Punch a hole in a 40 20 mm piece of
3. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a black construction paper that has a slight
question you would like to explore about curl, as shown in the photo.
protists.
DATA TABLE
Protist Color Method of locomotion Method of feeding Other observations

10. Dispose of lab materials and broken
glass in the designated waste contain-
ers. Put protists in the designated contain-
ers. Do not put lab materials in the trash
5. Place a wet mount of protists on a piece of its proper place. Wash your hands thor-
white paper. Then put the paper and slide oughly before you leave the lab and after
on a sunlit window sill or under a table you finish all work.
lamp. Position the sun shade on top of the
slide so that the hole is in the center of the Analyze and Conclude
coverslip.
1. Summarizing Results Describe the dif-
6. To examine a slide, first view the area in ferent types of locomotion you observed
the center of the hole under low power. in protists, and give examples of each.
Note: Do not disturb the sun shade. Do not
2. Analyzing Results Identify which pro-
switch to high power. Then have a partner
tists were affected by light, and describe
carefully remove the sun shade with for-
how they were affected.
ceps while you observe the slide.
3. Inferring Conclusions What is the rela-
tionship between a protist’s response to
PART B: Design an Experiment light and its method of feeding?
7. Work with members of your lab group to 4. Further Inquiry Write a new question
explore one of the questions written for about protists that could be explored with
step 3 of Before You Begin. To explore the another investigation.
question, design an experiment that uses
the materials listed for this lab.
Do You Know?
You Choose to answer these questions:
1. What livestock diseases caused by
parasitic protists are most commonly
b. what hypothesis you will test found in the United States?
c. how long you will expose protists
2. How do backpackers avoid getting
to light
diseases caused by protists that
d. how many times you will repeat your
are transmitted in water?
experiment
e. what your control will be Use the following Internet resources
f. what data you will record and how you to explore your own questions about
will make your data table protists.

www.scilinks.org
Make a list of all the safety precautions you Topic: Protists
will take. Have your teacher approve your Keyword: HX4153
procedure and safety precautions before
9. Set up and carry out your experiment.
CHAPTER 21 Protists 479
Scarlet waxy
cap mushrooms

CHAPTER
22 Fungi

1. Distinguish meiosis from mitosis. (Chapter 7,
Section 1) Characteristics of Fungi
Kingdom Fungi
2. Summarize the importance of mycorrhizae to
Structures and Nutrients
plants. (Chapter 12, Section 3)
Reproduction
3. Describe the process of succession. (Chapter 16,
Section 1)
4. Describe the meaning of symbiosis. (Chapter 17,
Section 2
Section 1) Fungal Diversity
5. Define the term mutualism. (Chapter 17, Reproductive Structures
Section 1) Zygomycetes
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Ascomycetes
sections indicated. Basidiomycetes
Section 3
Reading Activity Fungal Partnerships
Before you begin this chapter, write the following Symbiotic Relationships
statements on a separate piece of paper:
1. Fungi are very similar to plants.
2. Fungi are economically valuable.
3. Many fungi are beneficial to other organisms.
Take a minute or two to consider the statements
and decide whether you agree or disagree with
each. Share your opinions with the class. Read
the chapter, and then reconsider the statements
to see if your opinions are confirmed or changed.
www.scilinks.org
Many fungi are edible, but some people are made sick
by this mushroom. Never eat mushrooms growing in
the wild. Some are fatally poisonous.
CHAPTER 22 Fungi 481

Section 1 Characteristics of Fungi
Objectives Kingdom Fungi
● List the characteristics Some of the most unusual organisms that exist today are members
of the kingdom Fungi. of the kingdom Fungi. Mushrooms and molds are common fungi
● Describe the structure that grow so rapidly they sometimes appear overnight.
of a typical fungus body. The first fungi were probably unicellular eukaryotes. Fungi first
appeared on Earth about 430 million years ago. In the past, biolo-
● Identify how fungi obtain
nutrients. gists grouped fungi with plants because fungi are immobile, have a
cell wall, and appear “rooted” in the soil, as the mushrooms do in
● Relate the way fungi obtain Figure 1. However, the unique features of fungi indicate that they
nutrients to their role in
should be classified as a separate kingdom.
ecosystems.
1. Fungi are heterotrophic. The stalk and cap of the mushroom
● Distinguish the ways that
fungi reproduce.
are not green like the stem and leaves of a plant. Plants appear
green because they contain chlorophyll, the pigment that aids in
Key Terms photosynthesis. Fungi do not contain chlorophyll. Rather, they
obtain energy by breaking down organic material that they
chitin absorb from their environment.
hypha
mycelium 2. Fungi have filamentous bodies. Plants are made of many cell
and tissue types, but fungi are made of long, slender filaments.
These filaments weave tightly together to form the fungus body
and reproductive structures, such as the mushroom.
3. Fungal cells contain chitin. The cells of the mushroom, like the
cells of all fungi, have walls made of chitin (KIE tihn), the tough
polysaccharide found in the hard outer covering of insects. Plant
The numbered list on this
cells have walls made of cellulose, a different polysaccharide.
page gives four important
characteristics of fungi. Use 4. Fungi exhibit nuclear mitosis. Mitosis in fungi is different
this information to start a from mitosis in plants and in most other eukaryotes. In most
concept map that summa- eukaryotes, the nuclear envelope disintegrates in prophase and
rizes the characteristics
re-forms in telophase. In dividing mushroom cells, however, the
of fungi.
nuclear envelope remains intact from prophase to anaphase. As
a result, spindle fibers form within the nucleus. The spindle
fibers then drag chromosomes to opposite poles of the nucleus,
rather than to opposite poles of the cell. Mitosis is complete
when the nuclear envelope pinches in two.
Figure 1 Mushrooms
These mushrooms are actually the reproductive structures of a large
network of filaments that makes up the body of a fungus.
482 CHAPTER 22 Fungi

Structures and Nutrients
Structures Figure 2 Penicillium mold
In Figure 2, the fungus Penicillium is This orange is covered with a fungus
shown growing on an orange. The from the genus Penicillium.
green and white fuzz you recognize as Mold
The green and white fuzz
mold is actually the reproductive
growing on the orange’s
structures of the fungus. The body of surface is the fungus’s
the fungus lies within the tissues of reproductive structures.
the orange. All fungi except yeasts
have bodies composed of slender fila-
ments called hyphae (HIE fee).
When hyphae grow, they branch and
form a tangled mass called a mycelium
(mie SEE lee uhm), shown in Figure 2.
Mycelium
A mycelium can be made of many
meters of individual hyphae. This body
Hyphae
organization provides a high surface-
Reproductive
area-to-volume ratio, which makes a structures
fungus well suited for absorbing nutri- Throughout the rest of
ents from its environment. the orange, the fungus
Each hypha is a long string of cells grows as a mycelium.
divided by partial walls. Some species
do not have walls between cells.
Cytoplasm flows freely throughout
the hypha.
Fungal hypha
Nutrients
All fungi obtain nutrients by secreting digestive enzymes that
break down organic matter in their environment. Fungi then
absorb the decomposed molecules. Many fungi decompose nonliv-
ing organic matter, such as leaves, branches, dead animals, and
waste. So, fungi are resource recyclers. Other fungi, such as the
fungus that causes ringworm, are parasites that absorb nutrients
from living hosts.
Parasitic fungi compete for nutrients with their hosts. In
humans, they sometimes cause infectious diseases, such as athlete’s
foot and yeast infections. Figure 3 warns of the fungus Histoplasma
capsulatum, which invades the body’s organs and causes life-
threatening infections.
Fungi often grow on human foods, such as bread and fruit, mak- Figure 3 Dangerous fungi.
ing the food undesirable. Fungi are also known to attack nonfood Histoplasma capsulatum
materials, such as paper, cardboard, cloth, paint, and leather. grows in the feces of bats and
Some fungi are commercially valuable. Unicellular fungi called birds and infects humans
when the dried spores are
yeasts are useful in baking, brewing, and wine-making. Other fungi inhaled. Symptoms of infection
provide the flavor and aroma of certain cheeses. Many kinds of include fever, cough, chills,
antibiotics, such as penicillin, are produced by fungi. chest pain, and muscle aches.
SECTION 1 Characteristics of Fungi 483

Reproduction
Fungi reproduce by releasing spores formed sexually or asexually in
reproductive structures at the tips of hyphae. Reproductive struc-
tures grow high above the food source. This adaptation allows air
currents to carry the spores to a new habitat. As you can see in
Figure 4, fungal spores are so small and light that they remain sus-
pended in the air for long periods of time; the wind can carry them
great distances.
Fungal spores are haploid. Most spores are formed by mitosis
Figure 4 Puffball.
during asexual reproduction. In sexual reproduction, hyphae from
Lycoperdon perlatum, a puff-
ball, releases hundreds of two mating types fuse. The fused hyphae form a sexual reproduc-
thousands of spores tive structure. On this structure, the fungus forms spores through
through a small opening. fusion of the two genetically different nuclei.
Observing Bread Mold

You can use a microscope to see the individual threads
of cells that make up the body of a fungus.
Materials
prepared slide of Rhizopus—black bread mold, compound
microscope
Procedure
1. Examine a slide of black 4. Move the slide to examine an 2. Explain where you would
bread mold under low power area where you can clearly see find each structure on the
of a microscope. the round bulblike structures. loaf of bread shown above.
2. Move the slide to an area 5. Draw what you see in your 3. Critical Thinking
where you can clearly see notebook. Recognizing Relation-
threadlike structures. ships Relate the structures
Analysis
you drew to their functions
3. Draw what you see in your 1. Label the drawings you described in the text.
lab notebook. Be sure to use made, using Figure 2 as
at least one third of the page. a guide.
Section 1 Review
Distinguish the characteristics of fungi from Critical Thinking Evaluating Conclusions
those of plants. Two of your fellow students insist that yeasts
should be classified as protists because they are
Compare the characteristics of the mycelium eukaryotic unicellular organisms. Evaluate their
with those of the reproductive structures. claim.
Summarize the way fungi obtain nutrients. Standardized Test Prep An organism cannot be a
fungus if it
Describe the role fungi play in the environment.
A is unicellular. C is photosynthetic.
Summarize the different ways that fungi B releases spores. D has cell walls.
reproduce.

Fungal Diversity Section 2
Reproductive Structures Objectives

You can see how diverse fungi are if you examine the types of repro- ● Describe the characteristics
ductive structures that they have. Based on the types of structures used to classify fungi.
produced during sexual reproduction, fungi can be classified in ● List two commercial uses
three phyla. Table 1 below lists some of these characteristics. for fungi.
● Describe three phyla of
Asexual Reproduction fungi.
A fourth group, the deuteromycetes, is composed of fungi in which ● Distinguish between the
no sexual stage has been seen. Traditionally, this group has been life cycles of zygomycetes,
called a phylum. Through the use of molecular techniques, scientists ascomycetes, and
have reclassified most of these asexually reproducing organisms basidiomycetes.
into the phylum Ascomycota. ● Describe the mushroom
There are about 17,000 species without a sexual stage. Many of Amanita muscaria.
these fungi are economically important. For example, some species
of Penicillium produce the antibiotic penicillin. Other species pro- Key Terms
duce the unique flavors of some cheeses. Species of Aspergillus are
zygosporangium
used for fermenting soy sauce and producing citric acid. Most of
stolon
the fungi that cause skin diseases, such as athlete’s foot and ring- rhizoid
worm, are also deuteromycetes. ascus
yeast
budding
basidium
Table 1 Three Sexually Reproducing Phyla of Fungi
Phylum Distinctive Examples
characteristics
Sexual spores are

formed in zygo-
Zygomycota sporangia; black bread
hyphae have molds
no walls
Sexual spores are

formed in asci;
Ascomycota hyphae are morels, truffles,
divided by yeasts, cup fungi
walls
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Characteristics of
Sexual spores are Fungi
formed in basidia; mushrooms, Keyword: HX4037
Basidiomycota
hyphae are divided puffballs, rusts,
by walls smuts
SECTION 2 Fungal Diversity 485

Magnification: 10
Zygomycetes
If you place an uncovered loaf of bread near a windowsill, after a
few days a cottony mold, shown in Figure 5, will cover its surface.
Common black bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifer, is a member of
the phylum Zygomycota (zie goh my COHT uh). Members of the
phylum Zygomycota are named for the thick-walled sexual
structures called zygosporangia (zie goh
spohr AN jee uh) that characterize these
members.
Species of Rhizopus and other zygo-
mycetes usually live in the soil and feed
on decaying plant and animal matter. The
mycelia that grow along the surface of the
bread are called stolons (STOH lahnz).
The hyphae that anchor the fungus in the
bread are called rhizoids (RIE zoydz). The
hyphae of zygomycetes usually do not
have walls.
Asexual reproduction in zygomycetes is
Figure 5 Bread mold. much more common than sexual reproduction. During asexual
Rhizopus stolonifer is often
reproduction, haploid spores are produced in the tips of specialized
found growing on bread.
hyphae. It is the spores in fungi that cause fungal allergies in peo-
ple. When they mature, these spores are shed and carried by the
Figure 6 Life cycle of wind to new locations, where they germinate and start new
zygomycetes. Zygomycetes mycelia. Reproduction in Rhizopus is shown in Figure 6.
may reproduce sexually or
asexually.
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
1 Zygomycetes usually reproduce 2 Two hyphae from opposite

asexually by shedding mating types grow together 3 The haploid nuclei fuse,
haploid spores. and form two chambers producing diploid nuclei.
containing many The resulting cell becomes
Spore haploid nuclei. a zygosporangium.
Fusion
Hypha
– Mating
Germination type
+ Mating
type
Zygosporangium
Spores(n) (2n)
Sporangium
Meiosis
Stolon
Rhizoid
4 Zygotes in the zygosporangium
undergo meiosis and germinate.
5 Haploid spores develop within the sporangia
and are scattered by air currents.

Ascomycetes
The chestnut tree, Castanea dentata, was once a common tree in the
eastern United States. Around 1890, a disease called chestnut blight
Real Life
wiped out virtually all the chestnut trees within a few years. Chestnut Many species of
blight is caused by Endothia parasitica, a member of the phylum ascomycetes cause
Ascomycota (AS koh mie koh tuh). Other ascomycetes include fla- powdery mildew.
vorful morels and truffles prized by gourmet chefs. Powdery mildew is a
fungal infection of plants.
The ascomycetes are named for their characteristic sexual repro-
Grapes, wheat, and apples
ductive structure. The microscopic ascus (AS kuhs) is a saclike are examples of plants
structure in which haploid spores are formed. Asci usually form affected by powdery
within the interwoven hyphae of a cup-shaped fruiting body. Repro- mildew.
duction in a typical ascomycete is shown in Figure 7. Finding Information
Ascomycetes usually reproduce asexually. Asexual spores form at Research ways that farm-
the tips of the hyphae. The spores are not contained in any sac or ers protect their crops
from powdery mildew.
structure. When the spores are released, air currents carry them to
other places, where they may germinate and form new mycelia.
Yeast is the common name given to unicellular ascomycetes.
There are about 350 species of yeasts. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, or
baker’s yeast, has been used for thousands of years to make bread
and alcoholic beverages, such as beer. Other yeasts, such as Candida
albicans, cause human disease. C. albicans causes thrush, a disease
in which milk-white lesions form on the mouth, lips, and throat.
Most yeasts reproduce asexually by fission or budding. In
budding , a small cell forms from a large cell and pinches itself off Figure 7 Life cycle of
from the large cell. ascomycetes. Ascomycetes
can reproduce sexually or
asexually.
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
1 Ascomycetes commonly form asexual 2 Two hyphae from opposite 3 The nuclei from each
spores at the tips of specialized hyphae. mating types fuse. Haploid nuclei mating type pair off but
from one mating type pass do not fuse. Hyphae grow
to the other mating type. and form an ascocarp.
+ Mating
type
– Mating
Germination type
Spore(n) Zygote
(2n) Ascocarp
Ascus
Mitosis
Meiosis
4 Some of the paired
nuclei fuse and form a
5 These four nuclei divide mitotically, producing eight haploid nuclei. diploid zygote. The zygote
Each haploid nucleus develops into a spore. They are contained undergoes meiosis, pro-
in an ascus, which releases the spores when they are mature. ducing four haploid nuclei.
SECTION 2 Fungal Diversity 487

Basidiomycetes
The kind of fungi with which you are probably most familiar—
mushrooms—are members of the phylum Basidiomycota (buh SIHD
ee oh mie koh tuh). Other basidiomycetes include toadstools, puff-
balls, jelly fungi, and shelf fungi. The basidium (buh SIHD ee uhm)
is the club-shaped sexual reproductive structure for which the
basidiomycetes are named. Spores are produced on this structure.
You can see these spores in the Up Close: Mushroom feature later in
this chapter. Asexual reproduction is rare among the basidiomycetes,
except in some rusts and smuts. These two important groups of plant
pathogens affect many crop plants, as shown in Figure 8. Sexual
reproduction of a typical basidiomycete is illustrated in Figure 9.
Figure 8 Rust on wheat.
Rust is a basidiomycete that
Many mushrooms are harmless, but many are also deadly, such as
attacks cereal crops, making the Amanita muscaria (fly agaric), shown in the Up Close feature.
them unfit for humans to eat. Other Amanita species have names, such as death angel and destroy-
ing angel, that reflect the danger of their toxins for humans.
Figure 9 Life cycle of basidiomycetes

Basidiomycetes usually reproduce sexually by means of a fruiting body, also called a mushroom.
Basidia Diploid nuclei

(2n)
Meiosis
Spore (n)
3. Meiosis produces
2. Within each basidium, two four haploid spores.
haploid nuclei fuse to form A spore can germinate
diploid nuclei. into a haploid hypha. – Mating
type
4. Hyphae from different + Mating
mating types fuse. The type
1. Spores are produced fused hyphae grow
in club-shaped struc- and form a fruiting
tures called basidia, body (mushroom).
which line the gills.
Hyphae fuse
Gills lined
with basidia
Fused
hypha
Section 2 Review
Summarize how fungi are classified. delicious scent. Scientists hypothesize that this
scent might contribute to spreading the spores.
Describe the distinctive characteristics of the How might this scent help the spread of the
three phyla of fungi, including their life cycles. fungus’s spores?
Describe the structure of the mushroom. Standardized Test Prep Humans are interested in
rusts because these fungi
The fruiting body of some ascomycetes, such as A are used to make bread. C produce penicillin.
truffles, is found below ground and gives off a B attack crop plants. D cause athlete’s foot.

Up Close
Mushroom
● Scientific name: Amanita muscaria
● Size: 10–15 cm
● Habitat: Moist organic soils
● Nutrition: Heterotrophic
Characteristics
Cell structure A. muscaria and other fungi Reproduction Under proper conditions, underground hyphae
have cell walls made of chitin, a complex grow upward and weave together to produce a mushroom.
polysaccharide also found in the external Mushrooms are the reproductive structures of fungi such as A.
skeleton of insects. In some fungi, hyphae are muscaria. A mushroom has a flattened cap attached to a stem
not divided into separate cells but have many called a stalk. The underside of the cap is lined with rows of gills.
nuclei in the same cytoplasm. In other fungi, Thousands of club-shaped reproductive cells called basidia form
hyphae are divided into cells by perforated on the gills. Through fusion and meiosis, each basidium pro-
walls called septa. duces spores that are released and form new hyphae.
▲ Gills ▲ Basidia
Cap
▲ Septa
Mode of nutrition Fungi are

Stalk heterotrophs. Like all fungi, A. muscaria
secrete enzymes that break down organic
materials into simple molecules that the
hyphae can absorb. Like animals, fungi
store food as glycogen.
▼ Hyphae
Body structure The multi-
cellular body of a fungus is basic-
ally filamentous. It consists of long
Mycelium
strings of cells called hyphae.
Hyphae are woven together to form a
dense mat called a mycelium. Usually most
of a mycelium is hidden within a substrate, such as soil.

Section 3 Fungal Partnerships
Objectives Symbiotic Relationships
● Distinguish two symbiotic Fungi are involved in many kinds of symbiotic associations with
relationships that involve algae and plants. These mutualistic relationships play important
fungi. roles in ecology. You may recall that mutualism is a type of symbio-
● Summarize the ecological sis in which each partner benefits. In these symbiotic associations,
importance of the fungus (a heterotroph) provides minerals and other nutrients
mycorrhizae. that it absorbs from the environment. The algae or plant (a photo-
● Describe lichens. synthesizer) provides the ability to use sunlight to power the building
of carbohydrates.
Key Terms
mycorrhiza Mycorrhizae
lichen A mycorrhiza (MIE koh RIE zuh) is a type of mutualistic rela-
tionship formed between fungi and vascular plant roots. The
hyphae help transfer phosphorus and other minerals from the soil
to the roots of the plant, while the plant supplies carbohydrates to
the fungus.
In the mycorrhizae of most species of plants, the hyphae pene-
www.scilinks.org trate the outer cells of the root. The fungus is usually a zygomycete.
Topic: Symbiosis of Fungi
In Figure 10, you can see the hyphae that grow in the roots. Fossils
Keyword: HX4172
show that the rootlike structures of the earliest plants often had
mycorrhizae, which may have played an important role in the inva-
sion of land by plants. Scientists think that when plants invaded the
land the soil of that time completely lacked organic matter. How-
ever, plants with mycorrhizae can grow successfully in infertile soil.
Some vascular plants survive today by continuing this partnership
Figure 10 Mycorrhizae. as mycorrhizae.
The hyphae of the fungus in In many plants, the mycorrhizae do not physically penetrate the
mycorrhizae sometimes appear plant root but instead wrap around it. These nonpenetrating my-
as a tangled mass around the corrhizae represent relationships in which a particular species of
root of the plant.
plant has become associated
with a particular fungus, usu-
ally a basidiomycete. These
kinds of mycorrhizae are
important because they aid the
Hypha
growth of many commercially
significant trees, such as pines,
oaks, beeches, and willows.
Some mycorrhizae produce
economically important edible
mushrooms, and the mycor-
Plant root rhizae of some ascomycete
species produce an edible fruit-
ing body called a truffle.

Lichens
A lichen (LIE kuhn) is a symbiosis
between a fungus and a photo-
synthetic partner such as a green Magnification: 100
alga, a cyanobacterium, or both. The

photosynthetic partner provides car-
bohydrates. It is protected from the
environment by the fungal partner,
which helps it absorb mineral nutri-
ents. In most lichens, the fungus is an
ascomycete. When you look at a
lichen, such as the ones in Figure 11,
you are seeing the fungus. The photo-
synthetic partner is hidden between
the layers of hyphae. Sunlight penetrates the layers of hyphae and Figure 11 Lichens. The
enables the photosynthetic partner to carry out photosynthesis. algae, shown as green cells in
The tough construction of the fungus combined with the photo- the micrograph, are the photo-
synthetic partners of the fungus
synthetic abilities of the alga, or cyanobacterium, has enabled
growing in this British soldier
lichens to colonize harsh habitats. Lichens have been found in arid lichen.
desert regions and in the Arctic; they grow on bare soil, on tree
trunks, and on sunbaked rocks. Recall that during succession,
lichens are often the first colonists. They break down rocks and
prepare the environment for other organisms. Lichens are a key
component of primary succession because they are able to grow on
rock and help break the rock down into soil. Lichens containing
cyanobacteria carry out nitrogen fixation and introduce useful
forms of nitrogen into the soil.
Analyzing the Effect

of Mycorrhizae
0100010110
Background
011101010
0010010001001
Two groups of plants were planted in
1100100100010 similar soils under similar conditions, but
0000101001001
1101010100100 group A was grown in sterilized soil and
0101010010010
group B was grown in nonsterilized soil.
After 18 weeks of growth, a photograph
was taken of the plants. Examine the
photographs, and answer the following
questions: A B
Analysis
1. Compare the growth of 3. Critical Thinking 4. Recommend a course of
the two groups. Which Inferring Relationships action to restore growth in
grew faster? Suggest a possible cause the stunted plants.
of slower growth in the
2. Explain why one group
smaller plants.
grew better than the other
group.
SECTION 3 Fungal Partnerships 491

Lichens are able to survive drought and freezing by becoming dor-
mant. When moisture and warmth return, lichens resume normal
activities. In harsh environments, lichens may grow slowly. Some
lichens that grow in the mountains appear to be thousands of years
old and cover an area no larger than a fist. These lichens are among
the oldest living organisms on Earth. Although lichens are known to
survive extremes of temperatures, they are susceptible to chemical
changes in their environment and so have become a living indicator
of the amount of pollution in the environment in which they live.
count the number of

Exploring Further lichen species, note
how often each
species occurs, and
Lichens as Environmental measure the total
Watchdogs area covered by
each species. Map-
Since the 1950s scientists have found that most ping studies done
lichens require clean air to thrive. In the Los over many years can
Angeles Basin, for example, rising smog levels reveal long-term
have been linked to the disappearance of lichens. changes in lichen
In the Pacific Northwest, lichens are most abun- survival.
dant in old-growth forests with good air quality. Scientists can Pollutants from the stove pipe
For these reasons, scientists have been using obtain more detailed keep lichens from growing on part
lichens to monitor air pollution. data on the effects of this roof.
of air pollution by
Lichens as Indicators of Air Pollution
determining the concentration of metals and other
Lichens have no roots, so the nutrients they take
pollutants in lichen samples. They also assess the
up must come from the air. Rain, fog, and dew
health of a lichen by measuring its chlorophyll
wet the surface of a lichen. When they are wet,
content and its rate of photosynthesis.
lichens absorb nutrients and any pollutants that
To test air quality in places where lichens do
are in the air.
not exist, scientists sometimes transplant healthy
Lichens can live for centuries, making them
lichens from areas where they occur naturally.
well suited for studies of air-pollution changes
They then analyze
that occur over a long time. Many lichen species
the transplanted
also have large geographical ranges. Thus, a sin-
lichens for pollu- www.scilinks.org
gle species can indicate air quality at different
tants and look for Topic: Lichens
distances from a source of pollution, such as a
any changes in Keyword: HX4114
factory or power plant.
the health of the
How Are Lichens Used? lichens that may
To monitor air quality with lichens, scientists often be caused by
map the distribution of lichens in an area. They the move.
Section 3 Review
Describe two types of symbioses that involve Summarize how lichens promote the process
fungi. of biological succession.
Explain how mycorrhizae are thought to have Standardized Test Prep The relationship between a
helped plants to colonize land. fungus and an alga in a lichen is an example of
A mutualism. C parasitism.
Identify the organisms found in lichens.
B commensalism. D predation.

ZONE
1 Characteristics of Fungi Section 1
chitin (482)
● Fungi are eukaryotic heterotrophs. Their bodies are made hypha (483)
up of slender woven filaments. Fungal cells contain chitin mycelium (483)
and go through nuclear mitosis.
● Fungi obtain nutrients by secreting digestive enzymes and
absorbing the decomposed nutrients from their environment.
● Fungi decompose dead organic matter; they are an
important resource recycler.
● Most fungi reproduce by releasing spores that are produced
asexually and sexually.
2 Fungal Diversity Section 2

zygosporangium (486)
● Fungi are classified by their sexual reproductive structures. stolon (486)
● Fungi in which sexual reproduction has not been observed rhizoid (486)
ascus (487)
are referred to as deuteromycetes. yeast (487)
● Fungi in the phylum Zygomycota produce spores in thick- budding (487)
walled sexual structures called zygosporangia. basidium (488)
● Fungi in the phylum Ascomycota produce spores in a

saclike structure called an ascus.
● Yeasts are unicellular ascomycetes that reproduce by budding.
● Fungi in the phylum Basidiomycota produce spores in a
club-shaped structure called a basidium.
3 Fungal Partnerships Section 3

mycorrhiza (490)
● Fungi can be involved in two types of symbioses, lichen (491)
mycorrhizae or lichens.
● Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations in which a fungus
transfers minerals to a plant’s roots, which in turn supply
carbohydrates to the fungus.
● The fungal partner in a lichen protects the photosynthetic
partner and provides the lichen with minerals. The photo-
synthetic partner provides the fungus with carbohydrates.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 7. In many fungi, both asexual and sexual

reproduction involve
1. Fungi differ from plants in that fungi a. the fusion of opposite mating types.
a. are multicellular. b. the shedding of haploid spores.
b. are immobile. c. the formation of basidia.
c. have cell walls. d. budding.
d. are heterotrophic.
8. Fungi differ from most eukaryotes in that
2. Which of the following characteristics is they
shared by all fungi and helps them obtain a. are heterotrophic.
their nutrients? b. have a cell wall.
a. external digestion c. reproduce sexually.
b. phagocytosis d. exhibit nuclear mitosis.
c. feeding on nonliving matter
d. catching prey 9. Explain how scientists use
lichens to monitor air quality and why
3. Deuteromycetes are more difficult to lichens were chosen by scientists to moni-
classify than fungi of other phyla because tor air quality.
a. they develop from zygosporangia.
b. they are parasitic. 10. Concept Mapping Construct a con-
c. they undergo meiosis. cept map that describes the structure and
d. they do not reproduce sexually. reproductive methods of different fungi.
4. Some fungal associations no larger than a Use the following terms in your map:
fist appear to be thousands of years old. chitin, hyphae, zygosporangia, stolon,
These have been found rhizoid, ascus, yeast, and budding. Use
a. in temperate forests. additional terms as necessary.
b. on well-irrigated alluvial plains.
c. in fields of corn.
Critical Thinking
d. in harsh environments, high in the 11. Predicting Outcomes If all fungi suddenly
mountains. disappeared from Earth, what types of
changes would you notice immediately?
5. One might expect that plants without
after a period of time?
mycorrhizae are
a. more likely to get fungal diseases. 12. Forming Reasoned Opinions When
b. unsuccessful in the transfer of minerals purchasing garden plants, is it better to
from the soil to the roots. buy bare root plants or plants that are
c. best suited to poor soil conditions. established in a pot of soil? Explain your
d. primitive and might soon become reasoning from an ecological point of view.
extinct.
6. In basidiomycetes, most of the mycelium
13. Summarizing Information Use the media
grows
center or Internet resources to learn about
a. above the ground as a mushroom.
the economic impact of fungi. Research
b. above the ground as an ascocarp.
fungi used as foods and the importance of
c. as a network of hyphae in the soil.
certain fungi in the preparation or manu-
d. as a network of hyphae within bread.
facture of food. Create a display to
summarize your findings.


correct answer.
Downy mildew caused by the fungus
1 What carbohydrate makes up the cell Plasmopara viticola devastated French grape
walls of fungi? crops during the nineteenth century. Pierre
A. cellulose Millardet developed the Bordeaux mixture,
B. chitin which contained lime and copper sulfate,
C. fructose to prevent people from stealing and eating
D. glucose the grapes. He noticed that the mixture
prevented the fungus from growing. In fact,
2 What kind of structure has a symbiotic
it killed the fungal spores.
relationship with fungi in mycorrhizae?
F. algae 6 Which of the following is true of fungal
G. chloroplasts spores?
H. lichens A. They contain cellulose.
I. roots B. They are usually haploid.
C. They are not reproductive cells.
3 How does the zygosporangium of
D. They usually spread underground.
Rhizopus stolonifer function to ensure the
survival of the species? Interpreting Graphics
A. It anchors the fungus to the food source.
B. It causes allergies in humans who want
to eat it.
C. It dissolves organic matter for the Changes in the Truffles Harvested and
fungus to absorb. Oak Forest Area over 40 Years
D. It remains dormant during unsuitable
Truffles Forest
conditions.
harvested (kg)
800 200
Oak forest
4
area (km2)
What part of a fungus grows within the
Truffles
600 150
food source?
400 100
F. ascus
200 50
G. mycelium
H. reproductive structure 1950 1970 1990
I. zygosporangium Year
7 Which of the statements is supported by
5 A scientist concludes that several cultures the data in the chart?
of cup-shaped ascocarps are a species of F. The oak forest covered 125 km2 in
ascomycetes that only reproduce asexually. 1970.
Why is the scientist’s conclusion incorrect? G. The truffle harvest decreased constantly
between 1950 and 1975.
H. The truffle harvest decreased most
Test rapidly between 1980 and 1990.
When using a graph to answer a question, study the I. The oak forest area decreased by 50
data plotted on the graph to identify any trends in the percent between 1955 and 1970.
data before you answer the question.

Skills Practice Lab
Observing Yeast and Fermentation
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Observing • 500 mL vacuum bottle
• Measuring • 10 cm glass tubing
• Collecting data • 2-hole rubber stopper
• Analyzing data • 250 mL beaker
• 75 g sucrose
OBJECTIVE
• one package dry yeast
• Observe the release of
energy by yeast during • thermometer
fermentation. • 50 cm rubber tubing
• 150 mL limewater
ChemSafety
CAUTION: Always CAUTION: Glassware is
wear safety gog- fragile. Notify the teacher
gles and a lab apron to protect of broken glass or cuts. Do not
your eyes and clothing. clean up broken glass or spills
Yeast cells
with broken glass unless the
teacher tells you to do so.
Before You Begin this investigation you will have a chance to

observe and measure the products of
Sucrose is a disaccharide—a carbohydrate
fermentation.
made from two monosaccharides. It is one
chemical made by plants to store the sun’s 1. Write a definition for the boldface term in
energy. Yeast release the energy stored in the paragraph above.
sucrose in a process called fermentation. In 2. Make a data table like the one below.
Fermentation by Yeast
Time Date Temperature Time Date Temperature Time Date Temperature
1. 8. 15.
2. 9. 16.
3. 10. 17.
4. 11. 18.
5. 12. 19.
6. 13. 20.
7. 14. 21.

Procedure 4. Predicting Patterns What do you think
would happen if there were only one hole
1. Set up your vacuum bottle according to
in the stopper for the thermometer?
the diagram above.
5. Further Inquiry If you know that fermen-
2. Mix 75g of sucrose in 400 mL of water.
tation liberates energy and gives off carbon
3. When the sucrose has dissolved, add dioxide and alcohol as waste products, how
one-half package of fresh yeast and stir. would you prove that fermentation is really
4. Pour the sucrose-yeast solution into a taking place in the sugar-yeast solution?
vacuum bottle until it is approximately
three-quarters full.
Do You Know?
5. Adjust the thermometer so that it extends
down into the sugar-yeast solution.
6. Record the temperature of the solution on
1. How do mammals get energy from
the observation chart as soon as possible.
glucose when they cannot use
Continue to record the temperature as respiration?
often as possible during the next two days.
2. How do “naturally carbonated” sodas
generate bubbles?
Analyze and Conclude Use the following Internet resources
1. Summarizing Results Prepare a graph
fermentation.
of your data, illustrating the temperature
over time. Complete the graph by drawing
a curve through the plotted points.
www.scilinks.org
2. Analyzing Data What does the curved Topic: Fermentation
line plotted on the graph indicate? Keyword: HX4080
3. Drawing Conclusions What can you
conclude about the energy contained in
sucrose?

Exploring
UNIT 6 Plants
Chapters
38 Introduction to Plants
23
24 Plant Reproduction
25 Plant Structure and

Function More than 20 billion
bushels of corn are
26 Plant Growth and harvested worldwide
Development every year.

Corn: America’s Crop
Used for food by Native

Americans beginning
10,000 years ago, corn
was first cultivated in what is today called
Mexico in 6000 to 5000 B.C. The Aztec
Indians, the Maya, and the Inca all grew corn
and featured it prominently in their traditions
and ceremonies. Corn is an important food
crop. Where is the Corn Belt?
Incas harvesting
the corn crop
Cooked, steamed, roasted,

ground into cornmeal, or
popped, corn has long been
a mainstay of the American diet. Corn is
used to make cornstarch, corn syrup, break-
fast cereals, cornmeal, salad dressing, corn
oil, margarine, coloring agents, stabilizing
agents, and countless other products. Read
to find out what corn and wheat have
in common.
Agricultural scientist
Scientists continue to develop new uses

for corn and its products. For example,
ethanol, or ethyl alcohol distilled from
corn, can be used as a lead-free octane booster
and as a replacement for regular leaded
gasoline. Discover how corn is able to
conduct photosynthesis efficiently in www.scilinks.org
intense heat. Topic: Corn
Keyword: HX4052
Automobile that runs on ethanol
made from corn
499
Show jumper
Texas wildflowers

CHAPTER
23 Introduction
to Plants
1. Describe the process of mitosis. (Chapter 6,
Section 3) Adaptations of Plants
Establishment of Plants on Land
2. Describe the process of meiosis. (Chapter 7,
Vascular Tissue, Seeds, and Flowers
Section 1)
Plant Life Cycles
3. Identify life cycles that have a gametophyte
and life cycles that have a sporophyte.
4. Describe the role of mycorrhizae. (Chapter 12, Kinds of Plants
Section 3 and Chapter 22, Section 3.) Nonvascular Plants
5. List the characteristics of the kingdom Plantae. Seedless Vascular Plants
(Chapter 19, Section 3) Gymnosperms
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Angiosperms
sections indicated.
Section 3
Plants in Our Lives
Reading Activity Plants as Food
Cereals
Before you begin to read this chapter, survey Nonfood Uses of Plants
each section and identify any subtitles, headings,
and captions that signal the topic of discussion.
As you read, locate other words in the body of
the text that signal the sequential pattern.
www.scilinks.org
Plants provide us with the food and oxygen that
make life possible. They enrich our lives with beauty
and sweet scents. Plants also provide buildings, paper,
furniture, clothing, and medicines.
CHAPTER 23 Introduction to Plants 501

Section 1 Adaptations of Plants
Objectives Establishment of Plants on Land
● Summarize how plants Plants are the dominant group of organisms on land, based on
are adapted to living on weight. The kingdom Plantae is a very diverse group. Individuals
land. range from less than 2 mm across to more than 100 m tall. Most
● Distinguish nonvascular plants are photosynthetic; they produce organic materials from
plants from vascular inorganic materials by photosynthesis. A few plant species, like
plants. the one shown in Figure 1, live as parasites. Many parasitic plants
● Relate the success of cannot photosynthesize.
plants on land to seeds Plants probably evolved from multicellular aquatic green algae
and flowers. that could not survive on land. Multicellularity enabled plants to
● Describe the basic struc-
develop features that helped them live more successfully on land.
ture of a vascular plant Before plants could thrive on land, they had to be able to do three
sporophyte. things: absorb nutrients from their surroundings, prevent their bod-
ies from drying out, and reproduce without water to transmit sperm.
Key Terms
cuticle Absorbing Nutrients
stoma Aquatic algae and plants take nutrients from the water around
guard cell them. On land, most plants take nutrients from the soil with their
vascular system roots. Although the first plants had no roots, fossils show that
nonvascular plant fungi lived on or within the underground parts of many early
vascular plant
plants. So botanists think that fungi may have helped early land
seed
embryo plants to get nutrients from Earth’s rocky surface. Symbiotic rela-
seed plant tionships between fungi and the roots of plants are called mycor-
flower rhizae. Today, about 80 percent of all plant species form
phloem mycorrhizae.
xylem
shoot
root
Preventing Water Loss
meristem The first plants lived at the edges of bodies of water, where drying
out was not a problem. A watertight covering, which reduces water
loss, made it possible for plants to
live in drier habitats. This covering,
called the cuticle , is a waxy layer
that covers the nonwoody above-
ground parts of most plants. But like
the wax on a shiny car, the cuticle
does not let oxygen or carbon diox-
ide pass through it. Pores called
Figure 1 Rafflesia. The stomata (STOH muh tuh) (singular,
flowers of Rafflesia keithii, of stoma) permit plants to exchange
Malaysia, measure almost 1 m
oxygen and carbon dioxide. Stomata,
across and weigh up to 11 kg
(24 lb). The plant, which has no which extend through the cuticle
stems or leaves, is parasitic on and the outer layer of cells, are
the roots of grape vines. found on at least some parts of most
502 CHAPTER 23 Introduction to Plants

Figure 2 Stomata and guard cells
The surface of a leaf has numerous stomata, each of which is surrounded
by a pair of guard cells.
Guard cells
Stoma
Spiderwort leaves
plants. A pair of specialized cells called guard cells border each

stoma, as seen in Figure 2. Stomata open and close as the guard cells
change shape.
Reproducing on Land
Aquatic algae reproduce sexually when sperm swim through the
water and fertilize eggs. The sperm of most plants, however, must be
able to move without water. In most plants, sperm are enclosed in a
structure that keeps them from drying out. The structures that con-
tain sperm make up pollen. Pollen permits the sperm of most plants
to be carried by wind or animals rather than by water.
Observing the Behavior

of Stomata
You can use nail polish to see that a leaf has many stomata.
Materials
clear nail polish, plant kept in light, plant kept in darkness,
two 4–5 cm strips of clear tape, 2 microscope slides,
compound microscope
Procedure
1. Paint a thin layer 3. Carefully pull the tape Analysis
of clear nail off each leaf. Stick 1. Describe any differences in
polish on a 1 1 cm area of each piece of tape to a the stomata of the two plants.
a leaf on a plant kept in light. microscope slide. Label it
Do the same using a plant appropriately. 2. Critical Thinking
kept in darkness. Let the nail Drawing Conclusions
4. View each slide with a micro- Which plant will lose water
polish dry for 5 minutes.
scope, first under low power more quickly? Explain.
2. Place a 4–5 cm strip of clear and then under high power.
tape over the nail polish on
5. Draw and label what you see
each leaf. Press the tape
on each slide.
firmly to the nail polish.
SECTION 1 Adaptations of Plants 503

Vascular Tissue, Seeds, and Flowers
As plants adapted to land, they developed many features that helped
in their success. There was no basic difference in structure between
www.scilinks.org
the aboveground and underground parts of the earliest plants. Later
Topic: Vascular Plants
Keyword: HX4182 plants, however, had roots, stems, and leaves. One of the most impor-
tant changes in plants was the development of conducting tissues
that move water and other materials through the plant body.
Advantages of Conducting Tissue

The first plants were small. Materials were transported within their
bodies by osmosis and diffusion. Today, most plants have strands of
specialized cells that transport materials. These specialized cells are
connected end to end like the sections in a pipeline, as shown in
Figure 3. Some strands carry water and mineral nutrients from the
roots to the leaves. Other strands carry organic nutrients from the
leaves to wherever they are needed.
Specialized cells that transport water and other materials within a
plant are found in vascular tissues. The existence of vascular tissue
allowed for larger and more-complex plants. The larger, more-
complex plants have a vascular system, a system of well-developed
vascular tissues that distribute materials more efficiently. Three
groups of plants alive today lack a vascular system. These relatively
small plants that have no vascular system are called nonvascular
plants. Plants that have a vascular system are called vascular plants.
Advantages of Seeds
After vascular tissue, the seed was the next important adaptation to
appear in plants. A seed is a structure that contains the embryo of
a plant. An embryo is an early stage in the development of plants
and animals. Most plants living today are seed plants —vascular
plants that produce seeds. The first seed plants appeared about 380
million years ago. Seeds offer a plant’s offspring several survival
advantages, which are summarized in Figure 4.
Figure 3 Vascular tissue.

Thick-walled, tubular cells
like these carry water from the
tips of roots to the tips of
leaves. Stacked end to end,
these cells form tiny pipes
called vessels.

Figure 4 Structure and function of seeds
The structure of a seed helps it to perform its functions. Pine
seedling
Stored food
Pine
Pine cone
Wing seed
Seed coat
Embryo
Seeds
The seed coat of a pine seed The stored food supply will nourish A wing helps pine Pine seeds may not ger-
covers and protects the embryo. the embryo as it starts to grow. seeds disperse. minate for several years.
1. Protection. Seeds are surrounded by a protective cover called

the seed coat. The seed coat protects the embryo from drying
www.scilinks.org
out and from mechanical injury and disease. Topic: Structure and
2. Nourishment. Most kinds of seeds have a supply of nutrients Function of Seeds
Keyword: HX4169
stored in them. These nutrients are a ready source of nourish-
ment for a plant embryo as it starts to grow.
3. Plant dispersal. Seeds disperse (spread) the offspring of seed
plants. Many seeds have structures that help wind, water, or ani-
mals carry them away from their parent plant. Dispersal
prevents competition for water, nutrients, light, and living space
between parents and offspring.
4. Delayed growth. The embryo in a seed is in a state of
suspended animation. Most seeds will not sprout until condi-
tions are favorable, such as when moisture is present and the
weather is warm. Thus, seeds make it possible for plant
embryos to survive through unfavorable periods such as
droughts or cold winters.
Advantages of Flowers
The last important adaptation to appear as plants evolved was the
flower , a reproductive structure that produces pollen and seeds.
Flowers make plant reproduction more efficient. The pollen of the first
seed plants was carried by wind. Large amounts of pollen are needed
to ensure cross-pollination by wind—an inefficient system. Most
plants living today are flowering plants—seed plants that produce
flowers. The first flowering plants appeared more than 130 million Figure 5 Pollination. This
years ago. Many flowers attract animals, such as insects, bats, and honeybee is covered with
pollen grains containing the
birds. As Figure 5 shows, tiny pollen grains stick to animals, which sperm of the plant it has just
carry pollen directly from one flower to another. Flowering plants that visited. The bee will transfer
are pollinated by animals produce less pollen, and cross-pollination some of the pollen to the next
can occur between individuals that live far apart. flower it visits.

Plant Life Cycles
In many algae, the zygote is the only diploid (2n) cell. It undergoes
meiosis right after fertilization. So the bodies of these algae consist
of haploid cells. In the ancestors of plants, however, meiosis was
delayed. The zygote divided by mitosis and grew into a multicelled
sporophyte that was diploid and produced haploid (n) spores by
Figure 6 Alternation of
generations. In the life cycle meiosis. The spores grew into multicelled gametophytes that were
of a plant, a diploid sporophyte haploid and produced gametes by mitosis. As a result, plants have
generation alternates with life cycles in which haploid plants that make gametes (gameto-
a haploid gametophyte phytes) alternate with diploid plants that make
generation. spores (sporophytes). A life cycle in which a game-
Diploid (2n) Haploid (n) tophyte alternates with a sporophyte is called alter-
nation of generations. The basic plant life cycle is
Spore-forming cell n shown in Figure 6.
Meiosis n Spores Unlike the green algae with alternation of genera-
n tions, plants have gametophytes and sporophytes
2n
n
that look very different. In addition, the relative
sizes of gametophytes and sporophytes changed as
2n n
plants evolved, as Figure 7 shows. In nonvascular
n
Sporophyte Gametophytes
plants, such as mosses, the gametophyte generation
is dominant (most noticeable). In vascular plants,
Mitosis such as the flowering plants, the sporophyte gen-
eration is dominant. Like the presence of a vascular
2n
n system, the relative sizes of gametophytes and
Zygote
Fertilization n sporophytes is a fundamental difference between
Gametes the nonvascular plants and the vascular plants.
Figure 7 Nonvascular plants versus vascular plants

Gametophytes and sporophytes vary greatly in size.
The gametophytes
form inside a flower.
Sphagnum moss
A sporophyte grows
C24 000 007b Tomato sporophytes
atop a gametophyte.

The Vascular-Plant Sporophyte
As the size of plant sporophytes increased, so did the complexity of
their structure. An increase in size enables cell specialization and,
therefore, the development of complex tissues and specialized struc-
tures. The following features characterize the sporophytes of most
vascular plants.
Vascular System Larger bodies require an efficient vascular system
for transporting materials internally. The sporophytes of vascular
plants have a vascular system with two types of vascular tissue. Each
type of vascular tissue contains strands of long, tubelike cells that are Figure 8 Vascular plant
lined up end to end like sections of pipe. These strands of cells trans- sporophyte. The sporophytes
port water and nutrients within a plant’s body. Relatively soft-walled of the vast majority of vascular
cells transport organic nutrients in a kind of tissue called phloem plants have an aboveground
shoot with stems and leaves
(FLOH uhm). Hard-walled cells transport water and mineral nutri- and an underground root.
ents in a kind of tissue called xylem (ZIE luhm). The walls of the Growth occurs in regions
water-conducting cells in xylem are called meristems.
thickened, which helps support the Shoot meristem
plant body. This makes it possible for
vascular plants to grow to great heights.
Leaf
Distinctive Body Form Nearly all plants
have a body that consists of a vertical
shaft from which specialized structures
branch, as shown in Figure 8. The part
of a plant’s body that grows mostly
upward is called the shoot . In most
plants, the part of the body that grows Stem
downward is called the root. Zones of
actively dividing plant cells, called
meristems (MEHR uh stehmz), produce
plant growth. The vertical body form
results as new cells are made at the tips
of the plant body. As vascular plants
became better adapted to life on land,
Root
most developed the familiar plant struc-
tures—roots, stems, and leaves—which
are complex structures made of several Root meristem
different types of specialized tissues.
Section 1 Review
Summarize how plants are adapted to living Critical Thinking Evaluating Conclusions
successfully on land. Why do you think vascular plants are more
successful as land plants than are nonvascular
Describe two basic differences between nonvas- plants?
cular plants and vascular plants.
Standardized Test Prep Water loss from most
Critical Thinking Relating Concepts How plants is reduced by a waxy layer called the
have seeds and flowers made plants more A xylem. C stomata.
successful on land?
B phloem. D cuticle.

Section 2 Kinds of Plants
Objectives Nonvascular Plants
● Describe the key features of The brilliant green carpet of mosses you see in Figure 9 is made up
the four major groups of of thousands of individual plants. Living carpets of mosses are often
plants. found near streams, coastlines, and other moist places. But these
● Classify plants into one of the tough little plants also live in some surprising places, such as cracks
12 phyla of living plants. in city sidewalks and rocky mountaintops—any place where a little
moisture can collect. The moisture makes it possible for these non-
Key Terms vascular plants to survive.
Nonvascular plants do not have a vascular system for transport-
rhizoid
ing water and other nutrients within their bodies. This means that
rhizome
frond all nonvascular plants lack true roots, stems, and leaves, although
cone most have structures that resemble them. True roots, stems, and
gymnosperm leaves are complex structures that contain vascular tissues.
angiosperm
fruit Key Features of Nonvascular Plants
endosperm
monocot In addition to the lack of true roots, stems, and leaves, nonvascular
dicot plants share several other features. These features are key adapta-
tions that have enabled them to survive on land.
Small Size All nonvascular plants are small
Figure 9 A carpet of mosses. Mosses grow in and relatively simple. Water and other nutri-
tightly packed mats that may contain dozens of plants ents are transported within their bodies
per square inch. mostly by osmosis and diffusion, which
move materials short distances. This greatly
limits the size of a nonvascular plant’s body.
Larger Gametophyte The gametophytes of
nonvascular plants are larger and more
noticeable than the sporophytes. Hairlike
projections called rhizoids anchor the game-
tophytes to the surfaces on which they grow.
The smaller, usually nongreen sporophytes
grow on the gametophytes and depend on
them for nutrients.
Require Water for Sexual Reproduction Non-
vascular plants must be covered by a film of
water in order for fertilization to occur.
Eggs and sperm form in separate structures,
which are often on separate plants. The
gametophytes grow in mats of tightly
packed individuals. When these mats are
covered by a film of water, the sperm can
easily swim to neighboring individuals and
fertilize their eggs.

Kinds of Nonvascular Plants
The nonvascular plants include the mosses and the two simplest
groups of plants—liverworts and hornworts. Examples of these
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plants are shown in Figure 10.
Topic: Nonvascular Plants
Mosses The mosses (phylum Bryophyta) are the most familiar non- Keyword: HX4130
vascular plants. The “leafy” green plants that you recognize as mosses
are gametophytes. Moss sporophytes, which are not green, grow from
the tip of a gametophyte. Each sporophyte consists of a bare stalk
topped by a spore capsule. Most mosses have a cuticle, stomata, and
some simple conducting cells. The walls of the water-conducting cells
in mosses are not thickened, as they are in a vascular plant. Mosses
never get very large because their water-conducting cells carry water
only short distances.
Liverworts Like the mosses, liverworts (phylum Hepatophyta) grow
in mats of many individuals. Liverworts have no conducting cells,
no cuticle, and no stomata. Their gametophytes are green. In some
species, such as the common liverwort shown in Figure 10, the
gametophytes of liverworts are flattened and have lobes. Structures
The word liverwort
that resemble stems and leaves make up the gametophytes of most
combines the familiar word
liverworts, like those of the mosses. The sporophytes of liverworts liver and the Old English
are very small and consist of a short stalk topped by a spore capsule. word wort, meaning “herb.”
Hornworts The hornworts (phylum Anthocerophyta) are a small The word liverwort dates
back to the Middle Ages,
group of nonvascular plants that, like the liverworts, completely lack
when it was thought that
conducting cells. The sporophyte of a hornwort has both stomata plants resembling certain
and a cuticle. The gametophyte of a hornwort is green and flattened. body parts could cure dis-
Green hornlike sporophytes grow upward from the gametophytes. eases of those body parts.
Figure 10 Nonvascular plants

There are three phyla of nonvascular plants.
Polytrichum, a moss Marchantia, a liverwort Anthoceros, a hornwort

(Phylum Bryophyta) (Phylum Hepatophyta) (Phylum Anthocerophyta)
SECTION 2 Kinds of Plants 509

Seedless Vascular Plants
Vascular plants that do not produce seeds are called seedless vascu-
lar plants. The earliest known seedless vascular plant, Cooksonia, is
www.scilinks.org illustrated in Figure 11. The sporophytes of these ancient plants had
Topic: Seedless Vascular
Plants branched, leafless stems that were only a few centimeters long.
Keyword: HX4161 Spore-forming sporangia were located at the tips of the stems.
Rhynia, another early seedless vascular plant, also had horizontal
underground stems, or rhizomes.
Key Features of Seedless Vascular Plants

Seedless vascular plants are much larger and more complex than
the nonvascular plants. Other key features enabled them to spread
and adapt to drier habitats on land.
Vascular System Seedless vascular plants have a vascular system
with both xylem and phloem. The water-conducting cells in the
Real Life xylem are reinforced with lignin, a major part of wood. Because of
their vascular system, seedless vascular plants grow much larger
The spores of a common than nonvascular plants and also develop true roots, stems, and
club moss, Lycopodium,
leaves.
form a powder that has
several uses. Larger Sporophyte The sporophytes of seedless vascular plants are
Herbalists use the spores larger than the gametophytes. Their larger size makes it easier for
to make a powder for the wind to carry away spores, which makes dispersal more effi-
treating skin disorders. cient. The much smaller gametophytes of most seedless vascular
The spores are also used
plants develop on or below the surface of soil. As in the nonvascular
to make photographic
flash powder. plants, water is needed for fertilization. When there is enough water
Finding Information on or in the soil, the sperm swim to eggs and fertilize them.
Find out how Lycopodium Drought-Resistant Spores The spores of the seedless vascular plants
powder is used by the have thickened walls that are resistant to drying. Such spores make
pharmaceutical industry.
it possible for a plant to live in drier habitats.
Figure 11 The earliest known vascular plant

Cooksonia, the oldest known vascular plant, lived
about 410 million years ago.
Model of Cooksonia Artist’s rendition of Cooksonia

Kinds of Seedless Vascular Plants
The seedless vascular plants include ferns and three other groups of
plants known as fern allies—whisk ferns, club mosses, and horse-
tails. Like the ferns, the fern allies usually grow in moist places.
Ferns The ferns (phylum Pterophyta) are the most common
and most familiar seedless vascular plants. Ferns grow
throughout the world, but they are most abundant in the
tropics. The plants you recognize as ferns are sporophytes.
Most fern sporophytes have a rhizome that is anchored by
roots and leaves called fronds. The coiled young leaves of a
fern, shown in Figure 12, are called fiddleheads. Spores are
produced in sporangia that grow in clumps on the lower side
of fronds. The gametophytes of ferns are flattened, heart-
Figure 12 A fern. This
shaped green plants that are usually less than 1 cm (0.4 in.)
sword fern sporophyte has
across. many fronds and fiddleheads.
Club Mosses Unlike true mosses, the club mosses (phylum The inset shows a gameto-
Lycophyta), have roots, stems, and leaves. Their leafy green stems phyte at twice its actual size.
branch from an underground rhizome. Spores develop in sporangia
that form on specialized leaves. In some species, such as the one
seen in Figure 13, clusters of nongreen spore-bearing leaves form a
structure called a cone.
Horsetails The horsetails (phylum Sphenophyta) also have roots,
stems, and leaves. The vertical stems of horsetails, which grow from
a rhizome, are hollow and have joints. Whorls of scalelike leaves
grow at the joints. Spores form in cones located at the tips of stems.
Whisk Ferns The whisk ferns (phylum Psilotophyta) probably most
closely resemble the earliest vascular plants. Whisk ferns have
highly branched stems and no leaves or roots. They produce spores
in sporangia that form at the tips of short branches.
Figure 13 Fern allies

In addition to ferns, there are three other living phyla of seedless vascular plants
that are known as fern allies.
Psilotum, a whisk fern

(Phylum Psilotophyta)
Lycopodium, a club moss Equisetum, a horsetail

(Phylum Lycophyta) (Phylum Sphenophyta)

Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms (JIHM noh spurmz) are seed plants whose seeds do
not develop within a sealed container (a fruit). The word gymnosperm
comes from the Greek words gymnos, meaning “naked,” and sperma,
meaning “seed.”
Key Features of Gymnosperms

Gymnosperms are among the most successful groups of plants. The
following key features have made them successful on land.
Seeds All gymnosperms produce seeds. Seeds protect plant
embryos, provide them with nutrients, and permit them to survive
long periods of unfavorable conditions. In some plants, seeds also
disperse new plants far from their parents.
Figure 14 Juniper pollen.
This juniper, a type of Greatly Reduced Gametophytes All seed plants produce very tiny
gymnosperm, releases clouds gametophytes of two types—male and female. The gametophytes
of pollen in late fall or early form within the tissues of the sporophytes. Grains of pollen are
winter. male gametophytes. Female gametophytes form within structures
that become seeds. In all but one species of gymnosperm, male
and female gametophytes develop in male and female cones,
respectively.
Wind Pollination The sperm of gymnosperms do not swim through
water to reach and fertilize eggs. Instead, the sperm are carried to
the structures that contain eggs by pollen, which can drift on the
wind, as seen in Figure14. Wind pollination makes sexual reproduc-
tion possible even when conditions are very dry.

Climate on Plants 60° N
0100010110
011101010
Background
0010010001001
1100100100010
The map at right shows the taiga of North America. The 30° N
0000101001001
1101010100100
taiga is a vast forest of conifers, a type of gymnosperm. Taiga
0101010010010 The graph shows average annual temperature and pre-
cipitation data for Anchorage, Alaska, which is located
at the western edge of the taiga. Use the map and Anchorage, Alaska
graph to answer the following questions.
40 20
Precipitation (cm)
Temperature (°C)
Analysis
1. Describe the climate of 3. Critical Thinking 30 0
Anchorage, Alaska. Drawing Conclusions 20 –20
Does climate appear to be
2. Critical Thinking 10 –40
an important factor in where
Predicting Patterns
the conifers of the taiga
What type of climate would 0 –60
grow? Explain. J FMAMJ J ASOND
you expect to find in other
parts of the taiga? Months

Kinds of Gymnosperms
Four groups of living seed plants are referred to as
gymnosperms—conifers, cycads, ginkgo, and gneto-
phytes. Examples of each of these four groups are
shown in Figure 15 and Figure 16.
Conifers The conifers (phylum Coniferophyta) are
the most familiar, and most successful, gym-
nosperms. Conifers have leaves that are either
needle-like or reduced to tiny scales, as Figure 15
shows. These leaves are an adaptation for limiting
water loss. Some of the tallest living plants, the red-
woods of coastal California and Oregon, are conifers. Figure 15 Juniper
The oldest trees in the world are thought to be bristlecone pines, leaves and cones. The tiny
another species of conifer that grows in the Rocky Mountains and scalelike leaves of junipers—a
Great Basin. Some bristlecone pines are about 5,000 years old. Vast type of conifer—are an adap-
tation that limits water loss.
forests of conifers grow in cool, dry regions of the world.
The blue, berrylike structures
Cycads The cycads (phylum Cycadophyta) have short stems and are the female cones of this
palmlike leaves. Cones that produce pollen and those that produce juniper.
seeds develop on different plants. Cycads are widespread through-
out the tropics.
Ginkgo The only living species of ginkgo (phylum Ginkgophyta), or
maidenhair tree, has fan-shaped leaves that resemble the leaves of
the maidenhair fern. The male and female gametophytes of ginkgo
develop on separate trees. Ginkgo seeds do not develop within a cone.
Gnetophytes The gnetophytes (phylum Gnetophyta) are a diverse
group of trees, shrubs, and vines that produce pollen and seeds in
cones that resemble flowers. One type of gnetophyte, Ephedra, is
common in the western United States.
Figure 16 Other gymnosperms

In addition to conifers, there are three other living phyla of gymnosperms.
Encephalartos, a cycad Leaves and seeds of Ginkgo Ephedra (Mormon tea), a gnetophyte
(Phylum Cycadophyta) (Phylum Ginkgophyta) (Phylum Gnetophyta)

Angiosperms
Most seed plants are flowering plants, or angiosperms (AN jee oh
spurmz). Angiosperms produce seeds that develop enclosed within a
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specialized structure called a fruit, as seen in Figure 17. The word
Topic: Angiosperms
Keyword: HX4007 angiosperm comes from the Greek words angeion, meaning “case,”
and sperma, meaning “seed.”
Key Features of Angiosperms

Angiosperms are the most recent group of plants to evolve. The fol-
lowing key features made them the most successful group of plants.
Flowers The male and female gametophytes of angiosperms
develop within flowers, which promote pollination and fertilization
more efficiently than do cones. Some flowers, such as roses, are
brightly colored or have strong scents. This attracts insects and
other animals that carry pollen and increases the likelihood of cross-
pollination. Other flowers, such as garden peas, are adapted for self-
pollination, which often occurs before the flowers open. The flowers
of many angiosperms, such as oaks and grasses, have small greenish
flowers that are adapted for wind pollination. The female reproduc-
tive part of a flower also provides a pathway that enables sperm to
reach and fertilize eggs without swimming through water.
Fruits Although fruits provide some protection for developing seeds,
their primary function is to promote seed dispersal. The angiosperms
produce many different types of fruits, which develop from parts of
flowers. Many fruits are eaten by animals. The seeds are dispersed as
they pass undigested from the animals’ bodies. Other fruits have
structures that help them float on wind or water. Some fruits even
forcefully eject their seeds, flinging them away from the parent plant.
Endosperm The seeds of angiosperms have a supply of stored food
called endosperm at some time during their development. In many
angiosperms, the endosperm is absorbed by the embryo before the
seeds mature.
Figure 17 Seeds in a fruit.

These melons, which contain
seeds, are the fruits of an
angiosperm.

Kinds of Angiosperms Figure 18 A monocot and a dicot
Botanists divide the angiosperms Monocots and dicots differ in several ways.
into two subgroups—monocots and
dicots as Figure 18 shows. The
monocots are flowering plants that
produce seeds with one seed leaf
(cotyledon). Most monocots also
produce flowers with parts that are
in multiples of three and have long,
narrow leaves with parallel veins.
The dicots are flowering plants that
produce seeds with two seed leaves.
Most dicots also produce flowers
with parts in multiples of two, four,
or five and have leaves with branch-
ing veins. Table 1 lists examples of Daylilies are monocots. Roses are dicots.
some of the most familiar families
of angiosperms.
Table 1 Familiar Families of Angiosperms

Subgroup Family Examples
Iridaceae (iris) Irises, gladiolus, crocus, blue-eyed grass
Monocots Liliaceae (lily) Daylilies, tulips, asparagus, aloe vera

(class
Monocotyledonae)
Poaceae (grass) Wheat, corn, rice, lawn grasses
Asteraceae (aster) Daisies, sunflowers, lettuce, ragweed

Dicots
(class Dicotyledonae)
Brassicaceae (mustard) Broccoli, cauliflower, turnips, cabbage
Fabaceae (legume) Beans, clovers, peas, peanuts, soybeans
Rosaceae (rose) Roses, apples, peaches, pears, plums
Solanaceae (nightshade) Potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, petunias
Section 2 Review
Identify three key features of each of the four Critical Thinking Recognizing Patterns
major groups of plants. How are spores and pollen grains adapted for
their functions, and how do their numbers impact
Classify each of the following plants as one of their environment?
the four major groups of plants: pine trees,
carnations, sphagnum moss, and wood fern. Standardized Test Prep Ferns reproduce by
producing
Critical Thinking Evaluating Conclusions A spores. C flowers.
Why are angiosperms said to be the most
B cones. D seeds.
successful group of plants?

Section 3 Plants in Our Lives
Objectives Plants as Food
● Identify foods that come Humans depend on plants in many ways. For one thing, plants store
from plants and their dietary the extra nutrients they make or absorb in their bodies. Thus, plant
importance. parts contain organic nutrients (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins)
● Describe several ways that and minerals (calcium, magnesium, and iron). All types of plant
wood is used. parts—roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds—are eaten
as food.
● Explain how plants are
used to treat human
ailments. Fruits and Vegetables
● Identify plants that are The United States government identifies each of the foods that
used to make paper and comes from a plant as an agricultural commodity. Each type of food
cloth. is classified by a term—such as fruit or vegetable—that is registered
in Washington, D.C. But, these terms have different meanings in
Key Terms botany. For example, to a botanist, a fruit is the part of a plant that
vegetative part contains seeds, and a vegetative part is any nonreproductive part of
cereal a plant. The foods that you think of as fruits—such as apples,
grain bananas, and melons—are also fruits in the botanical sense.
Vegetables, on the other hand, may be any botanical part of a plant,
as you can see in Figure 19. Fruits and vegetables provide dietary
fiber and are important sources of essential vitamins and minerals.
Figure 19 Plant parts eaten as food

The foods you eat come from different parts of plants.
Fruits
Flowers
Shoots
Leaves
Storage structures
Roots

Root Crops
Potatoes are an important food staple in many parts
of the world. Rich in calories and easy to grow, pota-
toes are an ideal crop for a small farm. Potatoes are
classified as a root crop because they grow under-
ground. But, potatoes are actually tubers, modified
underground stems that store starch. Yams, an essen-
tial food crop in many tropical parts of the world, are
roots. Sweet potatoes, carrots, radishes, turnips,
beets, and cassava (kuh SAH vuh) are also important
root crops. These vegetables are enlarged roots that
store starch. Cassava, seen in Figure 20, is the staple food of more
than 500 million people. Also known as manioc (MAN ee awk),
cassava supplies more than one-third of the calories eaten in Africa.
Figure 20 Cassava.
Cassava develops thick
Legumes starch-filled roots up to 120
Many members of the pea family, which are called legumes, produce cm (4 ft) long. The roots are
protein-rich seeds in long pods. For example, about 45 percent of a eaten like potatoes. Tapioca,
soybean, the most important legume grown for food, is protein. shown above in the bowl, is
made from cassava.
Soybeans are often cooked and pressed into cakes called tofu (TOH
foo). Peas, peanuts, and the many different types of beans are the
seeds of legumes. Alfalfa, which is fed to livestock, is another impor-
tant legume. Like many legumes, alfalfa has nitrogen-fixing bacte-
ria, which add nitrogen compounds to the soil, in its roots.
Therefore, alfalfa is also grown to enrich the soil.
Distinguishing Between
Fruits and Vegetables
You can find out if a plant product is a fruit by cut-
ting it open and examining its internal structure.
Materials
apple, banana, green bean, potato, squash, tomato,
plastic knife
Procedure
1. Look at several familiar fruits 3. Look at the fruits and vegeta- 2. Critical Thinking
and vegetables. Classify each bles again. Classify each by Analyzing Data Which
one as either a fruit or a veg- its botanical function—either fruits and vegetables did you
etable in the familiar sense. a fruit or a vegetative part. classify differently?
2. CAUTION: Sharp Analysis 3. Critical Thinking
objects can cause 1. Compare the familiar Analyzing Results Defend
injury. Handle knives care- and botanical classifications the classifications you made
fully. Use a plastic knife to cut you gave each fruit and for item 2.
open each fruit and vegetable. vegetable. 4. Critical Thinking
Drawing Conclusions
Based on your data, when is
a vegetable a fruit?
SECTION 3 Plants in Our Lives 517

Cereals
Most of the foods that people eat come directly or indirectly from
the fruits of cereals. Cereals are grasses that are grown as food for
humans and livestock. Cereal grasses produce large numbers of a
type of edible, dry fruit called a grain . A grain contains a single seed
with a large supply of endosperm. Each grain develops from a
flower. The flowers of cereal grasses form in tightly packed clusters
of many individual flowers. A grain is covered by a dry, papery husk
called the bran, which includes the wall of the ovary and the seed
coat. Cereal grains are rich in carbohydrates and also contain pro-
tein, vitamins, and dietary fiber. More than 70 percent of the world’s
cultivated farmland is used for growing cereal grains. In fact, more
than half of the calories that humans consume come from just three
cereal grasses: wheat, corn, and rice.
Wheat
For more than one-third of the world’s population, wheat, seen in
Figure 21, is the primary source of food. The endosperm of wheat
grains, which is high in carbohydrates, is commonly ground into
white flour and used to make breads and pasta. Vitamin-rich wheat
germ consists of the embryos of wheat grains. Whole-wheat flour
Figure 21 Wheat. Modern consists of the endosperm plus the germ and bran layers. Wheat
bread wheat is a hybrid of grains are not always ground into flour. In the Middle East, wheat
three wild species. The grains are often boiled or soaked, dried, and then pounded until they
ripenend heads of bread wheat crack. The cracked grains, called bulgur (BUL guhr), are used in
turn golden brown. dishes such as tabbouleh (tuh BOO lee) and pilaf (pih LAHF). Most
wheat is grown in temperate regions that have fertile soil and mod-
erate rainfall. One of the world’s best wheat-growing areas is the
Great Plains region of the United States and Canada—a temperate
grassland biome.
Corn
Corn, seen in Figure 22, is the most widely cultivated crop in the
United States. American colonists of the 1600s and 1700s first
learned how to grow corn from Native Americans. In the southeast-
ern United States, corn was more widely grown than wheat, which
does not grow as well in hot climates. Thus, foods that are made
from corn—corn bread, corn pone, hominy, and grits—are a tradi-
tional component of the southeastern American diet. Corn is also
one of the world’s chief foods for farm animals. About 70 percent of
the corn crop harvested in the United States is consumed by live-
stock. Other uses for corn include the production of corn syrup,
margarine, corn oil, cornstarch, and fuel-grade ethanol. Most of the
Figure 22 Corn. Each ear
of corn developed from a
corn grown in the United States today comes from a region known
flower spike that consisted of as the Corn Belt, which includes Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota,
more than 500 flowers. Illinois, and Indiana.

Rice
For more than half of the people in the
world, rice is the main part of every
meal. Although it is low in protein,
rice is an excellent source of energy-
rich carbohydrates. While brown rice
still has its vitamin-rich bran layers,
white rice has been processed to
remove the bran layers. This process-
ing helps to prevent spoilage in stored
rice. In societies where people eat
mainly rice, vitamin-rich sauces such
as soy sauce are often added to white
rice to make meals more nutritious.
The white rice you buy at a grocery
store is enriched with added vitamins.
Rice is often added to processed foods
Figure 23 Gulf coast
such as breakfast cereal, soup, baby food, and flour. In the United rice field. Rice plants are
States, rice is grown in central California, in the Southeast, and grown in standing water.
along the Gulf Coast in fields such as the one shown in Figure 23.
Vegetarian Diets
M any people are vegetarian;

they eat only foods from
plants. Like any diet, vegetarian
are eaten together to obtain
enough of the essential amino
acids. However, vegetarians can
diets must satisfy the body’s get the essential amino acids they
nutritional needs to be healthy. need even if they do not eat a
Two important considerations in variety of plant foods, as long as
eating a healthy vegetarian diet they eat enough protein. For vegetarians can eat fortified foods,
are the essential amino acids example, if you eat enough rice to add eggs or dairy products to their
and vitamins B-12 and D. satisfy your daily protein require- diet, or take vitamin B-12 supple-
ment, you will get more than twice ments. Vitamin D is made in the
Getting the Essential
your daily requirement for lysine. skin when it is exposed to sun-
Amino Acids
The recommended daily require- light. Vegetarians may need to
Essential amino acids is the term ment for protein is 44 g for a 55 kg take vitamin D supplements if their
for those amino acids that the (121 lb) woman and 56 g for a exposure to sunlight is limited.
human body cannot make. Most 70 kg (154 lb) man. Legumes,
plant proteins contain all of the grains, nuts, broccoli, and pota-
essential amino acids, but in dif- toes are good sources of protein.
ferent relative amounts. For www.scilinks.org
example, cereal proteins tend to Vitamins B-12 and D Topic: Vegetarian Diets
be low in lysine and high in A vegetarian diet generally can Keyword: HX4184
methionine; the opposite is true provide enough of all but two vita-
for the proteins in beans. mins, vitamin B-12 and vitamin D.
Traditionally, cereals and beans To get enough vitamin B-12,

Nonfood Uses of Plants
Plants are used by people for many purposes other than food. For
example, rubber was first made from latex, the milky white sap of
tropical trees of the genus Hevea. Latex is extracted from rubber
trees by the method seen in Figure 24. Guayule (gwah YOO lee), a
member of the sunflower family that is native to the southwestern
United States, is another source of natural rubber. (Most of today’s
rubber, however, is synthesized from petroleum, a nonrenewable
resource.) The most important nonfood products obtained from
plants are wood and fibers.
Figure 24 Latex. The milky Wood

sap of certain plants is called
latex. This man is collecting After food, wood is the single most valuable resource obtained from
latex from a rubber tree in plants. Countless products, such as those shown in Figure 25, are
Java, Indonesia. made from wood. The wood from trees that have been cut down
and sawed into boards is called lumber. Nearly 75 percent of the
lumber cut in the United States is used for building construction.
The rest is used to make products that contain wood, or it is ground
and moistened to make wood pulp. Wood pulp is made into paper,
rayon, and many other products. Finally, for more than a quarter of
the world’s people, wood is still the main source of fuel for heating
and cooking.
Figure 25 Items made with wood

Furniture, buildings, boats, cabinets, and violins
are made from wood.

Figure 26 Sources of medicines
These two common garden plants are the sources of important medicines.
Rosy periwinkle, the original source of two cancer-fighting drugs Foxglove, the source of a drug used to treat
cardiac disorders
Medicines
People have always used substances obtained from plants to treat a
variety of ailments. By studying the plants traditionally used to treat
human ailments, researchers have developed many “modern”
medicines. For example, solutions made by soaking the bark of
willow trees, Salix, were a traditional cure for aches and pains. The
pain-relieving chemical found in willows is called salicin (SAL uh
sihn). Acetylsalicylic (uh SEET l sal uh SIHL ihk) acid, a derivative of
salicin, was first sold in 1899 under the name “aspirin.” Today,
aspirin is the most widely used pain-relieving drug in the world.
Two familiar garden plants, seen in Figure 26, are important
sources of life-saving medicines. The extremely poisonous leaves of
the foxglove, Digitalis purpurea, yield digitalis (dihj ih TAL ihs), a
drug that is used to stabilize irregular heartbeats and to treat car-
diac disorders. The rosy periwinkle, Catharanthus roseus, is the
source of two cancer-treatment drugs—vinblastine (vihn BLAS teen)
and vincristine (vihn KRIHS teen). Vinblastine is often used to treat
Hodgkin’s disease, a type of cancer that affects the lymph nodes.
Vincristine is used to treat childhood leukemia and other types of
cancer. Table 2 contains other examples of medicines that originally
derived from plants.
Table 2 Some Drugs Originally Derived from Plants

www.scilinks.org
Name Source Action
Topic: Medicines from
Plants
Caffeine Tea leaves Acts as a stimulant Keyword: HX4119
Codeine Poppy fruits Relieves pain
Cortisone Yam tubers Relieves symptoms of allergies
Ephedrine Ephedra stems Acts as a decongestant
Taxol Yew tree bark Reduces the size of cancerous tumors

Figure 27 Cotton
Cotton is the plant fiber that is most widely used to make cloth.
Cotton bolls that have split open, Indian woman spinning cotton into thread that will be woven into cloth
revealing cotton fibers
Fibers
If you were to look at this sheet of paper very closely through a mag-
nifying glass, you would see that it is made of many interlocking
fibers. These fibers are strands of cellulose, which is a component of
the cell walls of plants. In plants, fibers help provide support for the
plant body. The strength and flexibility of plant fibers make them
ideal materials for making paper, cloth, and rope. Most of the fibers
used to make paper come from wood. Paper-making fibers are also
Reviewing Information obtained from many other plants, including cotton, flax, rice, bam-
Prepare flashcards for each boo, and papyrus (puh PIE ruhs).
of the Key Terms in this For centuries, people have made clothing with cloth made of cot-
chapter. On each card, write ton, the world’s most important plant fiber. As Figure 27 shows,
the term on one side and its
white fibers fill up the inside of a cotton boll (bohl), the fruit of the
definition on the other side.
Use the cards to review cotton plant. Cotton thread is spun from the fine white fibers, which
meanings of the Key Terms. grow on cotton seeds. The stems of flax yield softer, more durable
fibers that are used to make linen. More than 30 percent of the
world’s clothing is now made of synthetic fibers, but natural plant
fibers are still prized for their durability and comfort. Sturdy fibers
of hemp and sisal (SIE suhl) plants are used to make rope.
Section 3 Review
Describe several ways in which wood is used. Critical Thinking Evaluating Viewpoints
Justify the viewpoint that wood is the most
List five medicines that are derived from plants, important nonfood plant product.
and state how each is used.
Standardized Test Prep Which plant has
Name two types of plants that provide fiber used nitrogen-fixing bacteria in its roots?
in clothing. A potato
Critical Thinking Predicting Results Name B wheat
the three most important cereal grains and pre- C alfalfa
dict the results if one of them ceased to exist. D corn

ZONE
1 Adaptations of Plants Section 1
cuticle (502)
● To survive on land, plants must absorb mineral nutrients, stoma (502)
prevent their bodies from drying out, and reproduce without guard cell (503)
water to transmit male gametes. vascular system (504)
nonvascular plant (504)
● Vascular plants have a system of well-developed tissues that vascular plant (504)
transport water within a plant. The nonvascular plants lack a seed (504)
vascular system. embryo (504)
seed plant (504)
● Seeds protect and nourish a plant’s embryo, disperse flower (505)
the offspring, and delay the growth of the embryo until phloem (507)
conditions are favorable. Flowers make reproduction more xylem (507)
shoot (507)
efficient by promoting pollination. root (507)
● The sporophytes of vascular plants have a vascular system. meristem (507)
Their bodies consist of an aboveground shoot and an under-
ground root.
2 Kinds of Plants Section 2

rhizoid (508)
● Nonvascular plants are small and lack vascular tissue. rhizome (510)
Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts are nonvascular plants. frond (511)
● Seedless vascular plants produce spores with thickened cone (511)
gymnosperm (512)
walls that prevent them from drying out. Ferns, club mosses, angiosperm (514)
horsetails, and whisk ferns are seedless vascular plants. fruit (514)
endosperm (514)
● Gymnosperms are seed plants that produce cones. Conifers,
monocot (515)
cycads, ginkgoes, and gnetophytes are gymnosperms. dicot (515)
● Angiosperms are seed plants that produce flowers and fruits.
The angiosperms are classified as either monocots or dicots.
3 Plants In Our Lives Section 3

vegetative part (516)
● All types of plant parts—roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, cereal (518)
and seeds—provide food for humans. Rice, corn, and wheat grain (518)
are cereal grasses and are our most important sources
of food.
● Wood is a source of wood pulp used for making paper,
lumber used for building materials, and fuel.
● Many important medicines are currently made from plants
or were originally derived from plants.
● Plant fibers are used to make paper, cloth, and rope. The
most important sources of plant fibers are wood and cotton.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 9. How does meiosis result in the production

of haploid spores? (Hint: See Chapter 7,
1. Seeds helped plants adapt to life on Section 1.)
land by
a. providing nourishment for embryos. 10. Look at the cocklebur in the photograph
b. protecting embryos from air pollution. below. It is a fruit that contains the seeds of
c. sprouting during unfavorable weather. a cocklebur plant. Suggest how this plant’s
d. limiting the dispersal of plant offspring. seeds might be dispersed.
2. Which of the following is not a characteristic
of vascular plants?
a. xylem and phloem
b. stems and leaves
c. a dominant gametophyte
d. a diploid sporophyte
3. Unlike angiosperms, gymnosperms
a. are pollinated by wind.
b. do not have seeds.
c. have a diploid sporophyte generation.
d. do not bear fruit.
4. Which of the following are not dicots? 11. Concept Mapping Make a concept
a. grass family map that shows how plants are classified.
b. rose family Include the following terms in your map:
c. mustard family vascular plants, nonvascular plants, ferns,
d. legume family angiosperms, gymnosperms, mosses, cones,
5. The most important sources of food are
vascular tissue, seeds, and flowers.
a. legumes. Critical Thinking
b. root crops.
c. cereal grains. 12. Inferring Causes Most plants have a
d. vegetables. vascular system and a sporophyte that
is much larger that the gametophyte.
6. Drugs derived from the rosy periwinkle are How have these features contributed to
used in the treatment of the success of plants as they evolved
a. heart disease. on land?
b. leukemia.
c. allergies. 13. Forming Reasoned Opinions Why is the
d. headaches. loss of tropical rain forests and other
types of forests of concern to medical
7. Which of the following is not a source of science?
fibers for both paper and cloth?
a. flax c. wood Alternative Assessment
b. cotton d. sisal 14. Selecting Technology You are asked to
8. A friend is concerned that compare the length and thickness of the
your vegetarian diet is not healthy. Make a fibers in several types of paper. Make a list
list of the measures you would take to of the laboratory equipment you would
ensure that your diet will provide you with need for this task, and explain why you
all the nutrients you need. would need each piece.


correct answer.
People use many paper products every day.
1 What structure made it possible for plants These include items such as notebook paper,
to prevent water loss and to spread onto paper towels, newspaper, and packaging.
land? Some paper products, such as notebook
A. cuticle paper and newspaper, are recyclable. When
B. mycorrhizae recycling paper products isn’t possible, peo-
C. pollen ple can reduce their impact on the environ-
D. seed ment by using reusable instead of disposable
products, buying products made with recy-
2 Which of the following is a diploid individ-
cled paper, and buying products that have
ual in plant life cycles?
minimal paper packaging.
F. epiphyte
G. gametophyte 6 What biological molecule gives paper its
H. sporophyte strength?
I. zygospore A. cellulose
B. chitin
3 Why might it be a reproductive advantage
C. chlorophyll
for a woody plant to be tall?
D. glucose
A. Seeds on tall plants are less likely to be
eaten by insects. Interpreting Graphics
B. Seeds on tall plants are more likely to
be dispersed by grazing animals. 7 on the chart below.
C. Seeds can disperse farther in the wind
when located farther from the ground. Some Families of Angiosperms
D. Seeds grown up high are more likely to
Subgroup Family Examples
get the sunlight they need to germinate.
Liliaceae garlic, asparagus, onion
4 Which of the following are not seedless
Monocots Bromeliaceae pineapple, Spanish moss
vascular plants?
F. club mosses Palmae raffia, date, palmetto
G. ferns
Umbelliferae carrot, celery, parsley
H. gymnosperms
I. horsetails Dicots Malvaceae cotton, hibiscus, okra
Directions (5): For the following question, Labiatae rosemary, sage, thyme
5 Many people consider corn to be a cereal 7 In which pair of families do all of the
crop instead of a vegetable. Why is corn plants produce seeds with two seed leaves?
considered a cereal crop agriculturally and F. Liliaceae and Bromeliaceae
a fruit botanically? G. Liliaceae and Labiatae
H. Palmae and Malvaceae
I. Umbelliferae and Labiatae
Test
Carefully read the instructions, the question, and the
answer options before choosing an answer.

Skills Practice Lab
Surveying Plant Diversity
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Observing • live or preserved
• Comparing specimens of mosses,
ferns, conifers, and
OBJECTIVES flowering plants
• Identify similarities and • stereomicroscope or
differences among four hand lens
phyla of living plants.
• compound microscope
• Relate structural adap-
• prepared slides of fern
tations of plants to their gametophytes
success on land.
Before You Begin 3. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a
Most plants are complex photosynthetic
the characteristics of plants.
organisms that live on land. The ancestors
of plants lived in water. As plants evolved on Procedure
land, however, they developed adaptations
that made it possible for them to be success- PART A: Conducting a Survey
ful in dry conditions. All plant life cycles are 1. Visit the station for each of the plants listed
characterized by alternation of generations , below, and examine the specimens there.
in which a haploid gametophyte stage alter- Answer the questions, and record observa-
nates with a diploid sporophyte stage. tions in your data table.
Distinct differences in the relative sizes and 2. Mosses Examine a clump of moss with a
structures of gametophytes and sporophytes stereomicroscope or hand lens. Make a
are seen among the 12 phyla of living plants. sketch of what you see.
In this lab, you will examine representatives 3. Mosses Examine a moss gametophyte with
of the four most familiar plant phyla. a sporophyte attached to it. Draw what you
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in see, and label the parts you recognize. Label
the paragraph above and for the following each part as haploid or diploid.
terms: sporangium, spore, frond, cone, a. Which stage of a moss has rootlike
flower, fruit. structures?
2. Make a data table similar to the b. Where are the spores of a moss
one below. produced?
Phylum name Dominant generation Major characteristics Examples

4. Ferns Examine the sporophyte of a fern, Analyze and Conclude
and look for evidence of reproductive
1. Analyzing Information How are
structures on the underside of the fronds.
bryophytes different from the other major
Draw what you see. Label a leaf (frond),
groups of plants?
stem, root, and reproductive structure.
2. Recognizing Patterns How do the
a. How does water travel through a fern?
gametophytes of gymnosperms and
List observations supporting your answer.
angiosperms differ from the gametophytes
b. What kind of reproductive cells are pro-
of bryophytes and ferns?
duced by fern fronds?
5. Ferns Examine a slide of a fern gameto- 3. Drawing Conclusions What structures
phyte with a compound microscope. are present in both gymnosperms and
Draw what you see, and label any struc- angiosperms but absent in both bryophytes
tures you recognize. and ferns?
6. Conifers Draw a part of a branch of one 4. Evaluating Hypotheses Dispersal is the
of the conifers at this station. Label a leaf, main function of fruits in angiosperms.
stem, and cone (if present). Defend or refute this hypothesis. List
observations you made during this lab to
a. Is a branch of a pine tree part of a
support your position.
gametophyte or part of a sporophyte?
b. In what part of a conifer would you 5. Inferring Conclusions Based on their
look to find its reproductive structures? characteristics, which phylum of plants
7. Conifers Examine a prepared slide of appears to be the most successful? Justify
pine pollen. Draw a few of the grains. your conclusion.
a. What reproductive structure is found 6. Further Inquiry Write a new question
within a pollen grain? about plant diversity that could be explored
b. How does the structure of pine pollen with another investigation.
aid in its dispersal by wind?
8. Angiosperms Draw one of the representa-
tive angiosperms at this station. Label a
leaf, stem, root, and flower (if present).
Indicate the sporophyte and location of
gametophytes.
a. Where do angiosperms produce sperm
and eggs?
b. How do the seeds of angiosperms differ
from those of gymnosperms?
9. Angiosperms Examine several fruits. Draw
and label the parts of one fruit. On the Job
Drawing accurate diagrams of organisms
PART B: Cleanup and Disposal is an important part of a plant taxono-
10. Dispose of broken glass in the desig- mist’s research. Do research to discover
nated waste containers. Do not put the names of some famous plant taxono-
lab materials in the trash unless your mists and scientific artists and to learn
teacher tells you to do so. about some of the techniques used in
their work. For more about careers, visit
11. Wash your hands thoroughly before
go.hrw.com and type in the keyword
you leave the lab and after you
HX4 Careers.
finish all work.
CHAPTER 23 Introduction to Plants 527
Show jumper
Daisy pollen (4800)

CHAPTER
24 Plant
Reproduction

1. Compare the processes of mitosis and
meiosis. (Chapter 6, Section 3 and Chapter 7, Sexual Reproduction
Section 1) in Seedless Plants
2. Distinguish sexual reproduction from asexual Reproduction in Nonvascular Plants
reproduction. (Chapter 7, Section 2) Reproduction in Seedless Vascular Plants
3. Differentiate between plant gametophytes and
sporophytes. (Chapter 23, Section 1.) Section 2
4. Define the terms cone and fruit. (Chapter 23, Sexual Reproduction
Section 2)
in Seed Plants
Reproductive Structures of Seed Plants
sections indicated.
Seeds
Cones
Reading Activity Flowers
Before you begin to read this chapter, Section 3

write down all of the key words for each of
Asexual Reproduction
the three sections of the chapter. Then write a Vegetative Reproduction
definition next to each word that you have heard Plant Propagation
of. As you read the chapter, write definitions next
to the words that you did not previously know,
and modify as needed any definitions you
have written.
www.scilinks.org
The characteristic shape of pollen grains differs from resources are located throughout this chapter.
one plant species to the next. The spiky, outer layer
is composed chiefly of a polymer of carotinoids—
the pigments that give fall leaves their
characteristic colors.
CHAPTER 24 Plant Reproduction 529

in Seedless Plants
Objectives Reproduction in Nonvascular Plants
● Summarize the life cycle of The carpet of green you often see near streams and in moist, shady
a moss. places is usually made up of mosses or liverworts. As you learned in
● Summarize the life cycle of
the previous chapter, these small, relatively simple plants are non-
a fern. vascular plants. They do not have a vascular system for distributing
water and nutrients. Mosses and liverworts do not usually thrive
● Compare and Contrast
outside moist places because they must be covered by a film of
the life cycle of a moss with
the life cycle of a fern.
water to reproduce sexually.
Like all plants, nonvascular plants have a life cycle called alterna-
Key Terms tion of generations. In this type of life cycle, a gamete-producing
stage, or gametophyte, alternates with a spore-producing stage, or
archegonium sporophyte. Gametophytes produce gametes (eggs and sperm) in
antheridium
separate multicellular structures. The structure that produces eggs
sorus
is called an archegonium (ark uh GOHN ee uhm). The structure that
produces sperm is called an antheridium (an thuhr IHD ee uhm).
Sporophytes produce spores in a sporangium. The gametophytes of
nonvascular plants are larger and more noticeable than are the
sporophytes. This difference in size is very pronounced in the liver-
worts, as you can see in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Reproductive structures of a liverwort Sporophytes, which grew

from archegonia under
The gametophytes of Marchantia, a common liverwort, the cap of a female stalk
produce male and female gametes on separate stalks.
Antheridia on top
of a male stalk
Sporophytes
Male
stalks Female Archegonia under the
stalks cap of a female stalk
530 CHAPTER 24 Plant Reproduction

Life Cycle of a Moss
The life cycle of a moss is summarized in Figure 2. Sexual reproduc-
tion results in a fertilized egg, or zygote. The diploid zygote grows into
a new diploid sporophyte. As you can see, a moss sporophyte grows The word archegonium
from a gametophyte and remains attached to it. The sporophyte comes from the Greek
words archegonos,
consists of a bare stalk with a spore capsule (sporangium) at its tip. meaning “first of a race.”
Spores form by meiosis inside the spore capsule. Therefore, as in all Knowing this makes it
plants, the spores are haploid. The spore capsule opens when the easier to remember that a
spores are mature, and the spores are carried away by wind or water. new and genetically
When a moss spore settles to the ground, it germinates and grows into different individual grows
a “leafy” green gametophyte. Archegonia and antheridia form at the from an archegonium when
its egg is fertilized.
tips of the haploid gametophytes. Eggs and sperm form by mitosis
inside the archegonia and antheridia. Remember, moss gametophytes
grow in tightly packed clumps of many individuals. When water
covers a clump of mosses, sperm can swim to nearby archegonia and
fertilize the eggs inside them.
Figure 2 Moss life cycle.

In mosses, a sporophyte that
2 An adult sporophyte produces 3 Spores grow into male consists of a spore capsule on
spores within its spore capsule. and female gametophytes. a bare stalk alternates with a
“leafy,” green gametophyte.
Adult Meiosis
sporophyte Spore capsule Spores
(sporangium)
Germinating spore
4 Gametophytes
produce gametes Mitosis
inside antheridia
and archegonia.
Male
Female
Young sporophyte Gametophytes
1 A zygote develops
into a new sporophyte.
Mitosis
Antheridia
Sperm
Archegonia
Egg
Zygote 5 Sperm swim to
and fertilize eggs
inside the archegonia.
Fertilization
SECTION 1 Sexual Reproduction in Seedless Plants 531

Reproduction in Seedless
Vascular Plants
You may recall that the seedless vascular plants include
the whisk ferns, horsetails, club mosses, and ferns. The
seedless vascular plants differ from the nonvascular
plants because they have efficient water- and food-
conducting systems of vascular tissue. Like the
nonvascular plants, the seedless vascular plants thrive in
moist, shady places. They can reproduce sexually only
when a film of water covers the gametophyte. Eggs form
in archegonia, and sperm form in antheridia. The
archegonia and antheridia develop on the lower surfaces
of the gametophytes. In many species of seedless vascular
plants, both eggs and sperm are produced by the same
individual. In some species, however, eggs and sperm are
produced by separate gametophytes.
Unlike nonvascular plants, seedless vascular plants
have sporophytes that are much larger than their gameto-
phytes. Some ferns, for example, have sporophytes that are
Figure 3 Sori on a fern as large as trees. On the other hand, the gametophytes of
frond. Many sori are visible ferns are thin, green, heart-shaped plants that are less than 1 cm (0.4
on this portion of a frond from in.) across. The sporophytes produce spores in sporangia. In horse-
a polypody fern. Each sorus
tails and club mosses, sporangia develop in conelike structures. In
consists of about 20–30
sporangia. ferns, clusters of sporangia form on the lower surfaces of fronds, as
shown in Figure 3. A cluster of sporangia on a fern frond is called a
sorus . The word sorus comes from the Greek word soros, meaning
“a heap.”
Observing a Fern
Gametophyte
You can observe the archegonia and antheridia
of a fern gametophyte with a microscope.
Materials
prepared slide of a fern gametophyte with archegonia
and antheridia, compound microscope Fern Gametophytes (56)
Procedure Analysis
1. Examine a slide of a 2. Switch back to low power, 1. Describe the appearance of
fern gametophyte and move the slide until you an archegonium and an
under low power of a micro- can see several egg-shaped antheridium.
scope. Move the slide until structures. These are
you can see a cluster of antheridia. Now, switch to
Drawing Conclusions In
archegonia. Now, switch to high power, and focus on one
which structure, an archego-
high power, and focus on one antheridium. Draw and label
nium or antheridium, does the
archegonium. Draw and label what you see.
growth of a new sporophyte
what you see.
begin? Explain.

Life Cycle of a Fern
The life cycle of a fern is summarized in Figure 4. A fertilized egg, or
zygote, grows into a new sporophyte. The diploid sporophyte produces
spores by meiosis. The haploid spores fall to the ground and grow into Figure 4 Fern life cycle.
haploid gametophytes. Fern gametophytes produce gametes by mito- In ferns, a large sporophyte
with leaves called fronds
sis—eggs in archegonia and sperm in antheridia. Sperm swim to
alternates with a small, green,
archegonia and fertilize the eggs inside them. heart-shaped gametophyte.
Sporangium
2 An adult sporophyte produces
spores in clusters of sporangia.
3 The spores grow into a
Mitosis gametophyte.
Meiosis
Spores
Lower
surface
4 Gametophytes produce Mature

gametes inside antheridia gametophyte
and archegonia.
Adult
sporophyte
Antheridium
Frond
Rhizome
Roots Archegonium
5 Sperm swim to the

Mitosis archegonia and
fertilize eggs.
1 A zygote develops into
a new sporophyte.
Zygote
Young Sperm Egg
sporophyte
Mitosis
Fertilization
Section 1 Review
List five major steps in the life cycle of a moss. Critical Thinking Analyzing Information
What are the major differences between the moss
List five major steps in the life cycle of a fern. life cycle and the fern life cycle?
Critical Thinking Forming Reasoned Standardized Test Prep What is the function of an
Opinions Which reproductive structures, gametes archegonium?
or spores, are responsible for the dispersal (spread) A to produce sperm C to produce spores
of seedless plants? Justify your answer.
B to produce eggs D to conduct water
SECTION 1 Sexual Reproduction in Seedless Plants 533

in Seed Plants
Objectives Reproductive Structures
● Distinguish the male and of Seed Plants
female gametophytes of seed Reproduction in seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) is
plants. quite different from reproduction in seedless plants. For one thing,
● Describe the function of you need a microscope to see the gametophytes of seed plants, as
each part of a seed. Figure 5 shows. Also, spores are not released from seed plants. The
● Summarize the life cycle of spores remain within the tissue of a sporophyte and develop into
a conifer. two kinds of gametophytes—male gametophytes, which produce
● Relate the parts of a flower
sperm, and female gametophytes, which produce eggs. The tiny
to their functions. gametophytes of seed plants consist of only a few cells. An immature
male gametophyte of a seed plant is a pollen grain, which has a thick
protective wall. A female gametophyte of a seed plant develops
an angiosperm.
inside an ovule (AHV yool), which is a multicellular structure that is
part of the sporophyte. Following fertilization, the ovule and its con-
Key Terms
tents develop into a seed.
pollen grain Because the gametophytes of seed plants are very small, seed plants
ovule are able to reproduce sexually without water. Wind and animals
pollination transport pollen grains to the structures that contain ovules. The
pollen tube
transfer of pollen grains from the male reproductive structures of a
seed coat
plant to the female reproductive structures of a plant is called
cotyledon
sepal pollination. When a pollen grain reaches a compatible female repro-
petal ductive structure, a tube emerges from the pollen grain. This tube,
stamen called a pollen tube, grows from a pollen grain to an ovule and
anther enables a sperm to pass directly to an egg.
pistil
ovary
double fertilization Figure 5 Seed plant gametophytes
The tiny gametophytes of angiosperms develop within specialized structures that
form in the reproductive parts of a flower.
Pollen grains are transferred to a female
Pollen grains structure during pollination.
Male reproductive Ovules

structure
A pollen grain consists

of only two or three cells.
The female gametophyte

within an ovule consists of
Female reproductive
only seven cells.
structure

Seeds
As you learned in the previous chapter, seeds contain the embryos of
seed plants. A plant embryo is a new sporophyte. A seed forms from
an ovule after the egg within it has been fertilized. The outer cell
After reading the chapter,
layers of an ovule harden to form the seed coat as a seed matures.
trace or make a sketch of
The tough seed coat protects the embryo in a seed from mechanical Figure 6 without the labels.
injury and from a harsh environment. Different kinds of seeds ger- On separate pieces of
minate under different conditions. Some seeds must dry out before paper, write down the
they germinate. Other seeds must be exposed to light. In still other labels. Without referring to
seeds, chemicals that inhibit germination must be washed away by your book, match the labels
with the correct parts of
rain. Often, a seed must be exposed to cold temperatures, or the
your sketch.
seed coat must be damaged, before the seed can germinate. Thus,
seeds enable the embryos of seed plants to survive conditions that
are unfavorable for plant growth for long periods of time.
Seeds also contain tissue that provides nutrients to plant embryos.
In gymnosperms, this nutritious tissue is part of the female
gametophyte. The seeds of angiosperms, however, develop a nutri-
tious tissue called endosperm. Endosperm originates at the same
time an egg is fertilized. In some angiosperms, such as corn and
wheat, endosperm is still present in mature seeds. In other
angiosperms, such as beans and peas, the nutrients in the
endosperm have already been transferred to the embryo by the time
a seed is mature.
Leaflike structures called cotyledons (kah tuh LEE duhnz), or
seed leaves, are a part of a plant embryo. Cotyledons function in the
transfer of nutrients to the embryo. The embryos of gymnosperms
have two or more cotyledons. For example, pine embryos have eight
cotyledons. In the flowering plants, the embryos of monocots have
one cotyledon, and the embryos of dicots have two cotyledons. The
structure of three types of seeds is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6 Seed structure

Seeds have many similarities and differences in structure.
Pine seed Corn grain Bean seed
Wing
Endosperm (3n) Embryo Seed coat
Embryonic
Seed coat leaves
Embryonic
root
Cotyledons
Embryo
Embryonic Cotyledons
root Seed coat
fused to ovary wall
Female
gametophyte (n)
SECTION 2 Sexual Reproduction in Seed Plants 535

Cones
Seed plants are the most successful of all plants. The success of the
seed plants is due in part to the specialized structures in which
seeds develop. In angiosperms, the ovules (immature seeds) are
completely enclosed by sporophyte tissue at the time of pollination.
In gymnosperms, the ovules are not completely enclosed by sporo-
phyte tissue until after pollination.
The gametophytes of gymnosperms develop in cones, which
consist of whorls (circles) of modified leaves called scales.
Gymnosperms produce two types of cones. Male cones, or pollen
cones, produce pollen grains within sacs that develop on the surface
of their scales. Female cones, or seed cones, produce ovules on the
Figure 7 Male and female surface of their scales. Many gymnosperms produce both male and
pine cones. This branch of an female cones on the same plant. As shown in Figure 7, the numerous
Austrian pine has an immature small pollen cones lie to the left of the large seed cone. In some gym-
seed cone and many pollen
nosperms, male and female cones form on separate plants.
cones.
Pollen cones produce large quantities of pollen grains that are
carried by wind to female cones. At the time of pollination, the
scales of a female cone are open, exposing the ovules. When a pollen
grain lands near an ovule, a slender pollen tube grows out of the
pollen grain and into the ovule. The sperm moves through the pollen
tube and enters the ovule. Thus, the pollen tube delivers a sperm to
the egg inside the ovule. Seed cones close up after pollination and
remain closed until the seeds within them are mature. This process
can take up to two years.
Observing the Gametophytes

of Pines
You can observe the gametophytes of a pine with
a microscope.
Materials
prepared slides of the following: male pine cone, female
pine cone, pine ovule; hand lens; compound microscope Immature female pine cone
Procedure Analysis
1. Examine prepared 3. Examine a prepared slide of a 1. Compare and Contrast
slides of male and pine ovule under the low the structure and contents of
female pine cones first with a power of a compound micro- male and female pine cones.
hand lens and then under the scope. Compare what you
low power of a microscope. see with the photo above.
Applying Information It
2. Make a sketch of each type 4. Draw a pine ovule, and label takes 15 months for a pine
of pine cone, and label the the following structures: pollen tube to grow through
structures that you recognize. scale, ovule, egg, pollen tube the wall of a pine ovule. How
(if visible). would you describe the rate of
pollen-tube growth in pines?

Life Cycle of a Conifer
Most gymnosperms are conifers, a group that includes pines. You can
trace the stages in the life cycle of a pine in Figure 8. In pines, as in all
plants, a diploid zygote results from sexual reproduction. The zygote
develops into an embryo, which then becomes dormant (inactive).
The embryo and the surrounding tissues form a seed. When their
seeds are mature, seed cones open, and the seeds fall out. A seed of
most pines has a wing that causes it to spin like the blade of a
helicopter. Thus, pine seeds often travel some distance from their
parent tree.
When conditions are favorable for growth, the embryos grow into
new sporophytes. An adult pine tree produces both male and female
cones. Spores form by meiosis, which occurs inside immature
cones. The spores grow into gametophytes, which produce eggs and
sperm by mitosis. After pollination, a pollen tube begins to grow Figure 8 Conifer life
from each pollen grain toward the eggs inside an ovule. Fertilization cycle. In conifers, a very large
sporophyte that produces
occurs as a sperm fuses with an egg, forming a zygote that will grow
cones alternates with tiny
into a new sporophyte. gametophytes that form on
the scales of cones.
Scale Meiosis 4 Spores develop into

male and female
Female gametophytes.
spore Eggs
(within female
Ovule gametophyte)
Immature 3 Male and female

seed cone spores form on
the scales of Gametophytes
the cones.
Meiosis Pollen
(male gametophytes) Sperm
Pollen Male spore Pollination

cone
Adult sporophyte Fertilization

5 After pollination, sperm
2 An adult pine produces enter the ovule through
male and female cones. a pollen tube, and
fertilization occurs.
Mitosis
1 The zygote and ovule develop
into a seed, which grows into Mature
a new sporophyte. seed cone
Pollen
Pine seed
tube
Mitosis (with wing)
Scale
Young sporophyte
Zygote

Flowers
In angiosperms, gametophytes develop within flowers. The basic
structure of a flower is shown in Figure 9. Flower parts are
arranged in four concentric whorls. The outermost whorl consists
of one or more sepals (SEE puhlz), which protect a flower from
damage while it is a bud. The second whorl consists of one or
more petals , which attract pollinators. The third whorl consists of
one or more stamens (STAY muhnz), which produce pollen. Each
Figure 9 Basic flower
structure. The four basic stamen is made of a threadlike filament that is topped by a pollen-
parts of a flower—sepals, producing sac called an anther . The fourth and
petals, stamens, and pistils— innermost whorl of a flower consists of one or
are arranged in concentric more pistils , which produce ovules. Ovules
whorls. Petal develop in a pistil’s swollen lower portion,
which is called the ovary. Usually, a stalk, called
the style, rises from the ovary . Pollen lands on
and sticks to the stigma—the swollen, sticky tip
of the style.
Flowers may or may not have all four of the
basic flower parts. A flower that has all four
Anther Stigma parts is called a complete flower. Flowers that
Stamen
Filament Style Pistil
lack any one of the four types of parts are called
Ovary
incomplete flowers. If a flower has both sta-
Sepal mens and pistils, it is called a perfect flower.
Flowers that lack either stamens or pistils are
called imperfect flowers.
Observing the Arrangement

of Parts of a Flower
You can see how the parts of flowers are arranged
by dissecting flowers.
Materials
gloves, monocot flower, dicot flower, paper, tape
Procedure
1. Put on gloves. Examine 3. Count the number of petals, 2. Critical Thinking
a monocot flower and sepals, and stamens in each Forming a Hypothesis
a dicot flower. Locate the flower. Record this informa- For each flower, suggest a
sepals, petals, stamens, and tion below each flower. function for the petals based
pistil of each flower. on their appearance.
Analysis
2. Separate the parts of each 1. Compare and Contrast 3. Critical Thinking
flower, and tape them to a the appearance of the sepals Justifying Conclusions
piece of paper. Label each and petals of each flower. Explain why each flower is from
set of parts. either a monocot or a dicot.

Flowers and Their Pollinators
Many flowers have brightly colored petals, sugary
nectar, strong odors, and shapes that attract animal
pollinators. Flowers are a source of food for pollina-
tors such as insects, birds, and bats. For example, bees
eat nectar and collect pollen, which is a rich source of
protein they feed to their larvae. A bee gets coated
with pollen as it visits a flower and then carries that
pollen to other flowers.
Bees locate flowers by scent first and then by color
and shape. Bee-pollinated flowers are usually blue or
yellow and often have markings that show the loca-
tion of nectar. Moths, which feed at night, tend to visit heavily Figure 10 Bat pollination.
This lesser long-nosed bat pol-
scented white flowers, which are easy to find in dim light. Flies may
linates an organ pipe cactus as
pollinate flowers that smell like rotten meat. it feeds on the pollen of the
Many flowers are not pollinated primarily by insects. Red flowers, plant’s flowers.
for instance, may be pollinated by hummingbirds. Some large white
flowers that open at night are pollinated by nighttime visitors—bats,
as seen in Figure 10. Many flowers, such as those of grasses and
oaks, are pollinated by wind. Wind-pollinated flowers are usually
small and lack bright colors, strong odors, and nectar.
Telltale Pollen
F ew living things are as short-

lived as a flower. Delicate
and lovely, its petals wither and
Floral Footprints
Different areas have different
kinds of pollen-producing plants.
die in just a few days. Yet flowers Dirt, mud, or dust collected from
contain some of the toughest a person's clothing, hair, or
structures found in nature: pollen shoes may contain pollen that
grains. can reveal a suspect’s past
A thick, decay-resistant wall whereabouts or link him or her to
surrounds each tiny pollen grain. a specific location. Pollen recov-
Remarkably, each flowering plant ered from the air filters of a vehi-
species has its own unique cle can show where the vehicle
pollen. As shown in the scanning might have traveled. In imported The mixture of different pollen
electron micrograph above right, goods, the presence of certain types found in a sample can also
under the microscope, pollen pollens can verify the country of be highly specific, much like a
grains may have unusual shapes origin. fingerprint. Law enforcement
or may be covered with distinc- agencies can use this evidence
tive ridges, knobs, or spikes. Drug Detection to link plant-based drugs found
Because no two plant species Pollen from marijuana (Cannibis on different people or at different
have identical pollen, investiga- spp.) found trapped in dust fil- places. Investigators can also
tors often can use pollen to link ters, air ducts, or cracks in the use pollen evidence to pinpoint
an object or a suspect to a scene floors can confirm that marijuana the region where a drug crop
of a crime. was grown or processed in a was grown.
certain location.

Life Cycle of an Angiosperm
Figure 11 summarizes the life cycle of an angiosperm. Following fer-
tilization, the zygote and the tissues of the ovule develop into a seed,
which grows into a new sporophyte. The adult sporophytes of
angiosperms produce spores by meiosis. These spores grow into
gametophytes. The female gametophytes grow inside the ovules,
which develop within the ovary of a pistil. The male gametophytes,
or pollen grains, are produced in the anther of a stamen. A pollen
grain contains two sperm cells. One sperm fuses with the egg, form-
ing the zygote. The other sperm fuses with the haploid nuclei of two
other cells produced by meiosis. The fusing of three haploid (n) cells
Figure 11 Angiosperm
forms a triploid (3n) cell that develops into endosperm. This is a
life cycle. In angiosperms,
a large sporophyte alternates process called double fertilization.
with a tiny gametophyte.

Male spores
2 A flower produces male
Anther 3 Spores develop into
spores inside its anthers Meiosis male and female
and female spores inside
gametophytes.
its pistil.
Adult Stamen
sporophyte Pollination
Pollen grains
(male gametophytes)
(immature male
gametophytes)
Pistil Gametophytes
Meiosis 4 Pollination occurs

Ovule when a pollen grain
Flower lands on the stigma
Pollen
of a pistil.
Ovule tube
Mitosis
Seed
coat Femalefemale
Mature gametophyte
spore
(embyro
(female sac)
gametophyte)
Sporophyte Sperm
embryo
3n nucleus Pollen
Endosperm tube
(3n) Seed Mitosis
Double
fertilization 5
1 The zygote and ovule develop Sperm enter an ovule
into a seed, which grows into Egg through a pollen tube,
a new sporophyte. Zygote and fertilization occurs.
Section 2 Review
Distinguish pollen grains from ovules. Critical Thinking Relating Concepts How is
each part of a flower suited to its function?
Describe the function of each part of a seed.
Standardized Test Prep In angiosperms, pollen is
Summarize the life cycle of a conifer. produced in sacs called
A sepals. C pistils.
Describe the main events in the life cycle of an
angiosperm? B anthers. D ovules.

Asexual Reproduction Section 3
Vegetative Reproduction Objectives

Most plants are able to reproduce asexually. The new individuals ● Describe several types of
that result from asexual reproduction are genetically the same vegetative reproduction in
as the parent plant. Plants reproduce asexually in a variety of plants.
ways that involve nonreproductive parts, such as stems, roots, and ● Distinguish sexual repro-
leaves. The reproduction of plants from these parts is called duction in kalanchoës from
vegetative reproduction. Many of the structures by which plants asexual reproduction in
reproduce vegetatively are modified stems, such as runners, bulbs, kalanchoës.
corms, rhizomes, and tubers. Table 1 describes these structures. ● Recommend several
Vegetative reproduction is faster than sexual reproduction in ways to propagate
most plants. A single plant can spread rapidly in a habitat that is plants.
ideal for its growth by reproducing vegetatively. Therefore, a mass of
hundreds or even thousands of individuals, such as a stand of Key Terms
grasses or ferns, may have come from one individual. To learn about vegetative
one unique method of vegetative reproduction in one plant, look at reproduction
Up Close: Kalanchoë, on the next two pages. plant propagation
tissue culture
Table 1 Stems Modified for Vegetative Reproduction

Name Description Examples
Horizontal, above- Airplane plant,

Runner
ground stem Bermuda grass
Very short, stem with Onion,

Bulb thick, fleshy leaves; daffodil,
only in monocots tulip
Very short, thickened,

Gladiolus,
Corm underground stem with
crocus
thin, scaly leaves
Horizontal
Rhizome Iris, fern, sugar cane
underground stem
Swollen, fleshy, Potato,

Tuber
underground stem caladium
SECTION 3 Asexual Reproduction 541

Up Close
Kalanchoë
Scientific name: Kalanchoë daigremontiana
Size: Grows from 30 cm (about 1 ft) to 1 m (3.3 ft) tall
Range: Native to southwestern Madagascar; cultivated
worldwide
Habitat: Semiarid tropical grassland with moist summers and
well-drained, fertile soil
Importance: Kalanchoës (kal an KOH eez) are grown as indoor
potted plants and as outdoor perennials in warm climates.
External Structures
Leaves The fleshy leaves are Flowers A cluster of flowers

bluish green, with purple markings forms on a flowering stalk that
and saw-toothed margins. Leaf grows from the end of a stem.
blades range from 12 to 25 cm The flowers are bell-shaped and
(about 5 to 10 in.) long. Leaves about 2.5 cm (1 in.) long. Flower
are arranged in pairs that are parts occur in fours.
opposite one another. Each flower produces
many tiny seeds.
▲ Flower
▼ Plantlet
Plantlets Tiny new
plants develop along leaf
margins. These plantlets
are a means of vegetative
reproduction. When a
plantlet falls to the ground,
it grows into a new plant.
▼ Leaf cutting ▼ Air roots
Stem and leaf cuttings Air roots The roots that grow
Kalanchoës are often propagated from the stems and from
vegetatively by planting stem plantlets originate from
and leaf cuttings. stem tissue.

Internal Structures
Leaf structure Kalanchoës are succulents, which means

they have fleshy leaves and stems that store water.
A kalanchoë leaf shows how some succulents
are adapted for conserving water. A thick
cuticle covers the leaf, and the
epidermis (outer layer of cells)
consists of several layers of Cuticle
cells. Relatively few, very

Epidermis
small stomata dot
the leaf surfaces.
Mesophyll
Epidermis
Vascular Stoma
bundle
▼ Central vacuole
Large central vacuole The cells inside

a leaf, called the mesophyll cells, have a
large central vacuole that can hold a great
deal of water.
Organelles
Mesophyll cell
Night Day
Mesophyll cells
CO2
CO2
CAM photosynthesis Kalanchoës belong to the Calvin

Crassulaceae family, a group of succulent plants that are cycle
Malic
adapted to hot climates. Photosynthesis in kalanchoës acid
involves a process called crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM).
The stomata of CAM plants open only at night, unlike those
Sugar
of other plants. At night, the plants fix carbon dioxide by using it
to make malic acid. The malic acid is stored in the large central
vacuoles of the mesophyll cells. In daytime, the stomata remain
closed, which prevents water loss. Carbon dioxide is released Central Cytoplasm
Cell Cell
from malic acid during the day and used by the Calvin cycle to vacuole wall membrane
make sugar.
SECTION 3 Asexual Reproduction 543

Plant Propagation
People grow plants for many purposes, such as for food, to beautify
Figure 12 Budding pears. homes, or to sell. Most field crops, such as cereal grains, vegetables,
A bud from a desirable variety
and cotton, are grown from seed. Many other plants are grown from
of pears is attached to a stem
of another pear species. The vegetative parts. Growing new plants from seed or from vegetative
bud will grow into a branch parts is called plant propagation.
that produces the desirable Plants are often propagated using the structures the plants produce
variety of pears. for vegetative reproduction. Bulbs and corms divide as they grow,
forming many pieces that can each grow into a new
plant. Rhizomes, roots, and tubers can be cut or
broken into pieces with one or more buds that can
grow into new shoots. But people also grow plants
from vegetative parts that are not specialized for
vegetative reproduction. For example, pieces of
plants, such as the stems of ivys and the leaves of
African violets, are cut from the parent plant. The
cuttings are then used to grow new plants. Figure 12
shows a method of propagating trees called bud-
ding. In another technique called tissue culture,
pieces of plant tissue are placed on a sterile medium
and used to grow new plants. Table 2 summarizes
some of the methods of vegetative plant propagation
that are widely used to grow plants.
Table 2 Methods of Vegetative Plant Propagation

Method Description Examples
Budding Small stems from one plant are attached to Grape vines, hybrid roses, fruit and
and grafting larger stems or roots of another plant. nut trees
Taking Leaves or pieces of stems or roots are cut from African violets, ornamental trees and
cuttings one plant and used to grow new individuals. shrubs, figs
Tissue Pieces of tissue from one plant are placed on a

Orchids, potatoes, many houseplants
culture sterile medium and used to grow new individuals.
Section 3 Review
Describe four types of vegetative reproduction Critical Thinking Justifying Conclusions
in plants, and give an example of each. Why would someone choose to propagate a
particular plant for commercial purposes by
Classify methods of reproduction in kalanchoës using vegetative structures instead of seed?
as sexual or asexual.
Standardized Test Prep Bermuda grass
Recommend five ways to propagate plants. reproduces asexually by means of horizontal,
aboveground stems called
A corms. C tubers.
B rhizomes. D runners.

ZONE
1 Sexual Reproduction in Seedless Plants Section 1
archegonium (530)
● In mosses, the “leafy” green gametophytes are larger than the antheridium (530)
sporophytes, which consist of a bare stalk and a spore capsule. sorus (532)
● In the life cycle of a fern, the sporophytes are much larger
than the gametophytes. The thin, green, heart-shaped
gametophytes produce both sperm and eggs.
● Nonvascular plants and seedless vascular plants need water
for fertilization because sperm must swim to eggs.
2 Sexual Reproduction in Seed Plants Section 2

pollen grain (534)
● The tiny gametophytes of seed plants develop from spores ovule (534)
that remain within sporophyte tissues. Male gametophytes pollination (534)
are pollen grains. Female gametophytes develop inside ovules. pollen tube (534)
seed coat (535)
● A seed contains an embryo, which is a new sporophyte, and cotyledon (535)
a supply of nutrients for the embryo. The cotyledons of an sepal (538)
embryo help transfer nutrients to the embryo. A seed coat petal (538)
stamen (538)
covers and protects a seed.
anther (538)
● In gymnosperms, male and female gametophytes develop in pistil (538)
separate cones on the sporophytes. After fertilization, ovules ovary (538)
double fertilization (540)
develop into seeds, which grow into new sporophytes.
● Flowers have four types of parts—petals, sepals, stamens,
and pistils. Petals attract pollinators. Sepals protect buds and
may also attract pollinators. Pollen forms in the anthers of
stamens. Seeds develop in the ovary of a pistil.
● In angiosperms, male and female gametophytes develop
in the flowers of the sporophytes. After fertilization, ovules
develop into seeds, which grow into new sporophytes.
3 Asexual Reproduction
● Vegetative reproduction is the growth of new plants from
Section 3
vegetative reproduction (541)
nonreproductive plant parts, such as stems, roots, and leaves. plant propagation (544)
● Kalanchoës are succulents that are often grown as potted tissue culture (544)
plants and readily reproduce either vegetatively or by seeds.
● People often grow plants from their vegetative structures.
This is called vegetative propagation.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 9. Look at the flower in the photograph

below. It is the flower of the unicorn plant.
1. Mosses and liverworts thrive in a moist How is this flower probably pollinated?
environment because they need _____ for Justify your answer.
reproduction.
a. bees c. water
b. birds d. wind
2. The life cycle of a moss differs from the life
cycle of a fern in that
a. the gametophyte is absent in ferns.
b. the sporophyte is absent in mosses.
c. moss spores do not form on leaves.
d. the gametophytes of mosses are green.
3. In angiosperms, the zygote and the first cell
of the endosperm form by 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
a. mitosis. map that explains how plants reproduce.
b. meiosis. Try to include the following terms in your
c. pollination. map: archegonium, antheridium, egg, sperm,
d. double fertilization. ovule, zygote, stamen, anther, pistil, ovary, fer-
4. Vegetative reproduction has not occurred tilization, spore, and vegetative reproduction.
when a new plant grows from a
a. leaf.
Critical Thinking
b. root. 11. Evaluating Conclusions All nonvascular
c. stem. plants require a film of water for sperm to
d. seed. swim through and fertilize eggs. Therefore,
5. Which of the following structures do
many people conclude that nonvascular
kalanchoës produce for vegetative plants are not able to survive in very dry
reproduction? climates, such as deserts. Is this a valid
a. seeds
conclusion? Justify your answer.
b. plantlets 12. Justifying Conclusions A classmate has
c. flowers found a plant whose flowers lack petals
d. bulbs and have many stamens. Your classmate
6. How can forensic botany help tells you that the plant is wind-pollinated.
link a suspect to a location? Justify this conclusion.
13. Evaluating Methods You are asked to grow
7. What is the function of the fruits in which
seeds mature? (Hint: See Chapter 23, a large number of identical potted plants
Section 1.) for a florist. The plants can be grown from
either seeds or cuttings. Which method of
8. Which of the following structures is not used plant propagation would you use? Justify
to propagate dicots vegetatively? your choice.
a. tubers
b. rhizomes Alternative Assessment
c. seeds 14. Career Connection Plant Breeder Use the
d. stem cuttings media center or Internet to find out about
the field of plant breeding. Write a report
on your findings.

Understanding Concepts Directions (6): For the following question,

Directions (1–5): For each question, write on write a short response.
a separate sheet of paper the letter of the 6 Plant breeders are scientists who work to
correct answer. improve plants that have commercial
value. Estimate how plant breeders could
1What is the purpose of the archegonium in breed plants with the most desirable
mosses and ferns?
A.produce eggs flower color.
B.produce sperm Reading Skills
C.develop into a cone
Directions (7): Read the passage below.
D.develop into a seed
Then answer the question.
2 In seed plants, what structure transfers
Use of pesticides could reduce the number
sperm from a pollen grain directly to an
of plants in a geographic area. Pesticides can
egg in an ovule?
kill insect pollinators such as bees and flies.
F. endosperm
Reducing the number of insect pollinators
G. pollen tube
can result in a reduced number of flowering
H. pollinator
plants, which depend on insect pollination.
I. seed coat
3 What type of plant produces a seed with a 7 What other way could a flowering plant
become pollinated if there are no insects?
single cotyledon?
F. convert to asexual reproduction
A. dicot
G. develop more stamens
B. gymnosperm
H. grow moving structures
C. monocot
I. rely on birds, mammals, or wind
D. nonvascular
4 Which part of a flower produces eggs? Interpreting Graphics

F. petal Directions (8): Base your answer to question
G. pistil 8 on the diagram below.
H. sepal
Plant Seed
I. stamen
5 What conclusion can be drawn about a A

plant whose flowers are large and colorful?
A. The plant must be self-pollinated.
B. The plant must be wind-pollinated.
C. The plant must be pollinated by insects.
D. The plant must be a gymnosperm.
B
Test D
For questions involving life cycles, draw as much of
the life cycle as you can remember. Looking at such 8 Which structure is the embryonic root?
a model may help you understand the question better A. A C. C
and help you determine the correct answer. B. B D. D

Exploration Lab
Observing the Effects of Nutrients
on Vegetative Reproduction
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Using scientific processes • safety goggles
• Observing • lab apron
• Graphing and analyzing • duckweed culture
data • 5 Petri dishes
OBJECTIVES
• stereomicroscope
or hand lens
• Identify the structures
of duckweed. • glass-marking pen
• Compare vegetative • beakers

reproduction of duck- • pond water
weed in different • Knop’s solution
nutrient solutions. • 0.1% fertilizer solution
• distilled water
ChemSafety

Duckweed is a common aquatic plant. Like PART A: Make Observations
many flowering plants, duckweed reproduces 1. Place a duckweed plant in a Petri dish.
readily by vegetative reproduction , which is Then place a few drops of water on the
a type of asexual reproduction . As individual plant.
plants grow, they divide into smaller individ-
2. Observe the duckweed plant with a stereo-
uals. Several individuals may remain joined
microscope or a hand lens. Sketch what
together, forming a mat. All plants require
you see. Label the structures that you
certain mineral nutrients , such as nitrogen,
recognize.
phosphorus, and potassium, for the growth
of vegetative parts. In this lab, you will inves-
tigate the effect of nutrients on the vegetative PART B: Design an Experiment
reproduction of duckweed. 3. Work with members of your lab group to
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in explore one of the questions written for
the paragraph above. step 2 of Before You Begin. To explore the
vegetative reproduction in duckweed.

2. Analyzing Data In which Petri dish did
You Choose the greatest amount of growth (increase in
As you design your experiment, decide the following: numbers) take place?
3. Analyzing Results In which Petri dish
b. what your hypothesis will be
did the least amount of growth take place?
c. what solutions to test
4. Evaluating Hypotheses Did the results
d. how much of each solution to use
you observed agree with your hypothesis?
e. how many individuals to use for each test
If not, how are they different?
f. what your control will be
g. how you will judge which solution is the best 5. Recognizing Patterns As the number of
h. what data to record in your data table new duckweed plants in a particular group
increased, what happened to the group of
4. Write a procedure for your experiment. plants?
Make a list of all the safety precautions you 6. Graphing Data Make a graph of your
will take. Have your teacher approve your data. Label the y-axis “Number of plants,”
procedure and safety precautions before and the x-axis “Days.” Use a different color
you begin the experiment. to represent each solution you tested.
7. Drawing Conclusions What factors reg-
PART C: Conduct Your Experiment ulate the rate of vegetative reproduction in
duckweed?
5. Put on safety goggles and a
lab apron. 8. Evaluating Methods Why are the new
duckweed plants produced by vegetative
6. Set up your experiment. CAUTION:
reproduction genetically the same as the
Nutrient solutions are mild eye irri-
parent plant?
tants. Avoid contact with your skin and
eyes. Complete step 8. 9. Further Inquiry Write a new question
about vegetative reproduction in duck-
7. Conduct your experiment and collect data
weed that could be explored with another
for two weeks.
investigation.
PART D: Cleanup and Disposal Do You Know?

8. Dispose of solutions, broken glass, Do research in the library or media center
and duckweed in the designated to answer these questions:
waste containers. Do not pour chemicals 1. What do the flowers of duckweeds
down the drain or put lab materials in the look like?
trash unless your teacher tells you to do so. 2. What is the smallest species of flower-
9. Clean up your work area and all lab ing plants, and how small are they?
equipment. Return lab equipment to Use the following Internet resources
its proper place. Wash your hands thor- to explore your own questions about
oughly before you leave the lab and after duckweed.
Analyze and Conclude www.scilinks.org

Topic: Duckweed
1. Summarizing Results Compare the Keyword: HX4062
appearance of plants growing in each nutri-
ent solution with that of the plants in dis-
tilled water. Explain your observations.
CHAPTER 24 Plant Reproduction 549

A kokerboom, or quiver
tree,Show
Aloe dichotoma
jumper

CHAPTER
25 Plant Structure
and Function

1. Explain what causes the adhesion and
cohesion of water. (Chapter 2, Section 2) The Vascular Plant Body
Tissues
2. Describe the organization of a plant cell.
Vascular Tissue Systems
Roots
3. Summarize the steps in photosynthesis.
Stems
Leaves
4. State the relationship between stomata and
guard cells. (Chapter 23, Section 1)
Section 2
5. Define the terms cuticle, stoma, xylem, phloem,
and meristem. (Chapter 23, Section 1) Transport in Plants
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Movement of Water
sections indicated. Movement of Organic Compounds
Reading Activity
Before you read this chapter, survey the sub-
titles, headings, captions, and words in boldface
type. Try to identify the purpose of this chapter.
As you read this chapter, create a descriptive
reading organizer.
www.scilinks.org
The structure of the quiver tree enables it to survive
in the harsh southern African climate. For generations,
the native San people have used the tree’s bark and
branches to make arrow quivers.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. CHAPTER 25 Plant Structure and Function 551
Section 1 The Vascular Plant Body
Objectives Tissues
● Identify the three kinds of Like your body, a plant’s body is made of tissues that form organs. In
tissues in a vascular plant’s vascular plants, there are three types of tissue systems—the dermal
body, and state the function tissue system, ground tissue system, and vascular tissue system. As
of each. you have read, vascular tissue forms strands that conduct water,
● Compare the structures of minerals, and organic compounds throughout a vascular plant.
different types of roots, Dermal tissue forms the protective outer layer of a plant.
stems, and leaves. Ground tissue makes up much of the inside of the nonwoody parts
● Relate the structures of of a plant, including roots, stems, and leaves. Figure 1 shows how
roots, stems, and leaves these three tissues are arranged in a nonwoody dicot. The tissues
to their functions. are organized a little differently in other types of vascular plants.
Each type of tissue contains one or more kinds of cells that are
Key Terms specialized to perform particular functions. As you read further in
dermal tissue this chapter, you will learn that some specialized plant cells lack
ground tissue organelles found in other plant cells. In fact, some plant cells cannot
epidermis perform their functions until they have lost most of their organelles.
cork
vessel
sieve tube
Figure 1 Plant tissues
cortex
root hair The leaves, stems, and roots of a vascular plant contain all three kinds
root cap of plant tissues.
herbaceous plant
vascular bundle
Meristem
pith
heartwood
sapwood
petiole
mesophyll
Leaf
Shoot
Bud
Stem
Ground Vascular
tissue tissue
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Vascular Plants Root
Keyword: HX4182
Dermal
tissue
552 CHAPTER 25 Plant Structure and Function

Figure 2 Dermal tissue.
Epidermis is one type of dermal
tissue. Hairlike outgrowths of
the epidermis, like the ones on
this African violet leaf, help
reduce water loss from the
leaves of some plants.
Dermal Tissue System

Dermal tissue covers the outside of a plant’s body. In the nonwoody
parts of a plant, dermal tissue forms a “skin” called the epidermis.
The word epidermis comes from the Greek words epi, meaning
“upon,” and derma, meaning “skin.” The epidermis of most plants is
made up of a single layer of flat cells. A waxy cuticle, which prevents
water loss, coats the epidermis of the stems and leaves. Often, the
cells of the epidermis have hairlike extensions or other structures, as
Figure 2 shows. Extensions of the epidermal cells on leaves and
stems often help to slow water loss. Extensions of the epidermal
cells on root tips help increase water absorption. The dermal tissue
on woody stems and roots consists of several layers of dead cells
that are referred to as cork . Cork cells contain a waterproof chemi-
cal and are not covered by a waxy cuticle. In addition to protection,
Figure 3 Ground tissue.
dermal tissue also functions in gas exchange and in the absorption A variety of cells make up the
of mineral nutrients. ground tissue visible in this
cross section of a wheat stem.
Thin-walled cells make up
Ground Tissue System most of the ground tissue.
Ground tissue makes up much of the inside of most plants. Most Thick-walled cells strengthen
ground tissue consists of thin-walled cells that remain alive and the stem.
keep their nucleus after they mature. In addi-
Magnification: 122
tion, ground tissue contains some thick-walled
cells. Look for these different types of cells in
the ground tissue shown in Figure 3. Ground
tissue has different functions, depending on
where it is located in a plant. The ground tissue
in leaves, which is packed with chloroplasts, is
specialized for photosynthesis. The ground
tissue in stems and roots functions mainly in
the storage of water, sugar, and starch.
Throughout the body of a plant, ground tissue
also surrounds and supports the third kind of
plant tissue—vascular tissue.
SECTION 1 The Vascular Plant Body 553

Vascular Tissue Systems
Plants have two kinds of vascular tissue—xylem and phloem. Both
xylem and phloem contain strands of cells that are stacked end to
end and act like tiny pipes, as you can see in Figure 4. These strands
of cells act as a plumbing system, carrying fluids and dissolved sub-
stances throughout a plant’s body.
Xylem
Xylem has thick-walled cells that conduct water and mineral nutri-
ents from a plant’s roots through its stems to its leaves. The con-
ducting cells in xylem must lose their cell membrane, nucleus, and
cytoplasm before they can conduct water. At maturity, all that is left
of these cells is their cell walls. One type of xylem cell found in all
vascular plants is called a tracheid (TRAY kee ihd). Tracheids are
narrow, elongated, and tapered at
Figure 4 Xylem and phloem each end. Water flows from one tra-
Both xylem and phloem contain strands of tubular conducting cells cheid to the next through pits, which
that are stacked end to end like sections of pipe. are thin areas in the cell walls.
Gnetophytes and flowering plants
also have a second type of xylem
cell, which makes up conducting
strands called vessels. The vessel
cells are wider than tracheids and
have large perforations in their ends.
The perforations allow water to flow
more quickly between vessel cells.
The conducting cells of xylem are The conducting cells of phloem

Phloem
tracheids and vessel cells. are sieve-tube cells, which form Phloem contains cells that conduct
Tracheids are slender and have sieve tubes. Companion cells sugars and other nutrients through-
tapered ends. Vessel cells are lie next to the sieve-tube cells.
larger and form vessels. out a plant’s body. The conducting
cells of phloem have a cell wall, a cell
Vessel cell membrane, and cytoplasm. These
cells either lack organelles or have
modified organelles. The conducting
Pits Pore
strands in phloem are called
Sieve-tube
cell sieve tubes. Pores in the walls
between neighboring sieve-tube cells
Companion connect the cytoplasms and allow
cell
substances to pass freely from cell to
cell. Beside the sieve tubes are rows
Tracheid of companion cells, which contain
organelles. Companion cells carry
out cellular respiration, protein syn-
thesis, and other metabolic functions
Perforations for the sieve-tube cells.

Roots
Most plants are anchored to the spot where they grow by roots,
which also absorb water and mineral nutrients. In many plants,
roots also function in the storage of organic nutrients, such as sugar
and starch. Many dicots, such as carrots and radishes, have a large
central root from which much smaller roots branch. This type of
root system is called a taproot system. In contrast, most monocots,
such as grasses, have a highly branched, fibrous root system, shown
in Figure 5. Some plants have roots that grow from aboveground
stems or leaves. Such roots are called adventitious (ad ven TIH
shuhs) roots. The prop roots of corn and the aerial roots of orchids
are examples of adventitious roots.
As Figure 6 shows, a root has a central core of vascular tissue that
is surrounded by ground tissue. The ground tissue surrounding the
Figure 5 Fibrous root
vascular tissue is called the cortex. Roots are covered by dermal tis-
system. A fibrous roots
sue. An epidermis covers all of a root except for the root tip. The epi- system is made up of many
dermal cells just behind a root tip often produce root hairs, which roots that are about the
are slender projections of the cell membrane. Root hairs greatly same size.
increase the surface area of a root and its ability to absorb water and
mineral nutrients. A mass of cells called the root cap covers and
protects the actively growing root tip. A layer of cork replaces the
epidermis in the older sections of a root. Many plants have roots
that become woody as they get older. Layers of xylem replace the
Figure 6 Root structure.
ground tissue in woody roots.
Roots have characteristic
external and internal
structures.
Radish Root Structure
Vascular Phloem Epidermis

tissue Xylem
Cortex
Root
hairs
Root
cap
A root cap protects a growing

root tip, and root hairs enhance
the absorption of water The vascular tissue in the center
and minerals. of a root contains xylem and
A radish has a tap root from phloem. Cortex stores sugar
which several smaller roots and starch.
may branch.

Stems
The shoots of most plants consist of stems and leaves. Stems sup-
Real Life port the leaves and house the vascular tissue, which transports sub-
Xylem forms wood’s stances between the roots and the leaves. Many plants have stems
characteristic markings, that are specialized for other functions. For example, the stems of
or grain. cactuses store water. Potatoes are stems that are specialized for
Wood is usually cut nutrient storage and for asexual reproduction.
parallel to the axis of
Leaves are attached to a stem at points called nodes. The space
a tree trunk, producing
straight-grained lumber. between two nodes is called an internode. Buds that can grow into
In some trees, however, new branches are also located at the nodes on a stem. Look for these
xylem vessels form structures in Figures 7 and 8. Other features of a stem depend on
interesting patterns. whether the stem is woody or nonwoody.
Examine several wooden
objects. Decide whether Nonwoody Stems
they have straight grain or A plant with stems that are flexible and usually green is called a
another type of grain. herbaceous (huhr BAY shuhs) plant. Herbaceous plants include
violets, clovers, and grasses. As Figure 7 shows, the stems of
herbaceous plants contain bundles of xylem and phloem called
vascular bundles. The vascular bundles are surrounded by ground
tissue. In monocot stems, such as that of corn, illustrated in Figure 7,
the vascular bundles are scattered in the ground tissue. In dicot
stems, however, the vascular bundles are arranged in a ring. The
ground tissue outside the ring of vascular bundles is called the cortex.
Figure 7 Herbaceous The ground tissue inside the ring is called the pith . Herbaceous stems
stems. The vascular bundles are covered by an epidermis. Stomata in the epidermis enable the
are arranged differently in stems to exchange gases with the outside air.
dicots and monocots.
Dicot and Monocot Stem Structure
Cortex Ground
Pith tissue
Vascular Ground
bundle tissue
Vascular
bundle
Bud
Cross section of Cross section of
a dicot stem a monocot stem
Node
Internode
Buttercup Corn
556 CHAPTER 25 Plant Structure and Function Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Woody Stems Figure 8 Woody stems
Trees and shrubs, such as pines, oaks, Woody stems are typically stiff and nongreen.
roses, and hollies, have woody stems. Bark
As Figure 8 shows, woody stems are
Cork
stiff and nongreen. Buds, which pro-
Bud Phloem
duce new growth, are found at the tips
and at the nodes of woody stems. They Xylem
exchange gases through pores in their
Node
bark. A young woody stem has a cen-
Pith
tral core of pith and a ring of vascular Internode
bundles, which fuse into solid cylin- Young woody stem
ders as the stem matures. Layers of
xylem form the innermost cylinder and
are the major component of wood. A Pore
cylinder of phloem lies outside the
cylinder of xylem. Woody stems are
Bark
covered by cork, which protects them
from physical damage and helps pre- Sapwood
vent water loss. Together, the layers of Heartwood

cork and phloem make up the bark of a
woody stem. A mature woody stem
contains many layers of wood and is covered by a thick layer of
bark. The wood in the center of a mature stem or tree trunk is called
heartwood. The xylem in heartwood, which can no longer conduct
water, provides support. Sapwood, which lies outside the heart-
wood, contains vessel cells that can conduct water.
Comparing the Structures

of Roots and Stems
You can use a microscope to see differences in the
internal structure of roots and stems.
Materials
compound microscope, prepared slide of a cross section of the
following: dicot root, monocot root, dicot stem, monocot stem Cross section of a corn root
Procedure Analysis
1. View cross sections of 2. View cross sections of dicot 1. Compare and contrast
dicot and monocot and monocot stems with a the location of xylem and
roots with a compound compound microscope. For phloem in roots and stems.
microscope. For each, draw each, draw and label what
2. Compare and contrast
and label what you see under you see under low power.
the arrangement and struc-
low power. Then look at the Then look at a vascular bun-
ture of the vascular bundles in
vascular tissue in each root dle in each stem under high
monocot and dicot stems.
under high power. Draw what power. Draw each vascular
you see in each root, and bundle, and label the xylem 3. Describe the relationship
label the xylem and phloem. and phloem. between the structure and
function of vascular tissue.

Leaves
Leaves are the primary photosynthetic organs of plants. Most leaves
have a flattened portion, called the blade, that is often attached to a
stem by a stalk called the petiole (PEHT ee ohl). A leaf blade may be
divided into two or more sections called leaflets, as shown in Figure 9.
Leaves with an undivided blade are called simple leaves. Leaves with
two or more leaflets are called compound leaves. Leaflets reduce the
surface area of a leaf blade. Many plants have highly modified leaves
that are specialized for particular purposes. For example, the spines
of a cactus and the tendrils of a garden pea are modified leaves.
Cactus spines are specialized for protection and water conservation,
while garden-pea tendrils are specialized for climbing.
Figure 9 Simple and compound leaves

Most leaves consist of a flattened blade and a petiole that attaches to a stem.
Imaginary
leaf edge
Petiole
Bud
Blade Leaflet
A simple leaf has an A compound leaf has

undivided blade. Stem two or more leaflets.
Observing the Structures

Inside a Leaf
With a microscope, you can see how a leaf is
put together.
Materials
prepared slide of a leaf cross section, compound
microscope
Cross section of a lilac leaf (530)
Procedure
1. View a cross section of upper and lower 2. Describe the location and
a leaf under low power epidermis, palisade layer, contents of the veins.
of a compound microscope. spongy layer, and vein.
Then switch to high power.
Analysis Relating Concepts How
2. Use Figure 10 in this chapter 1. Describe a stoma, and do the location and structure
to identify the following struc- relate the function of a stoma of the palisade and spongy
tures: stoma, guard cells, to your description. layers help a leaf perform
photosynthesis?

A leaf is a mass of ground tissue and Figure 10 Structure of a leaf
vascular tissue covered by epidermis, as Figure The internal structure of a leaf is
10 shows. A cuticle coats the upper and lower highly organized.
epidermis. Both xylem and phloem are found
in the veins of a leaf. Veins are extensions of
Cuticle
vascular bundles that run from the tips of roots
to the edges of leaves. In leaves, the ground Upper
tissue is called mesophyll (MEHS oh fihl). epidermis
Mesophyll
Mesophyll cells are packed with chloroplasts,
Xylem
where photosynthesis occurs. The chlorophyll Palisade
layer
in chloroplasts makes leaves look green.
Phloem Spongy
Most plants have leaves with two layers of
layer
mesophyll. One or more rows of closely
Lower
packed, columnar cells make up the palisade Vein epidermis
layer, which lies just beneath the upper epi- Guard cell Stoma
dermis. A layer of loosely packed, spherical
cells, called the spongy layer, lies between the palisade layer and the
lower epidermis. The spongy layer has many air spaces through which
gases can travel. Stomata, the tiny holes in the epidermis, connect the
air spaces to the outside air.
Cross section
Exploring Further of a corn leaf
(584)
C3 Versus C4 Leaves
Internal leaf structure varies among plants,
depending on how they carry out photosynthesis.
In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide from the air is Plants such as corn and sugar cane use another
added to organic molecules. This process, called chemical process to fix carbon before the Calvin
carbon fixation, occurs during the Calvin cycle. cycle. The first products of this process are four-
Because the product of carbon fixation by the carbon compounds, so these plants are called C4
Calvin cycle is a three-carbon compound, plants plants. The leaves of C4 plants have a different
that use only the Calvin cycle to fix carbon are internal structure, as shown in the photo of a corn
called C3 plants. The leaf structure shown in leaf above. C4 plants are plentiful in the tropics
Figure 10 is typical of a C3 plant. More than 90 because they conduct photosynthesis efficiently in
percent of all plants are C3 plants. high heat and intense light.
Section 1 Review
Name the three kinds of tissue that make up a Standardized Test PrepIn which part of a plant
plant, and list two functions for each. would you find closely packed, columnar cells
that contain many chloroplasts?
Summarize the differences in the structure of
A woody stem
the stems of monocots and dicots.
B nonwoody stem
Critical Thinking Forming Hypotheses How C leaf
do the structures of roots, stems, and leaves help D root
them to carry out their functions?

Section 2 Transport in Plants
Objectives Movement of Water
● Relate transpiration to the You know that water and mineral nutrients move up from a plant’s
movement of water up a roots to its leaves through xylem. However, some trees have leaves
plant. that are more than 100 m (328 ft) above the ground. How do plants
● Describe how guard manage to get water so high? Simply put, water is pulled up through
cells regulate the rate of a plant as it evaporates from the plant’s leaves, as Figure 11 shows.
transpiration.
Step Recall that the surfaces of leaves are covered with many
● Recognize several distin- tiny pores, the stomata. When the stomata are open, water
guishing features of sugar vapor diffuses out of a leaf. This loss of water vapor from a
maple trees. plant is called transpiration. In most plants, more than 90
● Describe the process of percent of the water taken in by the roots is ultimately lost
translocation in a plant. through transpiration.
Step The xylem contains a column of water that extends from
Key Terms
the leaves to the roots. The cohesion of water molecules
transpiration causes water molecules that are being lost by a plant to pull
source on the water molecules still in the xylem. This pull extends
sink
through the water in the xylem. Water is drawn upward in
translocation
the same way liquid is drawn through a siphon. As long as
the column of water in the xylem does not break, water will
keep moving upward as transpiration occurs.
Step Roots take in water from the soil by osmosis. This water
enters the xylem and replaces the water lost through
transpiration.
Figure 11
B IO Water Movement in Plants

gr hic
ap Transpiration drives the movement of water through a plant.
Water vapor exits the The loss of water creates a Water drawn into the roots from
1 leaves through stomata
2 pull that draws water up
3 the soil by osmosis moves up
by transpiration. through the xylem. the stem.
H 2O H2O H2O
H2O H2O H2O
H 2O
H2O H2O
H2O H 2O
H2O H 2O
H 2O

Figure 12 Control of stomatal opening
Changes in the shape of guard cells cause stomata to open or close.
Guard cell
H2O H 2O H 2O
Chloroplasts H 2O
Stoma
Epidermal cell
H 2O H2O H 2O H 2O
Nucleus
1. A stoma opens as the guard cells take 2. A stoma closes as the guard cells lose
in water, lengthen, and bow apart. water, shorten, and come together.
Guard Cells and Transpiration

A stoma is surrounded by a pair of guard cells that are shaped like
two cupped hands. Changes in water pressure within the guard cells
www.scilinks.org
cause the stoma to open or close, as shown in Figure 12. When the
Topic: Transpiration
guard cells take in water, they swell. However, extra cellulose strands Keyword: HX4178
in their cell walls permit the cells to increase in length but not in
diameter. As a result, guard cells that take in water bend away from
each other, opening the stoma and allowing transpiration to pro-
ceed. When water leaves the guard cells, they shorten and move
closer to each other, closing the stoma and stopping transpiration.
Thus, the loss of water from guard cells for any reason causes stom-
ata to close, stopping further water loss. This is an example of
homeostasis in action.
Inferring the Rate Transpiration Rates
of Transpiration 40
A B
Distance water
moved (mm)
Background 30
0100010110
20
011101010 The graph shows the rate of water movement
0010010001001 10
1100100100010 in a plant during high humidity and during low
0000101001001 0
1101010100100 humidity. The rate of water movement indicates the 5 10 15
0101010010010
rate of transpiration. Use the graph to answer the Time (in minutes)
questions below.
Analysis
1. Determine how far water water moved under condition 4. Critical Thinking Drawing
had moved after 10 minutes A than under condition B? Conclusions Which curve
under the condition repre- shows the transpiration rate
sented by curve A. during low humidity? Justify
Recognizing Relation-
your answer.
2. Critical Thinking ships Which curve indicates a
Analyzing Results After 15 lower transpiration rate?
minutes, how much farther had Explain your reasoning.
SECTION 2 Transport in Plants 561

Up Close
Sugar Maple
Scientific name: Acer saccharum
Size: 12 to 37 m (40 to 121 ft) tall, canopy up to 14 m (46 ft)
wide, trunk up to 1 m (3 ft) in diameter
Range: Northeastern United States and adjacent regions
of southeastern Canada
Habitat: Northern temperate forests
Importance: The wood of sugar maples is used to make
furniture, musical instruments, and flooring. Their sap is
made into maple syrup and maple sugar.
External Structures
Flowers Maple flowers appear Summer Seeds and fruits Seeds

before the leaves in early spring. mature inside winged fruits
The flowers lack petals and called samaras. The wings
thus are incomplete. Most enable the dispersal of
are imperfect (either seeds by wind.
male or female) Spring ▲
as well. Samara
▲
Male
flowers
Fall
Twigs and buds The twigs Leaves The leaves range

are green at first, and then they Winter from 7.5 to 15 cm (3 to 6 in.)
change to a glossy reddish
across. Most leaves have five
brown. The reddish brown
sharply toothed lobes. The
buds are conical, pointed,
main veins branch from a sin-
and about 4 mm
gle point, like the fingers on a
(0.2 in.) long. Bark Young sugar maples have smooth, hand. In the fall, the leaves
light gray bark. The bark of older trees change to bright yellow,
becomes dark gray or brown, rough, and orange, or red, and
deeply furrowed. fall from the tree.

Internal Structures
Sap Sugar passes through the xylem
in the sapwood as part of a watery solution
called sap. When growth stops
in the fall, sap moves down the
tree. In the spring, the sap rises
toward the top of the tree, where
sugars nourish buds that will Bird’s-eye grain Fiddleback grain
grow into new leaves.
Wood Maple wood is prized for its
hardness, durability, and fiber pattern, or
grain. “Bird’s-eye” maple has small, dark
spots. “Fiddleback” maple has a wavy grain
and is used to make violins.
Epidermis
Mesophyll
Vascular tissue
Mesophyll Heartwood
Xylem
Sapwood
Epidermis
▼ Phloem
▼ Collecting bucket
Tissues All three types of tissue can be seen Collecting sap Because the
in the cross section of a maple leaf above. sap inside the xylem is under
Mesophyll cells contain chloroplasts. Xylem pressure, it drips out when holes
delivers water and minerals from the roots to are drilled into the sapwood
the leaves. Phloem transports sucrose through the bark. A single maple
(table sugar) from mesophyll cells to tree yields an average of 70 L
other parts of the tree. (18 gal) of sap each year.
SECTION 2 Transport in Plants 563

Movement of Organic Compounds
Organic compounds move throughout a plant within the phloem.
Botanists use the term source to refer to a part of a plant that pro-
vides organic compounds for other parts of the plant. For example,
Work with a partner to
review the pressure-flow a leaf is a source because it makes starch during photosynthesis. A
model of translocation, root that stores sugar is also a source. Botanists use the term sink to
covered on this page. refer to a part of a plant that organic compounds are delivered to.
Review the steps of model Actively growing parts, such as root tips and developing fruits, are
by quizzing each other on examples of sinks. The movement of organic compounds within a
the events of each step.
plant from a source to a sink is called translocation.
The movement of organic compounds in a plant is more complex
than the movement of water for three reasons. First, water flows
freely through empty xylem cells, but organic compounds must pass
through the cytoplasm of living phloem cells. Second, water only
Figure 13 moves up in xylem, while organic com-
BIO
pounds move in all directions in phloem.
The Pressure-Flow Model Third, water can diffuse through cell
g ra p h ic Translocation is described by this model. membranes but organic compounds can-
not. The German botanist Ernst Münch
Water Sugar Phloem Xylem proposed a model of translocation in
1924. Münch’s model, which is often
1 Sugar from a source called the pressure-flow model, is shown
enters the phloem in Figure 13.
by active transport.
Source
Step Sugar from a source enters
When the sugar
2 concentration in the phloem cells by active transport.
phloem increases,
water enters the Step When the sugar concentration in
sieve-tube cells from Sieve- the phloem increases, water
the xylem by osmosis. tube cell enters the sieve tubes in phloem
3 Pressure builds up Companion from xylem by osmosis.
inside the sieve-tube cell
cells and pushes sugar Step Pressure builds up inside the
through the phloem. sieve-tube cells and pushes sugar
Sugar moves from through the sieve tubes. The
4 Sink
the phloem into the sugar moves at a rate as high as
sink by active transport.
100 cm/h.
Step Sugar moves from phloem cells
into a sink by active transport.
Section 2 Review
Relate the process of transpiration to the Critical Thinking Predicting Outcomes
movement of water through a plant. When the soil is dry and it is very hot, how can a
plant reduce its water loss? Explain your answer.
Describe how guard cells regulate transpiration.
Standardized Test Prep In plants, active transport
List the features that make sugar maples is used to move
economically important. A sugar into the phloem. C water into the phloem.
Describe how translocation occurs in plants. B sugar into the xylem. D water into the xylem.

ZONE
1 The Vascular Plant Body Section 1
dermal tissue (552)
● A vascular plant’s body contains three kinds of tissue ground tissue (552)
systems—dermal tissue, ground tissue, and vascular tissue. epidermis (553)
● Dermal tissue covers a plant. A thin layer of epidermis covers cork (553)
vessel (554)
nonwoody parts. Several layers of cork cover woody parts. sieve tube (554)
● Ground tissue is specialized for photosynthesis in leaves and cortex (555)
root hair (555)
for storage and support in stems and roots.
root cap (555)
● Vascular tissue conducts water, minerals, and organic herbaceous plant (556)
compounds throughout the plant. vascular bundle (556)
pith (556)
● Xylem contains vessels, which are made up of cells that con- heartwood (557)
duct water only after they lose their cytoplasm. Water flows sapwood (557)
between cells through pits and perforations in their cell walls. petiole (558)
mesophyll (559)
● Phloem contains sieve tubes, which are made up of cells
that are still living. Substances pass between the cells
through pores.
● Roots have a central core of vascular tissue that is surrounded
by ground tissue and epidermal tissue. Root hairs on root tips
increase the surface area available for absorption.
● Nonwoody stems contain bundles of xylem and phloem
embedded in ground tissue. Woody stems have an inner core
of xylem surrounded by a cylinder of phloem.
● Leaves are a mass of ground tissue and vascular tissue covered
by epidermis. The ground tissue cells conduct photosynthesis.
Gases are exchanged through the stomata in the epidermis.
2 Transport in Plants Section 2

transpiration (560)
● Transpiration, the loss of water from a plant’s leaves, creates source (564)
a pull that draws water up through xylem from roots to sink (564)
leaves. translocation (564)
● Guard cells control water loss by closing a plant’s stomata
when water is scarce. Thus, they also regulate the rate of
transpiration.
● The sugar maple is a commercially valuable tree. Its hard
wood is used to make furniture, musical instruments, and
other products. Its sap is made into maple syrup and maple
sugar.
● Organic compounds are pushed through the phloem from
a source to a sink in a process called translocation.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Organic compounds move through

phloem
1. Which of the following is not a function of a. by diffusion from a sink to a source.
ground tissue? b. by diffusion from the leaves to the roots.
a. storage c. by active transport within a sieve tube.
b. support d. because of the pressure created by the
c. photosynthesis movement of water into the sieve tubes.
d. protection
9. How is osmosis involved in translocation in
2. Which of the following phrases describes a vascular plant? (Hint: See Chapter 4,
the structure of a monocot stem? Section 1.)
a. contains a ring of vascular bundles that
surrounds a core of ground tissue 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
b. contains a core of vascular tissue that is map that describes the organization of the
surrounded by a ring of ground tissue vascular plant body. Try to include the
c. contains several layers of xylem that are following terms in your map: cork, dermal
surrounded by a ring of phloem tissue, epidermis, ground tissue, mesophyll,
d. contains vascular bundles that are phloem, sieve tubes, tracheids, vascular
scattered throughout the ground tissue tissue, vessels, and xylem.
3. The stem in the photograph below is
probably adapted for
Critical Thinking
a. climbing. c. nutrient storage. 11. Inferring Function When a plant wilts, its
b. water storage. d. conserving water. stomata close. How does wilting help a
plant maintain homeostasis?
12. Evaluating Results Some herbicides
(weed killers) contain a chemical that
breaks down waxy substances. Explain
why such a chemical might be useful
in a herbicide.
13. Analyzing Information Trace the path
4. The column of water in a plant’s xylem can of a water molecule through a vascular
remain unbroken because of the plant, from the water molecule’s entry
a. cohesion of water molecules. into a root hair to its exit between
b. repulsion between water molecules. two guard cells. Identify and describe
c. strong walls in the xylem. the function of each structure the
d. stiff fibers in the bark. water molecule would encounter
on its journey.
5. Guard cells swell and become longer when
a. carbon dioxide moves out of the cells. Alternative Assessment
b. water moves out of the cells.
14. Organizing Information Construct clay
c. water moves into the cells.
models of cross sections through a C3 leaf
d. oxygen moves into the cells.
and a C4 leaf. Include the epidermis, meso-
6. How are C3 leaves different phyll, veins, and guard cells in the model of
from C4 leaves? each leaf. Use the models to explain to your
class each leaf’s structure and the function
7. Up Close What is the range and habitat
of its parts.
of the sugar maple?


correct answer.
Many plants that live in low-nitrogen
1 Where would xylem cells that no longer habitats, such as acidic peat bogs, have a
conduct water be found in a plant? unique way of obtaining nitrogen. Instead
A. cortex C. pith of obtaining nitrogen compounds from soil
B. heartwood D. sapwood through the roots, they trap and digest
insects using specialized leaves. Examples
2 What is the function of guard cells?
of such plants are the Venus flytrap, the
F. They open and close stomata,
pitcher plant, and the sundew.
regulating the rate of transpiration.
G. They cover the actively growing root tip 6 Why would having specialized leaves be
and protect it from damage. more effective for these plants than having
H. They increase the surface area of a root specialized roots?
and its ability to absorb water. A. Their source of energy is located above
I. They contain dozens of chloroplasts, ground.
the main site of photosynthesis in B. Their source of water is located above
leaves. ground.
C. Their source of nitrogen is located
3 How does the change from open stomata
above ground.
to closed stomata affect a plant’s ability to
D. Their source of carbon dioxide is
carry out photosynthesis?
located above ground.
A. It prevents the escape of glucose.
B. It has no effect on photosynthesis. Interpreting Graphics
C. It blocks the entry of carbon dioxide.
D. It exposes more chlorophyll to sunlight.
4 Water vapor lost through what structure Leaf Cells Under Two Conditions
drives the movement of water through a
plant? Condition 1 Condition 2
F. buds Guard cell
G. leaves
H. nodes
I. root hairs
Stoma
5 Analyze why plants that have a fibrous Epidermal cell

root system rather than a taproot system
would be more likely to prevent soil
erosion on a steep hillside. 7 What caused the change from condition 1
to condition 2?
F. Sugar moved into the stoma.
Test G. Sugar moved into the guard cells.
H. Water moved out of the guard cells.
When faced with similar answers, define the answer I. Water moved out of the epidermal cells.
choices and then use those definitions to narrow
down the choices on a multiple-choice question.

Skills Practice Lab
Separating Plant Pigments
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Performing paper • safety goggles
chromatography • lab apron
• Calculating • strip of chromatography
paper
OBJECTIVES
• scissors
• Separate the pigments
that give a leaf its color. • metric ruler
• Calculate the Rf value • pencil

for each pigment. • capillary tube
• Describe how paper • drop of simulated plant
chromatography can pigments extract
be used to study plant • 10 mL graduated cylinder
pigments. • 5 mL of chromatography
solvent
• chromatography chamber
ChemSafety

the previous paragraph and for each of the
Pigments produce colors by reflecting some
following terms: chlorophyll a, chlorophyll
colors of light and absorbing or transmitting
b, carotene, xanthophyll.
others. Pigments can be removed from plant
tissues using solvents , chemicals that dis- 2. Make a data table similar to the one below.
solve other chemicals. The pigments can
then be separated from the solvent and from
each other by using paper chromatography .
The word chromatography comes from the Band no. Color Pigment Migration (in mm) Rf value
Greek words chromat, which means “color,”

1 (top)
and graphon, which means “to write.” The
Rf is the ratio of the distance that a pigment 2
moves relative to the distance that a solvent
3
moves. Since the Rf for a compound is
constant, scientists can use it to identify 4
compounds. In this lab, you will learn how
to use paper chromatography to separate a Solvent
mixture of pigments.

3. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a PART B: Cleanup and Disposal
question you would like to explore about 8. Dispose of chromatography paper,
plant pigments or paper chromatography. solutions, and broken glass in the
designated waste containers. Do not pour
Procedure chemicals down the drain or put lab
PART A: Making a Chromatogram materials in the trash unless your teacher
1. Put on safety goggles and tells you to do so.
a lab apron. Use scissors 9. Clean up your work area and all lab
to cut the bottom end of a strip of chro- equipment. Return lab equipment to
matography paper to a tapered end. its proper place. Wash your hands thor-
CAUTION: Sharp or pointed objects may oughly before you leave the lab and after
cause injury. Handle scissors carefully. you finish all work.
2. Draw a faint pencil line 1 cm above the
pointed end of the paper strip, as shown Analyze and Conclude
in the photo on the facing page. Use a
capillary tube to apply a tiny drop of the 1. Summarizing Results Describe what
simulated plant pigments extract on the happened to the simulated plant pigments
center of the line. during the lab.
3. Pour 5 mL of chromatography solvent into 2. Analyzing Data How do your Rf values
a chromatography chamber. Pull the chro- compare with those of your classmates?
matography paper through the opening of 3. Inferring Conclusions What is a
the cap, and adjust the length of the strip chromatogram?
so that a small portion of the tip end is 4. Further Inquiry Write a new question
immersed in the solvent. DO NOT immerse about plant pigments that could be
the pigment in the solvent. explored with another investigation.
4. Place the cap over the chromatography
chamber. Carefully bend the end of the
strip of chromatography paper over the
cap, as shown in the photograph on the
facing page. Be sure that the strip does not
touch the walls of the chamber.
5. Remove the strip from the chromatography
chamber when the solvent nears the top of
the chamber (within 5–7 minutes).
6. With a pencil, mark the position of the
uppermost end of the solvent and the far-
thest distance each pigment moved.
Measure the distance that the solvent and
each pigment moved. Record your observa-
On the Job
tions and measurements in your data table. Paper chromatography is used to separate
Tape or glue your chromatogram to your a variety of chemicals from living tissue
lab report. Label the pigment colors. extracts. Do research to discover how
paper chromatography is used in research
7. Use the formula below to calculate and
laboratories. For more about careers,
record the Rf for each pigment.
visit go.hrw.com and type in the
Rf = Distance substance (pigment) traveled keyword HX4 Careers.
distance solvent traveled
CHAPTER 25 Plant Structure and Function 569
Bristlecone pine “flagged” by the wind

CHAPTER
26 Plant
Growth and
Development
1. Identify the requirements for photosynthesis and
cellular respiration. (Chapter 5, Sections 2 and 3) How Plants Grow and Develop
Seeds Sprout
2. Define meristem, vascular tissue, xylem, and
Meristems
phloem. (Chapter 23, Section 1)
Plant Development
3. Identify the parts of a seed. (Chapter 23,
Section 1)
4. Describe the structures of stems and roots.
Section 2
(Chapter 25, Section 1) Regulating Growth
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the and Development
sections indicated. Nutrients
Hormonal Control of Growth
Environmental Influences on Growth
Reading Activity
Before you read this chapter, write a short
list of all the things you already know about
plant growth and development. Then list
things you want to know about plant
growth and development.
www.scilinks.org
Exposed to extreme cold and deprived of water,
trees such as this one that grow near the tree line in
the mountains are stunted. Like flags, they “stream”
away from the prevailing wind.
CHAPTER 26 Plant Growth and Development 571

Section 1 How Plants Grow
and Develop
Objectives Seeds Sprout
● Compare seed germination A seed contains a plant embryo that is in a state of suspended ani-
in beans and corn. mation. Some embryos can remain in suspended animation inside a
● Contrast annuals, biennials,
seed for thousands of years. Seeds sprout with a burst of growth in
and perennials. response to certain changes in the environment. These changes,
such as rising temperature and increasing soil moisture, usually sig-
● Explain how primary and
nal the start of favorable growing conditions.
secondary growth are
produced.
Many seeds must be exposed to cold or to light before they can
sprout. The seed coats of other seeds must be damaged before they
● Describe several traits of can sprout. Exposure to fire, passing through the digestive system of
bread wheat.
an animal, and falling on rocks are several natural ways that seed
● Contrast development in coats are damaged. A seed cannot sprout until water and oxygen
plants and animals. penetrate the seed coat. When water enters a seed, the tissues in the
seed swell, and the seed coat breaks. If enough water and oxygen are
Key Terms available after the seed coat breaks, the young plant, or seedling,
germination begins to grow.
perennial
annual Germination
biennial
A plant embryo resumes its growth in a process called germination.
primary growth
secondary growth The first sign of germination is the emergence of the embryo’s root.
apical meristem What happens next varies somewhat from one type of plant to
cork cambium another, as you can see in Figure 1. The young shoots of some plants,
vascular cambium such as beans, form a hook. The hook protects the tip of the shoot
annual ring from injury as it grows through the soil.
Figure 1 Seed germination

Beans and corn show two characteristic patterns of seed germination.
1. The hooked shoot of a germi- Bean (dicot) 2. The shoot of a germinating corn
nating bean seed straightens seed is covered by a sheath. The
after the cotyledons emerge Leaves shoot grows straight up, but the Corn (monocot)
from the soil. cotyledon stays underground.
First leaf
Hook Embryonic shoot

Young shoot Young Sheath
Embryonic Cotyledons Seed coat Embryonic shoot
root Cotyledon root
572 CHAPTER 26 Plant Growth and Development

The young shoots of other plants, such as corn, have a protective
sheath around their shoots. In some plants, such as beans and
marigolds, the cotyledons emerge from the soil and unfold above-
ground. In other plants, such as corn and peas, the cotyledons
remain underground. After the shoot of a seedling emerges, its roots
and shoots continue to grow throughout its life.
Plant Life Spans

As you have read in a previous chapter, bristlecone pines are the old-
est known trees. They are estimated to be about 5,000 years old. In
contrast, some plants live for only a few weeks. Depending on how
long it lives, a plant can be classified as one of three basic types:
perennial, annual, or biennial.
Perennials Many herbaceous plants and all woody plants are
perennials. A perennial is a plant that lives for several years. Most
perennials reproduce many times during their life span. Others, like
the herbaceous perennial shown in Figure 2, reproduce only once
before they die. Chrysanthemums, daffodils, and irises are familiar
herbaceous perennials. These plants store nutrients for the next sea- Figure 2 A herbaceous
son’s growth in fleshy roots or underground stems. The aboveground perennial. Century plants live
shoots of herbaceous perennials often die after each season of for many years but reproduce
growth. Trees, shrubs, and many vines are woody perennials. Some only once. Like the dried-up
woody perennials drop their leaves each year. Plants that drop all of plant on the left, this flowering
century plant will die when its
their leaves each year, such as elms, maples, and grapevines, are
seeds are mature.
known as deciduous (dee SIHJ oo uhs) plants.
Those that drop a few leaves at a time through-
out the year, such as firs, pines, and junipers,
are called evergreens.
Annuals Sunflowers, beans, corn, and many
weeds are annuals. An annual is a plant that
completes its life cycle (grows, flowers, and
produces fruits and seeds) and then dies within
one growing season. Virtually all annuals are
herbaceous plants. Most annuals grow rapidly
when conditions are favorable. Individual
plants can become quite large if they get
enough water and nutrients.
Biennials Carrots, parsley, and onions are bien-
nials. A biennial is a flowering plant that takes
two growing seasons to complete its life cycle.
During the first growing season, biennials pro-
duce roots and shoots. The shoots consist of a
short stem and a rosette (circular cluster) of
leaves. The roots store nutrients. In the second
growing season, a biennial plant uses the stored
nutrients to produce a flowering stalk. The
plant dies after flowering and producing fruits
and seeds.
SECTION 1 How Plants Grow and Develop 573

Meristems
Plants grow by producing new cells in regions of active cell division
called meristems. Almost all plants grow in length by adding new
cells at the tips of their stems and roots. Growth that increases the
length or height of a plant is called primary growth. Many plants
primary growth and sec-
ondary growth, make a also become wider as they grow taller. Growth that increases the
two-column list. In one width of stems and roots is called secondary growth. After new cells
column write the ways in are formed by cell division, they grow and undergo differentiation.
which the two are alike. Recall from your reading that differentiation is the process by which
In the other column, cells become specialized in form and function.
write the ways in which
they are different.
Primary Growth
Apical (AP ih kuhl) meristems, which are located at the tips of stems
and roots, produce primary growth through cell division. As shown
in Figure 3, apical meristems are regions of small, undifferentiated
cells. To better understand how primary growth occurs in most
plants, imagine a stack of dishes. As you add more dishes to the top,
the stack grows taller but not wider. Similarly, the cells in the apical
meristems of most plants add more cells to the tips of a plant’s body.
New cells are added through cell division. The cells then lengthen.
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Primary Growth Thus, primary growth makes a plant’s stems and roots get longer
in Plants without becoming wider. To learn about primary growth in a
Keyword: HX4148 monocot, look at Up Close: Bread Wheat later in this section.
The tissues that result from primary growth are called primary
tissues. The new cells produced by apical meristems differentiate
into the primary dermal, ground, and vascular tissues of roots,
stems, and leaves. Some of the cells produced by the root apical
meristem also become part of the root cap. These cells replace cells
that are worn away as the root pushes through the soil.
Figure 3 Apical meristems

Both shoot tips and root tips contain apical meristems, where cell division occurs.
Root tip of a
radish plant
Shoot tip of a
coleus plant
Apical meristems

Secondary Growth
Secondary growth occurs in parts of many herbaceous plants, such
as in carrot roots. However, it is most dramatic in woody plants.
Secondary growth is produced by cell division in two meristems,
which form thin cylinders near the outside of woody stems and
roots. One meristem, called the cork cambium (KAM bee uhm), lies
within the bark and produces cork cells. The other meristem, called
the vascular cambium, lies just under the bark and produces vascu-
lar tissues. The tissues that result from secondary growth are called
secondary tissues. Figure 4 shows how woody stems develop.
Step A young woody stem has a ring of vascular bundles between
the cortex and the pith. Each vascular bundle contains pri-
mary xylem and primary phloem.
Step Vascular cambium develops between the primary xylem
and the primary phloem in each vascular bundle.
Secondary phloem is produced toward the outside of the
stem. Secondary xylem is produced toward the inside of the
stem. The cork cambium forms when the epidermis is
stretched and broken as the stem grows in diameter.
Step Eventually, the vascular bundles merge into solid cylinders.
www.scilinks.org
No cortex or primary phloem remains. The cork, cork Topic: Secondary Growth
cambium, and secondary phloem make up the bark. The in Plants
vascular cambium and secondary xylem lie inside the bark. Keyword: HX4160
Thick layers of secondary xylem, or wood, often form rings.
Since one new ring is usually formed each year, the rings
are called annual rings.
Figure 4
B IO Development of a Woody Stem

g hic
rap The wood in a woody stem results from secondary growth.
Initially, the stem is covered A vascular cambium forms In a mature stem, the vascular cambium
1 by epidermis and contains
2 between the xylem and
3 adds new layers of secondary xylem
cortex, pith, and a ring of phloem in each vascular and phloem each year.
vascular bundles with bundle. Cork cambium
primary xylem and phloem. forms under the epidermis.
Bark
Primary phloem Secondary
Epidermis Primary xylem phloem
Primary phloem Cork
Vascular cambium
Cork cambium Secondary
Pith cambium phloem
Cork
Cork
Pith
Cortex Primary
xylem
Vascular
bundle Secondary
xylem Vascular
cambium

Up Close
Bread Wheat
Scientific name: Triticum aestivum
Size: 0.3 to 0.8 m (1 to 2.5 ft) tall
Range: Agricultural regions worldwide
Habitat: Cultivated fields in temperate and subtropical
grasslands
Importance: Wheat is the principal staple food in temperate
regions of the world. The grains of Triticum aestivum are usually
ground into flour that is used to make bread.
External Structures
Leaves Wheat, a member of the grass family, Awn

is a monocot. Its leaves are long but only
about 2 cm (0.8 in.) wide, with parallel Palea
▼
veins. The leaves are attached Leaf Anther

Floret
blade Stigma
to the stem by a sheath,
Lemma
▼
which wraps around Leaf

the stem. sheath
Stems Wheat plants have hollow,

jointed stems called culms. Given ▼ Flower spike
plenty of space, mature plants Flowers The flowers, which
may develop as many as 100 occur in dense clusters called
culms. Each culm in a plant may spikes, develop at the top of
have from three to six leaves. each culm. Spikes range from
▼
Culms 5 to 13 cm (2 to 5 in.) in length.
Like all grass flowers, wheat
flowers lack petals and sepals.
Instead, two modified leaves
called the palea and the lemma
enclose the stamens and pistil
of each tiny flower, or floret. The
lemmas of some bread-wheat
varieties have a long bristle
called an awn.
Fruit A kernel, or grain, of wheat

Adventitious
is a one-seeded fruit with a crease
roots
▼ on one side and a brush of tiny
Roots Wheat plants have a fibrous root hairs at one end. The grains
system composed of adventitious roots, as are high in gluten, a sticky
do most grasses. The extensive root system mixture of proteins that
may be more than 2.2 m (7 ft) deep. make dough elastic.

Internal Structures
Nucleus
Fruit structure A wheat kernel
is about 85 percent starchy endo-
sperm. The kernel’s outer layers,
called the bran, make up about
12 percent of the kernel. The bran
consists of the ovary wall, seed
coat, and aleurone layer, which
contains protein and oils. The
embryo, or wheat
germ, makes up
less than 3 percent
of the kernel.
Bread-wheat Bread-wheat
karyotype cell
Bran
Chromosomes Bread-wheat cells
Endosperm have 42 chromosomes. A karyotype reveals
that a bread-wheat cell has three sets of 14
Embryo chromosomes (7 pairs), shown here in different
(wheat germ) colors. Thus, bread wheat is not diploid (2n).
Instead, it is hexaploid (6n)—a polyploid with
six of each kind of chromosome. Polyploidy,
having many sets of chromosomes, is
common among cultivated plants. Among
Kernel plants, polyploidy enables hybrids to result
(longitudinal section) from crosses among different species. Such is
the case with bread wheat, which is a natural
hybrid of three closely related species
▼ Apical meristem of wheat.
Apical meristems The apical
meristems are located within the
Leaf sheath
culms at a point that is usually at
(oldest leaf)
or just beneath the surface of the
Leaf sheath
soil. Thus, the apical meristems
(younger leaf)
are protected from being eaten by
New leaf
grazing animals. Each new leaf
grows up within a hollow culm
and emerges from the
sheath of the culm’s
uppermost leaf.

Plant Development
Genes guide the development of both plants and animals, but their
patterns of development are very different. As an animal develops,
www.scilinks.org sets of genes that control development are inactivated and may not
Topic: Plant Life Spans
Keyword: HX4141
be used again. Most animals stop developing when they become
adults. Plants, in contrast, continuously make new cells in meri-
stems. These cells differentiate and replace or add to existing tissues.
Thus, a plant continues to develop throughout its life.
Many cells in a mature plant can activate all of their genes. Such
cells can divide and form masses of undifferentiated cells. In a
sense, they can reverse their development. These cells can undergo
differentiation and develop into a mature plant. A technique called
tissue culture is used to grow new plants from tissue that can reverse
its development. A tissue culture is prepared by placing tissue on a
sterile nutrient medium. Masses of undifferentiated cells that form
grow into plants that are genetically identical to the parent plant.
Plant Tissue Culture

Magnification: 810
T issue culture is used to propa-

gate orchids, houseplants,
and fruit plants. Thousands of
to fuse, as the photo at right
shows. If the protoplasts came
from genetically different plants, a
cultures can be made from a single hybrid cell results. The hybrid is
plant. Tissue culture can also be then placed in a tissue culture
used to produce plants with new and grown into an adult plant.
characteristics.
Genetic Engineering
Protoplast Fusion Tissue culture is also an essential
Protoplast fusion has been used part of producing genetically
to produce hybrid petunias, pota- engineered plants. First, foreign www.scilinks.org
toes, and carrots. A protoplast is genes are inserted into a plant’s Topic: Genetic Engineering
a plant cell that has had its cell cells. The genetically altered cells Keyword: HX4092
walls removed by enzymes. Cer- are then grown into adult plants
tain chemicals or an electrical in tissue culture.
shock can cause two protoplasts
Section 1 Review
Compare and contrast the germination of bean Critical Thinking Analyzing Methods In
seeds and corn seeds. what ways does plant development differ from
animal development?
Summarize the basic differences between
annuals, biennials, and perennials. Standardized Test Prep Growth that increases the
width of a plant’s stems and roots is called
Explain how primary growth and then secondary A germination. C primary growth.
growth produce a woody stem.
B differentiation. D secondary growth.

Regulating Growth Section 2
and Development
Nutrients Objectives
Like all multicellular organisms, plants grow by adding new cells ● Identify the major
through cell division. Plants must have a steady supply of the raw nutrients plants need to
materials they use to build new cells in order to grow. Plants need only grow.
two raw materials—carbon dioxide and water—to make all the carbo- ● Describe how plant
hydrates in their tissues. As you learned earlier in this book, carbon hormones control plant
dioxide and water are needed for photosynthesis. growth.
Like animals, plants also need oxygen for cellular respiration. ● Relate environmental
Although the green parts of a plant produce oxygen during photo- factors to plant
synthesis, most of the oxygen used by leaves and stems comes from growth.
the air. Roots, which usually do not carry out photosynthesis, get
oxygen from the air spaces between soil particles. If the soil around Key Terms
a plant’s roots becomes compacted or saturated with water, it may
mineral nutrient
not provide enough oxygen for the roots, and the plant could die. auxin
However, carbon dioxide, water, and oxygen do not satisfy all of a hormone
plant’s needs for raw materials. Plants also require small amounts of apical dominance
at least 14 mineral nutrients, which are elements absorbed mainly tropism
as inorganic ions. Table 1 lists the six mineral nutrients needed in photoperiodism
the greatest amounts for healthy plant growth and describes the dormancy
importance of each nutrient. Commercial fertilizers may contain
most of these mineral nutrients.
Table 1 Major Mineral Nutrients Required by Plants

Nutrient Importance
Part of proteins, nucleic acids, chlorophylls, ATP,

Nitrogen
and coenzymes; promotes growth of green parts
Part of ATP, ADP, nucleic acids, phospholipids

Phosphorus
of cell membranes, and some coenzymes
Needed for active transport, enzyme activation,

Potassium
osmotic balance, and stomatal opening
Part of cell walls; needed for enzyme activity and

Calcium
membrane function
Part of chlorophyll; needed for photosynthesis

Magnesium
and activation of enzymes
Part of some proteins and coenzyme A; needed for

Sulfur
cellular respiration
SECTION 2 Regulating Growth and Development 579

Hormonal Control of Growth
For centuries, people have known that plants bend strongly toward a
Real Life light source as their shoots elongate. In the 1920s, the Dutch biologist
The herbicide Agent Frits Went hypothesized that a chemical produced in the shoot tip of
Orange contains two a grass causes this bending response. Went named the growth-
synthetic auxins. promoting chemical that causes stems to bend auxin (AWK sin). The
This herbicide was used steps in Went’s experiment are summarized in Figure 5.
to defoliate plants in the
jungles of Vietnam during Step Went removed the tip of an oat shoot and placed the tip on
the Vietnam War. One an agar block. Auxin diffused from the tip into the block.
ingredient of Agent Orange
is still commonly used as Step Went then transferred the agar block to the cut end of a
a herbicide. shoot, which was followed by growth of the shoot.
Finding Information Step When Went placed an agar block with auxin on either side
Find out the names of
the chemicals in Agent
of cut shoots, the shoots grew in the opposite direction.
Orange, and identify the Step As a control, Went placed an agar block without auxin on
health problems to which the cut end of other shoots. These shoots did not grow.
it has been linked.
Auxin
Auxin is one of many plant hormones. The word hormone comes
from the Greek word horman, meaning “to set in motion.” A
hormone is a chemical that is produced in one part of an organism
and transported to another part, where it causes a response. Auxin
causes plant cell walls to become more acidic, which allows the cells
Figure 5
B IO The Steps in Went’s Experiment

gr hic
ap Auxin apparently caused oat seedlings to elongate and bend toward light.
Auxin diffused Application of the Cut shoots grew Application of agar

1 from the cut tip of
2 agar block with the
3 away from contact
4 without auxin was
an oat shoot into auxin to a second with agar with not followed by
an agar block. shoot was followed auxin. growth of the oat
by growth. shoot.
Shoot
tip
Agar Agar
block block
with Auxin
auxin

to elongate as they grow. Auxin accumulates on the dark side of a
stem. As a result, the cells on the dark side of a stem elongate more
than the cells on the light side. The difference in elongation causes the
stem to grow toward the light. Auxin also inhibits the growth of the
buds along a stem. This inhibition is called apical dominance.
Cutting off the tip of a stem removes the source of auxin and enables
the other buds to grow. That is why pruning the stems of a plant
makes the plant become bushier.
Hormones in Agriculture
More than a century ago, citrus farmers discovered that they could
cause citrus fruits to ripen by storing them in a room heated by a
kerosene stove. The ripening was caused by ethylene, which is a
gaseous organic compound produced when kerosene is incom-
pletely burned. Most plant tissues produce ethylene. Today, ethylene
is used to promote the ripening of tomatoes, bananas, and other
fruits that are harvested before they ripen. Ethylene also loosens the
fruit of cherries, blackberries, and blueberries, making it easier to
harvest these crops mechanically.
Gibberellins (jihb uhr EHL ihnz) are produced in developing
shoots and seeds. They stimulate stem elongation, fruit development,
and seed germination. Gibberellins are used to enlarge Thompson
seedless grapes. Other seedless fruits treated with gibberellins
include apples, cucumbers, mandarin oranges, and peaches.
Cytokinins (sie toh KIE nihnz), which are produced in root tips, www.scilinks.org
stimulate cell division and slow the aging of some plant organs. Topic: Plant Hormones
Cytokinins are sprayed on cut flowers to keep them fresh and on Keyword: HX4140
fruits and vegetables to extend their shelf life. Cytokinins are
added to tissue-culture media to cause undifferentiated cells to
form shoots.
Investigating the Effects

of Ethylene on a Plant
You can use a ripe apple to see one of the
effects of ethylene on plants.
Materials
4 L glass jars with lids (2), 2 plants in 5 cm pots,
small ripe apple
Procedure
1. Place a plant inside one of 3. Observe both jars for several 2. Critical Thinking
the jars. Tightly secure the lid. days. Record what you see. Drawing Conclusions
A ripe apple gives off ethylene
2. Place the other plant and Analysis
gas. Based on your observa-
the apple inside the other jar. 1. Describe any changes in tions, how does ethylene
Tightly secure the lid. the plant in each jar. affect a plant?

Environmental Influences
on Growth
Because most plants are anchored in one spot, they cannot move
from an unfavorable environment to a more favorable one as
The word thigmotropism animals do. Instead, plants respond to their environment by
comes from the Greek adjusting the rate and pattern of their growth. For example, a plant
words thigma, meaning
that receives plenty of water and mineral nutrients may grow
“touch,” and tropos,
meaning “turn.” much faster and larger than it would if it received very little water
and mineral nutrients. Also, a plant grown in full sun may grow
much faster and larger than it would if it were grown in the shade
or indoors. So the availability of light and nutrients affect the rate
of plant growth. Many of a plant’s responses to environmental
stimuli, however, are triggered by the hormones that regulate
plant growth.
Tropisms
A tropism (TROH piz uhm) is a response in which a plant grows
either toward or away from a stimulus. Auxin is responsible for pro-
ducing tropisms. Figure 6 shows examples of three common types of
tropisms. Phototropisms are responses to light. Responses to gravity
are called gravitropisms. A thigmotropism is a response to touch. If
a plant grows toward a stimulus, the response is called a positive
tropism. If a plant grows away from the direction of the stimulus,
the response is called a negative tropism. Thus, a shoot that grows
up out of the ground shows both positive phototropism (growing
toward the light) and negative gravitropism (growing away from the
pull of gravity).
Figure 6 Tropisms
Tropisms are growth responses that occur either toward or away from a stimulus.
The bending of an amaryllis toward The upward growth of shoots is a nega- The coiling of grapevine tendrils
the light is a positive phototropism. tive gravitropism; the downward growth around a wire is a thigmotropism.
of roots is a positive gravitropism.

Interpreting Annual Rings
Background
The annual rings of a woody stem provide important
0100010110
011101010 clues to annual variations in the rainfall an area receives
0010010001001 over time. Thick rings form in years with heavy rainfall.
1100100100010
0000101001001 Relatively thin rings form in dry years. Use the photo at
1101010100100
0101010010010 right to answer the following questions. A
B
Analysis
1. Critical Thinking 2. Critical Thinking 3. Critical Thinking
Interpreting Data What do Drawing Conclusions Making Predictions How
the annual rings indicate Which ring, A or B, indicates a will the annual rings of a
about the climate where this year when this plant received nearby tree of the same age
plant grew? more rainfall? and species compare with
those of this tree?
Photoperiodism
Certain plants bloom in the spring and others bloom in the summer
or fall. Some plants bloom as soon as they reach a mature size. In
many plants, seasonal patterns of flowering and other aspects of
growth and development are caused by changes in the length of Figure 7 Flowering and
days and nights. The response of a plant to the length of days and photoperiodism. Long-day
nights is called photoperiodism. plants flower when nights are
Most plants can be categorized as one of three types in reference short. Short-day plants flower
when nights are long. If a flash
to photoperiodism. A plant that responds when days become shorter
of light interrupts a long night,
than a certain number of hours is said to be a short-day plant. A long-day plants flower and
plant that responds when days become longer than a certain num- short-day plants do not.
ber of hours is called a long-day Early summer Late fall Night interrupted
plant. Plants whose growth and Midnight Midnight Midnight
development are not affected by day
length are known as day-neutral 6 P.M. 6 A.M. 6 P.M. 6 A.M. 6 P.M. 6 A.M.
plants. It is really the length of the

Noon Noon Noon
nights, however, rather than the
length of the days that controls
photoperiodism, as Figure 7 shows. Long-day plant: Bearded iris
Knowledge of photoperiodism is
very important to the nursery and
floral industries. The length of days
and nights is controlled artificially in
greenhouses where plants such as
poinsettias and chrysanthemums are
grown. Thus, commercial growers Short-day plant: Poinsettia
force the plants to produce flowers
at times of the year when they ordi-
narily would not. This makes it
possible for poinsettias to be available
for Christmas and chrysanthemums
to be available year round.

Responses to Temperature
Temperature affects growth and development in many plants. For
example, most tomato plants will not produce fruit if the nighttime
temperatures are too high. Many plants that flower in early spring
will not produce flowers until exposed to cold temperatures for a
certain number of hours. Most deciduous woody plants drop their
leaves in the fall in response to cooler temperatures and shorter
periods of daylight. Thick, protective scales develop around their
buds, as Figure 8 shows. After a period of low temperatures, the
buds begin growing into new leaves or sections of woody stem.
Figure 8 Bud dormancy. Dormancy is the condition in which a plant or a seed remains
Thick scales cover the inactive, even when conditions are suitable for growth. Many plants
dormant buds on this twig and seeds remain dormant until they have been exposed to low tem-
from an apple tree.
peratures for several weeks. Dormancy helps plants to survive by
keeping buds from growing and seeds from germinating during
warm spells before winter has ended.
8
0
493 2
5 Effect of Cold Storage
x2 + <
6x -
7 Analyzing the Effect of Cold
on Seed Germination
Percent germination
100
80
Background
60
In some plants, a period of low temperatures is needed
to break seed dormancy. The graph at right shows how 40
being stored at a low temperature (4ºC) affected the 20
ability of apple seeds to germinate. Use the graph to
answer the following questions. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Analysis Number of days at 4ºC
1. Summarize the overall effect 80 percent of the seeds to

of cold temperatures on the germinate.
germination of apple seeds.
3. Critical Thinking Predicting Patterns What
2. Calculate the number of Interpreting Graphs What percentage of apple seeds will
weeks that apple seeds must percentage of apple seeds germinate after being stored at
be stored at 4ºC for at least germinate after storage at 4ºC 4ºC for 80 days?
for 20 days?
Section 2 Review
List the six mineral nutrients that plants require Critical Thinking Predicting Outcomes Why
in the greatest amounts. is it an advantage for plant growth and develop-
ment to be regulated by environmental stimuli?
Explain how auxin causes a stem to grow
toward a light source. Standardized Test Prep When a vine responds to
the touch of a fence wire by growing a tendril
Describe an example of a negative around the wire, the vine is exhibiting
gravitropism. A gravitropism. C phototropism.
B thigmotropism. D photoperiodism.

ZONE
1 How Plants Grow and Develop Section 1
germination (572)
● Germination is the resumption of growth by the embryo in a perennial (573)
seed. Water and oxygen must penetrate the seed coat before annual (573)
germination can occur. biennial (573)
primary growth (574)
● Annuals complete their life cycle in one growing season. secondary growth (574)
Biennials complete their life cycle in two growing seasons. apical meristem (574)
Perennials live several years and may reproduce many times. cork cambium (575)
vascular cambium (575)
● Apical meristems located at the tips of shoots and roots annual ring (575)
produce primary growth. The tissues that result from
primary growth are known as primary tissues.
● Secondary growth increases a plant’s stem and root width.
In woody stems, secondary growth is produced by the cork
cambium and vascular cambium, two meristems near the
outside of the stem.
● Bread wheat is a cereal grass with long leaves, hollow
stems, and clusters of tiny flowers. The fruits, or grains,
are usually ground into flour that is used to make bread.
● Plants develop throughout their lives. Plant development
is reversible. Many mature plant cells can divide to form
masses of undifferentiated cells, which can develop into
a new plant.
2 Regulating Plant Growth and Development Section 2

mineral nutrient (579)
● Plants need at least 14 mineral nutrients for growth. They auxin (580)
also need carbon dioxide and water for photosynthesis and hormone (580)
oxygen for cellular respiration. apical dominance (581)
tropism (582)
● Hormones regulate plant growth and development. Auxin photoperiodism (583)
is a hormone that causes shoots to elongate and inhibits the dormancy (584)
growth of lateral buds.
● Plants modify their growth in response to the direction
of light, gravity, and touch. Such growth responses are
called tropisms.
● Seeds and many mature plants survive periods of unfavorable
environmental conditions by becoming dormant.
● In many plants, seasonal patterns of flowering and other
aspects of growth and development are caused by changes in
the length of days and nights.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 6. Major mineral nutrients required by plants

include all of the following except
1. Plant and animal development differ in a. nitrogen. c. phosphorus.
that plant development b. lead. d. potassium.
a. is continuous and reversible.
b. stops after a plant reaches maturity. 7. How do cytokinins and gibberellins affect
c. is not affected by environment. plant growth, and how are these hormones
d. is controlled by genes that cannot be used in agriculture?
reactivated. 8. Up Close How does the chromosome
2. Which of the following is not a raw number of bread wheat differ from that of
material needed for plant growth? diploid organisms?
a. carbon dioxide 9. How is tissue culture used to
b. water produce hybrid varieties of plants?
c. oxygen
d. vitamins 10. Concept Mapping Construct a
3. Auxin causes cells to concept map that describes growth in
a. have less flexible cell walls. vascular plants. Try to include the follow-
b. elongate more as they grow. ing terms in your map: meristems, apical
c. bend toward light. meristem, primary growth, primary tissues,
d. develop lateral buds. cork cambium, secondary growth, cork,
secondary phloem, secondary xylem, and
4. Which of the following caused the different vascular cambium.
growth patterns of the two pots of mums
shown below? Critical Thinking
a. apical meristem
11. Applying Information Carrots are biennials.
b. auxin
What role does the root of a carrot plant play
c. apical dominance
in the plant’s second year of growth?
d. all of the above
12. Forming Reasoned Opinions Why is it
possible for people to grow new plants
from pieces of leaf, stem, or root tissue in
which the cells have already undergone
differentiation?
13. Finding and Communicating Information
Use the media center or Internet resources
to learn how commercial growers produce
plants such as poinsettias and chrysanthe-
mums that flower at times when they
5. The response of a plant to the length of would not flower in nature. Summarize
days and nights is your findings in a written report.
a. gravitropism. 14. Career Connection Agronomist Agrono-
b. photoperiodism. mists study soil management and crop
c. phototropism. production. Write a report that includes
d. thigmotropism. a job description, training required, kinds
of employers, growth prospects, and
starting salary.

correct answer.
In an experiment, a student placed a
1 The emergence of what part of the embryo green banana in each of 10 plastic bags.
is the first sign of germination in a bean? The student also placed a ripe pear in five
A. cotyledon C. root of the bags and then sealed all of the bags.
B. hooked shoot D. sheathed shoot The bananas in the bags without pears took
longer to ripen than the bananas in the bags
2 What term describes plants that live for
with pears.
several years or more?
F. annuals H. perennials 7 What could explain these experimental
G. biennials I. terminals results?
A. Pears cannot ripen without the
3 Which of the following is a tissue whose
presence of bananas.
main function is to provide cells for
B. Bananas cannot ripen without the
growth at the tips of a plant?
presence of pears.
A. apical meristems
C. Bananas give off ethylene, which
B. cork cambium
promotes ripening in the pears.
C. root cap
D. Ripe pears give off ethylene, which
D. vascular cambium
promotes ripening in the bananas.
4 In which tissues does cell division that
increases the diameter of a woody stem
occur? Directions (8): Base your answer to question
F. apical meristems 8 on the diagram below.
G. cork cambium
Hormonal Control of Growth in an Oat Shoot
H. primary tissues
Shoot
I. vascular cambium
tip
2
Directions (5–6): For each question, write a 1
3
Agar Agar block
short response. block with auxin
Auxin
5 Some seeds are soaked in acid before they

Oat shoot
are packaged and sold to farmers. What is
the purpose of this treatment?
6 Dormancy is the condition in which seeds

or buds do not grow even when environ-
mental conditions are favorable for
growth to occur. How does dormancy
8 The diagram above summarizes an
experimental investigation. What
contribute positively to a plant’s survival? happened in step 2?
F. The agar block stopped further growth
of the shoot.
Test G. Auxin from the agar block stimulated
If you are not sure about the spelling of certain the shoot to grow.
words when answering a short-response question, H. The shoot grew straight up in response
look at the question itself to see if the word appears to the agar block.
in the question. I. The shoot produced auxin in response
to the agar block.

Skills Practice Lab
Comparing Bean and Corn Seedlings
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Comparing • 6 bean seeds soaked
• Drawing overnight
• Relating • stereomicroscope
• 6 corn kernels soaked
OBJECTIVES overnight
• Observe the structures • scalpel
of bean seeds and corn
kernels. • paper towels
• Compare and Contrast • 2 rubber bands

the development of bean • 150 mL beakers (2)
embryos and corn • glass-marking pen
embryos as they grow • metric ruler
into seedlings.
Before You Begin 2. Locate the embryo on one of the halves of

the seed. Examine the bean embryo with a
A seed contains an inactive plant embryo .
stereomicroscope. Draw the embryo, and
A plant embryo consists of one or more
label the parts you can identify.
cotyledons , an embryonic shoot, and an
embryonic root . Seeds also contain a supply 3. Examine a corn kernel, and locate
of nutrients. In monocots , the nutrients are a small light-colored oval area.
contained in the endosperm . In dicots , the CAUTION: Sharp or pointed objects may
nutrients are transferred to the cotyledons as cause injury. Handle scalpels carefully.
seeds mature. A seed germinates when the Use a scalpel to cut the kernel in half along
embryo begins to grow and breaks through the length of this area.
the protective seed coat . The embryo then 4. Locate the corn embryo, and examine it
develops into a young plant, or seedling . In with a stereomicroscope. Draw the embryo,
this lab, you will examine bean seeds and and label the parts you can identify.
corn kernels and then germinate them to
observe the development of their seedlings. PART B: Observing Seedling
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in Development
the paragraph above. 5. Fold a paper towel in half as shown in the
2. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a photo at the top of the next page. Set five
question you would like to explore about corn kernels on the paper towel. Roll up
seedling development. the paper towel, and put a rubber band
around the roll. Stand the roll in a beaker
with 1 cm of water in the bottom. Add
Procedure
water to the beaker as needed to keep the
PART A: Observing Seed Structure paper towels wet, but do not allow the corn
1. Remove the seed coat of a bean seed, and kernels to be covered by water.
separate the two fleshy halves of the seed. 6. Repeat step 5 with five bean seeds.

1. Relating Concepts Corn and beans are
often cited as representative examples of
monocots and dicots, respectively. Relate
the seed structure of each to the terms
monocotyledon and dicotyledon.
2. Summarizing Results What parts of a
plant embryo were observed in all seedlings
on the third day?
3. Drawing Conclusions In which part or
parts of bean seedlings and corn seedlings
do the seedlings grow in length? Explain.
4. Forming Hypotheses How are the ten-
7. After three days, unroll the paper towels der young shoots of bean seedlings and
and examine the corn and bean seedlings. corn seedlings protected as the seedlings
Use a glass-marking pen to mark the grow through the soil?
roots and shoots of the developing 5. Evaluating Viewpoints Defend the fol-
seedlings. Starting at the seed, make a lowing statement: There are both similari-
mark every 0.5 cm along the root of each ties and differences in seed structure and
seedling. And again starting at the seed, seedling development in beans and corn.
make a mark every 0.5 cm along the stem 6. Further Inquiry Write a new question
of each seedling. about seedling development that could be
8. Draw a corn seedling and a bean seedling explored with another investigation.
in your lab report. Label the parts of each
seedling. Also show the marks you made
on each seedling, and indicate the dis-
tance between the marks.
9. Using a fresh paper towel, roll up the
seeds, place the rolls in the beakers, and
add fresh water to the beakers.
10. After two more days reexamine the
seedlings. Measure the distance between
the marks. Repeat step 8.

11. Dispose of seeds, broken glass, and
paper towels in the designated On the Job
waste containers. Do not put lab Plant physiology is the study of the
materials in the trash unless your teacher processes that occur in plants. Do
tells you to do so. research to discover where plant physiol-
12. Clean up your work area and all lab ogists work and what types of research
equipment. Return lab equipment are currently being conducted in the
to its proper place. Wash your hands field of plant physiology. For more about
thoroughly before you leave the lab and careers, visit go.hrw.com and type in the
after you finish all work. keyword HX4 Careers.
CHAPTER 26 Plant Growth and Development 589

Exploring
UNIT 7 Invertebrates
Chapters
38 Introduction to
27
Animals
28 Simple Invertebrates
29 Mollusks and Annelids
30 Arthropods
31 Echinoderms and Beekeeper examining a

Invertebrate honeycomb frame full
Chordates of honey

Honeybees
Humans have raised bees

for their honey and their
beeswax for thousands
of years. American colonists brought bees
from England and early pioneers took them
along on the journey west. What are the
characteristic features of insects?
French beekeeper in
the early 1700s
Honeybees are valued today not only as a

source of honey but also for their role as
pollinators of crops such as almonds, cherries,
apples, and pears. Migratory beekeepers carry
bees from state to state, renting their bees
to farmers in time to ensure a successful
harvest. Discover how a beehive is a
highly organized social system.
Honeybee
In the United States, bee-

dependent crops are worth
$10 billion a year. Scientists
continue to study different
varieties of bees in an effort to find
those that are the most efficient
pollinators. www.scilinks.org
Topic: Honeybees
Keyword: HX4099
Honeybee research
591
Moon jellyfish

CHAPTER
27 Introduction
to Animals
1. Define the term metabolism. (Chapter 1,
Section 2) Characteristics of Animals
General Features of Animals
2. Describe the process of diffusion. (Chapter 4,
Body Symmetry
Section 1)
Internal Body Cavity
3. Summarize how gametes are formed.
Body Segmentation
Kinds of Animals
4. State the relationship of a phylum to a
kingdom. (Chapter 14, Sections 1 and 2.)
Section 2
5. Define the terms tissue and organ. (Chapter 19,
Section 3) Animal Body Systems
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Tissues and Organs
sections indicated. Reproductive Strategies
Reading Activity
Before you begin to read, survey the chapter,
noting the red headings at the tops of pages
and the blue subheadings. Use these heads to
make an outline of the chapter, and leave space
after each heading. Fill in important facts as
you read.
www.scilinks.org
The beautiful moon jellyfish, Aurelia arita, is found in the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. People used to call jelly-
fishes sea lungs because their pulsating movement
seems similar to breathing.
CHAPTER 27 Introduction to Animals 593

Section 1 Characteristics
of Animals
Objectives General Features of Animals
● Identify the features Humans have long marveled at and depended on animals. When
that animals have in Linnaeus first classified animals in the mid-1700s, he counted 4,236
common. kinds. Since then, many new animal species have been identified,
● Distinguish radial and the count is now over a million. We share the planet with a
symmetry from bilateral fantastic array of animal forms, and our lives intersect in many
symmetry. ways. For example, if it were not for insects, such as the honeybee,
● Summarize the importance many of our crops would not be pollinated. The prices of insect-
of a body cavity. pollinated fruits and vegetables would increase dramatically. And
items such as apples and cucumbers might not be available at your
● Identify how scientists
local supermarket.
determine evolutionary
relationships among Think about a snail, a lizard, a hawk, an elephant—all are quite
animals. different. But the features these four animals share are just as
important as their differences in size, shape, and behavior. Like all
Key Terms animals, they exhibit the following features—heterotrophy, mobility,
multicellularity, diploidy, and sexual reproduction. They also exhibit
blastula
blastula formation, cells organized into tissues, and the absence
ectoderm
endoderm of a cell wall. These features are a legacy inherited from their
mesoderm common ancestor.
body plan
asymmetrical Heterotrophy
radial symmetry
Animals are heterotrophs—that is, they cannot make their own
bilateral symmetry
cephalization food. Some animals that live in the ocean remain in one place and
coelom consume tiny particles of food that they filter from passing sea
acoelomate water. But most animals, such as those shown in Figure 1, move
pseudocoelomate from place to place searching for food. Once food is located, it is
coelomate eaten and then digested in a cavity inside the animal’s body.
phylogenetic tree
Figure 1 Heterotrophy.
Unlike plants, animals must
seek out food sources in their
environment.
594 CHAPTER 27 Introduction to Animals

Figure 2 Mobility. A tiger
finds food by roaming over its
territory, which usually ranges
from 10 to 30 mi2.
Mobility
Animals are unique among living things in being able to perform
rapid, complex movements. Animals move by means of muscle cells,
specialized cells that are able to contract with considerable force.
Animals can swim, crawl, walk, run, and even fly. In fact, flight has
evolved four times among animals, in insects, pterosaurs (extinct
reptiles from the time of the dinosaurs), birds, and bats. The tiger
shown in Figure 2 moves through its environment searching for
food. The size of the tiger’s home range depends on the availability
of prey species.
Multicellularity
All animals are multicellular. Some are too small to be seen clearly Figure 3 Life in a drop of
with the naked eye, like Daphnia, shown in Figure 3. Others, such as water. Daphnia, commonly
some enormous whales, are larger than a city bus. In spite of their called water fleas, belong to
a group of animals known
differences in body size, there is little difference in the size of most
as crustaceans.
of the cells that make up these animals. The cells on the skin of your
hand are roughly the same size as the cells in the heart of a whale or
in the wing muscle of a hummingbird.
Diploidy
With few exceptions, animals are diploid
(DIP loyd), meaning adults have two copies
of each chromosome, one inherited from
their father and one from their mother.
Only their gametes (egg and sperm) are
haploid. In contrast, many plants have four
or more copies of each chromosome, while
fungi often have only one. A great advan-
tage of diploidy is that it permits an animal
to exchange genes between the two copies
of a set of chromosomes, creating new
combinations of genes.
SECTION 1 Characteristics of Animals 595

Magnification: 620
Sexual Reproduction
Almost all animals reproduce sexually by producing gametes,
as do many plants, fungi, and protists. As shown in Figure 4,
the females’ egg cells are much larger than the males’ sperm
cells. Unlike the egg cells, the sperm cells of animals have a
flagella and are highly mobile.
Absence of a Cell Wall

Among the cells of multicellular organisms, only animal cells
lack rigid cell walls. The absence of a cell wall has allowed
Figure 4 Egg and sperm.
animals mobility that other multicellular organisms do not
This human egg is surrounded
by sperm, only one of which have. You may not realize this, but there are cells moving
will fertilize the egg. about in your body all the time. Cells called macrophages, for
example, act as mobile garbage collectors, crawling over
tissues and removing debris. A cell with a rigid cell wall could
never perform such a task.
Blastula Formation
In all animals except sponges, the zygote (fertilized egg cell)
undergoes cell divisions that form a hollow ball of cells called
a blastula (BLAS tyoo luh), shown in Figure 5. Cells within
the blastula eventually develop into three distinct layers of
cells— ectoderm , endoderm, and mesoderm. These layers are
called the primary tissue layers because they give rise to all of
the tissues and organs of the adult body. (A few simple inver-
tebrates, such as Hydra and their kin, develop only two tissue
Figure 5 Blastula. The layers, endoderm and ectoderm.) Table 1 lists the three
individual cells of a blastula primary tissue layers and summarizes the body tissues and
form a sphere. organs to which they give rise. Note that the table includes
some organs, such as the urinary bladder, found only in
vertebrates. The organs of vertebrates are complex structures
containing cells that arise from more than one primary tissue
layer. For example, the digestive system is formed primarily
from endoderm and mesoderm.
Table 1 Origin of Animal Tissues and Organs

Primary tissue layer Gives rise to
Outer layer of skin; nervous system; sense

Ectoderm
organs, such as eyes
Lining of digestive tract; respiratory system;

Endoderm urinary bladder; digestive organs;
liver; many glands
Most of the skeleton; muscles;

Mesoderm circulatory system; reproductive organs;
excretory organs

Tissues Figure 6 Adipose
tissue. These adipose
The cells of all animals except sponges are
cells are specialized for
organized into structural and functional storing fat, and each
units called tissues. Recall that tissues are one contains a fat
groups of cells with a common structure droplet. Together the
that work together to perform a specific cells make up adipose
function. For example, the cells of adipose tissue.
(AD uh pohs) tissue, shown in Figure 6, are
specialized for storing fat. The cells of
muscle tissue are specialized to contract, Magnification: 230
producing movement. The cells of nerve

tissue are specialized to conduct signals.
Exploring Further
From Zygote to Gastrula
Just as you did, this sea urchin began life as a
zygote but quickly developed into an embryo
made up of layers of tissue—endoderm, ecto-
derm, and mesoderm. A variation of this pattern
of development is found in all animals except
sponges and is evidence that animal life arose
from a common ancestor. The illustrations at right
show the sea urchin’s pattern of development in
its first hours of life.
8-celled stage
Cell numbers increase
During a process called cleavage, the cells of the
zygote divide, doubling the number of cells with Zygote
each division. However, the mass of the develop- Cleavage
ing embryo does not increase, and the cells
formed are progressively smaller. After about 3
hours, the zygote has become a solid ball of cells.
Cell division continues until a blastula is formed.
Cells change locations
During a second process, called gastrulation, the
Blastula
blastula begins to collapse inward. At the same time, (cross section)
its cells move about, changing their location within
the blastula. The cells begin to vary in size and form Blastocoel Ectoderm
three primary tissue (germ) layers. Gastrulation is
complete, and the zygote is now an embryo.
www.scilinks.org
Mesoderm
Topic: Origin of Tissues
Keyword: HX4132 Endoderm
Blastopore
Early gastrula Late gastrula
Gastrulation

Body Symmetry
All animals have their own particular body plan, a term
used to describe an animal’s shape, symmetry, and inter-
nal organization. An animal’s body plan results from a
pattern of development programmed into the animal’s
genes by natural selection. Sponges, such as the one
shown in Figure 7, have the simplest body plan of all ani-
mals. Sponges are asymmetrical, or irregular in shape,
and sometimes their shape depends on where they are
growing. The body plans of virtually all other animals
show a definite body shape and symmetry.
Figure 7 Asymmetry.
Animals that grow in an Radial Symmetry
irregular pattern, such as this
sponge, show asymmetry. Some of the first animals to evolve in the ancient oceans had radial
symmetry. Animals with radial symmetry have body parts arranged
around a central axis, somewhat like the spokes around a bicycle
wheel. A plane passing through the central axis divides the organism
into roughly equal halves, as shown in Figure 8. Today’s radially
symmetrical animals are aquatic. Most move slowly or drift in
ocean currents.
Bilateral Symmetry
The bodies of all other animals show bilateral symmetry , a body
design in which there are distinct right and left halves. A plane pass-
ing through the animal’s midline divides the animal into mirror
image halves, as shown in Figure 9. There is a dorsal (top) and a
ventral (bottom) surface plus an anterior (front) end and a posterior
(back) end.
Figure 8 Radial Radial symmetry

symmetry. Each of the
planes passing through a sea
anemone’s central axis divides
it into roughly identical halves.

Bilateral symmetry was a major evolutionary change in animals
because it enabled different parts of the body to become specialized
www.scilinks.org
in different ways. For example, most bilaterally symmetrical ani- Topic: Body Symmetry
mals have evolved an anterior concentration of sensory structures Keyword: HX4028
and nerves, a process called cephalization (SEF uhl lih ZAY shuhn).
Animals with cephalic ends, or heads, are often active and mobile.
With sensory organs concentrated in the front, such animals can
more easily sense food and danger.
Dorsal
Anterior
Posterior
Figure 9 Bilateral
symmetry. The body parts of
this gray squirrel are arranged
so that it has a right and a left
Ventral
half that are mirror images of
each other.
Recognizing Symmetry
You can use the letters of the alphabet to better
understand the nature of symmetry.
Materials
envelope containing letters of the alphabet
Procedure Analysis
1. Spread the letters on the table 1. Propose a definition for each 4. Identify two or three animals
in front of you so you can see kind of symmetry you found in that you might be familiar with
all of them. the letters. that have the same kind of
symmetry as the letter M.
2. Sort the letters into groups 2. List any letters you found dif-
based on their symmetry, ficult to classify, explaining 5. Critical Thinking
using the terms asymmetry, why it was difficult to classify Evaluating Methods What
radial symmetry, and bilateral these letters. are some strengths and
symmetry. For example, the weaknesses of using sym-
3. Identify the letters that show
letters A and T show bilateral metry as a way of classifying
the same kind of symmetry as
symmetry. The letter J is or describing organisms?
sponges.
asymmetrical.

Internal Body Cavity
The term coelomate is from Bilaterally symmetrical animals have one of three basic kinds of
the Greek koilia, meaning internal body plans, each illustrated in Figure 10. The body plan
“body cavity.” Placing pre- may include a body cavity, or coelom (SEE luhm), a fluid-filled
fixes in front of this word space found between the body wall and the digestive tract (gut).
changes its meaning. For
example, a- means “with-
This space is lined with cells that come from mesoderm. Animals
out” and pseudo- means with no body cavity are called acoelomates (ay SEEL oh mayts).
“false.” The space between an acoelomate’s body wall and gut is completely
filled with tissues. Other animals, called pseudocoelomates (SOO
doh seel oh mayts), have a body cavity located between the meso-
derm and endoderm. Their body cavity is called a pseudocoelom
(false coelom).
Coelomates have a true coelom, a body cavity located entirely
within the mesoderm. Because the mesodermal layer lines the body
wall and wraps around the gut, the gut and other internal organs of
coelomates are suspended within the coelom.
A true coelom provides an internal space where mesoderm and
www.scilinks.org endoderm can be in contact with each other during embryonic devel-
Topic: Body Cavity opment. This aided the evolution of complex organs made of more
Keyword: HX4027 than one type of tissue. Because these internal organs are suspended
in a fluid-filled coelom, they are protected from the movement of
surrounding muscles. Thus, an animal can move about without dam-
aging the organs or interfering with their function.
Figure 10 Three body plans

Bilaterally symmetrical animals have one of three basic body plans.
Skin
Skin
Skin Body cavity
(coelom)
Body cavity
Tissue-filled (pseudocoelom)
region
Gut Muscle Gut Gut

Muscle
tissue tissue
Acoelomate body plan Pseudocoelomate body plan Coelomate body plan
Endoderm Ectoderm Mesoderm

Body Segmentation
Segmented animals are composed of a series of repeating, similar
units called segments. Segmentation underlies the organization of
all “advanced” animals and is easy to observe in some animals, such
as earthworms. Crustaceans (lobsters and their kin), spiders, and
insects also show some degree of body segmentation, but it may be
difficult to observe during their adult stage. For example, segments
are not as apparent in the adult moth in Figure 11, but they are
clearly visible in its immature caterpillar stage.
In vertebrates, segments are not visible externally, but there is evi-
dence of segmentation in a vertebrate embryo. Vertebrate muscles
develop from repeated blocks of tissue called somites (SOH mietz),
and the vertebral column (backbone) consists of a stack of very
similar vertebrae.
In segmented worms, each segment can move independently, per-
mitting great flexibility and mobility. Therefore, a segmented
worm’s long body can move in ways that are often quite complex.
For example, consider an earthworm as it crawls along a flat sur-
face. It lengthens some parts of its body while shortening others. Figure 11 Segmentation.
Many scientists think segmentation evolved as an adaptation that This caterpillar shows clearly
defined segments. In its adult
permitted more-efficient burrowing.
form—a cecropia moth—the
In highly segmented animals, such as earthworms, each segments are more difficult
segment repeats many of the organs in the adjacent seg- to observe.
ment. As a result, an injured animal can still perform vital
life functions. Segments are not totally independent of each
other, however. Materials pass from one segment to
another through a circulatory system that connects them.
Nerves also connect each segment to a brain that coordi-
nates the body’s movements. Segmentation also offers evo-
lutionary flexibility. A small change in an existing segment
can produce a new type of segment with a different func-
tion. For example, some segments are modified for feed-
ing, while others are modified for reproduction.

Kinds of Animals
Kingdom Animalia contains about 35 major divisions called phyla
(singular, phylum), depending on how certain organisms are classi-
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Animal Groups
fied. The animals in the various phyla show an extraordinary range
Keyword: HX4010 of body forms, internal body systems, and behaviors.
To visually represent the relationships among various groups of
animals, scientists often use a type of branching diagram called a
phylogenetic tree. A phylogenetic tree , such as the one in Figure 12,
shows how animals are related through evolution. Clues to animal
relationships can be found in the fossil record and by comparing the
anatomy and physiology of living animals. Clues are also found by
comparing patterns of development in animal embryos. The most
direct evidence of evolutionary relationships, however, comes from
comparing the DNA in the genes of various animal species. For
example, scientists long debated whether giant pandas are related
more closely to bears or to raccoons. Comparing their DNA showed
that pandas are more closely related to bears than to raccoons.
Figure 12 Evolutionary
milestones. This phylogenetic
tree shows one hypothesis of
Mollusca Arthropoda Chordata
the evolutionary relationships (crustaceans,
(clams, snails) (vertebrates)
among nine of the major animal insects)
phyla. The circled numbers
7 9
indicate important milestones in
the evolution of the animal body,
as listed in the table below.
Annelida
Nematoda
(segmented
(roundworms)
worms)
8
Echinodermata
6 (sea stars)
Platyhelminthes
Evolutionary 5 (flatworms)
milestones
1 Multicellularity
4
2 Tissues
3 Bilateral symmetry Cnidaria 3

(jellyfish )
4 Body cavity
2 Porifera
5 Coelom (sponges)
6 Segmentation
7 Jointed appendages 1
8 Deuterostomes
Protist
9 Notochord ancestors

The animal kingdom is often divided into two groups: inverte-
brates (animals without a backbone) and vertebrates (animals with
a backbone). As you study these two groups, you will discover how
a series of key evolutionary innovations in the body plan of animals
has led to today’s animals. The first animals to evolve did not have
body cavities. After body cavities appeared, segmentation evolved.
Later, jointed appendages (such as legs) evolved. Backbones evolved
even later. Scientists consider these innovations (shown in Figure 12
as numbered milestones) when they attempt to determine evolu-
tionary relationships among different groups of animals. Watch for
these evolutionary stages and milestones as you continue studying
invertebrates in later chapters in this book.
Exploring the Animal Kingdom

Background
You can find out more about the animal phyla by referring
0100010110
011101010 to the section “A Six-Kingdom System” in the Appendix.
0010010001001 Turn to this section and locate the information for kingdom
1100100100010
0000101001001 Animalia. Follow the procedure below to evaluate
1101010100100
0101010010010 this information.
Procedure
1. Read the introductory para- 3. As you read, notice how color
graph for kingdom Animalia. is used and what types of
Then quickly skim over the information are given, for 2. Analyze how color is used to
information presented. Do not example, number of species distinguish between the differ-
read it word for word, but found and habitat. ent entries on a page.
observe how the information Analysis 3. Propose a way that you
is divided into sections.
1. List at least three types of might use this information
2. Choose one phylum, and read information you found for the when studying about a partic-
all of the information about it. phylum you read about. ular animal phylum.
Section 1 Review
Describe each of the eight features animals Critical Thinking Relating Concepts
have in common. In 1994, Western scientists first observed the
Vietnamese saola, a hoofed mammal. The saola
Summarize the difference between radial was proved to be related to wild cattle and buffalo.
symmetry and bilateral symmetry. How do you think scientists identified the saola’s
closest relatives?
Compare the body plans of acoelomates,
pseudocoelomates, and coelomates. Standardized Test Prep
Which characteristic is
found in all animals?
A multicellularity C body cavity
B tissues D body segmentation

Section 2 Animal Body Systems
Objectives Tissues and Organs
● Summarize the functions As you go about your day, you make decisions that involve think-
of the digestive, respiratory, ing—what to wear to school, how to solve a problem, where to sit
circulatory, nervous, skeletal, during lunch. But a lot that happens during your day does not
and excretory systems. require your thought. You digest your food, you balance yourself as
● Compare a gastrovascular you walk, and your heart beats. These and thousands of other func-
cavity with a one-way tions are carried out by your body. But how does your body, or the
digestive system. body of any animal, carry out these tasks?
● Differentiate open Simple animals like sponges carry out the many tasks of living
from closed circulatory with little specialization in the cells of their body. More-complex
systems. animals have evolved tissues and organs that are specialized to per-
● Distinguish asexual from form specific functions. Six important functions of these tissues and
sexual reproduction. organs are digestion, respiration, circulation, conduction of nerve
impulses, support, and excretion.
Key Terms
gastrovascular cavity
Digestion
respiration Single-celled organisms and sponges digest their food within their
gill body cells. This means that their food source cannot be larger than
open circulatory their individual cells. All other animals digest their food extracellu-
system larly (outside of their body cells) within a digestive cavity, as shown
closed circulatory in Figure 13. Digestive enzymes that are released into the cavity
system begin the breakdown of food, permitting the animal to prey on
hydrostatic skeleton
organisms larger than its body cells. Simple animals, such as the
exoskeleton
endoskeleton
hermaphrodite Figure 13 Extracellular digestion
external fertilization
A hydra has a gastrovascular cavity, while a roundworm has a digestive tract in
internal fertilization which food travels in one direction only.
Mouth
Most roundworms
are less than 5 mm
(about 0.2 in.) in
Gastrovascular cavity length, and many
(extends into tentacles) are microscopic.
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Body Systems One-way
Keyword: HX4029 gut
Most hydras are
between 3 and Anus
8 mm (less than
0.5 in.) in height.

hydra and flatworms, have a gastrovascular cavity , a digestive cav-
ity with only one opening. There can be no specialization within a
Real Life
gastrovascular cavity because every cell is exposed to all stages of Lung tissue is delicate.
food digestion. Many products, such as
Other animals have a digestive tract (gut) with two openings, a spray paints and some
glues, contain chemicals
mouth and an anus. The anus is the opening through which undi-
that can damage or
gested food leaves the body. In a digestive tract, food moves in one destroy lung tissue. This
direction, from mouth to anus. Unlike a gastrovascular cavity, a one- reduces the surface area
way digestive system allows for specialization. For example, there may available for gas exchange,
be a section of gut for food storage, a section for breaking down food reducing oxygen intake.
into small pieces, and a section for the chemical digestion of food. When using chemical
products, always follow
Eventually the food is broken down into molecules small enough to
the instructions on the
pass through the lining of the gut and into the bloodstream. warning label. If necessary,
wear a protective mask.
Respiration Finding Information
In simple animals, such as jellyfish, oxygen gas and carbon dioxide Research the human dis-
ease emphysema and find
gas are exchanged directly with the environment by diffusion. The
out what a person can do
uptake of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide, called to prevent emphysema.
respiration, can take place only across a moist surface, such as the
damp skin of an earthworm. In larger, more complex animals, sim-
ple diffusion cannot provide for adequate gas exchange. Most large
animals have specialized respiratory structures.
Some aquatic (and a few terrestrial) animals respire with gills,
very thin projections of tissue that are rich in blood vessels. Gills
provide a large surface for gas exchange. Figure 14 shows the gills of
a mud puppy. Gills are not suitable for most terrestrial animals
because gills do not function unless they are kept moist. A variety of
respiratory organs, such as lungs, have evolved in many terrestrial
animals that allow them to respire on dry land.
Figure 14 Gills. The

feathery gills of this mud puppy
are supported by its watery
environment.
SECTION 2 Animal Body Systems 605

Figure 15 Circulatory systems
In an open circulatory system, fluid leaves the circulatory vessels, but in a
closed circulatory system, blood remains in the blood vessels.
Spaces in
body Small vessels
tissues Vessels in body tissues
Vessels
Open circulatory system Closed circulatory system
Circulation
In simple animals, body cells are exposed to either the external envi-
ronment or the gastrovascular cavity. None of the body cells are far
away from sources of oxygen or nourishment. More-complex ani-
mals, however, have tissues that are several cell layers thick. Many
of the cells in this tissue are not close enough to the surface of the
cell layer to exchange materials directly with the environment.
Oxygen and nutrients must be transported to these body cells by a
circulatory system.
Two types of circulatory systems are shown in Figure 15. In an
open circulatory system, a heart pumps fluid containing oxygen and
nutrients through a series of vessels out into the body cavity. There
the fluid washes across the body’s tissues, supplying them with oxy-
gen and nutrients. The fluid collects in open spaces in the animal’s
body and flows back to the heart. In a closed circulatory system, a
heart pumps blood through a system of blood vessels. These blood
vessels form a network that permits blood flow from the heart to all
of the body’s cells and back again. The blood remains in the vessels
and does not come in direct contact with the body’s tissues. Instead,
materials pass into and out of the blood by diffusing through the
walls of the blood vessels.
Conduction of Nerve Impulses

Nerve cells (neurons) are specialized for carrying messages in the
form of electrical impulses (conduction). These cells coordinate the
Reviewing Information activities in an animal’s body, enabling the animal to sense and
Work with a partner to respond to its environment. Members of all of the major animal
review the body functions in phyla except sponges have nerve cells. Figure 16 shows the arrange-
this section. Review each ment of nerve cells in three animals—a hydra, a flatworm, and a
function by asking each grasshopper. The simplest arrangements of nerves are found in ani-
other questions that include mals like hydras and jellyfishes. All of their nerve cells are similar
the boldface terms. For
and are linked to one another in a web called a nerve net. There is
example, ask, “What is the
difference between a little coordination among the nerve cells in a nerve net.
gastrovascular cavity and Bilaterally symmetric animals have clusters of neurons called
a one-way gut?” ganglia. The ganglia at the anterior end of the animal body became

Figure 16 Nervous systems
The hydra has a simple nerve net, while the flatworm and the grasshopper have
more-complex nervous systems.
Brain
Eyespot Ventral
nerve
cord
Primitive brain
Nerve cells Ganglia

form nerve
net
Nerves
Nerve cord
Hydra Flatworm Grasshopper
larger and more complex, forming a brain-like structure, as seen in

the flatworm. More-complex invertebrates, such as the grasshopper,
have brains with sensory structures, such as eyes, associated with
them. These cephalized animals—that is, animals with heads— Magnification: 70
could interact with their environments in more-complex ways than

could other animals.
Support
An animal’s skeleton provides a framework that supports its body. It
is also vital to animal movement. All animals move using the same
force: the contraction (shortening) of muscle tissue against a frame-
work such as the skeleton provides.
Hydrostatic skeleton Many soft-bodied invertebrates have a hydro-
static skeleton. A hydrostatic skeleton consists of water that is con-
tained under pressure in a closed cavity, such as a gastrovascular
cavity or a coelom. Imagine a balloon filled with water. The water
presses against the balloon, supporting it. If pressure is applied to
the balloon in any place, the water must shift, altering the shape of
the balloon. The hydrostatic skeleton of a hydra, shown in Figure 17,
is formed by its gastrovascular cavity. Other soft-bodied inverte-
brates, such as earthworms, have a fluid-filled coelom that serves as
a hydrostatic skeleton. In both cases, muscle forces exerted against
the hydrostatic skeleton aid movement.
Exoskeleton Other invertebrates, such as insects, clams, and crabs, Figure 17 Hydrostatic
have a type of skeleton known as an exoskeleton. An exoskeleton is skeleton. When the hydra
a rigid external skeleton that encases the body of an animal. An closes the opening to its
exoskeleton supports movement in a different manner than a hydro- gastrovascular cavity and
contracts muscles in its body
static skeleton does. The muscles of animals with exoskeletons are
wall, its body elongates. When
attached to the inside of the skeleton, which provides a surface for water is released from the cavity
them to pull against. Exoskeletons also protect an organism’s soft and other muscles contract, the
internal parts. hydra’s body shortens.

Endoskeleton An endoskeleton is composed of a hard material,
such as bone, embedded within an animal. The most familiar type
of endoskeleton is that of humans and other vertebrates. As with
exoskeletons, muscles attached to the endoskeleton alternately con-
tract and relax, enabling the animal to move.
Excretion
The term excretion refers to the removal of wastes produced by cel-
lular metabolism. These waste products leave the cell by crossing
the cell membrane and are then removed from the body. Some
waste products are highly toxic and will poison an organism if not
removed. The most important of these toxic wastes is ammonia. As
ammonia forms, it dissolves in body fluids, becoming more dilute
and thus less toxic. Simple aquatic invertebrates and some fishes
excrete ammonia into the water through their skin or gills by diffu-
sion. This is effective, but results in the loss of a lot of water.
Other animals, especially terrestrial animals, need to minimize
water loss. A variety of ways have evolved in these animals by which
wastes are removed from the body. One way is by converting
ammonia to nontoxic chemicals, like urea. As the excretory system
eliminates these wastes, water and other useful substances are
returned to the body. Thus, eliminating metabolic wastes is linked to
maintaining the body’s water balance. For example, a mammal’s kid-
neys filter fluid from the blood. The kidneys then concentrate the
metabolic wastes filtered from the fluid and excrete them as concen-
trated urine. Simultaneously, the kidneys regulate the water content
of the body by making the urine more or less dilute as necessary.
8
0
493 2
5
x2 + <
6x -
7 Calculating Filtration Rate
in the Human Kidney
Background
The human kidney filters fluid from the blood at the rate of
approximately 125 mL per minute. However, only a small
percentage of this fluid is excreted as urine—adult humans
normally excrete between 1.5 and 2.3 L of urine a day.
Analysis
1. Calculate how many 3. Critical Thinking answer, think about the vol-
milliliters of fluid the human Analyzing Data Convert ume of fluid contained in a
kidneys filter each hour. your answer in item 2 from 1 L bottle of soda.
milliliters to liters. For help,
2. Calculate how many 4. Critical Thinking
see “Math and Problem-
milliliters of fluid the kidneys Predicting Outcomes
Solving Skills: SI Measure-
filter each day. What would happen if the
ment” in the Appendix. To
kidneys could not return
better visualize the quantity of
water to the body?
fluid represented by your

Reproductive Strategies
While the reproductive system of an individual animal is not essential
to its survival, reproduction is necessary if the species is to survive.
Real Life
There are two types of reproduction in animals, asexual and sexual. Pregnant sea horse
fathers give birth.
A female sea horse inserts
Asexual Reproduction her eggs into a pouch
Reproduction that does not involve the fusion of two gametes is on the male’s abdomen,
called asexual reproduction. A sponge, for example, can reproduce where they are fertilized.
by fragmenting its body. Each fragment grows into a new sponge. The male incubates the
Some species of sea anemone reproduce by pulling themselves in eggs until they are fully
developed and then gives
half, forming two new adult anemones, as shown in Figure 18.
birth to tiny sea
An unusual method of asexual reproduction is parthenogenesis horses.
(pahr thuh noh JEN uh sis), in which a new individual develops Finding
from an unfertilized egg. Parthenogenesis is common among Information
insects. In honeybees, for example, a queen bee mates only once and Read about the
stores the sperm. Although she has mated, the queen bee has the role of the male
ability to lay unfertilized eggs that develop by parthenogenesis into bluegill sunfish
in nesting.
male bees, called drones. Female bees develop by sexual reproduc-
tion, when the queen releases stored sperm to fertilize her eggs.
A few species of fishes, amphibians, and lizards reproduce by
parthenogenesis. Animals that reproduce asexually are usually able
to also reproduce sexually.
Sexual Reproduction
In sexual reproduction, a new individual is formed by the union of
a male and a female gamete. Gametes are produced in the sex
www.scilinks.org
organs. The testes (TEHS teez) produce the male gametes (sperm), Topic: Animal
and the ovaries produce the female gametes (eggs). Some species of Reproduction
animals, called hermaphrodites (huhr MAF roh dietz), have both Keyword: HX4011
testes and ovaries. Each individual functions as both a male and a
female. But a hermaphrodite’s sperm and eggs are usually pro-
duced at different times, so self-fertilization does not occur.
Figure 18 Asexual
reproduction. This pink-
tipped surf anemone is in the
process of pulling into two
halves, each of which will be
an adult sea anemone.

Figure 19 External fertilization. Among animals that rarely meet members of their own species,
Coral on the Great Barrier Reef, off hermaphrodites can have a reproductive advantage. A her-
the coast of Australia, release
maphrodite’s chances of reproductive success are increased
billions of gametes in a mass
spawning that occurs once a year. because it can either fertilize eggs or have its own eggs
fertilized. Many simple invertebrates, including slugs and
earthworms, and some fishes are hermaphrodites.
When sperm are released during sexual reproduction, their
moving flagella propel them toward the egg. Most aquatic ani-
mals simply release the male and female gametes near one
another in the water, where fertilization occurs. This method is
called external fertilization because the egg is fertilized outside
of the female’s body. Often large numbers of gametes are
released during external fertilization, but only a small percent-
age of the resulting fertilized eggs will survive to develop into
adults. Figure 19 shows the mass release of gametes by coral
polyps on a coral reef.
External fertilization is not practical for animals that live on
land because gametes dry out quickly when exposed to air. Most
terrestrial animals reproduce sexually by means of internal fertil-
ization. In internal fertilization, the union of the sperm and egg
Figure 20 Sea turtle. This green occurs within the female’s body. The male places semen (SEE
sea turtle digs a nest in the sand, muhn), a fluid containing sperm and fluid secretions, directly into
where she deposits her eggs. the female’s body. In this way, fertilization takes place in a moist
environment, and the gametes are protected from drying out.
Once fertilization occurs, developing eggs must be kept moist.
This is not a problem for aquatic animals whose eggs are covered
by a jellylike coat. The eggs of terrestrial animals need more pro-
tection. Their eggs have a shell that protects them from drying
out and provides a degree of protection from physical damage.
Some animals, such as the sea turtle shown in Figure 20, place
their fertilized eggs in a safe place and leave them. Other ani-
mals remain with their eggs to protect them. In most mammals
and a few other species, the eggs develop internally, and living
young emerge from their mother’s body.
Section 2 Review
Summarize the functions of the six body Critical Thinking Justifying Conclusions
systems discussed. Which method of fertilization, external or internal,
is more practical for most terrestrial animals?
Describe how a gastrovascular cavity differs Justify your answer.
from a one-way gut.
Standardized Test Prep Which two body systems
Compare open and closed circulatory systems. in most animals are involved in taking up oxygen
from the environment and transporting oxygen
Describe how asexual reproduction differs from to body cells?
sexual reproduction.
A digestive and C circulatory and
respiratory nervous
B respiratory and D nervous and
circulatory excretory

ZONE
1 Characteristics of Animals Section 1
blastula (596)
● All animals share these general features: heterotrophy, ectoderm (596)
mobility, multicellularity, sexual reproduction, diploidy, endoderm (596)
the absence of a cell wall, cells organized as tissues, and mesoderm (596)
blastula formation. body plan (598)
asymmetrical (598)
● Animals with radial symmetry have body parts arranged radial symmetry (598)
around a central axis. Animals with bilateral symmetry have bilateral symmetry (598)
cephalization (599)
a distinct right and left half, and most display cephalization.
coelom (600)
● Animals have one of three basic body plans: acoelomate, acoelomate (600)
pseudocoelomate, and coelomate. pseudocoelomate (600)
coelomate (600)
● Segmentation in body structure underlies the organization phylogenetic tree (602)
of all advanced animals.
● There are about 35 animal phyla, which contain an extraor-
dinary range of body forms and body systems.
● Scientists classify animals using several different types of
data, which include comparing anatomy and physiology,
patterns of development, and DNA.
● The animal kingdom is divided in two groups: vertebrates
and invertebrates.
2 Animal Body Systems Section 2

gastrovascular cavity (605)
● Body systems are specialized to carry out different tasks. respiration (605)
● Simple animals have a gastrovascular cavity with only one gill (605)
opening, while more-complex animals have a one-way gut. open circulatory system (606)
closed circulatory system (606)
● Simple animals exchange gases directly through their skin. hydrostatic skeleton (607)
More-complex aquatic animals use gills, while terrestrial exoskeleton (607)
endoskeleton (608)
animals use a variety of respiratory organs, such as lungs.
hermaphrodite (609)
● In an open circulatory system, circulatory fluid leaves the external fertilization (610)
vessels and enters the body cavity. In a closed circulatory internal fertilization (610)
system, blood remains in the vessels.
● While simple animals have little coordination among their
nerve cells, complex animals have nerve cords and a brain
with associated sensory structures.
● For most animals, eliminating wastes is linked to maintain-
ing the correct water balance in their body.
● Asexual reproductive methods include fragmentation, split-
ting in two, and parthenogenesis. In sexual reproduction,
male and female gametes combine to form a new individual.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Summarize the process of

1. Which of the following organisms do not gastrulation, relating it to the formation of
have cells organized into tissues? tissue layers and the development of tissues
a. hydras and organs.
b. sea urchins 9. Explain how the terms diploid and haploid
c. sponges apply to what you have learned in this
d. sea anemones chapter. (Hint: See Chapter 6, Section 1.)
2. An animal’s body plan includes all of the
10. Concept Mapping Construct a
following except
a. internal organization.
concept map that describes the characteris-
b. shape.
tics of animals. Try to include the following
c. size.
terms in your concept map: heterotrophic,
d. symmetry.
multicellular, cell specialization, body plan,
radial symmetry, bilateral symmetry, body
3. The presence of a true body cavity (coelom) system, open circulatory system, closed
allows circulatory system, and sexual reproduction.
a. direct exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide with the environment. Critical Thinking
b. specialization of the gut. 11. Forming Reasoned Opinions Radially
c. cephalization. symmetric animals, such as hydras, are not
d. bilateral symmetry. found on land. However, bilaterally
4. Which of the following does not have nerve symmetrical animals live on land and in
cells? water. Propose a hypothesis to explain why
a. hydra radially symmetrical animals are best suited
b. jellyfish to aquatic life.
c. sponge 12. Evaluating Hypotheses Defend the position
d. flatworm that cephalization gives terrestrial animals
5. Skeletal systems provide all of the an advantage as they seek food.
following except 13. Justifying Conclusions Support the
a. protection for an animal’s soft parts. argument that segmentation makes an
b. absorption of nutrients from food. animal more evolutionarily flexible.
c. a framework for supporting the body.
d. a framework for muscles to pull against. Alternative Assessment
6. Which of the following is not true 14. Career Connection Zookeeper Zookeepers
of kidneys? are responsible for the day-to-day care of
a. They remove oxygen from the body. animals in their charge. Research a
b. They remove wastes from the zookeeper’s responsibilities, and write a
bloodstream. report that includes a job description,
c. They produce concentrated urine. training required, kinds of employers,
d. They help balance the body’s water growth prospects, and starting salary.
content. 15. Finding and Communicating Information
7. How do kidneys function to reduce water To learn what role public aquariums play
loss in terrestrial animals? in educating the public about aquatic life,
develop a presentation designed to attract
additional donations.


correct answer.
A student used modeling clay to construct
1 Which of the following is a defining char- a cross-section model that showed the forma-
acteristic of heterotrophic organisms? tion of primary tissue layers in one kind of
A. They are capable of flight. animal. She used yellow clay to represent
B. They obtain food from their endoderm, blue clay to represent ectoderm,
environment. and red clay to represent mesoderm. The
C. They remain in one place throughout model consisted of a round outer ring of blue
their lifetime. clay, a round middle ring of red clay, and an
D. They make their own food from inner ring of yellow clay. She left a gap of
inorganic materials. space between the red and yellow rings and
a round space inside the yellow ring.
2 Which of the following cells in animals
has two copies of each chromosome? 7 What type of basic body plan did her
F. a diploid cell model represent?
G. a gamete cell A. acoelomate body plan
H. a germ cell B. asymmetrical body plan
I. a haploid cell C. coelomate body plan
D. pseudocoelomate body plan
3 What developmental process leads to the
formation of tissue layers? Interpreting Graphics
A. asexual reproduction
B. evolution
C. fertilization
D. gastrulation Phylogenetic Tree of Animal Phyla
Mollusca Arthropoda Chordata
4 Where does gas exchange take place in (clams, snails) (crustaceans,
insects)
(vertebrates)
many aquatic phyla? Annelida
F. gills Nematoda (segmented
(roundworms) worms)
G. gut
H. kidneys Echinodermata
I. lungs D
(sea stars)

short response. Platyhelminthes
C (flatworms)
5 Analyze how the excretory system of an Cnidaria
B
animal helps maintain homeostasis. (jellyfish )
A
6
Porifera
Differentiate between the meaning of the (sponges)
terms gastrovascular cavity and digestive
Protist
tract (gut). ancestors
Test 8 Letters A–D represent evolutionary mile-

stones.Which one is the presence of tissues?
When using a diagram to answer questions, carefully F. A H. C
study each part of the figure as well as any lines or G. B I. D
labels used to indicate parts of the figure.

Skills Practice Lab
Surveying Invertebrate Diversity
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Observing • safety goggles
• Comparing • lab apron
• preserved or living
OBJECTIVES specimens of
• Observe the similarities invertebrates
and differences among
• prepared slides of
groups of invertebrates.
sponges, hydras, pla-
• Relate the structural narians, and nematodes
adaptations of inverte-
• compound microscopes
brates to their evolution.
• hand lenses or stereo-
microscopes
• probes
ChemSafety
Invertebrates include all animals except those
the characteristics of invertebrates.
with backbones. Every phylum of the king-
dom Animalia except the phylum Chordata
consists only of invertebrates. In this lab, you
will examine representatives of eight phyla of Phylum Symmetry Body plan Other Examples
animals. You will see many similarities and
differences in body plan —shape, symmetry,
and internal organization.
terms: radial symmetry, bilateral symmetry,
dorsal, ventral, anterior, posterior, cephal-
Procedure
ization, segmentation. PART A: Conducting a Survey
2. Describe the three basic body plans found 1. Put on safety goggles and a lab
in animals. apron.
3. Make a data table similar to the one on 2. Visit each invertebrate station, and examine
the right to record observations about the specimens there. Answer the questions,
invertebrates. and record observations in your data table.

3. Sponges Examine each specimen. PART B: Cleanup and Disposal
a. Describe the shape of a sponge. 10. Dispose of broken glass in the desig-
b. What do you think is the role of the nated waste containers. Do not put
many holes, or pores, in a sponge? lab materials in the trash unless your
c. Examine a prepared slide of a sponge teacher tells you to do so.
with a compound microscope. What do 11. Wash your hands thoroughly before
you notice about the organization of you leave the lab and after you
the cells in sponges? finish all work.
4. Cnidarians Examine each specimen.
a. Divide the cnidarian specimens into
two groups. What feature did you use
to make your division? 1. Summarizing Data Which animal phyla
b. How many body openings does a show cephalization, and which do not?
cnidarian have? 2. Recognizing Patterns What type of
c. Examine a prepared slide of a hydra. symmetry is found with cephalization?
What do you notice about the organiza- 3. Recognizing Patterns What character-
tion of the cells in cnidarians? istics do annelids and arthropods share?
5. Flatworms and Roundworms Examine
4. Analyzing Methods Were you able to
each specimen.
identify the type of body plan found in all
a. How does a flatworm differ from a of the specimens? Explain.
roundworm in external appearance?
b. Do any of the worms appear to be
about invertebrates that could be explored
segmented? Explain.
with another investigation.
c. Examine prepared slides of planarians
and nematodes. How many body open-
ings does each have?
6. Mollusks Examine each specimen.
a. In what ways do the mollusks differ in
external appearance?
b. Which group of mollusks has the most
noticeable “feet”?
7. Annelids Examine each specimen.
a. How are an earthworm and a leech
similar? How are they different?
b. Describe any differences you see in the
segments of the annelid worm.
8. Arthropods Examine each specimen.
a. What characteristic do you observe in
all arthropod appendages?
b. How does the number of walking legs On the Job
differ among these arthropods? Parasitology is the study of parasites. Do
9. Echinoderms Examine each specimen. research to discover how parasitologists
a. The word echinoderm means “spiny help protect you and your pets from dis-
skin.” Why is this name appropriate? eases caused by parasites. For more
b. What does an echinoderm’s ventral sur- about careers, visit go.hrw.com and type
face look like? in the keyword HX4 Careers.
CHAPTER 27 Introduction to Animals 615

Show jumper
Azure vase sponge
CO callout

CHAPTER
28 Simple
Invertebrates

1. Describe the process of osmosis. (Chapter 4,
Section 1) Sponges
The Simplest Animals
2. Identify the organisms collectively called
Sponge Diversity
plankton. (Chapter 17, Section 3 and Chapter 21,
Section 2) Reproduction
3. Define the term colonial organization.
4. Distinguish between ectoderm, mesoderm, and Cnidarians
endoderm. (Chapter 27, Section 1) Two Body Forms
5. Distinguish between acoelomates, pseudo- Hydrozoans
coelomates, and coelomates. (Chapter 27, Scyphozoans
Section 1) Anthozoans
Flatworms and Roundworms
Reading Activity Flatworms
Roundworms
all the things you know about the members of
each of the following phyla: sponges, cnidarians,
flatworms, and roundworms. Then write a list of
the things that you want to know about these
simple invertebrates. Save your list, and to assess
what you have learned, see how many questions
www.scilinks.org
Since ancient times, people have used sponges for National Science Teachers Association sci LINKS Internet
a variety of functions. The ancient Greeks placed resources are located throughout this chapter.
sponges in their helmets for padding, and the Romans
used them for paintbrushes and mops. The beautiful
azure vase sponge ranges in color from intense blue to
pinkish-purple.
CHAPTER 28 Simple Invertebrates 617

Section 1 Sponges
Objectives The Simplest Animals
● Summarize the general Sponges are so unlike other animals that early naturalists classi-
features of sponges. fied them as plants. It wasn’t until the late 1700s that scientists
● Describe how sponge cells
using improved microscope technology began studying sponges
receive nutrients. closely. Scientists then realized that sponges are animals. The bod-
ies of most sponges completely lack symmetry and consist of little
● Describe how a sponge’s
more than masses of specialized cells embedded in a gel-like sub-
body is structurally
supported.
stance called mesohyl (MEHZ oh hil). You could say that a sponge’s
body is somewhat like chopped fruit in gelatin. The chopped
● Distinguish between sexual fruit represents the specialized cells, and the gelatin represents
and asexual reproduction in
the mesohyl.
sponges.
Sponge cells are not organized into tissues and organs. However,
they do have a key property of all animal cells—cell recognition. A
Key Terms
simple lab experiment can demonstrate that sponge cells can recog-
ostia nize other sponge cells. A living sponge can be passed through a fine
oscula silk mesh, causing the individual cells to separate. On the other side
sessile
of the mesh, the individual sponge cells will recombine to form a
choanocyte
amoebocyte
new sponge.
spongin Sponges have a body wall penetrated by tiny openings, or pores,
spicule called ostia (AHS tee uh), through which water enters. The name of
gemmule the phylum, Porifera, refers to this system of pores. Sponges also
have larger openings, or oscula ,
Figure 1 Sponge. through which water exits. You
The small openings in can see the many oscula of the
this sponge’s body sponge shown in Figure 1. Sponges
are ostia. The larger
are also sessile (SEHS uhl). Early
openings are oscula.
in their lives, sponges attach them-
selves firmly to the sea bottom or
some other submerged surface,
like a rock or coral reef. They
remain there for life. Sponges can
have a diameter as small as 1 cm
(0.4 in.) or as large as 2 m (6.6 ft).
Most sponges are bag-shaped
and have a large internal cavity.
One or more oscula (singular,
osculum) are located in the top of
Evolutionary Milestone
1 Multicellularity
The bodies of all animals, including sponges (phylum Porifera), are
multicellular—made of many cells. Although the sponge is composed
of several different cell types, these cells show only a small degree of
coordination with each other.
618 CHAPTER 28 Simple Invertebrates

Figure 2 Sponge interior
Water enters the sponge through many small pores (ostia) in its body wall and
exits through the osculum, an opening at the top of the sponge.
Outgoing water
Osculum
Amoebocyte
Ostium
Spicule
Mesohyl
Trapped
Internal organism
cavity Choanocyte Nucleus
Incoming
water
Choanocyte Food
Flagellum
vacuole
the body wall, as shown in Figure 2. Lining the internal cavity of a

sponge is a layer of flagellated cells called choanocytes (koh AN oh
siets), or collar cells. The flagella of these cells extend into the body
cavity. As the flagella beat, water is drawn in through the pores in
the body wall. The water is driven through the body cavity before it
exits through the osculum.
As sea water passes through the sponge’s body cavity, the collar
cells function as sieves. These cells trap plankton and other tiny
organisms in the small hairlike projections on the collar. The
trapped organisms are then pulled into the interior of the collar
cells, where they are digested intracellularly (within the cell). As sea
water leaves the sponge, wastes are carried away in it.
How do the other sponge cells, such as those in the body wall,
survive if the collar cells take in all of the food? The collar cells
release nutrients into the mesohyl where other specialized cells,
called amoebocytes (uh MEE boh siets), pick up the nutrients.
Amoebocytes are sponge cells that have irregular amoeba-like
shapes. They move about the mesohyl, supplying the rest of the
sponge’s cells with nutrients and carrying away their wastes.
Protistan Ancestors
The choanocytes of sponges very closely resemble a kind of protist
called a choanoflagellate, shown in Figure 3. Ancient choanoflagel-
Figure 3 Choanoflagellate.
lates are thought by many scientists to be the ancestors of sponges.
Ancient choanoflagellates
Other free-swimming colonial flagellates closely resemble sponge similar to the one shown
larvae, however, and some scientists believe organisms similar to above may be the ancestors
these other flagellates were the true ancestors of sponges. of sponges.
SECTION 1 Sponges 619

Sponge Diversity
As any snorkeler can tell you, brilliantly colored sponges abound in
Real Life warm, shallow sea waters. Other marine sponges live at great
What is a luffa sponge? depths, and a few species even live in fresh water. Rather than being
A luffa sponge really isn’t a a simple baglike shape, the body wall of some sponges, such as the
sponge at all but a gourd. azure vase sponge on the first page of this chapter, may contain hun-
When dried, the
dreds of folds that are sometimes visible as fingerlike projections.
fibrous material
found in the These folds increase a sponge’s size and surface area.
gourd forms a
“skeleton” Sponge Skeletons
similar to that
of some sponges, and it
To prevent the sponge from collapsing in on itself, the sponge body
can be used for many of is supported by a skeleton. A sponge’s skeleton, however, does not
the same purposes. have a fixed framework like a human skeleton does. Instead, the
Comparing Structures skeletons of most sponges are composed of spicules. A spicule is a
Obtain a natural sponge tiny needle composed of silica or calcium carbonate. A few sponges
and a luffa sponge, and have skeletons composed of a resilient, flexible protein fiber called
compare the nature of spongin . Some sponges contain both spongin and spicules. These
their “skeletons.”
supporting structures are found throughout the mesohyl.
Taxonomists group sponges into three types based on the
composition of their skeletons. Calcareous sponges have spicules
composed of calcium carbonate. Glass sponges and demosponges
have spicules made of silica. Some demosponges also contain spon-
gin. In some species the spongin is reinforced with spicules of silica.
The three classes of sponges are shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 Three types of sponges

Sponges have skeletons made of spicules, spongin, or both.
Calcareous sponge Glass sponge Demosponge
Magnification: 2403 Magnification: 203 Magnification: 153

Reproduction
Sponges can reproduce asexually. A remarkable property of sponges
is that they regenerate when they are cut into pieces. Each bit of
sponge, however small, will grow into a complete new sponge. As you
might suspect, sponges frequently reproduce by shedding fragments,
each of which develops into a new individual. Sponges also repro-
duce by budding. A third form of asexual reproduction occurs in
some freshwater sponges. When living conditions become harsh (cold
or very dry), some freshwater sponges form gemmules (JEHM
yools), clusters of amoebocytes
encased in protective coats. Sealed Figure 5 Sexual reproduction in sponges
in with ample food, the cells sur- In most species of sponges, sperm from one sponge
vive even if the rest of the sponge fertilize eggs from another sponge.
dies. When conditions improve, the
Egg Larva
cells grow into a new sponge. cell
Sexual reproduction is also
common among sponges. Most
sponges are hermaphrodites,
meaning they produce both eggs
and sperm. Since eggs and sperm
are produced at different times, Free-
self-fertilization is avoided. In swimming
Sperm larva
most species of sponges, sperm cell
cells from one sponge enter
another sponge through its pores, Sperm
cells
as shown in Figure 5. Collar cells
on the receiving sponge’s interior
pass the sperm into the mesohyl,
New
where the egg cells reside, and fer- sponge
tilization occurs. The fertilized
eggs develop into larvae and leave
the sponge. After a brief free-
swimming stage, the larvae attach
themselves to an object and
develop into new sponges.
Section 1 Review
Draw a simple sketch of a sponge body plan, Critical Thinking Forming Hypotheses
and label all the parts you include. What advantage might there be to a free-
swimming larval stage in sponges?
Summarize how a sponge feeds and distributes
nutrients. Critical Thinking Determining Factual
Accuracy Evaluate this statement: Sponges
Describe the three types of sponge have two cell layers, mesohyl and collar cells.
skeletons.
What is one function of
Compare asexual and sexual reproduction choanocytes in a sponge?
in sponges. A supporting the body C distributing nutrients
B fertilizing eggs D circulating water
SECTION 1 Sponges 621

Section 2 Cnidarians
Objectives Two Body Forms
● Describe the two cnidarian As the fragile bell of a jellyfish moves rhythmically through the
body forms. water or the flowerlike sea anemone sways gently in the ocean cur-
● Summarize how cnidocytes
rents, it’s easy to be caught up in the mystery and beauty of these
function. animals. But don’t be deceived by their allure, for jellyfish and sea
anemones are carnivores that can inflict a vicious sting. Along with
hydras and corals, these animals belong to the phylum Cnidaria (nih
Obelia.
DAIR ee uh). Cnidarians have two basic body forms, as shown in
● Compare three classes of Figure 6, and both show radial symmetry. Medusa (muh DOO suh)
cnidarians. forms are free-floating, jellylike, and often umbrella-shaped. Polyp
● Compare asexual and (PAHL ihp) forms are tubelike and are usually attached to a rock or
sexual reproduction some other object. A fringe of tentacles surrounds the mouth,
in cnidarians. located at the free end of the body. Many cnidarians exist only as
medusas, while others exist only as polyps. Still others alternate
Key Terms between these two phases during the course of their life cycle.
medusa The cnidarian body has two layers of cells, as illustrated by the
polyp hydra in Figure 7. The outer layer derives from ectoderm, and the
cnidocyte inner layer derives from endoderm. As in the sponge, there is a mid-
nematocyst dle layer of mesoglea. But cnidarians differ from sponges in that
basal disk cnidarians’ cells are arranged into tissues.
planula
Figure 6 Cnidarian body forms

The two body forms of cnidarians—medusa and polyp—consist of the same
body parts arranged differently.
Medusa Polyp
Tentacle Mouth
Ectoderm
www.scilinks.org Mesoglea
Topic: Cnidarians
Gastrovascular
Keyword: HX4048
cavity
Endoderm
Tentacle
Mouth
Basal disk
2 Tissues
The cnidarian body plan is more complex than that of a sponge—it
contains specialized tissues that carry out particular functions. The
tissues, however, are not organized into organs.

Cnidocytes
Flexible fingerlike tentacles surround the opening to Figure 7 Cnidarian body plan
the gastrovascular cavity of cnidarians. Located on Like all cnidarians, this hydra is composed of
the tentacles are stinging cells called cnidocytes tissues derived from endoderm and ectoderm.
(NIH doh siets), also shown in Figure 7. Cnidocytes
Tentacles
are the distinguishing characteristic of the animals
in the phylum Cnidaria. Within each cnidocyte is a
small barbed harpoon called a nematocyst (nehm Nematocyst
AAH toh sihst). Nematocysts are used for defense (discharged)
and to spear prey. Some nematocysts contain deadly Cnidocyte
toxins, while others contain chemicals that stun but
do not kill. When triggered, the nematocyst
explodes forcefully and sinks into the cnidarian’s
prey. The captured prey is then pushed into the
cnidarian’s gastrovascular cavity by the tentacles.
Mesoglea
Nerve
Extracellular Digestion cell
In cnidarians, digestion begins extracellularly (out- Nematocyst
(coiled) Ectoderm
side the cell), in the gastrovascular cavity. Enzymes
break food down into small fragments. Then cells Gastrovascular
lining the cavity engulf the fragments, and diges- cavity Endoderm
tion is completed intracellularly. This allows
cnidarians to feed on organisms larger than their
own individual cells.
8
0
493 2
5
x2 + <
6x -
7 Estimating Size Using
a Microscope
You can use the microscope to estimate the size
of cnidarians that are too small to measure directly.
Materials
transparent millimeter ruler, compound microscope Millimeter
with low-power objective or a dissecting microscope, marks
prepared slide of a medusa or polyp Field of view
Procedure Analysis
1. Identify the millimeter marks 4. Remove the ruler, and place 1. Calculate the size of your
along the edge of the ruler. the prepared slide on the organism in millimeters by
stage. Identify the tentacles, multiplying the ratio you found
2. With the microscope on low
gastrovascular cavity, and in step 5 by the width of the
power (4 or lower), place the
mouth. field of view you found in step 3.
ruler on the stage and focus on
the millimeter marks. 5. Estimate the length and width 2. Describe the body plan of
of your organism as a ratio of the organism you viewed
3. Adjust the ruler so that one
the width of the field of view. using terms from step 4.
edge lies across the diameter
For example, the length of your
of the field, as shown above.
organism may appear to cover
Then measure the diameter of
about two-thirds of the field
the field of view in millimeters.
of view.
SECTION 2 Cnidarians 623

Hydrozoans
The most primitive cnidarians are members of class Hydrozoa.
Most species of hydrozoans are colonial marine organisms whose
life cycle includes both polyp and medusa stages. Freshwater hydro-
zoans are less common, but are familiar to many people because
they are often studied in school laboratories.
Figure 8 Freshwater hydra Freshwater Hydrozoa

This tiny hydra is attached Magnification: 34 The abundant freshwater genus Hydra is
to the leaf of a small aquatic unique among hydrozoans because it
plant. One way a hydra can has no medusa stage and exists only as a
move is by tumbling.
solitary polyp. Hydras live in quiet
ponds, lakes, and streams. They attach
to rocks or water plants by means of a
sticky secretion they produce in an area
of their body called the basal disk .
Hydras can glide around by decreasing
the stickiness of the material secreted by
their basal disk. Sometimes hydras move
by tumbling, as shown in Figure 8. To
tumble, the hydra bends its body over
and touches the surface it is attached to
with its tentacles. Then it pulls its basal
disk free, flipping it over to the other
side of its tentacles. The basal disk then
reattaches, and the hydra returns to an
upright position. Most hydras are brown
Basal
disk or white, like the one in Figure 8. Others
appear green because of the algae living
within their cells.
Marine Hydrozoa
Marine hydrozoans are typically far more complex than freshwater
hydrozoans. Often many individuals live together, forming colonies.
The cells of the colony lack the interdependence that characterizes
the cells of multicellular organisms. However, they often exhibit
considerable specialization. For example, the colonial Portuguese
man-of-war (genus Physalia) incorporates both medusas and
polyps. A gas-filled float (probably a highly modified polyp) allows
Physalia to float on the surface of the water. Dangling below the float
are tentacles that can reach 60 m (about 197 ft). These tentacles are
used to stun and entangle prey. Their nematocysts are tipped with
powerful neurotoxins (nerve poisons) that are dangerous and may
be fatal to humans. Physalia, shown in Figure 9, has other special-
ized polyps and medusas, each carrying out a different function,
such as feeding or sexual reproduction.

Reproduction in Hydrozoans
Most hydrozoans are colonial organisms whose polyps repro-
duce asexually by forming small buds on the body wall. The
buds develop into polyps that eventually separate from the
colony and begin living independently. Many hydrozoans are
also capable of sexual reproduction. Some species of Hydra are
hermaphrodites, but in most species the sexes are separate.
The genus Obelia is typical of many marine colonial hydro-
zoans. Obelia lives in colonies that form when one polyp asex-
ually produces buds that do not separate from it. Eventually,
there are numerous polyps attached to one stem, forming the
colony. The Obelia colony shown in Figure 10 is branched like
deer antlers, with various polyps attached to the branched
stalks. The reproductive polyps give rise asexually to male and
female medusas. These medusas leave the polyps and grow to
maturity in the ocean waters.
During sexual reproduction, the medusas release sperm or
Figure 9 Physalia. A single
eggs into the water. The gametes fuse and produce zygotes that
Portuguese man-of-war colony can
develop into free-swimming, ciliated larvae called planulae contain 1,000 individual medusas
(PLAN yoo lee). The planulae eventually settle on the ocean bot- and polyps.
tom and develop into new polyps. Each polyp gives rise to a
new colony by asexual budding, and the life cycle is repeated.
Magnification: 230
Figure 10 Reproduction in Obelia
In Obelia’s life cycle, the medusa stage (sexual) and the polyp
stage (asexual) alternate.
Reproductive
Immature medusa
polyp
Tentacles
Egg
Mouth Male medusa Female medusa
Sperm
Early embryo
Obelia colony
Planula

Figure 11 Marine jellyfish
Aurelia. Aurelia polyps are
about the size of hydras. The
free-swimming medusas
range from 10 cm (3.9 in.) to
25 cm (9.8 in.) in diameter.
Polyps Medusa
Scyphozoans
Cnidarians belonging to the class Scyphozoa (sie fuh ZOH uh) are
the organisms usually referred to as true jellyfish. Scyphozoans are
The name Scyphozoa is active predators that ensnare and sting prey with their tentacles.
from the Greek skyphos, The toxins contained within the nematocysts of some species are
meaning “cup,” and zoia,
extremely potent. Scyphozoans range in size from as small as a
meaning “animal.” The
name refers to the fact that thimble to as large as a queen-size mattress.
members of this class The jellyfish seen in the ocean are medusas, which reproduce sex-
spend most of their lives as ually. However, most species of jellyfish also go through an incon-
medusas, which have the spicuous polyp stage at some point in their life cycle. The stinging
shape of an inverted cup. nettle, Aurelia, shown in Figure 11, is one of the most familiar jelly-
fishes. Aurelia’s tiny polyps hang from rocky surfaces. Periodically
the polyps release young medusas into the water. The Aurelia life
cycle is similar to that of Obelia, pictured on the previous page. The
major difference is that Aurelia spends most of its life as a medusa,
while Obelia spends most of its life as a polyp.
Jellyfish Relatives
Related to the jellyfish are the cubozoans, or box jellies. As their
name implies, cubozoans have a cube-shaped medusa. Their polyp
stage is inconspicuous, and in some species, it has never been
observed. Most box jellies are only a few centimeters in height,
although some are 25 cm (10 in.) tall. A tentacle or group of tenta-
cles is found at each corner of the “box.” Stings of some species,
such as the sea wasp, can inflict severe pain and even death among
humans. The sea wasp lives in the ocean along the tropical northern
coast of Australia.
Other relatives are members of the phylum Ctenophora (tehn AW
for uh), which includes the comb jellies. Comb jellies differ from
true jellyfish in two major ways—they have only a medusa stage and
they have no cnidocytes. Their tentacles are covered with a sticky
substance that traps plankton, the comb jelly’s main prey. Although
a comb jelly is only about 2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter, its tentacles can
be 10 times as long.

Anthozoans
The largest class of cnidarians is class Anthozoa. Anthozoans exist
only as polyps. The most familiar anthozoans are the brightly colored
sea anemones and corals. Other members of this class are known by
such fanciful names as sea pansies, sea fans, and sea whips.
Anthozoans, such as the sea anemone shown in Figure 12, typi-
cally have a thick, stalklike body topped by a crown of tentacles that
usually occur in groups of six. Nearly all of the shallow-water
species contain symbiotic algae, such as dinoflagellates. The antho-
zoans provide a place for the dinoflagellates to live in exchange for
some of the food that the dinoflagellates produce. The brilliant color
of most anthozoans is actually that of dinoflagellates living within it.
Some anthozoans reproduce asexually by forming buds, but they
also reproduce sexually by releasing eggs and sperm into the ocean, Figure 12 Sea anemone.
When threatened, the sea
where fertilization occurs. The fertilized eggs develop into planulae
anemone quickly retracts its
that settle and develop into polyps. tentacles and compresses
its body.
Sea Anemones
Sea anemones are a large group of soft-bodied polyps found in
coastal areas all over the world. Many species are quite colorful, and
most do not grow very large, only from 5 mm (0.2 in.) to 100 mm
(4.0 in.) in diameter. Sea anemones feed on fish and other marine
life that happen to swim within reach of their tentacles.
Sea anemones are highly muscular and relatively complex ani-
mals. When touched, most sea anemones retract their tentacles into
their body cavity and contract into a tight ball. Sea anemones often
reproduce asexually by slowly pulling themselves into two halves.
This method of reproduction often results in large populations of
genetically identical sea anemones.
Figure 13 Coral. This coral

Corals reef is made up of hundreds of
Most coral polyps live in colonies called reefs, such as the one thousands of individual coral
shown in Figure 13. Each polyp secretes a tough, stonelike outer polyps. When the polyps feed
skeleton of calcium carbonate that is cemented to the skeletons of (inset), they extend their tenta-
cles from the protection of their
its neighbors. (Some corals called soft corals do not secrete hard
stony skeleton.
exoskeletons.) Only the top layer of a coral reef contains living coral
polyps. When coral polyps die, their skeletons remain and provide a

foundation for new coral polyps. Over thousands of years, these for-
mations build up into coral reefs where hundreds of thousands of
polyps live together on top of old skeletons. Coral reefs are found
primarily in tropical regions of the world, where the ocean water is
warm and clear, an environment that is ideal for the corals and the
dinoflagellates that live inside them.
Life on a Coral Reef
T he diversity of life on a coral

reef is rivaled only by that of a
tropical rain forest. Algae growing
The Importance
of Coral Reefs
Reef-building corals live symbioti-
on the corals and microscopic cally with photosynthetic algae.
invertebrates help cement the Because of their need for light,
corals together. Tube worms, these corals only live in clear ocean
mollusks, and other organisms waters less than 100 m deep.
donate their hard skeletons to the Coral reefs directly benefit peo- them. Some nations have estab-
reef. A variety of small animals, ple by protecting coastlines from lished marine sanctuaries around
including sponges, flatworms, wave erosion and serving as their most vulnerable coral reefs to
shrimps, and crabs, find protec- resources for fisheries. Tourists ensure the survival of these natural
tion from predators in crevices in who visit the reefs can be a sig- treasures.
the reef. Sea anemones, hydroids, nificant source of income to
and feather duster worms anchor nearby communities. Researchers
themselves to the reef and snare are interested in reef-dwelling
food from the surrounding water. animals as sources of new medi- www.scilinks.org
Predators such as sea stars, octo- cines, including antibiotics and Topic: Coral Reefs
puses, eels, and sharks patrol the anticancer drugs. Today, coral Keyword: HX4051
reef in search of prey. As many as reefs face a number of threats
3,000 species of animals may live caused by human activity, including
on a single reef. pollution of the waters surrounding
Section 2 Review
Compare the two body forms of cnidarians. Critical Thinking Forming Hypotheses
Some cnidarians are unique in exhibiting polyp
Relate cnidocytes and nematocysts to food and medusa forms. How might their two body
gathering. forms give them an advantage over species that
have only one body form?
Draw and label the life cycle of Obelia.
Standardized Test Prep In cnidarians, digestion
Summarize the similarities and differences in
takes place
the three classes of cnidarians described.
A only extracellularly. C in a gastrovascular
Distinguish between the two types of asexual cavity and intracellularly.
reproduction found in cnidarians. B only intracellularly. D in a digestive tract.

Flatworms and Section 3
Roundworms
Flatworms Objectives
When you think of a worm, you probably visualize a creature with a ● Compare the three classes
long, tubular body, such as an earthworm. You might be less famil- of flatworms.
iar with flatworms and roundworms. The flatworms are the largest ● Summarize the life cycle
group of acoelomate worms. Although the flatworm body plan is of a blood fluke.
relatively simple, it is a great deal more complex than that of a
● Describe the body plan of
sponge or cnidarian. Flatworms have a middle tissue layer, the
a roundworm.
mesoderm. And unlike sponges and cnidarians, the flatworm has
tissues that are organized into organs. ● Summarize the life
The flatworm’s body is bilaterally symmetrical and flat, like a piece cycle of the roundworm
Ascaris.
of tape or ribbon. As a result, each cell in the animal’s body lies very
close to the exterior environment. This permits dissolved substances,
such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, to pass efficiently through the Key Terms
flatworm’s solid body by diffusion. In addition, portions of the flat- proglottid
worm’s highly-branched gastrovascular cavity run close to practically fluke
all of its tissues. This gives each cell ready access to food molecules. tegument
Most flatworms have no respiratory or circulatory system.
Flatworms belong to phylum Platyhelminthes, which contains
three major classes: Turbellaria, Cestoda, and Trematoda. They
range in size from free-living forms less than 1 mm (0.04 in.) in
length to parasitic intestinal tapeworms several meters long.
Turbellaria
Almost all members of class Turbellaria
are free-living marine flatworms, such
as the one shown in Figure 14. However,
marine flatworms are rarely studied by
students because they are difficult to
raise in captivity. Instead, students usu-
ally study a freshwater turbellarian such
as Dugesia, one of a group of flatworms
commonly called planarians. Dugesia is
shown in Up Close: Planarian, on the
following page. Figure 14 Marine flatworm. Most free-living
flatworms are marine species that swim with
graceful wavelike movements.
3 Bilateral Symmetry
Flatworms were likely the first bilaterally symmetrical animals, with left
and right halves that mirror each other. Like all bilaterally symmetrical
animals, flatworms have a distinct anterior (cephalic) end.
SECTION 3 Flatworms and Roundworms 629

Up Close
Planarian
● Scientific name: Dugesia sp.
● Size: Average length of 3–15 mm (0.1–0.6 in.)
● Range: Worldwide
● Habitat: Cool, clear, permanent lakes and streams
● Diet: Protozoans and dead and dying animals
Dugesia feeding
Characteristics
Nervous System Sensory information gathered by Feeding Dugesia, a free-living flatworm, must extend
the brain is sent to the muscles by two main nerve cords its muscular pharynx out of its centrally located mouth
that are connected by cross branches. Light-sensitive in order to feed.
structures called eyespots are connected to the brain.
The eyespots are close to each other, giving Dugesia
Reproduction Dugesia reproduces asexually in the
summer by attaching its posterior end to a stationary
a cross-eyed appearance.
object and stretching until it breaks in two, each of which
Brain will become a complete animal. Sexual reproduction
also occurs. Individuals are hermaphrodites, and two
individuals simultaneously
Female transfer sperm to each other.
reproductive Eggs of both individuals are
system
Eyespot fertilized and are released in
Male
reproductive clusters enclosed in a protective
system capsule. Several capsules are
Nerve cord laid at a time, and the eggs
inside hatch in 2 to 3 weeks.
Pore
Pharynx
Mouth
Reproductive
pore
Tubule
Excretory system Intestine

Flame cell
Water Balance Because Dugesia’s body cells contain more solutes Digestion The highly branched
than fresh water does, water continually enters its body by osmosis. intestine enables nutrients to pass
Excess water moves into a network of tiny tubules that run the length of close to all of the flatworm’s tissues.
Dugesia’s body. Side branches are lined with many flame cells, specialized Nutrients are absorbed through the
cells with beating tufts of cilia that resemble a candle flame. The beating intestinal wall. Undigested food is
cilia draw water through pores to the outside of the worm’s body. expelled through the mouth.
630 CHAPTER 28
CHAPTER # Chapter
Simple Title
Invertebrates
Observing Planarian Behavior
Most bilaterally symmetrical organisms have sense organs con-
centrated in one end of the animal. You can observe how this
arrangement affects the way they explore their environment.
Materials
eyedropper, live culture of planaria, small culture dish with pond
water, hand lens or dissecting microscope, forceps, and small
piece of raw liver (3–7 cm)
Procedure
1. Using the tip of the eyedrop- 4. Observe the planarian’s 3. Contrast the feeding behav-
per, place a planarian in the response. If the planarian ior of planarians with that of
culture dish with pond water. approaches the liver, move hydras, described earlier in
the liver to a different position. this chapter.
2. Using the hand lens or dis-
secting microscope, observe 5. Continue observing the pla- 4. Critical Thinking
the planarian as it adjusts to narian for 5 minutes, moving Evaluating an Argument
its environment. Determine the liver frequently. Evaluate this statement:
which end of the planarian Bilateral symmetry gives pla-
Analysis
contains sensory apparatus naria an advantage when
for exploring the environment. 1. Describe the planarian’s feeding because sensory
means of locomotion. organs are concentrated in
3. Using forceps, place the liver
2. Describe how the planarian one end. Support your opin-
in the pond water about 1 cm
responded to the liver. ion with the observations you
behind the planarian.
made on planaria.
Cestoda
Class Cestoda is made up of a group Figure 15 Tapeworm
of parasitic flatworms commonly A tapeworm’s body consists of a head and a series
called tapeworms. Tapeworms use of proglottids.
their suckers and a few hooklike
structures, shown in Figure 15, to per- Hooks Anterior end
manently attach themselves to the

inner wall of their host’s intestines.
Food is then absorbed from the host’s
intestine directly through the tape- Ovary
worm’s skin. Tapeworms grow by pro-

ducing a string of rectangular body
sections called proglottids (proh Sucker
GLAHT ihds) immediately behind
their head. (Each proglottid is a com-
plete reproductive unit, a fact that
makes tapeworms easy to spread.)
Proglottids
These sections are added continually Uterus
Testes
during the life of the tapeworm. The
long, ribbonlike body of a tapeworm
may grow up to 12 m (40 ft) long.

Most tapeworm infections occur in vertebrates, and about a
dozen different kinds of tapeworms commonly infect humans. One
www.scilinks.org of the tapeworms that infects humans is the beef tapeworm, Taenia
Topic: Flukes
Keyword: HX4084
saginata. Beef tapeworm larvae live in the muscle tissue of infected
cattle, where they form enclosed fluid-filled sacs called cysts.
Humans become infected when they eat infected beef that has not
been cooked to a temperature high enough to kill the larvae.
Trematoda
The largest flatworm class, Trematoda, consists of parasitic worms
called flukes . Some flukes are endoparasites, or parasites that live
inside their hosts. Endoparasites have a thick protective covering of
cells called a tegument that prevents them from being digested by
their host. Other flukes are ectoparasites, or parasites that live on
the outside of their hosts.
Flukes have very simple bodies with few organs. Flukes do not
have well-developed digestive systems. Rather, they take their nour-
ishment directly from their hosts. Flukes have one or more suckers
that they use to attach themselves to their host. They use their mus-
cular pharynx to suck in nourishment from the host’s body fluids.
Most flukes have complex life cycles involving more than one host,
one of which may be a human. Blood flukes of the genus
Schistosoma are responsible for the
Figure 16 Schistosoma life cycle disease schistosomiasis (shihs tuh
soh MIE uh sihs), a major public
In the life cycle of blood flukes, snails are intermediate hosts and
health problem in the tropics.
humans are final hosts.
Infection occurs when people use or
wade in water contaminated with
Schistosoma larvae. The larval para-
sites bore through a person’s skin
Eggs
and make their way to blood vessels
Final in the intestinal wall. They block
host blood vessels, resulting in bleeding
Larvae enter
blood vessels, of the intestinal wall and damage to
mature, and
lay eggs. the liver. As shown in Figure 16, the
life cycle of blood flukes includes a
Eggs penetrate particular species of snail as an inter-
intestine and exit
with feces. mediate host.
Egg with developing

Larval form that embryo
infects final host
Hatches in water
Larval form
that infects Adult male blood flukes are thick-bodied,
snail
Intermediate host while adult females are threadlike.

Roundworms
If you have a dog, you may be familiar with roundworms, some of
which are canine parasites. Treatment for roundworms is a com-
mon reason for a trip to the vet, as shown in Figure 17. Roundworms
(nematodes) are members of the phylum Nematoda and are char-
acterized by the presence of a body cavity called a pseudocoelom.
Movement of the fluid within the roundworm’s pseudocoelom
serves as a simple circulatory and gas exchange system. Oxygen and
carbon dioxide move by diffusion into and out of the fluid. Nutrients
from the digestive system also diffuse into the fluid and are distrib-
uted to the body cells.
Roundworms have long, cylindrical bodies and are the simplest
animals to have a one-way digestive system. A flexible, thick layer of
epidermis and cuticle form a protective cover and give the round-
worm’s body its shape. Beneath this cover, a layer of muscle extends
along the length of the worm. These long muscles pull against the
cuticle and the pseudocoelom (fluid-filled body cavity), whipping
the worm’s body from side to side. While some roundworms grow to
be a foot or more in length, most are microscopic or only a few mil-
limeters long. The vast majority of roundworms are free-living,
active hunters. Magnification: 120
Roundworm Infections Figure 17

Roundworms in
About 50 roundworm species are plant or animal pets. When a dog or
parasites that cause considerable economic dam- cat has to be wormed,
age to crops and inflict terrible human suffering. it is usually due to a
Plant roundworms may attack any part of the roundworm infection
plant—leaves, stem, roots—depending on the caused by Toxocara
canis or Toxocara cati.
species. They feed on the living plant cells, caus-
ing wilting and withering of the plant. At least 14
species of roundworms infect humans. Three
sources of human infection are Ascaris lumbri-
coides, Trichinella spiralis, and members of the
genus Necator, commonly called hookworms.
The eggs of Ascaris are carried through human
waste to the soil, where they can live for years. If
ingested, the eggs enter the intestine, where they
develop into larvae. The larvae bore through the
blood vessels in the intestine and enter the blood-
stream, which carries them to the lungs, causing
respiratory distress. Some larvae may wander
into the ducts of the pancreas or gallbladder,
causing a blockage. Eventually, the larvae return
4 Body Cavity
Roundworms have a pseudocoelom, a body cavity that forms between
the gut and the body wall. All pseudocoelomates have a one-way gut in
which food passes into the mouth and out of the anus.

to the intestine, where they mature and mate. Adult Ascaris may grow
up to 0.3 m (1 ft) in length. Figure 18 shows an Ascaris species whose
final host is a bird.
Like Ascaris, Trichinella and Necator have complex life cycles that
can involve a human host. Trichinella infects pigs and causes a seri-
ous disease called trichinosis (trihk ih NOH sihs) in humans.
Infection with Trichinella can be avoided by not eating undercooked
pork. Members of the genus Necator live mostly in the warm, moist
Figure 18 Roundworm soils of the tropics. Infection can occur when people step barefooted
Ascaris. These adult Ascaris are on soil containing hookworm larvae, which can enter the blood
in the stomach of a brown pelican. vessels if they penetrate the soles of the feet.
Identifying Parasites Effects of Drugs on Egg Release

Background Parasite A Parasite B
Number of eggs released

This graph shows how two drugs affect
0100010110
011101010 the release of eggs in a human infested
0010010001001 with two parasites—Schistosoma and
1100100100010
0000101001001 Ascaris. Drug 1 works by killing adult
1101010100100
0101010010010 parasites in the intestines. Drug 2 works
by killing adult parasites in the blood
vessels. Use the graph and your knowl-
edge of parasitic infections to answer Drug 1 Drug 2
the analysis questions.
Time
Analysis
1. Describe the response of the 4. Critical Thinking
parasites to the two different Justifying Conclusions
drug treatments. Explain why you made the
identifications you did in item 3.
2. Identify the main human
organs and tissues infected by 5. Critical Thinking Forming
the adult stages of Schisto- Hypotheses Schistosoma
soma and Ascaris. Use your spends part of its life cycle as
textbook if necessary. a parasite of snails. Hypothe- www.scilinks.org
size a reason for an increase Topic: Roundworms
3. Identify which curve on the Keyword: HX4159
in the number of cases of
graph shows Schistosoma egg
schistosomiasis in villages
production and which shows
near where hydroelectric
Ascaris egg production.
dams have been built.
Section 3 Review
Compare the internal and external anatomy Describe a major innovation in body plan that
of a planarian with that of a parasitic flatworm. first occurred in roundworms.
Summarize in words or with a diagram the life Standardized Test Prep Which organ system is
cycle of a blood fluke. missing in a planarian?
A digestive C nervous
Summarize the life cycle of Ascaris.
B respiratory D reproductive

ZONE
1 Sponges Section 1
ostia (618)
● Sponges lack symmetry and tissues. oscula (618)
● Sponges are sessile filter feeders that draw sea water through sessile (618)
pores into an internal cavity, trapping tiny aquatic organisms. choanocyte (619)
amoebocyte (619)
● The sponge’s supportive skeleton is composed of soft spon- spongin (620)
gin fibers, hard spicules, or a combination of both. spicule (620)
gemmule (621)
● Sponges that reproduce sexually are usually hermaphrodites.
Sponges also reproduce asexually.
2 Cnidarians Section 2
medusa (622)
● Cnidarians are radially symmetrical, with bodies made up polyp (622)
of tissue. Their body form may be a medusa or a polyp. cnidocyte (623)
● Cnidocytes are stinging cells found in the tentacles of nematocyst (623)
basal disk (624)
cnidarians. Harpoon-like nematocysts are located within planula (625)
the cnidocytes.
● Most hydrozoans are colonial organisms that reproduce
asexually, though many forms can also reproduce sexually.
● Jellyfish are active predators, and some have extremely
potent toxins within their nematocysts.
● Jellyfish spend most of their lives as medusas and usually
reproduce sexually.
● Sea anemones and corals have thick, stalklike polyp bodies.
Their life cycle includes no medusa form.
3 Flatworms and Roundworms Section 3

proglottid (631)
● Flatworms have flattened bodies that lack a body cavity. fluke (632)
Most flatworms, such as planarians and marine flatworms, tegument (632)
are free-living, but others, such as flukes and tapeworms,
are parasites.
● Tapeworms are intestinal parasites that absorb food directly
through their skin.
● Flukes are endoparasitic flatworms. They have a protective
covering called a tegument that keeps them from being
digested by their host.
● Roundworms have a pseudocoelom and a one-way gut.
Most are free-living, but some are animal parasites.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 7. How are parasitic flukes able to live when
they no longer possess a well-developed
1. Which of the following is not a characteris- digestive system?
tic of sponges?
a. body wall penetrated by many pores 8. Classify all of the organisms covered in this
b. cells organized into tissues chapter as either acoelomate,
c. collar cells that trap food particles pseudocoelomate, or coelomate. (Hint: See
d. amoebocytes that transport food Chapter 27, Section 1.)
2. What prevents self-fertilization among 9. What kinds of life-forms are
sponges? supported by coral reefs, and why is it
a. Gametes are released at different times. important for people to make sure that the
b. Few male sponges exist. reefs survive and develop?
c. Sponges are hermaphrodites.
d. Encounters between members of the 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
same species are rare. map that shows the major characteristics
of sponges, cnidarians, flatworms, and
3. A Portuguese man-of-war and a hydra are roundworms. Include the following terms
similar in that both in your map: sessile, choanocyte, spongin,
a. are colonial. medusa, polyp, cnidocyte, fluke, tegument,
b. contain medusas and polyps. and proglottid.
c. are hydrozoans.
d. produce planulae. Critical Thinking
4. Which sequence reflects the life cycle 11. Applying Information Which animal would
of Obelia? tend to have more water enter its body—a
a. polyp → medusa → planula marine flatworm or a freshwater flatworm?
b. medusa → polyp → planula Explain your answer.
c. planula 
→ medusa  → polyp
12. Evaluating Conclusions A student con-
d. polyp → planula 
→ medusa
cludes that infection with Schistosoma is
5. Identify the function of the structure more difficult to prevent than is infection
shown below. with Trichinella. Evaluate this conclusion.
a. respiration
b. water removal Alternative Assessment
c. feeding 13. Identifying Structures Make an anatomical
d. digestion drawing of the interior of a sponge,
cnidarian, flatworm, or roundworm.
Identify the species, and label at least
10 structures. Distribute copies of your
drawing to your classmates.
14. Forming a Model In groups of three,
research how one of the three different
types of coral reefs—fringing, barrier, and
6. Porifera has been called a dead-end phy- atoll—is formed. Then build a model of
lum. List some possible reasons why no your reef type or make a map showing
animal group evolved from the sponges. where such reefs are located. Set up an
exhibit of your work, and use a tape
recording to create a “tour.”


correct answer.
When locating sunken ships, some
1 What is a sponge’s protein skeleton treasure seekers use dynamite to blast away
composed of? portions of the ocean floor. Blasting disturbs
A. amoebocytes the ocean floor, where many invertebrates
B. mesoglea live. It also can cause harm to invertebrates
C. spicules that are filter feeders.
D. spongin
6 How would blasting be harmful to filter
2 What are specialized stinging cells found feeders?
in cnidarians called? A. The layers of ocean sediments are no
F. choanocytes longer perfectly horizontal.
G. cnidocytes B. Large portions of the ocean floor may
H. medusas settle and destroy competitors.
I. polyps C. Particles stirred up by the blast fill the
water, which interferes with filtering.
3 Which of the following is an anthozoan?
D. Blasting disperses throughout the water
A. box jelly
the plankton that filter feeders eat.
B. hydra
C. jellyfish Interpreting Graphics
D. sea anemone
4 What term describes the covering that 7 on the dichotomous key below.
protects endoparasites from the actions of Key of Simple Animal Phyla
digestive enzymes?
F. basal disk 1. Cells are not organized into tissues Phylum W
G. osculum Cells are organized into tissues Go to 2.
H. proglittid 2. Tissues are not organized into organs Phylum X
Tissues are organized into organs Go to 3.
I. tegument
3. The body does not have a body cavity Phylum Y
Directions (5): For the following question, The body has a body cavity Go to 4.
write a short response. 4. The body cavity is not a true coelom Phylum Z
The body cavity is a true coelom Go to a key of
5 Individuals of a single species of sponge more complex
animal phyla.
may vary in appearance depending on their
environment. Factors that affect sponge
shape include differences in the material 7 What is the name of Phylum W?
on which they grow, availability of space, F. Cnidaria
and the speed and temperature of water G. Nematoda
currents. How might these factors make H. Platyhelminthes
the classification of sponges confusing? I. Porifera
Test
If you find a particular question difficult, put a light
pencil mark beside it and keep working. (Do not write
in this book). As you answer other questions, you
may find information that helps you answer the
difficult question.
Exploration Lab
Observing Hydra Behavior
Magnification: 260
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Using scientific processes • silicone culture gum
• Observing • microscope slide
• 2 medicine droppers
OBJECTIVES
• Hydra culture
• Observe a hydra finding and
capturing prey. • Daphnia culture
• Determine how a hydra • concentrated beef broth

responds to stimuli. • filter paper cut into
pennant shapes
• forceps
Hydra feeding on Daphnia

Cnidarians are carnivorous animals. A PART A: Make Observations
common cnidarian is Hydra, a freshwater 1. To make an experimental pond for
organism that feeds on smaller freshwater observing hydras, squeeze out a long
animals, such as water fleas (Daphnia). piece of silicone culture gum. Arrange it to
Hydras find food by responding to stimuli, form a circular well on a microscope slide,
such as chemicals and touch. The way an as shown in the photograph below.
animal responds to stimuli is called behavior . CAUTION: Glassware is fragile. Notify
The tentacles of a cnidarian are armed with the teacher promptly of any broken glass
nematocysts , shown below, which are used or cuts.
in defense and in capturing prey. When a
hydra receives stimuli from potential prey, its
nematocysts spring out and harpoon or
entangle the prey. In this lab, you will
observe the feeding behavior of hydras to
determine how they find and capture prey.
the paragraph above. 2. With a medicine dropper, gently
2. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a transfer a hydra from its culture dish
question you would like to explore about to the well on the slide, making sure the
the feeding behavior of hydras. water covers the animal. CAUTION: Handle
hydras gently to avoid injuring them. Allow
the hydra to settle, then examine it under
the high power of a stereomicroscope.
Draw a hydra and label the body stalk,
mouth, and tentacles.
Nematocyst discharged

PART B: Design an Experiment Analyze and Conclude
3. Work with the members of your lab group 1. Analyzing Results Describe a hydra’s
to explore one of the questions written for response to chemicals (beef broth).
step 2 of Before You Begin. To explore the
2. Analyzing Results Describe a hydra’s
response to touch.
3. Drawing Conclusions How does a hydra
detect its prey?
will take. Have your teacher approve your 4. Justifying Conclusions Give evidence to
procedure and safety precautions before support your conclusion about how hydras
you begin the experiment. detect prey.
5. Inferring Conclusions Based on your
You Choose observations, how do you think a hydra
behaves when it detects a threat in its
natural habitat?
b. what hypothesis you will test 6. Inferring Conclusions What happens to
c. how to observe a hydra’s feeding behavior food that has not been digested by a hydra?
d. how to test a hydra’s response to a 7. Inferring Conclusions How is a hydra
stimulus, such as a chemical or a touch adapted to a sedentary lifestyle?
e. what your test groups and controls will be
f. what to record in your data table
about the behavior of hydras that could be
PART C: Conduct Your Experiment
Do You Know?
5. Set up and carry out your experi-
ment. CAUTION: Handle hydras Do research in the library or media center
gently to avoid injuring them. to answer these questions:
6. Allow hydras to settle before exposing them 1. What different kinds of food does a
to a test condition. If your hydra does not hydra eat?
respond after a few minutes, obtain 2. How is the feeding method of a hydra
another hydra from the culture dish. different from that of a sponge?
Repeat your procedure. Use the following Internet resources to
explore your own questions about sponges
and cnidarians.
PART D: Cleanup and Disposal
7. Dispose of lab materials and broken
glass in the designated waste con-
www.scilinks.org
tainers. Put hydras and daphnias in the Topic: Hydra
designated containers. Do not put lab Keyword: HX4102
materials in the trash unless your teacher
tells you to do so.
CHAPTER 28 Simple Invertebrates 639

Show jumper
Common octopus

CHAPTER
29 Mollusks and
Annelids

1. Describe the process of diffusion. (Chapter 4,
Section 1) Mollusks
A True Coelom
2. Define the term plankton. (Chapter 17, Section 3)
Key Characteristics of Mollusks
3. Define the terms gill and hydrostatic skeleton. Body Plans of Mollusks
4. Distinguish between an open and closed
circulatory system. (Chapter 27, Section 2)
Section 2
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Annelids
sections indicated. The First Segmented Animals
Annelid Groups
Reading Activity
As you read this chapter, draw and label a
diagram of an idealized mollusk. Your mollusk
should have all of the anatomical features
described in the chapter (although not all
mollusks possess all features).
www.scilinks.org
The octopus is one of the most intelligent of
the invertebrates. It can perform complex behaviors,
including building its own house out of debris
found on the ocean floor.
CHAPTER 29 Mollusks and Annelids 641

Section 1 Mollusks
Objectives A True Coelom
● Summarize the evolutionary While most of the simple invertebrates you read about in the last
relationship between mollusks chapter may be unfamiliar to you, chances are good that you have
and annelids. seen many mollusks and annelids. Snails, slugs, oysters, clams,
● Describe the key character- scallops, octopuses, and squids are all mollusks. If you have seen an
istics of mollusks. earthworm, then you know what an annelid is. While a snail may
not seem to have much in common with an earthworm, these two
● Describe excretion,
circulation, respiration, and
very different-looking animals are related.
reproduction in mollusks. Mollusks and annelids were probably the first major groups of
organisms to develop a true coelom. (Recall that in animals that
● Compare the body plans
have a true coelom, or body cavity, the gut and other internal
and feeding adaptations of
gastropods, bivalves, and organs are suspended from the body wall and cushioned by the
cephalopods. fluid within the coelom.) Another feature shared by mollusks and
annelids is a larval stage called a trochophore (TRAHK oh fawr),
Key Terms which develops from the fertilized egg. In some species, the trocho-
phore, shown in Figure 1, is free-swimming and propels itself
trochophore
through the water by movement of cilia on its surface. The presence
visceral mass
mantle of a trochophore larva in mollusks and annelids suggests that they
foot share a common ancestor.
radula Members of the phylum Mollusca make up the second largest
nephridium animal phyla, exceeded only by phylum Arthropoda. Mollusks
adductor muscle are abundant in almost all
siphon marine, freshwater, and terrestrial
Cilia
habitats. There are more species
of terrestrial mollusks than there
are of terrestrial vertebrates.
These mollusks often go unnoticed
because people are not accustomed
to looking for them. Seven classes
Figure 1 Trochophore larva of mollusks make up the phylum
Mollusca. The three major classes
The microscopic trochophore
are Gastropoda (snails and slugs),
larva has a belt of cilia that Mouth
circles its body. The beating Bivalvia (clams, oysters, and scal-
of the cilia propels the trocho- Anus lops), and Cephalopoda (octopuses
phore through the water. and squids).
5 Coelom
A true coelom develops entirely within the mesoderm. Contact between the meso-
derm and endoderm during the development of the embryo leads to the
development of complex organs.
642 CHAPTER 29 Mollusks and Annelids

Key Characteristics of Mollusks
Despite their varied appearance, the members of the different
groups of mollusks share a number of key characteristics.
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1. Body cavity. The body cavity in mollusks is a true coelom, Topic: Mollusks
although in most species it is reduced to a small area immediately Keyword: HX4124
surrounding the heart.
2. Symmetry. Most mollusks exhibit bilateral symmetry.
3. Three-part body plan. The body of every mollusk has three
distinct parts: the visceral mass, the mantle, and the muscular
foot, as shown in Figure 2. The visceral (VIS uhr uhl) mass is
a central section that contains the mollusk’s organs. The man-
tle is wrapped around the visceral mass like a cape. The mantle
is a heavy fold of tissue that forms the outer layer of the body.
Finally, every mollusk has a muscular region called a foot , which
is used primarily for locomotion.
4. Organ systems. Mollusks have organ systems for excretion,
circulation, respiration, digestion, and reproduction.
5. Shell. Many mollusks have either one or two shells that serve as
an exoskeleton, protecting their soft body. The shell is composed
of protein that is strengthened by calcium carbonate, an
extremely hard mineral.
6. Radula. All mollusks except bivalves have a radula (RAJ uh luh),
a tongue-like organ located in their mouth. The radula, shown in
Figure 2, has thousands of pointed, backward-curving teeth
arranged in rows. When a mollusk feeds, it pushes its radula out
of its mouth, and the teeth scrape fragments of food off rocks or
plant matter. Mollusks that are predators use their radula for
attacking their prey.
Figure 2 Three-part body plan
All mollusk bodies are composed of a visceral mass, a
mantle, and a foot. Most mollusks also have a radula.
Mouth Mantle
Teeth Visceral mass
Mantle
Foot
Mantle
cavity
Visceral
mass
Radula
Foot
SECTION 1 Mollusks 643

Figure 3 Mollusk body plan
Although mollusks vary greatly in body form, they all have complex organ systems.
Cilia
Nephridium
Coelom Reproductive
Pore organs
Body Mantle Heart
tissue
Stomach
Ganglia
Wastes
Shell
Useful
molecules Mouth
Mantle Radula
cavity
Gill Foot
Nephridium Intestine Nerve cords
Organ Systems
Mollusks are the only coelomates without segmented bodies. Like
the roundworms, mollusks have a one-way digestive system. Mol-
lusks, however, are more complex than roundworms. As a group,
mollusks are quite diverse, and no one mollusk can represent the
phylum as a whole. Figure 3 shows the basic mollusk body with
organs that are characteristic of the phylum.
Excretion Mollusks are one of the earliest evolutionary lines to have
developed an efficient excretory system. A mollusk’s coelom is a
collecting place for waste-laden body fluids. The beating of cilia pulls
the fluid from the coelom into tiny tubular structures called
nephridia (nee FRIHD ee uh), also shown in Figure 3. The nephridia
recover useful molecules (sugars, salts, and water) from the coelomic
fluid. The recovered molecules are reabsorbed into the mollusk’s body
tissues. The remaining fluid waste leaves the mollusk’s body through
a pore that opens into the mantle cavity. Nephridia are found in all
coelomate animals except arthropods and chordates.
Circulation The digestive tube of mollusks and other coelomates is
surrounded by mesoderm, which acts as a barrier to the diffusion
of nutrients into the cells of the body. Mollusks have a circulatory
system. Recall that in a circulatory system, blood carries nutrients
and oxygen to tissues and removes waste and carbon dioxide. Most
mollusks have a three-chambered heart and an open circulatory
system. Octopuses and squids are exceptions because they each
have a closed circulatory system.
Respiration Respiration among mollusks is carried out in a variety
of ways. Most mollusks respire with gills, which are located in the
mantle cavity. Mollusk gills extract 50 percent or more of the dis-
solved oxygen from the water that passes over them.
In freshwater snails, ciliated gills beat on the inner surface of the
mantle. This causes a continuous stream of water to pass over the

gills. Most terrestrial snails have no gills. Instead, the thin
membrane that lines their empty mantle cavity functions
like a primitive lung. This membrane must be kept moist
for oxygen to diffuse across it. Therefore, terrestrial
snails, shown in Figure 4, are most active at night or after
it rains when air has a high moisture content. During dry
weather, a terrestrial snail pulls back into its shell and
plugs the opening with a wad of mucus to keep water in.
Sea snails also lack gills, and gas exchange takes place
directly through their skin.
Reproduction Most species of mollusks have distinct
male and female individuals, although some snails and
slugs are hermaphrodites. Certain species of oysters and Figure 4 Terrestrial snails.
sea slugs are able to change from one sex to the other and back Terrestrial snails are most
again. Many marine mollusks are moved from place to place as active when the air is moist.
their trochophore larvae drift in the ocean currents. Octopuses,
squids, freshwater snails, and some freshwater mussels have no
free-swimming larvae. In these mollusks, the larval stage occurs
within the egg, and a juvenile-stage mollusk hatches from the egg.
Modeling an Open Circulatory

System
You can model an open circulatory system using simple
items to represent the heart, blood vessels, blood, and
body tissues of a living organism.
Materials
surgical tubing, 15 cm (about 6 in.) piece; clear plastic tubing,
15 cm (about 6 in.) and 7.5 cm (about 3 in.) pieces; shallow pan
filled with water; eyedropper; food coloring
Procedure
1. Connect the surgical tubing 4. With your thumb and index 3. Critical Thinking
to the two pieces of clear finger, squeeze along the Evaluating Results
plastic tubing, as shown piece of surgical tubing to Evaluate your model’s
above. pump the food coloring efficiency at pumping blood
through the system. through the system.
2. Place the tubing into the tray
filled with water. Allow the 5. As you continue to pump, 4. Critical Thinking
tubing to fill with water and observe the movement of Analyzing Methods How
rest on the bottom. food coloring. does this model differ from a
real circulatory system?
3. With the tubing still sub- Analysis
merged, use an eyedropper 1. Describe what happened 5. Critical Thinking
to place two drops of food when you squeezed along Analyzing Methods How
coloring into the short piece the tubing. could you modify the model
of clear plastic tubing. to make it more accurate?
2. Identify the structures rep-
resented by the pan of water,
the surgical tubing, and the
clear plastic tubing.

Body Plans of Mollusks
The basic mollusk three-part body plan differs in each class of mol-
lusks. As you read about the different classes of mollusks, you will
see how the mollusk shell and foot are adapted for many different
living conditions.
information about mollusks.
Across the top, write the
headings Gastropods, Gastropods
Bivalves, and Cephalopods. Gastropods—snails and slugs—are primarily a marine group that
Along the side, write
has successfully invaded freshwater and terrestrial habitats. They
Foot, Shell, Feeding,
Reproduction. Add infor- range in size from microscopic forms to the sea hare Aplysia, which
mation (and perhaps more reaches 1 m (almost 40 in.) in length. Most gastropods have
terms along the side) to a single shell. During the evolution of slugs and nudibranchs
the table as you read. (NOO dih branks), the shell was lost completely. Figure 5 shows
three terrestrial tree snails and a nudibranch (sea slug). The foot of
gastropods is adapted for locomotion. Terrestrial species secrete
mucus from the base of their foot, forming a slimy path that they
can glide along. Most gastropods have a pair of tentacles on their
head with eyes often located at the tips.
Gastropods display varied feeding habits. Many are herbivores
that scrape algae off rocks using their radula. Some terrestrial
snails can be serious garden and agricultural pests, using their
radula to saw off leaves. Sea slugs and many other gastropods are
active predators. Whelks and oyster drills, for example, use their
radula to bore holes in the shells of other mollusks. Then
they suck out the soft tissues of their prey. In cone shells, such as
the one shown in Figure 6, the radula is modified into a kind of
poison-tipped harpoon that is shot into prey. The poison paralyzes
the prey, which is then swallowed whole.
Throughout human history, snails have been a source of food for
humans. Land snails belonging to the genus Helix are raised on
snail farms and are consumed in great quantities. While freshwater
snails are rarely eaten, a few marine species, such as conchs
(KAHNGKS), are considered delicacies.
Tree snails Sea slug
Figure 5 Snails and slugs.

These Florida tree snails live
where the air is moist enough
to keep them from drying out.
Sea slugs are often brilliantly
colored, and most are under
15 cm (6 in.) in length.

Figure 6 Cone shell.
This cone shell searches the
ocean bottom for prey. Once
located, the prey is secured by
the cone shell’s radula and
swallowed whole.
Bivalves
Most bivalves are marine, but some also live in fresh water. Many
species of freshwater mussels are found throughout the rivers and
lakes of North America and are important links in aquatic food The class name Bivalvia
chains. Oysters and mussels are important sources of food for comes from the Latin bi,
meaning “two,” and valva,
humans. All bivalves have a two-part hinged shell. The valves, or
meaning “part of a door.”
shells, of a bivalve are secreted by the mantle. Two thick muscles,
the adductor muscles , connect the valves. When these muscles are
contracted, they cause the valves to close tightly. While most
species of mollusks are sessile, some can move from place to place
quite fast if necessary. For example, a swimming scallop opens and
closes its valves rapidly. This pushes it along with the jets of water
released when its valves snap shut.
Bivalves are unique among the mollusks because they do not have
a distinct head region or a radula. A nerve ganglion above their foot
serves as a simple brain. Most bivalves have some type of simple
sense organs. For example, some bivalves have sensory cells located
along the edge of their mantle that respond to light and touch.
Most bivalves are either male or female, but a few species are
hermaphroditic. Bivalves reproduce sexually by releasing sperm
and eggs into the water, where fertilization occurs. The fertilized
Figure 7 Clam. Many
eggs develop into free-swimming trochophore larvae. The larvae of bivalves, like this clam, burrow
a few freshwater mussels are brooded in a pouch within the mol- into sand or mud and feed
lusk’s gills. The larvae are then released into the water, and they by drawing sea water in one
complete their larval stage as parasites on fish. This is a very siphon and expelling it out
unusual life cycle for a mollusk. the other.
Most bivalves are filter feeders. Many, such as
the clam illustrated in Figure 7, use their muscular
foot to dig down into the sand. Once there, the
cilia on their gills draw in sea water through
hollow tubes called siphons (SIE fuhns). The Siphons
water moves down one siphon tube, over the

gills, and out the other siphon tube. The gills are
used for feeding as well as respiration. A sticky
mucus covers the gills, and as water moves
over the gills, small marine organisms and
organic material become trapped in the mucus. Foot
The cilia then direct the food-laden mucus to the
bivalve’s mouth.

Like clams, oysters and scallops use their gills to
filter food from the water. Oysters are permanently
attached to rocks in the open water, where they feed.
Scallops swim, and water passes over their gills as
they move.
Many species of bivalves, such as the oyster in
Figure 8, produce pearls. Pearls form when a tiny for-
eign object, such as a grain of sand, becomes lodged
between the mollusk’s mantle and shell. Bivalves
respond to these irritants by coating them with thin
sheets of nacre (NAY kuhr), also called mother-of-
Figure 8 Pearl oyster.
The best pearls come from pearl. Nacre is the same hard, shiny substance that composes the
oysters belonging to the inner shell surface. Successive layers of nacre are added until the
genus Pinctada. foreign body is completely enclosed in the newly formed pearl.
While many bivalves form pearls, only a few species produce the
beautifully colored nacre essential for gem-quality pearls. In fine
pearls, the nacre contains tiny, overlapping mineral crystals. These
crystals act like prisms, breaking up any light that falls on them into
rainbows of color. This is what gives these pearls their iridescence.
The mineral crystals found in the nacre of ordinary pearls are larger
and do not reflect light as beautifully.
Eating Mollusks Safely
S ince prehistoric times, mol-

lusks have served as a
human food resource. Today the
to popular opinion, hot sauce will
not kill dangerous organisms that
infect them. But it is now also
annual worldwide harvest for evident that brief cooking, such
bivalve mollusks alone amounts as lightly steaming clams, does
to an astounding 3 million metric not destroy all pathogens either.
tons (6,615,000,000 lb). But
severe illness has been associ- Follow the Guidelines
ated with eating mollusks. What An estimated 20 million Ameri-
causes these illnesses, and are cans eat oysters, and the yearly
mollusks really safe to eat? consumption of mollusks is
Bivalves—oysters, mussels, increasing. To reduce the risk of
clams, and scallops—are filter illness from eating mollusks, the
feeders. Any contaminant in a Food and Drug Administration
bivalve’s environment circulates (FDA) has developed guidelines
through and accumulates in its for preparing them. If you observe
body. One source of contamina- these guidelines, the health risk shells move, the mollusk is not
tion is water that is polluted with from eating mollusks is very low. fresh and should be discarded.
sewage, an ideal breeding ground Avoid eating raw bivalves. Make Follow FDA recommendations for
for some bacteria and viruses. your purchases from reputable proper cooking times and tem-
Because of this, harvesting is sources to assure that the mol- peratures. By following these
prohibited in certain areas. The lusks were not illegally harvested. guidelines, you can safely enjoy
primary danger is from eating Test for freshness by trying to this delicious and healthful food
infected bivalves raw. Contrary move the shells sideways. If the choice.

Cephalopods
Squids, octopuses, cuttlefish, and nautiluses are all cephalopods.
Most of their body is made up of a large head attached to tentacles
(a foot divided into numerous parts), as shown in Figure 9. The ten- The name cephalopod
comes from the Greek
tacles are equipped with either suction cups or hooks for seizing
kephalicos, meaning “head,”
prey. Squids have 10 tentacles, while octopuses have eight. The nau- and pous, meaning “foot.”
tilus has 80–90 tentacles, although they are not nearly as long as
those of the other cephalopods. Although cephalopods evolved
from shelled ancestors, most modern cephalopods lack an external
shell. The nautilus is the only living cephalopod species that still
has an outer shell. Squids as well as the cuttlefish have a small
internal shell. Cuttlefish “bones” are often attached to bird cages to
provide calcium for canaries and other pet birds.
Cephalopods are the most intelligent of all invertebrates. They
have a complex nervous system that includes a well-developed
brain. Cephalopods are capable of exhibiting complex behaviors.
Octopuses can easily be trained to distinguish between classes of
objects, such as between a square and a cross, and they are the only
invertebrates with this ability.
The structure of a cephalopod eye is similar in many ways to that
of a vertebrate eye, and some species have color vision. The eyes of
a squid can be very large. A giant squid that washed up on a beach
in New Zealand in 1933 had eyes that were 40 cm (about 15.75 in.)
across. At over 20 m (65 ft) in length, the giant squid is the largest
of all invertebrates and has the largest eyes known in any animal.
Like most aquatic mollusks, cephalopods draw water into their Figure 9 Cephalopods.
mantle cavity and expel it through a siphon. In squids and octo- Like all cephalopods, the squid
puses, this system functions as a means of jet propulsion. When is an active predator. Cuttlefish
threatened, they quickly close their mantle cavity, causing water to are agile swimmers that hunt
shoot forcefully out of the siphon. Squids and octopuses can also at night, seeking small fishes
and crustaceans. The nautilus
swims with its coiled shell
positioned over its head.
Nautilus
Squid
Cuttlefish

release a dark fluid that clouds the water and conceals the direction
of their escape. The ink of the cuttlefish contains a reddish brown
pigment called sepia. For centuries this ink was used by artists as a
pigment and is found in many famous paintings.
All cephalopods are active marine predators. They feed on fish,
mollusks, crustaceans, and worms. Once the prey has been snared
by the tentacles, it is pulled to the mouth, where it is torn apart by
strong, beaklike jaws. The cephalopod’s radula then pulls the pieces
into the mouth.
Analyzing the Molluscan

Body Plan
0100010110
Background
011101010 A
0010010001001
Mollusks share many common characteristics, yet there
1100100100010 is great variety among the classes. The drawings on the
0000101001001
1101010100100 right show how the shell (brown) and foot (green) vary in
0101010010010
three classes of mollusks. Use the drawings to answer
the analysis questions.
Analysis B
1. Determine the class of 4. Critical Thinking
mollusk A, mollusk B, and Predicting Outcomes
mollusk C. Terrestrial snails and slugs
are nearly identical except
2. Compare the shell
that slugs do not have a shell.
modifications. Why might a
Acidic forest soils are often
shell suited to one mollusk be
poor in minerals, including cal-
inappropriate for another?
cium. Alkaline or neutral soils C
3. Critical Thinking are rich in minerals. In which
Identifying Functions kind of soil would you be more
For each class shown, explain likely to find a slug? Explain
how the foot is useful for the your answer.
animal’s environment or kind
of movement.
Section 1 Review
Identify two characteristics that mollusks and Critical Thinking Forming Hypotheses
annelids have in common. A chemical pollutant accidentally spills into a bay.
One of the effects of this chemical is that it para-
Summarize six characteristics common to most lyzes cilia. The next day almost all of the oysters
groups of mollusks. in the bay are dead. Develop a hypothesis that
explains why the oysters died.
Describe how a nephridium functions in waste
removal. Standardized Test Prep A gastropod’s radula is
part of what organ system?
Compare the distinguishing features of each of
A respiratory C digestive
the three major classes of mollusks.
B circulatory D excretory

Annelids Section 2
The First Segmented Animals Objectives

You have probably heard the expression “a can of worms,” which ● Identify the major
calls up an image of a lot of wiggly, wriggly creatures. An earth- change in body plan that
worm may come to mind, but there are many different species distinguishes annelids
of segmented worms. Worms might not look like much, but this from mollusks.
group of coelomates belongs to an ancient group, phylum Annelida. ● Describe the basic annelid
Annelid fossils can be found in rock that is 530 million years old. body plan.
Scientists think that annelids evolved in the sea, where two-thirds ● Describe the annelid
of today’s annelid species live. Most other annelid species are ter- digestive system.
restrial earthworms. Annelids range in size from less than 1 mm
● Compare the three classes
(0.04 in.) long to more than 3 m (10 ft) long.
of annelids.
Annelids, such as the earthworm and fireworm shown in Figure 10,
are easily recognized by their segments, which are visible as a series
Key Terms
of ringlike structures along the length of their body. Each segment
contains digestive, excretory, circulatory, and locomotor (movement) cerebral ganglion
organs. Some of the segments are modified for specific functions, septa
setae
such as reproduction, feeding, or sensation. A well-developed
parapodium
cerebral ganglion , or primitive brain, is located in one anterior
segment. The brain is connected to a nerve cord that runs along the
underside of the worm’s body.
Figure 10 Annelids
The ringlike segments of this earthworm and marine fireworm identify them
as annelids.
Earthworm Fireworm
6 Segmentation
Annelids were the first organisms to have a body plan based
on repeated body segments. Segmentation underlies the body
organization of all coelomate animals except mollusks.
SECTION 2 Annelids 651

Internal body walls, called septa , separate the segments of most
annelids. Nutrients and other materials pass between the segments
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Topic: Annelids through the circulatory system. Sensory information is delivered by
Keyword: HX4012 a nerve cord that connects nerve centers in the segments to the brain.
Characteristics of Annelids
In addition to segmentation, annelids share a number of other
characteristics.
1. Coelom. The fluid-filled coelom is large and is located entirely
within the mesoderm.
2. Organ systems. The organ systems of annelids show a high
degree of specialization and include a closed circulatory system
and excretory structures called nephridia. The gut has different
regions that perform different functions in digestion.
3. Bristles. Most annelids have external bristles called setae
(SEET ee). The paired setae located on each segment provide
traction as the annelid crawls along. Some annelids, like the fire-
worm shown in Figure 10 on the previous page, also have fleshy
appendages called parapodia (par uh POH dee uh).
Modeling a Closed Circulatory

System
You can model a closed circulatory system using simple
items to represent the heart, blood vessels, blood, and
body tissues of a living organism.
Materials
clear plastic tubing, 30 cm (about 12 in.) piece; surgical
tubing, 15 cm (about 6 in.) piece; shallow pan filled with water;
eyedropper, food coloring
Procedure
1. Connect one end of the clear 4. Observe the food coloring as 4. Critical Thinking
tubing to the surgical tubing. it moves through the tubing. Analyzing Methods How
Submerge in the pan. could you modify the model
Analysis
to make it more accurate?
2. Use the eyedropper to insert 1. Describe what happened
several drops of food coloring when you pumped the food 5. Critical Thinking
into the surgical tubing. Close coloring through the system. Inferring Relationships
the tubing by attaching the If you did the Quick Lab in
two free ends together, as 2. Identify what structures the the previous section that
shown above. pan of water, the surgical models an open circulatory
tubing, and the clear plastic system, recall what happened
3. With your thumb and index tubing represent. in that system. Which model
finger, squeeze along the
3. Evaluate your model’s effi- do you think exerted a greater
piece of surgical tubing to
ciency at pumping blood pressure on the fluid in
pump the food coloring
through the system. the tube?
through the system.

Annelid Groups
Annelids differ in the number of setae (bristles) they have on
each segment, and not all annelids have parapodia. These
two external characteristics are used to classify annelids.
Marine Worms
Marine segmented worms are members of class Polychaeta
(PAHL ih keet uh), the largest group of annelids. Polychaetes
live in virtually all ocean habitats. They are often beautiful,
showing unusual forms and iridescent colors. A distinc-
tive characteristic of polychaetes is the pair of fleshy,
Figure 11 Feather duster.
paddle-like parapodia that occur on most of their segments. The Feather dusters filter-feed by
parapodia, which usually have setae, are used to swim, burrow, trapping food particles in their
or crawl. Parapodia also greatly increase the surface area of the featherlike head structures.
polychaete’s body, making gas exchange between the animal and
the water more efficient.
Many polychaetes are burrowing species, but others live in
protective tubes formed by the hardened secretions of glands
located on their segments. Grains of sand or other foreign material
may be cemented into the tube. Such tubeworms, like the feather
duster shown in Figure 11, live with only their head stuck out of the
tube. Featherlike head structures trap food particles from the water
that passes over them. Other species of polychaetes feed by pumping
water through their body. Free-swimming polychaetes, such as
Nereis shown in Figure 12, are predators that use their strong jaws
to feed on small animals.
Figure 12 Nereis
Nereis, a polychaete worm, grasps its prey in its jaws, which open
when it thrusts out its pharynx. Tentacles
Jaw
Pharynx
Eyes
Setae
Parapodia

Earthworms
Earthworms and some related freshwater worms are members of
Real Life the class Oligochaeta (AHL ih goh KEET uh). Oligochaetes have no
“The early bird catches parapodia and only a few setae on each segment. Earthworms lack
the worm.” the distinctive head region of polychaetes and have no eyes. They
Because earthworms do, however, have light-sensitive and touch-sensitive organs located
respire through their skin, at each end of their body. They have other sensory cells that detect
they must stay moist. As
moisture.
a result, earthworms come
to the surface of the soil Earthworms, such as the ones in Figure 13, are highly specialized
only at night, when the air scavengers. They literally eat their way through the soil, consuming
is more moist. The “early their own weight in soil every day. As they tunnel, earthworms take
bird” catches in organic matter and other materials using their muscular pharynx.
worms that The ingested soil moves through their one-way gut, down the
have not
esophagus and into a storage chamber called the crop. From here,
yet bur-
rowed in for the soil moves to an area called the gizzard. The grinding action of
the day. the gizzard crushes the soil particles together, breaking them down.
The crushed material moves to the intestine, which extends to the
posterior end of the earthworm’s body. Digested food molecules are
absorbed into the intestinal wall, and the remaining material passes
out through the anus in a form called castings. The tunneling activity
of earthworms allows air to penetrate the soil, and their castings
fertilize it. Rich, organic soil may contain thousands of earthworms
per acre.
Hydrostatic Skeleton
The fluid within the coelom of each body segment creates a hydro-
static skeleton that supports the segment. Each segment contains
muscles that pull against this hydrostatic skeleton. Circular
muscles wrap around the segment, while longitudinal muscles span
its length. As shown in the Up Close: Earthworm, on the next page,
when the circular muscles contract, the segment becomes longer.
When the longitudinal muscles contract, the segment bunches up,
increasing in diameter. An earthworm crawls by alternately contract-
ing the two sets of muscles in its segments. The brain coordinates the
muscular activity of each body segment, thus controlling movement.
Figure 13 Earthworms
burrowing. Earthworms come
to the surface only at night or
during heavy rains. During dry or
cold weather, they burrow deep
into the soil and become inactive.

Up Close
Earthworm Movement of an Earthworm
● Scientific name: Lumbricus terrestris 1 Rear anchor

● Size: Grows up to 30 cm (12 in.) long
● Range: Europe; eastern and northwestern
North America 2 Elongation
● Habitat: Damp soil
● Diet: Organic matter contained in soil 3 Front
anchor
Characteristics 4 Pull
Respiration Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse
through the earthworm’s skin. This exchange can
take place only if the worm’s Movement As shown in the diagram,
skin is kept moist. 1 first the earthworm anchors several of its rear
segments by sinking their setae into the ground.
2 The worm then contracts the circular muscles in
front of the anchored segments. This causes the
anterior segments to elongate. 3 Then the setae in
Anus front of the stretched region are anchored and the
rear setae are released. 4 The circular muscles
Clitellum
relax and the longitudinal muscles contract, pulling
the rear segments forward.
Digestion Earthworms ▲ Longitudinal muscles

“eat” soil, which is ground
up in a thick, muscular Circular
muscles Dorsal blood vessel
gizzard. Food molecules
pass across the walls of Esophagus
Gizzard Crop Hearts
the intestine and are
Pharynx
absorbed into the
bloodstream.
Mouth
▲ Intestine
Nephridium
Ventral blood vessel

Segmental ganglion
Ventral nerve cord
Setae
▼ Cerebral ganglion (brain)
Reproduction Earthworms are hermaphrodites, each
▼
Reproductive organs
individual containing both sexes. Mating occurs when two Brain The brain coordinates
earthworms join ventrally head to tail, exchanging sperm. the muscular activity of each body
During egg laying, the clitellum (a thickened, glandular ring segment. It also processes sensory
of cells) of each worm secretes a mucous cocoon that information from light-sensitive and
encloses the fertilized eggs. Young worms emerge from touch-sensitive organs located at
the cocoon several weeks later. each end of the body.

Leeches
When people hear the word leech, they usually associate it with
bloodsucking, and for a good reason. A leech, shown in Figure 14,
has suckers at both ends of its body. Most species are predators or
scavengers, but some are parasites of vertebrates and crustaceans.
Leeches are the only members of class Hirudinea (hihr yoo DIHN
ee uh). Leeches lack both setae and parapodia. The body of a leech is
Figure 14 Leech. Most flattened, and unlike other annelids, its segments are not separated
species of leeches are small,
internally.
2.5 to 5.0 cm (1 to 2 in.) long.
Leeches Make a Comeback
F or many centuries, it was

commonly believed that an
excess amount of blood was
uses tiny instruments and a
microscope to reconnect ten-
dons, blood vessels, and nerves.
the cause of a wide range of It is not possible to reconnect
illnesses, from a fever or head- the smallest of the blood vessels, and enzymes that can break up
ache to severe heart disease. A so circulation in the reattached blood clots. It is not necessary to
standard treatment for these con- part is usually poor. Often tissues apply leeches to a patient to take
ditions was bloodletting using in the region die, and the advantage of these chemicals.
leeches. Physicians applied reattached part cannot heal. By Today these substances are
leeches to the patient’s body, applying leeches to suck out produced through genetic engi-
allowing the leeches to suck out the accumulated blood, tissues neering and have proven useful
the patient’s “bad blood.” remain healthy until new blood in the treatment of some heart
vessels grow and circulation is patients.
Use in Microsurgery
restored to normal. As a result,
Although doctors no longer the success rate of surgery for
believe in “bad-blood,” leeches reattachments has increased.
are making a comeback in the www.scilinks.org
field of health care. One use of Other Applications Topic: Leeches
leeches is during surgery to Leeches possess other useful Keyword: HX4113
reattach severed limbs, fingers, qualities. Their saliva contains
or toes. In this type of operation, anticoagulants — substances
called microsurgery, the surgeon that prevent blood from clotting—
Section 2 Review
Summarize how you can tell if a wormlike Compare the external appearance of marine
organism is an annelid worm. annelids, earthworms, and leeches.
Relate an annelid’s septa to its overall Standardized Test Prep What happens to a seg-
body plan. ment in an earthworm when the circular muscles in
that segment contract?
Describe the major features of an earthworm’s A It elongates. C It increases in diameter.
digestive system.
B It shortens. D It bends to one side.

ZONE
1 Mollusks Section 1
● Many mollusks and annelids have a larval form called trochophore (642)
visceral mass (643)
a trochophore.
mantle (643)
● The mollusk body has three distinct parts: a visceral foot (643)
mass, a mantle, and foot. radula (643)
nephridium (644)
● All mollusks except bivalves have a rasping tonguelike adductor muscle (647)
radula. siphon (647)
● Mollusks have a true coelom and well-developed
organs.
● Most mollusks respire with gills but some respire with
a primitive lung.
● Nephridia enable mollusks to recover the useful
substances from their bodily wastes.
● Gastropods (snails and slugs) live in oceans, in fresh
water, and on land.
● Bivalves (clams, oysters, and their kin) are aquatic
and have hard shells called valves that protect their
soft bodies.
● Gastropods and bivalves have an open circulatory
system.
● Cephalopods (octopuses, squids, and their kin) have
a well-developed head region, many tentacles, and a
closed circulatory system. Most cephalopods have no
external shell.
2 Annelids Section 2
● Annelids are coelomate worms that have segmented cerebral ganglion (651)
septa (652)
bodies and complex nervous systems.
seta (652)
● Annelids are classified according to the presence or parapodium (652)
absence of setae and parapodia.
● Annelids respire through their skin, and they have a
closed circulatory system.
● Earthworms burrow through the soil, ingesting it as
they crawl.
● Marine polychaetes have parapodia and setae. Some
are active predators and others are filter feeders.
● Leeches lack parapodia and setae, and their segments
are not separated internally. They may be aquatic or
terrestrial, and some are parasites.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. What are some possible

1. Both mollusks and annelids risks associated with cooking and eating
a. are coelomates. bivalves purchased from an unknown
b. have at least a remnant of a shell. vendor?
c. have no larval form. 9. How can leeches be benefi-
d. have a visceral mass. cial following microsurgery?
2. Terrestrial snails respire
a. with gills.
b. with a primitive lung.
map that shows the characteristics and
c. through their skin.
diversity of the mollusks. Include the fol-
d. through their siphon.
lowing words in your map: foot, visceral
mass, mantle, radula, siphons, gastropod,
3. Which of the following is not true of bivalve, cephalopod, open circulatory
bivalves? system, and closed circulatory system.
a. They have a distinctive head region.
b. They have sense organs. Critical Thinking
c. They have an open circulatory system. 11. Recognizing Patterns The gizzards of
d. Most are filter feeders. annelids that have returned to an aquatic
4. Cephalopods have all of the following environment over evolutionary time are
characteristics except smaller and less muscular than those of ter-
a. bilateral symmetry. restrial annelids, such as earthworms. How
b. a three-part body plan. do the differences between the two types of
c. an open circulatory system. gizzards represent adaptations for aquatic
d. a true coelom. and terrestrial feeding?
5. Annelids are divided into three classes. 12. Relating Concepts Explain the significance
This classification is based on the number of a coelom in the evolution of mollusks.
of setae and the presence or absence of
a. segments.
b. hearts. 13. Finding and Communicating Information
c. a gizzard. Use the library or Internet resources to
d. parapodia. compile a list of mollusks used by humans
6. Blood in the circulatory system of
as food sources. For each mollusk listed,
an annelid tell where it is harvested and which part of
a. flows into its body cavity.
the mollusk is eaten. Prepare a brochure to
b. delivers carbon dioxide to its tissues.
summarize your findings. Include a visual
c. passes through gills.
that informs the reader of the geographic
d. stays within its circulatory system.
location of the food source.
14. Career Connection Worm Farmer Research
7. Earthworm movement requires all of the
following except the field of growing segmented worms for
a. circular muscles.
use in research, as fishing bait, and for soil
b. secretion of mucus.
improvement. Your report should include
c. muscle contractions.
a job description, training required, kinds
d. traction provided by setae.
of employers, growth prospects, and
starting salary.


correct answer.
A particular bivalve mollusk called a
1 What structure do mollusks use to extract shipworm can do extensive damage to ocean
useful molecules from coelomic fluid? pier pilings (supports) by burrowing into
A. ganglia them with its radula. As a science project, a
B. nephridia student decides to determine if a new paint
C. parapodia can reduce shipworm damage more than
D. radula other paints do.
2 Which of the following is not a part of the 6 What variables must the student control in
mollusk’s three-part body plan? order for the experimental results to be
F. foot considered valid?
G. mantle A. All variables except for the type of paint
H. radula must be identical.
I. visceral mass B. All variables except for the thickness of
paint must be identical.
3 What structures connect the valves of
C. All variables except for the type of pier
bivalves?
pilings must be identical.
A. adductor muscles
D. All variables except for the numbers of
B. parapodia
mollusks used must be identical.
C. siphons
D. visceral mass Interpreting Graphics
4 What trait easily identifies an annelid? Directions (7): Base your answer to question
F. body cavity 7 on the diagram below.
G. cephalization
Structure of a Mollusk
H. nephridia
I. segmentation C
Directions (5): For the following question, B D

5 Classification of organisms has

traditionally been based on physical
similarities. However, gastropods,
bivalves, and cephalopods are physically
quite different. Given the physical differ- A
ences of gastropods, bivalves, and
cephalopods, how did they come to be 7 What structure is part of the respiratory
grouped into the phylum Mollusca? system?
F. A
G. B
H. C
Test I. D
Whenever possible, highlight or underline numbers
or words that are critical to the correct understand-
ing of a question.

Skills Practice Lab
Observing Characteristics of Clams
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Observing • safety goggles
• Testing for the presence of • lab apron
a chemical • live clam
OBJECTIVES
• small beaker or dish
• Observe the behavior of a • eyedropper

live clam. • food coloring
• Examine the structure • glass stirring rod
and composition of a • clam shell
clam shell. • Petri dish
• scalpel
• 0.1 M HCl
ChemSafety

Clams are mollusks , and they have a two-part PART A: Observe a Live Clam
shell. The body of a clam consists of a vis- 1. Put on safety goggles and a lab
ceral mass and a muscular foot . There is no apron.
definite head. Two tubes, an incurrent siphon
2. Place a live clam in a small
and an excurrent siphon , extend from the
beaker or shallow dish of water.
body on the side opposite the foot. Like all
Using an eyedropper, apply two drops
mollusks, clams have a shell composed of
of food coloring near the clam, as
calcium carbonate . A membrane called the
shown above.
mantle lines the shell and forms successive
rings of shell as a clam grows. The umbo is 3. Observe and record what happens to the
the oldest part of a clam shell. In this lab, you food coloring.
will examine live clams and clam shells. 4. Using a stirring rod, touch the clam’s
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in mantle. CAUTION: Touch the clam
the paragraph. gently to avoid injuring it.
2. Based on your objectives, write a question 5. Observe and record the clam’s response
you would like to explore about clams. to touch.

PART B: Observe a Clam Shell stock container. Return lab equipment
6. Examine the concentric growth rings on to its proper place. Wash your hands
the shell. Locate the knob-shaped umbo thoroughly before you leave the lab and
on the shell. Count and record the num- after you finish all work.
ber of growth rings on the clam shell.
Growth Umbo
rings
1. Analyzing Results Find the incurrent
and excurrent siphons of the clam in the
illustration on this page. Using this infor-
mation, explain your observations in step 3.
2. Drawing Conclusions What is the
Incurrent purpose of a clam’s shell?
siphon
Excurrent
3. Making Predictions Based on your
siphon observations, how do you think clams
respond when they are touched or
7. Place the clam shell in a Petri
threatened in their natural habitat?
dish. Use a scalpel to chip away
part of the shell to expose its three layers. 4. Forming a Hypothesis What does a
CAUTION: Sharp or pointed objects clam take in from water that passes
may cause injury. Handle scalpels through its body?
carefully. View the shell’s layers with a 5. Inferring Relationships Water that
stereomicroscope. The outermost layer enters a clam’s incurrent siphon passes
protects the clam from acids in the water. over the clam’s gills. How does this
The innermost layer is mother-of-pearl, help the clam respire?
the material that forms pearls. 6. Further Inquiry Write a new question
8. The middle layer of the shell con- about clams that could be explored with
tains crystals of calcium carbonate. another investigation.
To test for the presence of this compound,
place one drop of 0.1 M HCl on the mid-
dle layer of the shell. CAUTION:
Hydrochloric acid is corrosive. Avoid
contact with skin, eyes, and clothing.
Avoid breathing vapors. If calcium
carbonate is present, bubbles of carbon
dioxide will form in the drop. Record
your observations.

9. Dispose of solutions, broken glass,
On the Job
and pieces of clam shell in the waste Geologists use hydrochloric acid to
containers designated by your teacher. Do test rocks for the presence of calcium
not pour chemicals down the drain or put carbonate. Do research to discover the
lab materials in the trash unless your role that mollusks play in the formation
teacher tells you to do so. of rocks. For more about careers, visit
go.hrw.com and type in the keyword
HX4 Careers.
equipment. Return live clams to the
CHAPTER 29 Mollusks and Annelids 661
European swallowtail

CHAPTER
30 Arthropods

1. Summarize the evolutionary movement of
arthropods from the sea onto land. Features of Arthropods
(Chapter 12, Section 3) Jointed Appendages
Arthropod Diversity
2. Define the term chitin. (Chapter 22, Section 1)
Arthropod Body Plan
3. Describe the circulation of blood in an
open circulatory system. (Chapter 27,
Section 2) Section 2
4. Define the term sessile. (Chapter 28, Section 1) Spiders and Other Arachnids
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Arachnid Modifications
sections indicated. Scorpions and Mites
Section 3
Insects and Their Relatives
Insect Diversity
As you read through this chapter, make an
outline of the material presented. You may need Crustaceans
Crustacean Habitats
to first review outlining methods, such as using
Terrestrial Crustaceans
Roman numerals, letters, and Arabic numerals.
Aquatic Crustaceans
Review your outline to be sure that the main
ideas are included.
www.scilinks.org
The beautiful European swallowtail butterfly, Papilio
machaon, produces one of two colors of pupa. Brown
pupae are found on brown leaves or stems. Green
pupae are found on green leaves or stems.
CHAPTER 30 Arthropods 663

Section 1 Features of Arthropods
Objectives Jointed Appendages
● Summarize the evolutionary Whether you are looking at a scorpion or a leaf-footed bug, as
relationship of arthropods shown in Figure 1, when you see an arthropod, you will probably
and annelids. notice its appendages. An appendage is a structure that extends
● Identify the three subphyla from the arthropod’s body wall. Unlike the parapodia and setae of
of arthropods. annelids, arthropod appendages have joints that bend. The phylum
● Describe the characteristics name, Arthropoda, literally means “joint foot.” A variety of jointed
of arthropods. appendages are found in arthropods, including legs for walking,
antennae for sensing the environment, and mouthparts for sucking,
● Describe how growth
ripping, and chewing food.
occurs in arthropods.
Arthropods almost certainly share a distant common ancestor
Key Terms with the annelid worms. Like annelids, arthropods have a coelom
and a segmented body. Arthropod fossils, some as much as
appendage 600 million years old, are among the oldest, best-preserved fossils
thorax of multicellular animals. Among the most numerous of the early
cephalothorax
arthropods were the now-extinct trilobites, which lived in the
compound eye
molting
sea. Like modern arthropods, trilobites had segmented bodies
trachea and jointed appendages, and they were the first animals to have
spiracle eyes capable of forming images. Trilobites became extinct about
Malpighian tubule 250 million years ago. The first terrestrial arthropods were probably
scorpions similar to the modern scorpion shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Arthropods
This leaf-footed bug and hairy desert scorpion belong to phylum Arthropoda.
Leaf-footed bug Scorpion
7 Jointed appendages
Arthropods were the first animals to have jointed appendages. Joints permit
powerful movement, aiding locomotion. Jointed appendages became
specialized in many different ways, helping to create the vast diversity
seen among the arthropods.
664 CHAPTER 30 Arthropods

Arthropod Diversity
If a prize were given for sheer numbers, it would go to the arthro-
pods. The total number of arthropod species exceeds that of all
www.scilinks.org
other kinds of animals combined. There may be 5,000,000 or more Topic: Arthropods
species of arthropods. There are more species of beetles alone than Keyword: HX4014
there are of vertebrates. Scientists estimate that 1018 arthropods are
alive at any one moment! The great majority of arthropods are
small, about 1 mm (0.04 in.) in length. Some parasitic mites are
only 80 µm (0.003 in.) long. The largest arthropods are gigantic
crabs 3.6 m (12 ft) across, found in the sea near Japan.
Living arthropods are traditionally divided into two groups,
arthropods with jaws and arthropods with fangs or pincers. As
shown in Figure 2, arthropods with jaws belong to either subphy-
lum Uniramia (yoo nuh RAY mee uh) or to subphylum Crustacea
(kruhs TAY shuh). Arthropods with fangs or pincers belong to sub-
phylum Chelicerata (chuh LIS uh rahd uh). Each of these three
subphyla represents a distinct evolutionary line.
Figure 2 Phylogenetic tree

This phylogenetic tree shows the relationships among the three arthropod sub-
phyla which form two groups: those with jaws and those with fangs or pincers.
Millipedes Centipedes Ladybugs Shrimps Pill bugs Scorpions Mites Spiders Sea spiders Horseshoe crabs
Class Class Class Order Order Order Order Order Order Class
Diplopoda Chilopoda Insecta Decapoda Isopoda Scorpions Acari Araneae Pycnogonida Merostomata
Class Class
Malacostraca Arachnida
Subphylum Subphylum
Uniramia Crustacea Trilobites
(extinct)
Arthropods with jaws

Subphylum
Chelicerata
Arthropods with fangs

or pincers
Common ancestor
SECTION 1 Features of Arthropods 665

Arthropod Body Plan
While arthropods may be quite different in appearance, they share
a number of internal and external features, which are summarized
in Figure 3. There is great variation in appearance among arthropod
species, and not every species has every feature listed. However,
these features are characteristic of the phylum as a whole.
Segmentation
In arthropods, individual body segments often exist only during the
larval stage. For example, when you look at a butterfly larva (a
caterpillar), you can easily see that it has many segments. However,
if you look closely at an adult butterfly, you will see only three body
regions. In most arthropods the many body segments fuse during
development to form three distinct regions—the head, the thorax
(midbody region), and the abdomen. In some arthropods, such as
the crab shown at the top in Figure 3, the head is fused with the
thorax to form a body region called the cephalothorax.
Figure 3 Arthropod Characteristics of Arthropods

characteristics. These eight
• Jointed appendages
characteristics are typical of
arthropods, although not • Segmentation
all arthropods show each • Distinct head, often with
characteristic. compound eyes
• Exoskeleton
• Respiration by gills, tracheae,
or book lungs
• Open circulatory system
• Excretion through
Malpighian tubules
• Wings on many
arthropods
Figure 4 Compound eyes.
The compound eye of this
house fly is made of 800 or
more individual units.
Magnification: 22
Compound Eyes
Many arthropods have compound eyes, shown in Figure 4.
A compound eye is an eye composed of multiple individual
visual units, each with its own lens and retina. The brain
receives input from each of the units, and then composes an
image of an object. While the image formed is not as clear
as what you see, arthropods see motion much more quickly.
This is why it is so difficult to sneak up on a fly. Some
arthropods also have simple, single-lens eyes that do not
form images, but simply distinguish light from dark.
Most insects have both compound and simple eyes.
In dragonflies and locusts, these simple eyes function as
horizon detectors. The ability to see the horizon helps the
insect stabilize its position during flight.

Exoskeleton
The outer layer of the arthropod body is a rigid exoskele-
ton (often called a shell) composed primarily of chitin.
The exoskeleton is thin and flexible where the joints of the
appendages are located. Muscles attached to the interior
surfaces of the exoskeleton can pull against it, causing the
animal’s joints to bend. As shown in Figure 5, many
arthropods can use their jointed appendages to perform
complex movements. While chitin is tough, it is brittle and
breaks easily. As arthropods increase in size, their
exoskeletons must become thicker to withstand the pull of
larger muscles without breaking. However, an increase in
Figure 5 Jointed
thickness of the exoskeleton adds weight, restricting the size arthro- appendages. The joints in
pods can reach. the legs of this praying mantis
The exoskeleton of the different arthropod groups varies greatly permit it to perform many
in thickness. If you have ever attempted to swat a large insect, you complex movements, such
know that its exoskeleton can be difficult to crush. Crustaceans, for as manipulating prey.
example, have a thick, relatively inflexible exoskeleton. In compari-
son, the exoskeleton of other insects and some arachnids is fairly
soft and flexible. Regardless of the nature of an arthropod’s
exoskeleton, it provides protection from injury and helps to prevent
water loss.
Evaluating Jointed
Appendages
To understand the importance of jointed appendages,
test your range of movement without and with bending
your joints.
Materials
meterstick, paper, and pencil
Procedure Analysis
1. Work in pairs, and assign one 4. The test subject now tries to 1. Describe how eating break-
person to be the test subject increase the range of move- fast might be different if you
and one person to record the ment by bending the fingers did not have joints on your
data. only. The recorder measures fingers and at your elbows.
and records the closest and
2. The test subject extends one 2. Predict the advantages an
farthest distance along the
arm straight out in front of animal with jointed
meterstick that can be
the body. The subject then appendages has over an ani-
reached.
places a meterstick along the mal without jointed
inside of the arm, as shown 5. The test subject now tries to appendages when capturing
in the illustration. The elbow increase the range of motion and consuming food.
should not be bent. by bending the elbow. The
3. Predict the advantages for
recorder measures and
3. The recorder measures and an arthropod that has sense
records the closest and far-
records the distance along organs (eyes and odor detec-
thest distance along the
the meterstick that the test tors) on the ends of jointed
meterstick that can be
subject can reach with appendages.
reached.
extended (not bent) fingers.

Molting
A tough exoskeleton protects an arthropod from predators and
helps prevent water loss. But an exoskeleton cannot grow larger, so
an arthropod cannot simply grow bigger, as many other animals do.
Imagine blowing up a balloon inside a soft drink can—after a cer-
tain point, the balloon cannot get any bigger. Arthropods have the
same problem. In a process called molting , or ecdysis (EHK duh
sihs), they shed and discard their exoskeletons periodically. Molting
is triggered by the release of certain hormones. Just before molting,
a new exoskeleton forms beneath the old one. When the new
Figure 6 Molting. This exoskeleton is fully formed, the old one breaks open. The arthropod
green cicada is emerging from emerges in its new, still-soft exoskeleton, as shown in Figure 6.
its old exoskeleton, which it The new exoskeleton hardens within a few hours or a few days,
leaves behind as a colorless
depending on the species.
ghost of itself.
Respiration
The majority of terrestrial arthropods respire through a network of
fine tubes called tracheae (TRAY kee ee), as shown in Figure 7. Air
enters the arthropod’s body through structures called spiracles and
passes into the tracheae, delivering oxygen throughout the body.
Valves that control the flow of air through the spiracles and prevent
water loss were a key adaptation for the first arthropods that
invaded land more than 400 million years ago.
Figure 7 Tracheal system of a beetle

Real Life
A complex series of hollow tubes called tracheae run through the bodies
Head lice often infect of most terrestrial arthropods.
entire schools.
Head lice are notoriously
difficult to control. Having
clean hair will not prevent
a head lice infection, and Trachea
anti-lice shampoos often
fail to kill immature Muscle cell
head lice.
Finding Information
Research the latest reme- Spiracle
dies for treating head lice,
and find out how to avoid
infection.

Excretion
Terrestrial arthropods have a unique excretory system that efficiently
conserves water and eliminates metabolic wastes. This system is com-
posed of excretory units called Malpighian (mal PIHG ee uhn)
tubules. Malpighian tubules are slender, fingerlike extensions from
the arthropod’s gut that are bathed by blood. Water and small
dissolved particles in the blood move through the tubules and into the
arthropod’s gut. As this fluid moves through the gut, most of the
water, valuable ions, and metabolites from the fluid are reabsorbed
into the arthropod’s body tissues. Metabolic wastes remain in the gut
and eventually leave the body through the anus. You can see the
Malpighian tubules on the grasshopper in Up Close: Grasshopper, in
Section 3 of this chapter.
Crawly Clues
E ntomologists are scientists

who study the taxonomy,
structure, and behavior of
will appear at predictable
intervals in a kind of grim
postmortem parade. Blow-
insects. Forensic entomologists flies, for example, typically
apply their knowledge of insects infest a corpse beginning
to help solve crimes or resolve about two days after larvae, and pupae to adulthood to
legal issues. death. Other insect may come determine the species.
later.
Postmortem Parade Each species passes through Location
Forensic medical entomologists each stage of metamorphosis at Sometimes the kinds of insects
are often asked to determine the a precise rate. Insects develop found on a corpse can help deter-
time of a crime victim’s death. To most quickly in warmer weather. mine the location of death. For
many insects, a victim’s body is a An experienced entomologist example, blowflies are usually
banquet table. Blowflies (family can sometimes identify the insect found in urban areas. A blowfly-
Calliphoridae) and flesh flies species based on the larval and infested corpse found along a
(family Sarcophagidae) feed upon pupal stages collected from the rural road might have been killed
decaying human flesh. After the corpse. In some cases, the in the city, and then moved to the
moment of death, certain species entomologist will raise the eggs, countryside.
Section 1 Review
State the evolutionary relationship of the Critical Thinking Relating Concepts Draw
arthropods and the annelids. a concept map of the three subphyla of arthropods,
with two examples of each subphylum.
Describe the three externally visible character-
istics common to all arthropods. Standardized Test Prep
Oxygen is delivered
throughout an arthropod’s body by the
Summarize how compound eyes function. A Malpighian tubules. C exoskeleton.
Describe how arthropods grow. B blood. D tracheae.

Section 2 Spiders and Other
Arachnids
Objectives Arachnid Modifications
● Summarize the characteris- Perhaps no other group of animals is more disliked and feared by
tics of arachnids. humans than the arachnids—spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, and
● Identify the internal and daddy longlegs. While it is true that some spiders and scorpions are
external characteristics of highly venomous, in general these creatures do more good than
brown recluse spiders. harm. For example, many spiders are major predators of insect pests,
● Compare spiders, ticks, and and gardeners usually welcome them. Arachnids (uh RAK nihdz)
mites. form the largest class in subphylum Chelicerata. Two minor classes,
marine horseshoe crabs and sea spiders, also belong to this subphy-
● Identify the health threats
lum. The members of subphylum Chelicerata have mouthparts called
posed by some arachnids.
chelicerae (kuh LIS uh ree) that are modified into pincers or fangs,
as shown in Figure 8.
Key Terms
The arachnid body is made up of a cephalothorax and an
chelicera abdomen. There are no antennae, and the first pair of appendages
pedipalp are chelicerae. The second pair of appendages are pedipalps , which
spinneret are modified to catch and handle prey. (The pedipalps are sometimes
specialized for sensory or even reproductive functions.) Following
the pedipalps are four pairs of appendages called walking legs.
All arachnids except some mites are carnivores, and most are ter-
restrial. Since arachnids do not have jaws, they are able to consume
only liquid food. To do so, the arachnid first injects its prey with
powerful enzymes that cause the prey’s tissues to liquefy. Then the
arachnid sucks the liquid food into its stomach.
Spiders
The chelicerae of spiders are modified into fangs.
Poison glands located in the spider’s anterior end
secrete a toxin through these fangs. The toxin kills or
paralyzes the prey. The spider then injects enzymes
into the prey that digest its tissues, and the spider
sucks up the liquid food. Spiders are important
predators of insects in almost every terrestrial
ecosystem. Only two species of spiders living in the
United States, the black widow and brown recluse,
are dangerous to humans. Not all spiders build
Figure 8 Chelicerae. The beautiful webs as the orb-builders do. Most spiders can secrete
baboon spider’s pointed black
sticky strands of silk from appendages called spinnerets located at
chelicerae (fangs) and its two
pair of pedipalps are clearly the end of the abdomen. Tubes located on some spinnerets do not
seen in this close-up of its produce silk. Instead, they excrete a sticky substance that the spider
head region. can use to make some silk strands adhesive.

Up Close
Brown Recluse Spider
(Violin Spider)
● Scientific name: Loxosceles reclusa
● Size: Length of females, up to 10 mm (0.5 in.); males are smaller
● Range: South-central United States, from central Texas to
Alabama, north to southern Ohio
● Habitat: Dark, dry sheltered sites outdoors or indoors
● Diet: Small insects
Characteristics
Cephalothorax Six eyes, in pairs, form a Abdomen The abdomen Reproduction During mating,
semicircle around the front of the cephalo- contains most of the spider’s the male uses its pedipalps
thorax. Two chelicerae and two pedipalps are organs. Spinnerets located modified into sperm storage
located next to the mouth. Four pairs of walk- here are used to spin small, organs to insert sperm into the
ing legs attach to the cephalothorax, which is irregular webs. female’s body. The female lays
marked on top with a distinctive violin shape. an average of 20–50 eggs inside
a silk cocoon that she spins and
hangs in her web.
▲ Ovary
Walking leg Brain Stomach Gut
Heart
Digestive gland
Malpighian
tubule
Simple eyes
Pedipalp Anus
Chelicera Genital
▼ Poison gland Mouth opening Silk glands Spinnerets
Poison gland Poison

glands are connected to the
fanged chelicera. The venom ▼ Book lung
of the brown recluse is Respiration Book lungs contain stacks
harmful to many humans. of thin blood-filled plates of tissue. Air enters
The severity of a person’s the book lungs through slits on the under-
reaction depends on the side of the spider’s abdomen and passes
individual’s sensitivity and over them. Blood flowing through the plates
how much venom is injected. Air flow
picks up oxygen by diffusion.

SECTION 2 Spiders and Other Arachnids 671
Scorpions and Mites
Two other familiar groups of arachnids are scorpions and mites.
Like spiders, they have chelicerae and pedipalps, but these struc-
www.scilinks.org
tures are modified differently.
Topic: Mites and Disease
Keyword: HX4123
Scorpions
Scorpions have long, slender, segmented abdomens that end in a
venomous stinger used to stun their prey. The stinger-tipped
abdomen is usually folded forward over the rest of the scorpion’s
body, a trait that makes scorpions instantly recognizable. The pedi-
palps of scorpions are large, grasping pincers, which are used not
for defense but for seizing food and during sexual reproduction.
Mites
Mites are by far the largest group of arachnids. Some mites, includ-
ing chiggers and ticks, are well known to humans because of their irri-
tating bites. They are easily recognizable because their head, thorax,
and abdomen are fused into a single, unsegmented body. Most adult
mites, such as the one shown in Figure 9, are quite small, typically less
than 1 mm (0.04 in.) long, but ticks grow larger. Many aquatic mites
are herbivores, while terrestrial mites are usually predators.
Most mites are not harmful, but some are plant and animal pests.
While feeding, plant mites may pass viral and fungal infections to
the plant. Blood-sucking ticks attach themselves to a host, often a
human. Lyme disease is spread by bites from infected deer ticks,
like the one shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9 Mites. The house

dust mite is a major cause of
allergies in humans. The bite
of an infected deer tick can
cause Lyme disease. Dust mite Deer tick
Section 2 Review
Compare the body plan of spiders, scorpions, Critical Thinking Evaluating Conclusions
and mites, including differences in appendages. Is an animal that has grasping pincers, a
segmented body, and two antennae correctly
Describe the body and coloring of a brown identified as a scorpion? Why or why not?
recluse spider.
Standardized Test Prep The relationship between
Critical Thinking Summarizing Information a tick and a dog is an example of
Explain why a tick bite is more a cause for concern A homeostasis. C commensalism.
than the bite of most spiders.
B parasitism. D mutualism.

Insects and Their Section 3
Relatives
Insect Diversity Objectives
Anyone who has ever been on a picnic in a wooded area does not ● Describe the characteris-
have to be told that insects are numerous. Ants, mosquitoes, gnats, tics of insects.
flies, bees, crickets—they all want to join in while the cicadas sing in ● Compare complete and in-
the background. These animals all belong to the arthropod subphy- complete metamorphosis.
lum Uniramia, an enormous group of mostly terrestrial arthropods
● Identify the external and in-
that have chewing mouthparts called mandibles (jaws). Uniramians ternal structures of the Eastern
consist of three classes: Insecta (insects), Diplopoda (millipedes), Lubber grasshopper.
and Chilopoda (centipedes).
● Compare millipedes and
The insects are by far the largest group of organisms on Earth,
centipedes with insects.
with more than 700,000 named species. Most scientists agree
that there may be several million insect species in existence, with
Key Terms
most of the undiscovered species living in the tropics. As shown
in Figure 10, more than 50 percent of all named animal species mandible
are insects. More than 90 percent of these species belong to metamorphosis
chrysalis
one of the four orders shown in Table 1. To read about other orders
pupa
of insects, see “A Six-Kingdom System of Classification” in the
nymph
Appendix of this book. caste
Figure 10 Species of insects

The predominance of insects, especially beetles (Coleoptera), in the living world
is illustrated by the blue section of this pie chart.
Table 1 Four Orders of Insects

Fungi
Order Examples Number of

species
Coleoptera Flowering Coleoptera Beetles,

plants 350,000
“shield winged” weevils
Diptera All
Protis
ts Diptera Flies,
oth 120,000
ra er “two winged” mosquitoes
e Ve s p
pt rte ecies
do
ra
br
pi
Other insects
pte
at
Le es
M
ol
eno
Spi
Lepidoptera Butterflies,
lu
120,000
sk
Hym
der
“scale winged” moths

s
s
Hymenoptera Ants,
Millipedes,
centipedes “membrane wasps, 100,000
winged” bees
SECTION 3 Insects and Their Relatives 673

Insect Body Plan
Insects are primarily a terrestrial group, and aquatic insects proba-
bly had terrestrial ancestors. Although the great majority of insects
are small (some are only a few centimeters in length), others are
The numbered list on this
much larger. The African Goliath beetle, for example, exceeds 10
page lists three important
characteristics of insects. cm (4 in.) in length. Generally, the larger insects live in tropical
Use this information to draw areas. Despite great variation in their size, all insects share the
a concept map that summa- same general body plan, made up of three body sections.
rizes insect characteristics.
1. Head. Located on an insect’s head are mandibles, specialized
mouthparts, and one pair of antennae. The mandibles and mouth-
parts of different insect species are adapted for eating different
foods, as shown in Figure 11. In addition, an insect’s head usually
has a relatively large pair of compound eyes and a pair of antennae.
Like the mouthparts, antennae vary greatly in size and shape.
2. Thorax. The thorax is composed of three fused segments.
Attached to the thorax are three pairs of jointed walking legs.
Some insects, such as fleas, lice, and silverfish, lack wings, but
other adult insects have one or two pairs attached to the thorax.
3. Abdomen. The abdomen is composed of 9 to 11 segments. In
adult insects, there are no wings or legs attached to the abdomen.
Turn the facing page to learn more about one particular insect,
the grasshopper, in Up Close: Eastern Lubber Grasshopper.
Figure 11 Insect mouthparts

The mouthparts of the different insect species are adapted for different functions.
Mandible
Mandible
Mandible
Grasshopper Mosquito Fly

(adapted for biting and chewing) (adapted for piercing and sucking) (adapted for sponging and lapping)

Figure 12 Complete
metamorphosis. A complete
metamorphosis includes a
pupa stage, which is passed
Egg inside a chrysalis.
Adult
Adult emerging Young
from chrysalis Older larva
larva
Pupa in chrysalis
Insect Life Cycle

The life cycles of most insects are complex, and often several molts
are required before the adult stage is reached. During the last
molt, the young insect undergoes a dramatic physical change called
metamorphosis .
Complete Metamorphosis Almost
all insect species undergo
“complete” metamorphosis, as shown in Figure 12. In complete meta-
morphosis, the wingless, wormlike larva encloses itself within a
protective capsule called a chrysalis (KRIHS uh lihs). Here, it passes
through a pupa stage, in which it changes into an adult. Figure 13 Incomplete
A complete metamorphosis is a complex life cycle. The larvae metamorphosis. The nymph
passes through several molts
can, however, exploit different habitats and food sources than before it becomes an adult.
adults. For example, the larvae of
nectar-drinking butterflies are cater-
pillars that eat leaves! This ecological
separation of young from adults elimi-
Adult
nates competition. This increases the
chance of survival for each phase of
the life cycle. Eggs
Incomplete Metamorphosis A smaller

number of species develop into adults
in a much less dramatic incomplete Nymph Nymph
metamorphosis, as shown in Figure 13.
In these species, the egg hatches into a
juvenile, or nymph (NIHMF), that
looks like a small, wingless adult. After
several molts, the nymph develops into
an adult. Nymph

Up Close
Eastern Lubber
Grasshopper
● Scientific name: Romalea microptera
● Size: 5 cm (2 in.) to 6.5 cm (2.6 in.) in length
● Range: Eastern United States
● Habitat: Fields and meadows
● Diet: Grasses and other leafy vegetation
External Structures
Antenna
Thorax The thorax is composed of Head Two antennae contain
three fused segments, each with a pair sense organs for touch and smell. Compound
of legs. The front two pairs are walking On each side of the head is a very eye Ocellus
▼
legs. The rear pair is larger jumping legs. large compound eye. Located Head
During mating season, males “sing” to high on the forehead are three
potential mates by rubbing a row of pegs light-detecting ocelli.
on a jumping leg against ridges on
a forewing.
▼
Thorax Labrum
Wings Grasshoppers have Mandible
Maxilla
a pair of leathery forewings
that protect the more deli-
cate flying wings (This
grasshopper is flightless). Labium ▼ Mouthparts
▲ Forewing
▲ Rudimentary
Mouthparts The stiff
flying wing upper labrum and lower
labium (lips) hold a leaf or
Walking blade of grass in place while
Jumping leg leg
the mandibles (jaws), assisted
Abdomen
Ovipositor by maxillas (graspers), tear
off pieces of the plant.
▼ Spiracles
Spiracles Spiracles admit air to the
extensively branching system of tracheae
that deliver oxygen throughout the body.
676 CHAPTER 30
CHAPTER # Chapter Title
Arthropods
Internal Structures
Reproductive system The

female collects the male’s sperm in
a storage pouch called a seminal Circulatory system A long blood
receptacle. Later, the female digs a vessel with a series of muscular “hearts”
hole using two pairs of pointed runs along the grasshopper’s back. Blood
ovipositors. As she releases the is pumped out of the open system and
eggs into the hole, they are bathes the body tissues directly before
fertilized by the stored sperm. returning to the heart.
▲ Dorsal blood vessel
Brain
Hearts
▲ Seminal receptacle Flying wing
Mouth
Salivary
gland
Midgut
Gizzard
Anus
Ganglia
▼ Crop
Malpighian Digestive system Chewed

tubules food enters a storage pouch
called a crop and passes to the
▼ Nerve cord gizzard, where it is shredded
Nervous system The nervous system is and crushed. Food is digested in
composed of a major ventral nerve cord with the midgut, and food molecules
ganglia located in each body segment. Three pass through the midgut wall
fused ganglia in the head serve as the brain. into the fluid of the coelom.
This fluid eventually enters the
circulatory system.

Flight
Insects were the first animals to have wings. For more than 100 mil-
lion years, until flying reptiles appeared, insects were the only flying
organisms. Flight, illustrated in Figure 14, was a great evolutionary
innovation. Flying insects were able to reach previously inaccessible
food sources and to escape quickly from danger.
An insect’s wings develop from saclike outgrowths of the body
wall of the thorax. The wings of adult insects are composed entirely
of chitin, strengthened by a network of tubes called veins (which
carry air and a bloodlike substance). In most insects, the power
stroke of the wing during flight is downward, and it is produced by
strong flight muscles. When at rest, most insects fold their wings
over their abdomen, but a few insects are unable to do this. Drag-
onflies, for example, keep their wings outstretched when they rest
beside a pond. Most insects have two pairs of wings. A few groups
of insects, such as fleas and lice, are wingless.
Figure 14 Insect flight. In most insects only one pair of wings is functional for flight. In
This stop-action series shows some species, the second pair of wings serves another purpose. For
how this insect’s wings move example, in grasshoppers and beetles, the forewings act as protec-
during flight. tive wing covers. In flies, the hindwings are modified into knoblike
structures that help control stability during flight.
Analyzing the Effects of Pesticide Use

Background
In nature, insect pests are usually kept in balance by the presence of predators, including
0100010110
011101010 other insects. The use of some pesticides can upset this balance, as shown in the graph
0010010001001 below. Examine the graph, and answer the analysis questions.
1100100100010
0000101001001
1101010100100
0101010010010
Analysis
1. Identify the years during which the
two insect populations appear to
Changes in Two Insect Populations
maintain stability in relation to each Insect pest Beneficial species
other. Justify your answer with data
Population size (1,000s per acre)
from the graph. 10

2. Describe the relationship between
Pesticide
the two insect species before year 4. 8
application
3. Describe the changes in the two
6
populations after the use of a pesticide.
4. Compare the annual changes 4
in population size of the pest
species before and after the use 2
of a pesticide.
5. Critical Thinking Developing
Hypotheses Propose a hypothesis 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
that might explain the dramatic Time (years)
changes that occur in the insect popu-
lations after the use of pesticides.

Social Insects
Two orders of insects, Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and
wasps) and Isoptera (termites), have elaborate social
systems. These insects often live in highly organized
societies of genetically related individuals. Within
these insect societies, there is a marked division of
labor, with different kinds of individuals performing
specific functions. The role played by an individual in
a colony is called its caste . Caste is determined by a
combination of heredity; diet, especially as a larva;
hormones; and pheromones, chemical substances
used for communication. In the termite colony shown Figure 15 Termite colony.
in Figure 15, for example, small, active members called workers Most of the members of this
termite colony are unable to
gather the food, raise the young, and excavate tunnels. Other, larger
reproduce. The queen, with
termites, called soldiers, defend the colony with their immense jaws. her enormous abdomen, is
Both workers and soldiers are sterile. Reproduction is a function of the egg-laying machine of
only the queen and king. the colony.
Insect Relatives
Centipedes and millipedes, shown in Figure 16, have similar bodies.
Each has a head region followed by numerous similar segments.
Each segment bears one or two pairs of legs. Centipedes have one
pair of legs per segment and can have up to 173 segments. Modern
millipedes have from 11 to 100 or more body segments, and most
millipede segments have two pairs of legs. While centipedes are
carnivores, most millipedes are herbivores.
Figure 16 Centipedes and

millipedes. Centipedes are
carnivorous predators, while
millipedes are herbivores that
Centipede Millipede feed on decayed vegetation.
Section 3 Review
Relate the Eastern Lubber grasshopper’s body Critical Thinking Forming Hypotheses
plan to that of a typical insect. Based on the information given in Table 1, what
characteristic is key to determining an insect’s
Compare the life cycles of grasshoppers and classification? Support your answer.
butterflies.
Standardized Test Prep A grasshopper’s antennae
Identify the distinguishing characteristics of contain sense organs for
insects, millipedes, and centipedes. A touch and smell. C hearing and vision.
B smell and hearing. D vision and touch.

Section 4 Crustaceans
Objectives Crustacean Habitats
● Summarize how Just as insect species dominate on land, crustaceans abound in the
crustaceans and insects are world’s oceans. Their great numbers have earned them the nick-
similar and dissimilar. name “the insects of the sea.” Many are microscopic creatures that
● Describe the body plan of drift as plankton in the ocean currents. While primarily marine,
decapods. members of subphylum Crustacea are also found in fresh water and
in a few terrestrial habitats. Crustaceans include crabs, lobsters,
Key Terms crayfish, shrimps, barnacles, water fleas (Daphnia), and pill bugs.
Many crustaceans have a distinctive larval form called a
nauplius
krill nauplius (NAW plee uhs). The nauplius, shown in Figure 17, has
three pairs of branched appendages. Like insects, the nauplius
undergoes a series of molts before it takes on its adult form.
Adult crustaceans also have mandibles, as insects do. But crus-
taceans differ from insects in a number of important respects, as
summarized in Table 2.
Eye Appendages
Terrestrial Crustaceans
Only a few crustacean groups have successfully invaded terrestrial
habitats. The most widespread group of terrestrial crustaceans is
composed of the pill bugs and sow bugs. They live among leafy
ground litter found in gardens and woods. Pill bugs and sow bugs
belong to a group called isopods and are the only crustaceans that
are truly terrestrial. Another group, the sand fleas, includes several
thousand species typically found along beaches. In addition, a few
Figure 17 Nauplius.
species of land crabs live in damp areas. Land crabs are only partly
A microscopic, free-
swimming nauplius larva is adapted to terrestrial living. They are active primarily at night,
a developmental stage of when the air is more moist. Their life cycle is tied to the ocean,
almost all crustaceans. where the larvae live until maturity.
Table 2 Comparison of Crustaceans and Insects

Characteristic Crustaceans Insects
Nature of Most are branched Unbranched

appendages at the end at the end
Antennae Two pairs One pair
Chewing Usually three pairs One pair

www.scilinks.org appendages
Topic: Crustaceans
Keyword: HX4054 Location of Cephalothorax Head and thorax
appendages and abdomen
Respiration Gills Tracheal system

Aquatic Crustaceans
Crustaceans are a major food source for humans and
some animals. The members of some orders of crus-
taceans are quite small. Common are fairy shrimps,
water fleas, ostracods, and tiny copepods (KOH puh
pahds). Copepods are among the most abundant multi-
cellular organisms on Earth and are a key food source in
the marine food chain. Another small marine crustacean,
Euphausia superba, swarms in huge groups and is known
by its common name, krill. Krill, shown in Figure 18, are
the chief food for many marine species.
Figure 18 Krill. Found in

Decapods icy Antarctic waters, krill are
Large marine crustaceans such as shrimps, lobsters, and crabs, the favorite food of many
along with the freshwater crayfish shown in Figure 19, have five marine animals.
pairs of legs and are often referred to as decapods. Almost one
quarter of all crustaceans are decapods. The head and thorax of
decapods are fused into a single cephalothorax, which is covered on
top by a protective shield called a carapace.
In crayfish and lobsters, the anterior pair of legs are modified
into large pincers called chelipeds (KEE luh pehdz). Appendages
called swimmerets are attached to the underside of the abdomen
and are used in swimming and in reproduction. Flattened, paddle-
like appendages called uropods are at the end of the abdomen.
Many decapods have a telson, or tail spine. Decapods can propel
themselves through the water by forcefully flexing their abdomen.
Figure 19 Crayfish
Like all decapods, the crayfish has five pairs of legs.
Antenna
Antennules Cephalothorax
Cheliped
Abdomen
Telson
Swimmerets
Walking legs
Uropod
SECTION 4 Crustaceans 681

Sessile Crustaceans
Barnacles are a group of crustaceans that are sessile as adults.
Free-swimming larvae attach themselves to a rock, post, or some
other submerged object, where they remain. Hard plates that can
open and close protect the barnacle’s body. When feeding, barnacles
extend their jointed feeding appendages (legs) through the open
plates. Their feathery legs stir food from the water into the barnacles’
mouth. Unlike most crustaceans, barnacles are hermaphrodites.
However, they do not usually fertilize their own eggs.
Relating Molting to Mortality Rates

Background
During the soft-shell stage that follows molting, many crustaceans die of disease
0100010110
011101010 or are eaten by predators. The bar graph below shows the percent mortality for
0010010001001 crabs over a 9-month period. Study the data, and answer the analysis questions.
1100100100010
0000101001001
1101010100100
0101010010010 Analysis
Molting and Mortality Data
1. Summarize what the data
Disease Predation In molt
(in percentage of population)
in the graph tell you about

Molt and mortality data
crab mortality. 35
2. Summarize what the 30
graph shows about molting 25
in crabs. 20
15
3. Describe the relationship
10
between the mortality rates
5
and molting periods of crabs.
0
March
April
Jan
Aug
Feb
June
Sept
May
4. Critical Thinking July

Developing Hypotheses
Propose a hypothesis that
explains the relationship
between the percent of crabs
molting and mortality rates.
5. Critical Thinking molting crabs to the water. roughly a crab is handled
Making Predictions How might the length of affect whether the crab
Most states have laws that time a molting crab is survives being caught
require crab fishers to return exposed to air or how and released?
Section 4 Review
Compare the body plan of a crustacean with that Standardized Test Prep Which structures are
of an insect. adaptations of crustaceans to life in aquatic
biomes?
Describe the external body plan of a decapod. A antennae. C walking legs.
Critical Thinking Making Predictions Pill B gills. D mandibles.
bugs respire with gills. How might this affect the
distribution of pill bugs in an ecosystem?

ZONE
1 Features of Arthropods Section 1
● All arthropods have a coelom, a segmented body, and appendage (664)
thorax (666)
jointed appendages that are modified to perform different
cephalothorax (666)
functions. compound eye (666)
● Arthropods have an exoskeleton made of chitin, which they molting (668)
discard periodically in a process called molting. trachea (668)
spiracle (668)
● Arthropods are grouped into three subphyla: Chelicerata, Malpighian tubule (669)
Uniramia, and Crustacea.
2 Spiders and Other Arachnids Section 2

● Members of subphylum Chelicerata have mouthparts, called chelicera (670)
pedipalp (670)
chelicerae, that are modified into fangs or pincers. spinneret (670)
● Spiders have a head and a cephalothorax, no antennae, six
or eight pairs of simple eyes, a pair of fangs and pedipalps,
and four pairs of walking legs.
● Scorpions have pedipalps modified into large, grasping
pincers. A stinger is located at the end of their abdomen.
● Mites have body parts that are fused to form an unseg-
mented body. Many mites transmit diseases.
3 Insects and Their Relatives Section 3

● Insects make up more than half of all named animal mandible (673)
metamorphosis (675)
species. chrysalis (675)
● All insects have a body plan with three body sections (head, pupa (675)
thorax, and abdomen), three pairs of legs (all attached to nymph (675)
caste (679)
the thorax), and one pair of antennae.
● The life cycles of insects are complex and involve a process
of change called metamorphosis, during which larvae
change into the adult insects.
4 Crustaceans Section 4
● Crustaceans have a distinctive larval form called a nauplius. nauplius (680)
krill (681)
● Copepods and krill, which are tiny marine crustaceans, are
the chief food of many marine species.
● Most crustaceans have branched appendages, two pairs of
antennae, three chewing appendages, walking legs attached
to the thorax, and gills. Like insects, crustaceans have jaws
called mandibles.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Copepods are said to be the most impor-

tant animals on Earth because they are
1. What evidence suggests that arthropods are a. a critical link in the marine food chain.
closely related to annelids? b. found in both the ocean and fresh water.
a. Arthropods and annelids have gills. c. accomplished predators.
b. Both groups have marine species. d. easier to collect and study than other
c. Segmentation is present in both groups. arthropods.
d. Arthropods have vestigial parapodia.
9. Why might a forensic ento-
2. Which is a feature of the arthropod mologist need to raise adult insects from
body plan? eggs or immature forms?
a. a hydrostatic support system
b. pharyngeal slits 10. Concept Mapping Construct a
c. an exoskeleton concept map that outlines the three major
d. a nonsegmented body groups of arthropods and that gives the
3. Arthropods molt because characteristics for each group. Try to
a. their body grows faster than their shell. include the following terms in your
b. of damage to their exoskeleton. concept map: appendages, cephalothorax,
c. their exoskeleton cracks and lets in tracheae, spiracles, chelicerae, pedipalps,
water. complete metamorphosis, chrysalis, pupa,
d. their hard exoskeleton cannot grow and nauplius.
larger.
Critical Thinking
4. In adult insects
a. the abdomen has wings. 11. Recognizing Logical Inconsistencies
b. there are two pairs of antennae. A neighbor commented that there was an
c. the legs are attached to the thorax. increased number of insects around her
d. the first appendages are chelicerae. house and that she was killing every spider
she saw. How might these actions affect the
5. Which of the following sequences shows a number of insects around a house?
complete metamorphosis?
a. egg → larva → pupa → adult Alternative Assessment
b. egg → larva → adult
12. Forming a Model Using papier mâché or
c. egg → young juvenile → older juvenile
some other material, make a model of a
d. egg → pupa → winged juvenile → adult
grasshopper or a spider. Decide in advance
6. Millipedes and centipedes differ in that how many features of insects you must
millipedes show to make an adequate model. Present
a. are terrestrial and segmented. your model to the class, and describe the
b. have one pair of legs on each segment. structures that you modeled.
c. have poisonous fangs.
13. Communicating Information Use the media
d. are herbivores.
center or Internet sources to learn more
7. Which of the following is not a about diseases transmitted by arthropods.
crustacean? Develop a brochure that presents your
a. lobster c. copepod findings. The brochure should discuss the
b. scorpion d. water flea species that transmit the disease, as well as
the symptoms and treatment of
the disease.


correct answer.
If levels of vegetation were reduced in an
1 Which of the following structures are used environment, a species of arthropod that
by arachnids to catch and handle prey? undergoes complete metamorphosis would
A. chelicerae C. pedipalps likely have a greater advantage over one that
B. nephridia D. spiracles undergoes incomplete metamorphosis. This
is because, in complete metamorphosis, the
2 Through what structures do insects
larvae have different food sources from the
respire?
adults. Thus, grasshoppers would likely not
F. lungs H. gills
do as well as butterflies during a drought.
G. ganglia I. spiracles
3 The wings of the atlas moth, Attacus atlas, 6 Why might this difference help more
butterflies survive than grasshoppers?
look much like the head of a snake. Why
A. Incomplete metamorphosis is slowed
might it benefit a flying insect to look like
while complete metamorphosis speeds
a snake?
up during a drought.
A. Its prey might think the insect is a
B. One stage of the butterfly’s lifecycle
snake and run away from it. would not be affected, while both stages
B. Snakes might come near the insect and
of the grasshopper’s would suffer.
protect it from predators. C. Grasshoppers would begin to undergo
C. Predators might think the insect is a
complete metamorphosis and would
snake and therefore not attack it. not be able to compete with butterflies.
D. The markings act like camouflage and D. The larvae of butterflies and the nymph
allow it to hide on the head of a snake. of grasshoppers would perish, but both
4 On what body part are a spider’s adult arthropods would not be affected.
spinnerets located?
F. abdomen Interpreting Graphics
G. cephalothorax Directions (7): Base your answer to question
H. pedipalps 7 on the diagram below.
I. thorax Grasshopper External Structure
write a short response. A
5 An unknown arthropod has three body

segments, one pair of antennae, and three B
pairs of jointed legs. What kind of
arthropod is it? Explain how you arrived
at this conclusion. C
Test 7 What are structures B and C used for?

Choose your answer to a question based both on F. inhaling and exhaling air
what you already know and any information G. biting and chewing leaves
presented in the question. H. catching and handling prey
I. sponging and lapping liquids

Exploration Lab
Observing Pill Bug Behavior
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Using scientific methods • 4 adult pill bugs
• Observing • 2 Petri dishes
• stereomicroscope or
OBJECTIVES hand lens
• Identify arthropod character- • blunt probe
istics in a pill bug.
• fabrics with different
• Observe the behavior of pill
textures
bugs on surfaces with differ-
ent textures. • scissors
• Infer the adaptive advantages • transparent tape

of pill bug behaviors. • clock or watch with
second hand
ChemSafety

Pill bugs live in moist terrestrial environ- PART A: Make Observations
ments, such as under rocks and logs. Like 1. Place a pill bug in a Petri dish, and observe
other crustaceans, pill bugs respire with it with a stereomicroscope or hand lens.
gills and have hard outer shells and jointed Observe it from a dorsal viewpoint as well
appendages. They respond to a stimulus, as from the side. List the characteristics
such as light, moisture, or touch, by moving that tell you the pill bug is an arthropod.
toward or away from the stimulus or by curl- 2. Touch the pill bug with a blunt
ing into a ball. In this lab, you will look for probe. CAUTION: Touch pill bugs
arthropod characteristics in pill bugs and gently to avoid injuring them. Record
observe the behavior of pill bugs on surfaces your observations.
with different textures.
the paragraph above. PART B: Design an Experiment
2. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a 3. Work with the members of your lab group
question you would like to explore about to explore one of the questions written for
pill bug characteristics and behavior. step 2 of Before You Begin. To explore the

You Choose
As you design your experiment, decide the following: 1. Analyzing Methods Why did you test
a. what question you will explore several pill bugs in this investigation
b. what hypothesis you will test instead of just one pill bug?
c. which four different fabrics to use 2. Analyzing Results Did all of your pill
d. how many times to test each fabric bugs show a similar pattern of movement?
e. the length of each test Explain.
f. what your control will be 3. Graphing Results Make a graph of your
g. what data to record in your data table data. Plot the average time spent on the
material on the y-axis and the type of
4. Write a procedure for your experiment. material on the x-axis.
Make a list of all the safety precautions you 4. Analyzing Results Rank the fabrics
will take. Have your teacher approve your according to the total amount of time spent
procedure and safety precautions before on them by the pill bugs.
you begin the experiment. 5. Drawing Conclusions Which fabric
5. Set up and carry out your texture do pill bugs seem to prefer?
experiment. CAUTION: Sharp or 6. Inferring Conclusions How is a pill bug’s
pointed objects can cause injury. Handle response to disturbances an advantage?
scissors carefully.
7. Inferring Conclusions How is being able
to detect surface texture helpful to pill bugs
PART C: Cleanup and Disposal in their natural habitat?
6. Dispose of fabric scraps and broken 8. Further Inquiry Write a new question
glass in the designated waste con- about pill bugs that could be explored with
tainers. Put pill bugs in the designated another investigation.
container. Do not put lab materials in the
trash unless your teacher tells you to do so.
Do You Know?
equipment. Return lab equipment Do research in the library or media center
to its proper place. Wash your hands
thoroughly before you leave the lab 1. What are the advantages and disad-
and after you finish all work. vantages of biological pest control
when compared with the use of
chemical pesticides?
2. What role do crustaceans play in the
lives of humans?
explore your own questions about
arthropods.
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Biological Pest Control
Keyword: HX4021
CHAPTER 30 Arthropods 687

Should the genes for insect resis-

tance be transferred into crops?
Insect-
Resistant
Crops
ach year, Americans use hundreds of mil- Pesticides from Bacteria
E lions of tons of pesticides to protect their

homes, crops, forests, livestock, and pets
from insects and other pests. A drawback of
pesticides is that they remain effective only for a
short time because pests acquire resistance to the
One pesticide with many advantages is the Bt
toxin, which is derived from the common soil
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. This bacterium
produces a toxin that binds to a receptor protein
in the digestive system of some insects, killing the
effects of pesticides. Pest control has become a
insect. But only a few groups of insects are sus-
race between the scientists who are trying to
ceptible, including beetles, butterflies, flies, and
invent new pesticides and the ever-evolving pests.
ants. Bt toxin does not harm most beneficial
And because of pests’ adaptability—some insects
insects, spiders and other arthropod predators of
have evolved resistance to a new
insects, or vertebrates, including humans.
insecticide within a single grow-
Bt toxin has two other things going for it.
ing season—pests seem to have
First, different strains of the bacterium make dif-
the edge.
ferent toxins that are effective against different
pests. This gives farmers a choice of weapons to
use, depending on which insects are attacking
their crops. It also reduces the likelihood that
resistance will evolve, because the odds that an
insect will be resistant to more than one toxin
are small. Second, Bt toxin breaks down into
harmless byproducts within 2 or 3 days of being
sprayed on a field. As a result, pests are exposed
Boll weevil
Boll weevils cause extensive
damage to United States
cotton crops each year.
688 UNIT 7
C a re e r
Harvesting cotton
Seed pods (called bolls) contain Agricultural
fibers that are used to make fabric. Scientist
Soil scientist
Profile
to less of the toxin, and the proba-
bility of their evolving resistance
is reduced.
A gricultural scientists study farm crops and ani-
mals, seeking ways to increase crop yield and
quality, control pests and weeds more effectively, and
conserve soil and water.
Genetic Engineering of Job Description
Insect Resistance Agricultural scientists apply their knowledge of biol-
Through genetic engineering, the ogy to agricultural issues, such as improving the
genes for Bt toxins have been nutritional value of crops. Crop scientists study the
inserted into several crop plants, breeding and management of crops and sometimes
including corn, cotton, and pota- use genetic engineering to develop crops resistant to
toes. These plants now produce pests and drought.
their own insecticides. During the Science/Math Career Preparation
1990s, the Environmental Protec-
Botany Biochemistry
tion Agency (EPA), the federal
agency that regulates pesticides, Zoology Technical writing
approved the sale of crops genetically engineered Microbiology Mathematics
to produce Bt toxin. Since then, the area of farm- Chemistry Economics
land planted with the crops has grown rapidly.
Not everyone agrees with the EPA’s decision
that the crops are safe. Critics also note that the
question is not whether resistance will become insects can live. Supporters reason that if any Bt-
widespread but how fast that will happen. They resistant insects appear, their resistance traits will
point out that the genetically engineered plants be swamped when they interbreed with the non-
produce the toxin continuously, which increases resistant individuals from the refuge. Finally,
evolutionary pressure on the pests to adapt. because some pests attack both corn and cotton,
Supporters of the EPA’s decision note that the the EPA prohibited the planting of genetically
farmers who buy the seeds are required to plant engineered corn and cotton in the same state.
part of their land with nonengineered crops. This This should reduce the pests’ exposure to Bt toxin,
land will serve as a “refuge” on which susceptible supporters say. ■

Science and Society
1 What are alternatives to synthetic chemi- 3 What is biological control? Biological control
cal pesticides? Use library resources or the is an alternative to chemical pesticides. Using library
Internet to research integrated pest management. resources or the Internet, research the topic of bio-
How does it differ from traditional methods of control- logical control. What is biological control? Describe
ling pests? What are some of its shortcomings? one example of biological control.
2 Should genetically engineered crops be Technology: Genetic Engineering
labeled? Current regulations do not require label- 4 How do scientists genetically engineer
ing of genetically engineered crops that are sold in plants? Use library resources or the Internet to find
stores. Many consumer advocates contend that all the two main methods for inserting genes into plant
such crops should be labeled so that consumers cells. Why do scientists want to add genes for herbi-
know what they are eating. Research both sides of cide resistance to plants? What are the benefits to
this issue, and then write a logical, persuasive essay plants such as cotton?
arguing either for or against labeling.

Show jumper
Ruby brittle star

CHAPTER
31 Echinoderms
and Invertebrate
Chordates
1. Distinguish invertebrates from vertebrates.
(Chapter 19, Section 3) Echinoderms
Animal Development
2. Define the terms gastrula and blastula.
Modern Echinoderms
Echinoderm Diversity
3. Distinguish between radial symmetry and bilat-
eral symmetry. (Chapter 27, Section 1)
Section 2
sections indicated. Invertebrate Chordates
The Chordate Skeleton
Invertebrate Chordates
Reading Activity
Before you begin to read this chapter, write
down all of the key words for both sections
of the chapter. Then, write a definition next to
each word that you have heard of. As you read
the chapter, write definitions next to the words
that you did not previously know, and modify
as needed your original definitions of words
familiar to you.
www.scilinks.org
Ruby brittle stars are echinoderms that are commonly resources are located throughout this chapter.
found among corals and sponges in deeper parts of
coral reefs. Brittle stars have radial symmetry, five
flexible arms and a hard internal skeleton. They
are the fastest moving echinoderms.
CHAPTER 31 Echinoderms and Invertebrate Chordates 691

Section 1 Echinoderms
Objectives Animal Development
● Compare the developmental If you have been to a saltwater aquarium, you’re sure to have seen
pattern found in protostomes echinoderms, which are spiny invertebrates that live on the ocean
with that found in deuteros- bottom. How could echinoderms like the brittle star shown on the
tomes. first page of this chapter be related to animals such as chordates,
● Describe the major charac- which are primarily vertebrates? The answer lies in their early devel-
teristics of echinoderms. opment. As an embryo develops, it goes through a gastrula stage. As
● Summarize how the sea shown in Figure 1, a gastrula has an opening to the outside called
star’s water vascular system the blastopore . In acoelomate animals, the mouth develops from or
functions. near the blastopore. This pattern of development also occurs in
some coelomate animals, such as annelids, mollusks, and arthro-
Key Terms pods. Animals with mouths that develop from or near the blastopore
blastopore are called protostomes .
protostome Some animals follow a different pattern of development. In phy-
deuterostome lums Echinodermata and Chordata, the anus—not the mouth—
ossicle develops from or near the blastopore. (The mouth forms later, on
water-vascular system another part of the embryo.) Animals with this pattern of develop-
skin gill ment are called deuterostomes , also shown in Figure 1. If you know
the origin of these two terms, it’s easy to remember the differences
between the two developmental patterns. The term protostome is
from the Greek protos, meaning “first,” and stoma, meaning
“mouth.” The prefix deutero- is from the Greek deuteros, meaning
“second.” In deuterostomes, the anus develops first and the mouth
develops second.
Figure 1 Embryonic development

The development of an animal embryo follows one of two patterns.
Gastrula Gastrula
Gut Embryo Gut Embryo

Anus Mouth
Blastopore Blastopore
Coelom Coelom
Blastopore Blastopore
becomes mouth becomes anus
Protostomes Deuterostomes
692 CHAPTER 31 Echinoderms and Invertebrate Chordates

Sea Sea Brittle Sea Sea
Vertebrates Lancelets Tunicates stars lilies stars urchins cucumbers
Subphylum Class Class
Cephalochordata Crinoidea Echinoidea
Subphylum Subphylum Class Class Class
Vertebrata Urochordata Asteroidea Ophiuroidea Holothuroidea
Phylum Phylum Figure 2 Evolution of

Chordata Echinodermata chordates and echinoderms.
This phylogenetic tree shows
the relationship of the major
Ancestral
deuterostome chordate and echinoderm
groups.
The first deuterostomes were marine echinoderms that evolved

more than 650 million years ago. They were also the first animals
to develop an endoskeleton. Today, most people are familiar with
echinoderms known as “starfish,” which are not really fish and are
more properly called sea stars. In addition to sea stars, many other
animals commonly seen along the sea shore—sea urchins, sand dol-
lars, and sea cucumbers—are echinoderms. All are marine, and all
are radially symmetrical as adults.
Chordates, as well as a few other small phyla, are also deutero-
stomes. (Humans and all other vertebrates are chordates.) Like the
echinoderms, chordates have an internal skeleton. This develop-
mental similarity unites these seemingly dissimilar animal phyla. It
also leads scientists to believe that chordates and echinoderms
derived from a common ancestor, as shown in the phylogenetic tree
in Figure 2. The identity of the ancestral deuterostome is not
known. The fossil record indicates that echinoderms, such as the
sea lily in Figure 3, were abundant in the ancient seas.
8 Deuterostomes
Echinoderms are coelomates that have a deuterostome pattern of
embryo development. The same pattern of development occurs in
the chordates. Figure 3 Fossil sea lily.
Sea lilies such as the one
preserved by this fossil were
plentiful in the ancient oceans.
SECTION 1 Echinoderms 693

Modern Echinoderms
Many of the most familiar animals seen along the seashore—sea
Real Life stars, sea urchins, sand dollars—are echinoderms. Echinoderms
Do sand dollars are also common in the deep ocean. While all echinoderms are
resemble the sun? marine, the different classes of echinoderms vary considerably in
To the Chumash Indians of the details of their body design. Despite their apparent differences,
southern California, the all echinoderms share four fundamental characteristics.
lines radiating from a sand
dollar’s mouth resemble 1. Endoskeleton. Echinoderms have a calcium-rich endoskeleton
the sun’s rays. Sand dol- composed of individual plates called ossicles . When ossicles
lars, once plentiful in the first form in young echinoderms, they are enclosed in living tis-
Pacific Ocean, became the sue, so they are a true endoskeleton. Even though the ossicles of
Chumash’s symbol
adult echinoderms appear to be external, they are covered by a
for the “newborn”
sun of the thin layer of skin (although sometimes the skin is worn away).
winter solstice. In adult sea stars and in many other echinoderms, a large num-
ber of these plates are fused together. The fused plates function
much like an arthropod exoskeleton. They provide sites for mus-
cle attachment and shell-like protection. In most echinoderms,
the plates of the endoskeleton bear spines that project upward
through their skin.
2. Five-part radial symmetry. All echinoderms are bilaterally sym-
metrical as larvae. During their development into adults, the
larvae’s body plan becomes radially symmetrical. Most adult
echinoderms, such as the one shown on the left in Figure 4, have
a five-part body plan with arms that radiate from a central point.
However, the number of arms can vary. Echinoderms have no
The term echinoderm is head or brain. Instead, the nervous system consists of a central
from the Greek echinos, ring of nerves with branches extending into each of the arms.
meaning “spiny,” and Although echinoderms are capable of complex response pat-
derma, meaning “skin.” terns, each arm acts more or less independently. Many species,
including sea stars, can regenerate a new arm if a portion of an
arm is lost. In some species of sea stars, a complete animal can
regenerate from an arm connected to a portion of the central
disk. However, a complete sea star cannot regenerate from an
arm alone.
Figure 4 Five-part body

plan. The echinoderm five-
part body plan is easily seen
in this colorful African species.
Other sea stars, such as
the sunstar, have more than
five arms.

3. Water-vascular system. Echinoderms have a water-
filled system of interconnected canals and thousands of
tiny hollow tube feet called a water-vascular system.
In some echinoderms, such as the sea star, the tube feet
extend outward through openings in the ossicles. In
some species, each tube foot has a sucker at its tip.
Many echinoderms use their tube feet to crawl across
the sea floor. The water-vascular system also functions
in feeding and gas exchange. A sea star can use the
hundreds of tube feet on its arms to pull the valves of a
bivalve open. Some gas exchange and waste excretion
takes place through the thin walls of the tube feet. Figure 5 Skin gills. An
echinoderm’s skin gills
4. Coelomic circulation and respiration. The echinoderm body function as both respiratory
cavity functions as a simple circulatory and respiratory system. and excretory organs.
Particles, including respiratory gases, move freely throughout
the large, fluid-filled coelom. Many echinoderms have skin gills
that aid respiration and waste removal. Skin gills, shown in
Figure 5, are small, fingerlike projections that grow among the
echinoderm’s spines. These projections create an increased sur-
www.scilinks.org
face area through which respiratory gases can be exchanged. Topic: Echinoderms
Skin gills also function as excretory structures, and wastes that Keyword: HX4065
accumulate in them are released into the surrounding water.
You can learn more about the structure of one particular echino-
derm, the sea star, in Up Close: Sea Star, on the following page.
Determining How Sea Star Predation of Mollusks

Predators Affect Prey 100
Species A Species B
original population
Background
Percentage of
0100010110 75
011101010 Sea stars can be very effective predators,
0010010001001
1100100100010 and they frequently eat mollusks. The chart 50
0000101001001
1101010100100 at right shows the relative number of two Sea
0101010010010 25
species of mollusks before and after the stars
introduction of a predatory sea star. Study introduced
0
the chart, and answer the Analysis questions.
Time
Analysis
1. Compare the relative sizes 3. Critical Thinking the sea star to begin
of the two mollusk popula- Analyzing Data When consuming a nonpreferred
tions before the introduction the sea star began preying species, even when its pre-
of the sea star. on the nonpreferred species, ferred prey is still present?
the preferred species had
2. Identify the preferred prey 5. Critical Thinking
dropped to what percent
of the sea star, and use the Predicting Outcomes
of its original population?
data presented in the graph Predict the relative abundance
to support your answer. 4. Critical Thinking of the two species of mollusks
Inferring Relationships if the sea star remains in the
What factors might cause area indefinitely.

Up Close
Sea Star
● Scientific name: Asterias vulgaris
● Size: Typically from 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 in.) in diameter
● Range: East coast of North America
● Habitat: Intertidal; often on hard, rocky surfaces
● Diet: Slow-moving or sessile species, including mollusks,
crustaceans, polychaetes, and corals
Characteristics
Water-vascular system Tube feet Hundreds of tube feet extend from the bottom of
Water enters and leaves the Tube feet the radial canals, and each foot is connected to a waterfilled
system through pores in the sac called an ampulla (am PUHL uh). When water is
madreporite (ma druh PAWR it), a pumped from the sacs into the tube feet, they expand out-
sievelike structure that filters out ward. Suckers on the ends of the tube feet attach firmly to
large particles. Water then moves solid surfaces. When muscles force water back into the
into the ring canal and passes ampulla, the tube feet shorten, pulling Asterias forward.
into the radial canals.
▲ Ampullae
▲ Radial canal
Madreporite
Ray (arm) Ring canal
Anus
Pyloric stomach ▼ Reproductive organs
▼ Cardiac stomach Reproductive system

In most species of Asterias
Digestive system The the sexes are separate. The
mouth, located in the center of Central gonads lie at the base of the
the body on the bottom side, disk arms and, when filled with
is connected by an esopha- eggs or sperm, may occupy
gus to a stomach located almost the entire arm.
in the central disc. Dur-
Digestive
ing feeding, a portion
glands
of the stomach is
▼ Skin
thrust out through
the mouth. Strong diges- Skin Asterias has a delicate skin
tive juices liquefy the stretched over an endoskeleton
prey, which is then ingested. of spiny plates.

Echinoderm Diversity
Echinoderms are one of the most numerous of all marine phyla. In
the past, they were even more plentiful than they are now. There are
more than 20 extinct classes of echinoderms and an additional six
classes of living members. As you saw on the phylogenetic tree that
appeared earlier in this section, the living classes include sea stars, sea
lilies, brittle stars, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers. The recently dis-
covered sea daisy does not appear on the phylogenetic tree because its
relationship to the other echinoderms is not fully understood.
Sea Stars Figure 6 Sea star. This sea

Sea stars are the echinoderms most familiar to people. Almost all star is using its tube feet to pry
species of sea stars are carnivores, and they are among the most open the shell of a clam. Then
it will feed on the clam’s soft
important predators in many marine ecosystems. For example, the
tissues.
crown-of-thorns sea star eats coral polyps. In 1 year, a single crown-
of-thorns can consume up to 6 m2 of a reef. Over time, this sea star
can destroy an entire coral reef ecosystem. Other sea stars prey on
bivalve mollusks, whose shells they pull open with their powerful
tube feet, as shown in Figure 6.
The ossicles of many species of sea stars produce pincerlike
structures called pedicellaria (ped uh suh LAH ree uh). Pedicellaria
contain their own muscles and nerves, and they snap at anything
that touches them. This action prevents small organisms from
attaching themselves to the surface of the sea star.
Brittle Stars
The sea star’s relatives, the brittle stars and sea baskets, make up
the largest class of echinoderms. Brittle stars have slender
branched arms that they move in pairs to row along the ocean floor.
Their arms break off easily, a fact that gives brittle stars their name.
Brittle stars and sea baskets live primarily on the ocean bottom,
and they usually hide under rocks or within crevices in coral reefs.
Although a few species are predators, most brittle stars are filter Figure 7 Feather star. The
feeders or feed on food in the ocean sediment. feathery arms of these feather
stars are adapted for filter
Sea Lilies and Feather Stars feeding.
The sea lilies and feather stars are the
most ancient and primitive living echino-
derms. They differ from all other living
echinoderms because their mouth is
located on their upper, rather than lower,
surface. Sea lilies are sessile and are
attached to the ocean floor by a stalk that
is about 60 cm (23 in.) long. Feather stars,
shown in Figure 7, use hooklike projec-
tions to attach themselves directly to the
ocean bottom or a coral reef. They some-
times crawl or swim for short distances.

Sand dollar
Figure 8 Sea urchin and
sand dollar. Sea urchins Sea urchin
usually live on rocky ocean
bottoms, while sand dollars
live on sandy ocean bottoms. Sea Urchins and Sand Dollars
The sea urchins and sand dollars, shown in Figure 8, lack distinct
arms but have the basic five-part body plan seen in other echino-
derms. Both sea urchins and sand dollars have a hard, somewhat
flattened endoskeleton of fused plates covered with spines protrud-
ing from it. The spines provide protection and, in some species of sea
urchins, contain a venom that causes a severe burning sensation. In
some other species of sea urchin, a specialized type of pedicellar-
ium contains a toxin used to paralyze prey. Sea urchins are found
on the ocean bottoms while sand dollars live in sandy areas along
the sea coast.
Sea Cucumbers
Sea cucumbers are soft-bodied, sluglike animals without arms.
They differ from other echinoderms in that their ossicles are small
and are not fused together. Because of this, the sea cucumber’s long,
cylindrical body is soft. Often the body has a tough, leathery ex-
terior. The sexes of most sea cucumbers are separate, but some
Figure 9 Sea cucumber. species are hermaphrodites.
When threatened, a sea Sea cucumbers feed by trapping tiny organisms present in the
cucumber releases sticky sea water. Their mouth, located at one end of the body, is sur-
threads that entrap its attacker. rounded by several dozen tube feet
modified into tentacles. The tentacles
are covered with a sticky mucus that
entraps plankton. Periodically, the sea
cucumber draws its tentacles into its
mouth and cleans off the plankton and
mucus. The tentacles are then coated
with a fresh supply of mucus. When
threatened, a sea cumber has an
unusual means of defending itself. As
shown in Figure 9, the sea cucumber
can release a number of sticky threads
from its anus to entrap its attacker.

Sea Daisies
In 1986, a new class of echinoderm was discovered: strange disk-
shaped little animals called sea daisies. Less than 1 cm (0.39 in.) in
diameter, these creatures were first found in deep waters off the
coast of New Zealand. Only a few species are known. Sea daisies
have five-part radial symmetry but no arms. Their tube feet are
located around the edges of the disk rather than along the radial
lines, like they are in other echinoderms.
Monitoring Water Quality
I f you were swimming or fishing

in coastal waters, you likely
would not be able to detect the
controlled conditions in a lab. In
this bioassay, sea urchin sperm
and eggs are mixed together with
presence of toxic chemicals in the collected samples. After a
the water, the sediments, or the short waiting period, scientists Recording water temperature in a
sea life. To help protect humans compare the fertilization success bioassay tank
and marine organisms, scientists rate in the collected water sam- have to be removed or deconta-
have developed several tests to ples with the fertilization success minated. In the future, it may be
monitor marine environments for rate found in control water sam- possible to clean up some pollu-
potential health hazards. Since ples. If the test samples show a tants by using plants that have
sea urchin sperm and eggs are lower fertilization rate, scientists the ability to remove toxic chem-
very sensitive to many pollutants, conclude that toxic contaminants icals from the water they are
they are used in one of these are present. growing in. The use of this
tests, known as the sea urchin process, known as phytoremedi-
Taking Action
fertilization bioassay. (A bioassay ation, in marine environments is
is the use of a living organism or What happens when the test an exciting new area of research.
cell culture to test for the pres- indicates the presence of conta-
ence of a substance.) minants? More specific tests
may be run to determine exactly
Using Sea Urchins what contaminants are present. www.scilinks.org
Samples of ocean water, sedi- If the toxicity can be traced to Topic: Bioassay
ment, and industrial wastes that runoff from a factory or sewage Keyword: HX4019
are discharged into the ocean are treatment plant, the plant may be
collected regularly from different forced to clean its waste before
sites. Then they are tested under discharging it. Sediments may
Section 1 Review
Summarize why echinoderms are considered to Standardized Test Prep In an echinoderm, the
be more closely related to tunicates, lancelets, functions of a circulatory system are carried out
and vertebrates than to other animals. by the
A ossicles.
Summarize the four major echinoderm
characteristics. B pedicellariae.
C coelom.
Describe how the sea stars use their water- D madreporite.
vascular system to move along the sea floor.

Section 2 Invertebrate Chordates
Objectives The Chordate Skeleton
● Describe the characteristics The second major group of deuterostomes are the chordates .
of chordates. Chordates have a very different kind of endoskeleton from that of
● Define the term invertebrate
echinoderms. The chordate endoskeleton is completely internal.
chordate. During the development of the chordate embryo, a stiff rod called the
notochord develops along the back of the embryo. Using muscles
● Compare tunicates and
attached to this rod, early chordates could swing their backs from
lancelets.
side to side, enabling them to swim through the water. The develop-
ment of an internal skeleton was an important step that led to the
Key Terms
evolution of vertebrates. The endoskeleton, which muscles attach to,
chordate made it possible for animals to grow large and to move quickly.
notochord
pharyngeal pouch Other Chordate Characteristics
invertebrate chordate
Chordates also share three other characteristics. They have a single,
hollow, dorsal nerve cord with nerves attached to it that travel to
different parts of the body. Chordates also have a series of
pharyngeal pouches . Pharyngeal pouches of aquatic chordates
develop in the wall of the pharynx and develop into the gill structure
later in the animals’ development. In terrestrial chordates, the
pharyngeal pouches develop into different structures, such as the
parathyroid gland and the inner ear. Another chordate characteris-
tic is a postanal tail, which is a tail that extends beyond the anus. All
chordates have all four of these characteristics at some time in their
life, even if it is only briefly as embryos. Figure 10 shows these chor-
date characteristics as seen in the body of an adult lancelet.
Figure 10 Lancelet
Mouth
interior. Adult lancelets Notochord
possess all of the charac-
teristics of chordates. Dorsal nerve cord
Tentacles
Anus Tail
Pharynx
Intestine
Segmented muscles
9 Notochord
Tunicates, lancelets, and all the vertebrates belong to phylum Chordata (chordates).
Chordates are coelomate animals that have a flexible, dorsal rod called a notochord.
In vertebrate chordates, the notochord is replaced during embryonic development
by a vertebral column (backbone).

Invertebrate Chordates
Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla. The vast majority
of chordate species belong to subphylum Vertebrata, which
you will study in the next unit. Two other subphyla, Urochordata Organizing Information
(the tunicates) and Cephalochordata (the lancelets), contain a Make a table to organize
information about inverte-
small number of species. Because members of these two subphyla brate chordates. Across the
are chordates that do not have backbones, they are called top, write the headings
invertebrate chordates. Adult characteristics and
Larval characteristics. Along
the sides, write Lancelet
Tunicates and Tunicate. Add informa-
Only the free-swimming tunicate larvae have a nerve cord, noto- tion to the table as you read
chord, and postanal tail. These features are lost during the larvae’s Section 2.
transformation into adulthood. However, adult tunicates, shown in
Figure 11, retain their pharyngeal slits. Most adult tunicates are ses-
sile, filter-feeding marine animals. A tough sac, called a tunic,
develops around the adult’s body and gives tunicates their name.
Cilia beating within the tunicate cause water to enter the incurrent
siphon. The water circulates through the tunicate’s body, passes
though its pharyngeal slits, and leaves the body through the excur-
rent siphon. As water passes through the slits in the pharynx, food www.scilinks.org
is filtered from it and passed into the stomach. Undigested food Topic: Invertebrate Chordates
passes to the anus, which empties into the excurrent siphon. Keyword: HX4105
All tunicates are hermaphrodites, and some are also able to
reproduce asexually by budding. While some tunicates are solitary,
budding can result in colonies of identical tunicates.
Figure 11 Adult tunicate

Pharyngeal slits are the only chordate characteristic retained by adult tunicates.
Incurrent
siphon Excurrent
siphon
Pharyngeal
slits
Anus
Tunic
Intestine
Reproductive
Heart
organs
Stomach
Adult tunicate, dorsal view Tunicate interior
SECTION 2 Invertebrate Chordates 701

Lancelets
Lancelets, shown in Figure 12, receive their name from their bladelike
shape. Although lancelets may resemble fish, they are not fish.
Lancelet fossils have been found in rocks over 550 million years—
lancelets are much older than any fish species is. Lancelets are
scaleless chordates only a few centimeters long. The lancelets’
V-shaped bundles of muscles are arranged in a series of repeating seg-
ments. Lancelets are found worldwide in shallow ocean water. They
spend most of their time with their mouths protruding from mud or
sand. The beating of cilia that line the front end of their digestive tract
Figure 12 Lancelet. draws water through the mouth and pharynx and out the pharyngeal
Lancelets bury their tails in slits. Lancelets feed on microscopic protists that they filter out of the
sediment. water. Unlike tunicates, the sexes are separate in lancelets.
Comparing the Structures of the

Notochord and Nerve Cord
The notochord and hollow nerve cord are two important
characteristics of all chordates. While both are located on an
animal’s dorsal side, they differ in size, structure, and loca-
tion. You can compare the two when viewing a cross section
of an adult lancelet.
Materials
compound microscope, prepared slide of the cross section
of an adult lancelet
Procedure
1. Place a prepared slide of a 4. Sketch the specimen, and 3. Compare the lancelet’s
cross section of an adult label the dorsal and ventral symmetry with the symmetry
lancelet under the micro- sides, the notochord, the of adult echinoderms.
scope. nerve cord, and the intestines.
2. Locate the dorsal side of the Analysis Forming Hypotheses
specimen, and turn the slide 1. Describe the structure, In vertebrate chordates, the
so the dorsal side is on top. location, and size of the nerve notochord becomes a back-
cord and the notochord. bone that encases the nerve
3. Locate the notochord and
cord. Why might this arrange-
hollow nerve cord. If visible, 2. Identify the kind of symme- ment be an advantage to
locate the intestine. try observed in the adult an animal?
lancelet.
Section 2 Review
Describe the characteristics common to Compare the chordate characteristics found in
all chordates. adult tunicates with those found in adult lancelets.
Summarize why tunicates and lancelets are Standardized Test Prep The pharyngeal slits of a
classified as invertebrate chordates. tunicate play a role in what system?
A skeletal C nervous
B reproductive D digestive

ZONE
1 Echinoderms Section 1
● During embryonic development, a protostome’s mouth blastopore (692)
protostome (692)
develops from the blastopore. In a deuterostome, the anus
deuterostome (692)
forms from the blastopore and the mouth forms later from ossicle (694)
a different opening. water-vascular system (695)
● Because echinoderms and chordates are both deutero- skin gill (695)
stomes, scientists believe that both groups were derived
from a common ancestor.
● Echinoderms lack a head or brain. Their nervous system
consists of a central ring of nerves with branches extending
into each of the five parts of its body plan.
● Echinoderms share four characteristics: an endoskeleton
composed of ossicles; five-part radial symmetry; a water-
vascular system; and coelomic circulation and respiration.
● In many echinoderm species, respiration and waste removal
are performed by skin gills.
● Echinoderms are a diverse group consisting of seven
classes: sea stars, brittle stars, sea lilies, feather stars, sea
urchins and sand dollars, sea cucumbers, and sea daisies.
2 Invertebrate Chordates Section 2

● At some point in their lives, all chordates have a notochord, chordate (700)
notochord (700)
a dorsal nerve chord, pharyngeal pouches, and a postanal
pharyngeal pouch (700)
tail. invertebrate chordate (701)
● Phylum Chordata includes invertebrate and vertebrate
chordates.
● Invertebrate chordates do not have a backbone (vertebral
column). Two invertebrate subphyla are Urochordata
(tunicates) and Cephalochordata (lancelets).
● Tunicate larvae have a nerve cord, notochord, pharyngeal
pouches, and a postanal tail. As adults, they lose most of
these characteristics.
● Lancelets retain their notochord, dorsal nerve cord, pharyn-
geal pouches, and postanal tail into adulthood.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Once preliminary tests

1. The phylum characterized by radial sym- determine that coastal waters are polluted,
metry and a water-vascular system is what kinds of actions might be taken to
a. Chordata. reduce the pollution?
b. Arthropoda. 9. Gas exchange is essential to life. Compare
c. Echinodermata. how gas exchange occurs in most crus-
d. Cnidaria. taceans, insects, and echinoderms.
2. The presence of which of the following (Hint: See Chapter 30, Sections 1 and 4.)
characteristics is typical among
echinoderms?
a. nauplius larvae
concept map that outlines the develop-
b. a notochord
ment and body plan of echinoderms and
c. an exoskeleton
invertebrate chordates. Try to include the
d. a water-vascular system
following terms in your map: blastopore,
protostome, deuterostome, water-vascular
3. Which of the following pairs is a correct system, skin gills, notochord, nerve cord, and
match between an adult echinoderm and pharyngeal slits.
one of its characteristics?
a. sea cucumber: leathery epidermis Critical Thinking
b. sand dollar: five arms
11. Evaluating Conclusions Sea cucumbers
c. sea lily: free-swimming
and sea lilies are relatively sessile. Their
d. sea star: sessile
larvae, however, are capable of swimming.
4. Which echinoderm group includes species Explain how swimming larvae provide an
that specialize in hunting bivalves? advantage for these echinoderms.
a. sea cucumbers
12. Forming Reasoned Opinions A scientist
b. sand dollars
collects several specimens of an unidenti-
c. sea stars
fied animal. After conducting an in-depth
d. sea lilies
study of the mysterious species, the scien-
5. Animals with a notochord, a dorsal nerve tist observes that they have tube feet, an
cord, and pharyngeal slits are members of endoskeleton, and a protostome pattern of
the phylum embryonic development. Why is the classi-
a. Echinodermata. fication of these organisms difficult?
b. Chordata.
13. Inferring Relationships Explain why the lar-
c. Annelida.
val form of an organism can be valuable in
d. Cnidaria.
determining relationships among species.
6. Which of the following do adult chor-
dates and adult echinoderms have Alternative Assessment
in common? 14. Finding and Communicating Information
a. a nonsegmented body Use the media center or Internet resources
b. an internal skeleton to learn more about the crown-of-thorns
c. a water-vascular system sea star, or Acanthaster planci, which is
d. bilateral symmetry abundant on the Great Barrier Reef. Find
7. In what way was the notochord an impor- out why this echinoderm poses such a
tant development in the evolution of threat to its environment, and prepare a
vertebrates? report on your findings. Include steps being
taken by the Australian government to deal

correct answer.
Most animal phyla that exist today
1 Which of the following patterns of devel- probably originated during a relatively short
opment is characteristic of echinoderms time during the late Precambrian and early
and lancelets? Cambrian periods. Scientists have found
A. acoelomate many echinoderm fossils from the Cambrian
B. deuterostome period, but they have found few fossils of
C. protostome other species that must have lived then.
D. pseudocoelomate
6 What might explain the very large number
2 A scientist comes across a colony of tuni- of fossilized echinoderms and the rela-
cates in which all of the individuals are tively small number of other animal fossils
identical to one another. What conclusion from the Cambrian period?
might the scientist draw about the colony? A. Endoskeletons of echinoderms are rigid
F. These tunicates are mobile and feed by and are easily fossilized.
trapping their prey as a group. B. Other animals live on the sea floor
G. The colony came about when two where sedimentary rock forms.
different species of tunicates mated. C. Scientists have incorrectly identified
H. The tunicates in the colony arose from most of the fossils from that period.
asexual reproduction by budding. D. Fossils of other animals from that
I. These tunicates are hermaphrodites period would be found in deeper layers
and reproduced sexually to form the of rock.
colony.
3 What pincerlike structures do the ossicles Directions (7): Base your answer to question
of Asterias produce? 7 on the diagram below.
A. ampullae C. pedicellaria
B. madreporites D. tube feet Adult Tunicate
A
4 What structure coordinates the move-
ments of a sea star? B
F. mantle H. radula
G. nerve ring I. tube foot

5 Differentiate between a protostome and a

7 What is the significance of the relationship
deuterostome.
between structures A and B?
F. B collects food from the water that
enters the body through A.
Test G. B extracts oxygen from the water that
enters the body through A.
Take time to read each question completely on a
H. B releases undigested food into the
standardized test, including all of the answer
choices. Consider each answer choice before deter-
water that leaves the body through A.
I. B releases gametes into the water that
mining which one is correct.
leaves the body through A.

Skills Practice Lab
Analyzing Sea Star Anatomy
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Observing • disposable gloves
• Collecting data • preserved sea star
• Inferring • dissection tray
• dissection scissors
OBJECTIVES
• hand lens
• Observe anatomical
structures of an • dissecting microscope
echinoderm. • forceps
• Infer function of • blunt probe
body parts from • sharp probe
structure. • dissection pins
ChemSafety
Before You Begin

Sea stars are members of the phylum Function of Sea Star Structures
Echinodermata, a group of invertebrates that Structure Observations Inferred function
also includes sand dollars, sea urchins, and Madreporite
sea cucumbers. Echinoderms share four Spine
main characteristics: an endoskeleton,
five-part radial symmetry, a water-vascular Skin gill
system, and circulation and respiration

through their coelom.
Procedure
above. PART A: External Anatomy
2. Create a data table like the one shown to 1. CAUTION: Put on safety
the right. goggles, a lab apron,
3. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a and protective gloves. As you observe
question you would like to explore about the sea star body structures, record your
sea star anatomy. observations and your inference of each
structure’s function in the table. On a
separate sheet of paper or in your lab
notebook, draw and label the sea star and
the structures that you observe.
2. Using forceps, hold a preserved sea star 12. Carefully remove the body wall from the
under running water to gently but thor- upper surface of the central region of the
oughly remove excess preservative. Then sea star. Locate the pyloric stomach and the
place the sea star in a dissecting tray. cardiac stomach.
3. Refer to the diagram of a sea star in 13. Remove the stomachs and find the ring
Up Close in this chapter to locate the canal and the radial canals. In which
madreporite on the upper surface of the direction does water move through these
sea star. canals?
4. Use a hand lens to observe the sea star’s 14. Dispose of sea stars and sea star
spines. Are they distributed in any recog- body parts in the waste container
nizable pattern? Are they exposed or designated by your teacher. Do not put
covered by tissue? Are they movable lab materials in the trash unless your
or fixed? teacher tells you to do so.
5. Use the dissecting microscope to look for 15. Clean up your work area and all
small skin gills, If any are present, lab equipment. Return lab equip-
describe their location and structure. ment to its proper place. Wash your
6. Examine the sea star’s lower surface. Find hands thoroughly before you leave the
the mouth, and use forceps or a probe to lab and after you finish all work.
gently move aside any soft tissues. What
structures are found around the mouth? Analyze and Conclude
7. Locate the tube feet. Describe their
1. Analyzing Results What type of sym-
distribution. Using a dissecting micro-
metry is found in the sea star?
scope, observe and then draw a single
tube foot. 2. Inferring Relationships What is the
relationship between the ampullae and
the tube feet?
PART B: Internal Anatomy 3. Making Predictions How does a sea
8. CAUTION: Scissors, probes, and star use its stomach during feeding?
pins are sharp. Use care not to
4. Making Predictions If the ring canals
puncture your gloves or injure yourself
and radial canals did not function prop-
or others. Using scissors and forceps,
erly, how would this affect the sea star’s
carefully the cut the body wall away from
ability to move and feed?
the upper surface of one of the sea star’s
arms. Start near the end of the arm and 5. Further Inquiry Write a new question
work toward the center. about echinoderms that could be explored
with another investigation.
9. Find the digestive glands in the arm you
have opened. Then, locate the short Use the following Internet resources to explore
your own questions about echinoderms.
branched tube that connects the digestive
glands to the pyloric stomach.
10. Cut the tube that connects the digestive
www.scilinks.org
glands to the stomach, and move the
Topic: Echinoderms
digestive glands out of the arm. Look for Keyword: HX4065
the reproductive organs.
11. Locate the two rows of ampullae that run
the length of the arm.
CHAPTER 31 Echinoderms and Invertebrate Chordates 707

Exploring
UNIT 8 Vertebrates
Chapters
38 Introduction to
32
Vertebrates
33 Fishes and
Amphibians
34 Reptiles and Birds
35 Mammals
36 Animal Behavior
Only a few wild tigers

remain in the world.

The Tiger
Native to Asia, tigers once

lived throughout much of
the southern half of the
continent. Tigers were killed in large numbers as
hunters killed them for their skins and humans
cleared the forests in which they lived. What
characteristics of tigers are representative of
other mammals?
Prince of Wales, Edward VII,
on a hunting expedition in
India
Tigers everywhere are at critically low

numbers. Poaching, the illegal killing
of tigers for their bones, skin, and
other body parts, continues in many countries.
In India, Nepal, and Russia, protected areas have
been set aside to help preserve tiger habitat.
Discover how a mammal’s teeth provide
clues about its diet.
Tiger skin confiscated by the

police in Delhi, India
The long-term survival of tigers may

depend on breeding programs in
zoos and nature reserves. In some
areas, more rigorous enforcement
of anti-poaching laws is helping to
protect wild populations. Find www.scilinks.org
out to which order of mammals Topic: Tigers
Keyword: HX4176
tigers belong.
Bengal tiger cubs
709
Excavated mammoth skeleton

CHAPTER
32 Introduction to
Vertebrates
1. Summarize how mass extinctions have
affected life on Earth. (Chapter 12, Section 2) Vertebrates in the Sea
2. Define the terms vertebrate and continental and on Land
drift. (Chapter 12, Section 3) Adaptations of Vertebrates
3. Distinguish between a carnivore and a The First Vertebrates
herbivore. (Chapter 16, Section 2) Evolution of Fishes
Modern Fishes
4. Define the terms bilateral symmetry, cephaliza-
tion, and coelom. (Chapter 27, Section 1) Evolution of Amphibians
Modern Amphibians
5. Summarize the function of genes. (Chapter 10,
Section 1)
6. Explain the importance of phylogenetic
Section 2
relationships. (Chapter 13, Section 2) Terrestrial Vertebrates
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Early Reptiles
sections indicated. Evolution of Dinosaurs
Evolution of Birds
Modern Birds
Reading Activity Modern Reptiles

Evolution of Mammals
Modern Mammals
As you read the first section of this chapter,
complete a reading organizer to describe the
series of adaptations in body structure for
Section 3
agnathans, ostracoderms, acanthodians, Evolution of Primates
and placoderms. Characteristics of Primates
Nonhuman Primates
Early Hominids
Section 4
The Genus Homo
Mammoths were large mammals with tusks and Homo habilis
a trunk similar to those of modern elephants. Now Homo erectus
extinct, mammoths lived throughout North America Homo sapiens
starting about 1.7 million years ago.
CHAPTER 32 Introduction to Vertebrates 711

Section 1 Vertebrates in the
Sea and on Land
Objectives Adaptations of Vertebrates
● Identify the key characteris- If you go to a zoo, many of the animals you see—the lions, elephants,
tics of vertebrates. snakes, turtles, and birds—are vertebrates, just as people are. Verte-
● Describe two adaptations brates are chordates with a backbone. Even though these vertebrates
found in early fishes. appear different, they are very much alike internally, indicating that
in the distant past they had a common ancestor. Present-day differ-
● Identify the relationship of
fishes to amphibians. ences in vertebrates reflect their different evolutionary paths.
What are the internal similarities shared by vertebrates? First,
● Summarize the key vertebrates are chordates with a backbone. They take their name
adaptations of amphibians
from the individual segments, called vertebrae (VUR tuh bree)
for life on land.
(singular, vertebra), that make up the backbone. Figure 1 shows a
typical vertebrate and its endoskeleton. In most vertebrates, the
Key Terms
backbone completely replaces the notochord found in invertebrate
vertebra chordates.
agnathan The backbone provides support for and protects a dorsal nerve
acanthodian
cord. It also provides a site for muscle attachment. These functions
cartilage
paved the way for the development of an internal skeleton that
allowed vertebrates to grow larger than their invertebrate ances-
tors. In addition to a backbone, vertebrates have a bony skull that
encases and protects their brain.
Skull Vertebrae
Tail
Backbone
Figure 1 Vertebrate.
This cat’s skeleton includes
a skull and a backbone
composed of vertebrae.
712 CHAPTER 32 Introduction to Vertebrates

Vertebrates share a number of other characteristics, including
segmentation, bilateral symmetry, and two pairs of jointed
Real Life
appendages, such as limbs or fins. They exhibit cephalization and How many vertebrae
have complex brains and sense organs. All vertebrates have a true do giraffes have in
coelom and a closed circulatory system with a chambered heart. their neck?
The tissues of vertebrates compose organs. In turn, the organs Nearly all vertebrates,
including giraffes, have
compose organ systems. Vertebrate organ systems tend to be more seven neck vertebrae.
complex than the organ systems found in invertebrates. For At almost 6 m
example, recall the grasshopper’s digestive system, seen in Up Close (20 ft) tall, the
in an earlier chapter. Its digestive tract is divided into several giraffe is the
specialized regions. However, the only associated structures are tallest of all ver-
salivary glands. In contrast, the cat’s digestive system, shown in tebrates, and its
seven cervical
Figure 2, consists of a digestive tract, together with two accessory
(neck) vertebrae
organs, the liver and the pancreas. These complex organs secrete are greatly
enzymes that aid digestion. Figure 2 shows the major organ sys- elongated.
tems of a typical vertebrate.
Figure 2 Major organ systems

A vertebrate’s organ systems perform a variety of functions.
Vertebrate Organ Systems
Nervous system: monitors Circulatory system: carries Digestive system: prepares

1 2 3
the environment; controls blood and substances dis- food for use by animal’s cells;
and coordinates body functions. solved in it around the body. removes solid wastes from body.
Brain
Liver Stomach
Spinal cord Kidney
Sex organs
Anus
Mouth
Bladder
Esophagus
Trachea
(windpipe)
Lung
Intestines
Heart Blood
vessels
Nerves
Respiratory system:
4
exchanges gases
(O2 and CO2) between Reproductive system: produces and carries Excretory system:
5 6
blood and the animal’s eggs or sperm; usually allows for internal fertil- removes wastes
environment. ization of egg and internal development of offspring. from the body.
SECTION 1 Vertebrates in the Sea and on Land 713

The First Vertebrates
The first chordates evolved about 550 million years ago. At that
time, many different groups of organisms appeared in the shallow
seas that covered a large portion of Earth’s continents. According to
the fossil record, the first vertebrates appeared about 50 million
years later. The first vertebrates were fishes similar to the one
shown in Figure 3. Unlike most of the fishes you are familiar with,
Figure 3 Ancient fish. This the earliest fishes, called agnathans, had neither jaws nor paired
fossil fish is typical of the early fins. But agnathans did have a backbone, which provided a central
jawless fishes.
axis for muscle attachment. As their muscles
pulled against the backbone, the agnathans pro-
pelled themselves along the ocean bottom.
Within another 50 million years, jawless fishes
had diversified into a great variety of species. The
major group was the ostracoderms (ahs TRAK uh
durms), which had primitive fins and massive
plates of bony tissue on their body. Jawless fishes
dominated the oceans for about 100 million years,
until they were replaced by new kinds of fishes
that were hunters. Figure 4 shows one hypothesis
about evolutionary relationships among fishes.
Figure 4 Evolution of fishes

This simplified phylogenetic tree shows one hypothesis about the relationship
between the early fishes and the fishes and amphibians that evolved later.
Lamprey Shark Bass Coelacanth Frog

Jawless Cartilaginous Bony Lobe-finned Amphibians
Quaternary fishes fishes fishes fishes
Today
Tertiary
50
Cretaceous 100
150
Time (millions of years ago)
Jurassic
200
Triassic
250
Permian
Early
300 amphibians
Carboniferous
350 Acanthodians Placoderms
Devonian
400
Silurian
450
Ordovician
500
Agnathans
Cambrian
550

Evolution of Fishes
To survive as predators in the water, fishes must meet two impor-
tant challenges. The first challenge is that of pursuing prey through
the water. Fishes are fast and agile swimmers. The bodies of fishes
are streamlined and many are flattened sideways, which makes it
easy for them to move through the water. Fishes also have paired
fins supported by spines, which provide fine control of movement.
The second challenge is that of grasping prey once it is within
reach. About 430 million years ago, the acanthodians (uh kan
THOH dee uhns), or spiny fishes, appeared. Acanthodians had
strong jaws with jagged, bony edges that served as teeth, enabling
them to hold onto prey. The development of jaws in fishes was a key
evolutionary innovation. As shown in Figure 5, jaws are thought to
have evolved from gill arch supports made of cartilage (KAHRT
lihj), a lightweight, strong, flexible tissue.
The spiny fishes had internal skeletons of cartilage, although
some fossils indicate that their skeletons also contained some bone.
Their scales also contained small plates of bone. The presence of
bone in the spiny fishes foreshadowed the much larger role that
bone would play in their descendants.
About 20 million years after the acanthodians appeared, the pla-
coderms evolved. Placoderms (PLAK uh durms) were jawed fishes www.scilinks.org
with massive heads armored with bony plates. By the end of the Topic: Evolution of Jaws
Devonian period, almost all of the early fishes, including the placo- Keyword: HX4075
derms, had disappeared. After dominating the seas for almost 50
million years, they were replaced by swifter swimmers—the sharks
and bony fishes.
Figure 5 Evolution of jaws

The development of jaws was a key evolutionary innovation.
Skull Anterior gill arches
Gill slits
Jaw support
Jaws

Sharks and Bony Fishes
By the end of the Devonian period, almost all of the early fishes had
disappeared. At about the same time (400 million years ago), sharks
and bony fishes appeared. Sharks and bony fishes, which are
superior swimmers, thrived in the Devonian seas. Most have stream-
lined bodies that are well adapted for rapid movement through the
water. Both sharks and bony fishes also have an assortment of mov-
Figure 6 Hybodus. Early able fins that greatly aid their swimming. However, their evolution-
sharks, such as Hybodus, ary pathways differ. Sharks, such as the
were among the first verte-
brates to have jaws.
extinct Hybodus, shown in Figure 6,
have a skeleton composed of cartilage.
Calcium carbonate (the mineral oyster
shells are made of) is deposited in the
outer layers of the cartilage. A thin
layer of bone covers this reinforced car-
tilage. The result is a very light but
strong skeleton. Bony fishes, on the
other hand, have a skeleton made of
bone, which is heavier and less flexible
than cartilage. Bony fishes have a swim
bladder, which compensates for this
increased weight. This gas-filled sac
buoys them in the water, just as an air-
filled balloon buoys a swimmer.
Using Timelines and Phylogenetic Trees

Background
Use the timeline in Section 2 of the chapter titled “History of Life on Earth” and
0100010110
011101010 the phylogenetic tree in Figure 4 in this chapter to answer the analysis questions.
0010010001001 Tell which graphic you used to answer each question.
1100100100010
0000101001001
1101010100100
0101010010010
Analysis
Age (in millions of years ago)
When the jawed fishes
appeared, what was
Plants and arthropods invade land; jawed fishes first appear.
occurring on land? •
440
•
430
• •
410
2. Critical Thinking SILURIAN PERIOD
What are the approximate Devonian period, which a particular type of music,
beginning and ending dates groups have descendants such as rock and roll. Which
of the Ordovician period and living today? format, a timeline or a tree,
the Silurian period? would better suit your presen-
tation? Explain your answer.
3. Critical Thinking Analyzing Methods
Interpreting Graphics Of Imagine that you are giving a
the fishes living during the presentation on the history of

Modern Fishes
Today there are more fishes than any other group of vertebrates,
both in terms of numbers of individuals and numbers of species. If
you consider that water covers three-fourths of Earth’s surface and
that fishes live in virtually every aquatic habitat, this fact is not sur-
prising. Today’s fishes belong to one of three major groups: the
agnathans, the cartilaginous (kart’l AJ uh nuhs) fishes, and the bony
fishes. The agnathans (hagfishes and the lampreys) resemble the
early jawless fishes.
The first cartilaginous fishes (sharks) and the bony fishes evolved
at about the same time, 400 million years ago. These two groups of
fishes likely evolved from the same early, jawless fishes that gave
rise to the acanthodians and the placoderms. The shark’s relatives,
the skates and rays, evolved later.
Bony fishes are the fishes most familiar to us. Bony fishes make
up about 95 percent of modern fish species. Because bony fishes
are adapted to many different environments, they vary greatly in
size, color, and shape. Figure 7 shows three examples of bony fishes.
Figure 7 Bony fishes

Bony fishes live in a wide variety of habitats, and there is great variation
in their appearance.
Russian sturgeon
Blue-faced angelfish
Eastern mud minnow

Evolution of Amphibians
The first group of vertebrates to live on land were the amphibians,
which appeared about 370 million years ago. Amphibians probably
share a common ancestor with modern lungfishes and other lobe-
finned fishes. As shown in Figure 8, the pattern of bones in an
amphibian’s limbs bears a strong resemblance to that of a lobe-
finned fish. While several species of lobe-finned fishes exist today,
those species thought to be ancestral to amphibians are extinct.
The “Age of Amphibians”

Although amphibians first appeared in the Devonian period, they
increased greatly in numbers during the Carboniferous period.
During this time, which began what biologists call the “age of
amphibians,” the number of amphibian families increased from 14
to about 34. (Recall that a family is a taxonomic category composed
of one or more genera.) By the late Carboniferous period, much of
what was to become North America was covered by low-lying
tropical swamplands. Amphibians thrived in this moist environ-
ment, sharing it with early reptiles.
In the Permian period that followed, amphibians reached their
www.scilinks.org greatest diversity, increasing to 40 families. In the early Permian
Topic: Evolution of Limbs period, a remarkable change occurred among amphibians—many
Keyword: HX4076 of them began to leave the marshes for dry uplands. By the middle
Permian, 60 percent of all amphibian species were living in dry
environments. Eryops, illustrated in Figure 9, was typical of
amphibians of this period and was well adapted for life on land.
Figure 8 From fin to limb

As shown by the colors below, the pattern of limb bones in an early amphibian
bears a distinct resemblance to the pattern of fin bones in a lobe-finned fish.
Lobe-finned fish
Early amphibian

Adaptations for Life on Land
Life on land is quite different from life in the water. Thus, a num- Figure 9 Eryops. Eryops
ber of major adaptations allowed some species to successfully grew to 1.8 m (6 ft) long and
probably lived much like a
invade land.
modern alligator, moving in
1. Legs. Legs support the body’s weight as well as allow movement and out of freshwater habitats.
from place to place.
2. Lungs. The delicate structure of a fish’s gills depends on water
for support. On land, lungs carry out gas exchange.
3. Heart. Walking on land requires a greater expenditure
of energy than swimming. Land animals tend to have
higher metabolic rates than aquatic animals. This, in
turn, requires greater amounts of oxygen. The structure
of the vertebrate heart allows oxygen to be delivered to
the body efficiently.
Modern amphibians have such adaptations, but many
groups are not well-adapted to dry land. For example,
amphibian eggs are not watertight, and modern amphibians
must seek out water or damp areas in which to reproduce.
6 cm
Comparing the Surface Areas of Gills
Background
Air contains more oxygen than water, so why do fish die when
0100010110
011101010 removed from water? To understand what happens to gills when
0010010001001 they are removed from water, follow the procedure below.
1100100100010
0000101001001
1101010100100 Materials
0101010010010
cellophane wrap, scissors, toothpick, ruler, container of water
7 vertical cuts
Procedure
1. Cut an 8 6 cm piece of remove the model and place 3. Critical Thinking
cellophane wrap. Use the it on the table. Analyzing Data Consider
piece of wrap and a toothpick what you know about the
5. Without rearranging the
to make a model of fish gills, requirements for gas exchange
model in any way, measure its
as shown in the drawing. across a gill’s surface. Do the
approximate length and
data you obtained suggest a
2. Measure the approximate width. Calculate the area of
reason why fishes cannot live
length and width of the model. the model again.
out of water? Explain your
Calculate the area of the
Analysis answer.
model by using the formula
a = l w. 1. Summarize any difference 4. Critical Thinking
you observed between the gill Comparing Structures
3. Submerge the model in water model in the water and the Your model is two-dimensional.
and allow it to float at the top. wet model out of the water. To calculate the surface area
Notice any change in shape
2. Compare the area obtained of an actual gill, you would
of the model.
in step 2 with that obtained in need to know another
4. Grasp the model by the step 5. If the areas are differ- measurement. What is that
toothpick and pull it gently ent, identify which was larger. measurement, and why
through the water. Then is it important?

Modern Amphibians
The middle Permian period marked the peak of amphibian success.
By the end of this period a new kind of vertebrate, a reptile called a
therapsid, had become common and began to replace the amphib-
ians. By the end of the Triassic period that followed, there were only
15 families of amphibians, including the first species of frogs. And
by the Jurassic period, only three groups of amphibians remained—
frogs, salamanders, and caecilians. The age of amphibians was over.
All of today’s amphibians are descendants of the amphibians that
survived into the Jurassic period. They are found in aquatic and
moist habitats throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the
world. Frogs and toads make up the largest, and probably the most
familiar, group of modern amphibians. Salamanders and newts are
far less numerous. Caecilians account for less than 1 percent of
today’s amphibian species. Figure 10 shows a representative sample
of today’s amphibians.
Figure 10 Amphibians
Today’s amphibians are descendants of the three amphibian groups that survived into the Jurassic period.
Spotted
Bullfrog
salamander
Woodhouse’s Yellow-striped
toad caecilian
Section 1 Review
Describe two characteristics that distinguish Critical Thinking Evaluating a Hypothesis
vertebrates from invertebrates. Evaluate this statement: Amphibians are not fully
adapted for life on land.
Discuss two adaptations that enabled early
fishes to dominate the oceans. Standardized Test Prep Fossil evidence indicates
that the first fishes lacked
Relate the structure of the limbs of a lobe-finned A a backbone. C fins.
fish to the evolution of amphibians.
B jaws. D muscles.

Terrestrial Vertebrates Section 2
Early Reptiles Objectives

To understand the problem that water loss can be, all you need to ● Summarize why dinosaurs
do is stay outside on a hot day. It won’t be long before you are became the dominant land
sweating and thinking about a cool drink. If you don’t increase your vertebrates.
fluid intake and cool off, you may start to feel dizzy and nauseated. ● Contrast ectotherms with
Fluid loss is a problem for all terrestrial animals, that is, animals endotherms.
that live on land. The adaptations that permitted amphibians to live ● Identify the dinosaurlike
on land further developed in reptiles. Two very important adapta- and the birdlike features of
tions for terrestrial life evolved in reptiles. Reptiles were the first Archaeopteryx.
animals to have skin and eggs that are both almost watertight, and
● Summarize why mammals
they differ from amphibians in this respect. replaced dinosaurs.
When reptiles first evolved, about 320 million years ago, Earth
was entering a long, dry period. Early reptiles were better suited Key Terms
to these conditions than amphibians were, and the reptiles
quickly diversified. Within 50 million years, reptiles had replaced terrestrial
thecodont
amphibians as the dominant terrestrial vertebrates. Figure 11
Pangaea
shows one hypothesized evolutionary relationship of terrestrial ectothermic
vertebrates. endothermic
therapsid
Figure 11 Evolution of terrestrial vertebrates

This simplified phylogenetic tree shows one hypothesis of the relationship between
early reptiles and the vertebrates that evolved from them.
Quaternary Turtles Tuataras Lizards Snakes Crocodiles Birds Mammals

Today
Tertiary
50
Dinosaurs
(extinct)
Time (millions of years ago)
Cretaceous 100 Archaeopteryx

(extinct)
150
Jurassic
200 Therapsids
(extinct)
Triassic
250
Permian
Thecodonts
300 (extinct)
Carboniferous Early reptiles
350 (extinct)
SECTION 2 Terrestrial Vertebrates 721

North Europe and
a
L a u r a s i a America Asia
e
a
g
n Africa
South India
a
America
P
Go
nd
ralia
wa
na Aust
ctica
Antar
200 million 180 million 65 million

years ago years ago years ago
(early Jurassic) (mid-Jurassic) (late Cretaceous)
Figure 12 Breakup of
Pangaea. The supercontinent
Evolution of Dinosaurs
Pangaea began to break up Beginning about 235 million years ago, dinosaurs dominated life
during the Jurassic period. By on land for roughly 150 million years. They evolved from the
the late Cretaceous period
thecodonts, an extinct group of crocodile-like reptiles. During their
today’s continents began to
be recognizable. long history, dinosaurs changed a great deal, in part because the
world they inhabited changed. Thus, dinosaurs represent a long
parade of change and adaptation—animals that lived at different
times and were adapted to very different environments.
One factor that affected dinosaur evolution was the movement of
the continents, which radically altered Earth’s climate. When the
dinosaurs first appeared, all of Earth’s landmasses were joined in a
single supercontinent called Pangaea (pan GEE uh), shown in
www.scilinks.org Figure 12. There were few mountain ranges over this enormous
Topic: Pangaea stretch of land, and the interior was dry. Coastal climates were much
Keyword: HX4135 the same all over the world—quite warm, with a dry season followed
by a very wet rainy season. As Pangaea broke apart, the climates of
the various landmasses varied. Some species of dinosaurs could not
adapt and became extinct, while new kinds flourished.
Triassic Dinosaurs
The oldest known dinosaur fossils are in rocks from the early Tri-
assic period, about 235 million years ago. One of the first known
dinosaurs, Eoraptor, illustrated in Figure 13, was a 30 cm (1 ft) long
bipedal (two-footed) carnivore. By the end of the Triassic period
some 22 million years later, small, carnivorous dinosaurs were very
common and had largely replaced the thecodonts.
Figure 13 Eoraptor.
There are at least three reasons why dinosaurs were so successful.
Eoraptor was only 30 cm (1 ft)
long—about the size of a 1. Leg structure. Legs positioned directly under
chicken. the body provided good support for the dino-
saur’s body weight, enabling dinosaurs to be
faster and more agile runners than the the-
codonts. Dinosaurs were better able to catch
prey and escape from predators.
2. Drought resistance. Dinosaurs were well
adapted to the dry conditions found in Pangaea
during the late Triassic period.

Figure 14 Sauropod
The sauropod Brachiosaurus stood 12.5 m (41 ft) tall and reached up to
23 m (75 ft) in length. It weighed 81,000 kg (89 tons), more than
14 African elephants or 1,500 students.
3. Extinction of other animal species. At the end of the Triassic

period a large meteorite struck northeastern Canada. (Its
www.scilinks.org
impact site, the Manicouagan Crater, is still visible today.) This
Topic: Comparing Dinosaurs
event might have been responsible for the great loss of animal Keyword: HX4049
diversity that occurred at the end of the Triassic period. The-
codonts and many other species became extinct, but the
dinosaurs survived.
The Jurassic Period—

The Golden Age of Dinosaurs
The Jurassic period is considered the golden age of dinosaurs
because of the variety and abundance of dinosaurs that lived dur-
ing this time. They included the largest land animals of all time, the
Figure 15 Theropod. The
sauropods (SAWR oh pawdz). As Figure 14 shows, sauropods had theropod Velociraptor was
enormous, barrel-shaped bodies, heavy columnlike legs, and very about 1.8 m (6 ft) long, about
long necks and tails. Sauropods were the dominant herbivores of the height of a large human.
the Jurassic period.
By the late Jurassic period, the carniv-
orous theropods (THEHR uh pawdz) were
common. Theropods stood on two power-
ful legs and had short arms. Their large
heads were equipped with sharp teeth,
and each foot had sickle-shaped claws
used for ripping open prey. This anatomy
was well suited for rapid running and
quick, slashing attacks. Theropods preyed
on the large herbivorous dinosaurs and
were the dominant terrestrial predators
until the end of the Cretaceous period.
Figure 15 shows a representative theropod.

Real Life Were Dinosaurs Warmblooded?
Ectothermic animals, such as today’s reptiles, are animals whose
Reptiles make metabolism is too slow to produce enough heat to warm their bodies.
fascinating pets!
Such animals must absorb heat from their environment. Thus, their
But there are drawbacks
body temperature changes as the temperature of their environment
to their increasing popu-
larity. Some reptiles are changes. Ectotherms are sometimes referred to as “coldblooded.”
dangerous and difficult to Mammals and birds, in contrast, are endothermic animals. They
care for, and many carry maintain a high, constant body temperature by producing heat inter-
harmful bacteria in their nally. Endotherms are sometimes referred to as “warmblooded.”
intestinal tracts. Often Were dinosaurs ectotherms or endotherms? For a long time it
reptiles offered for sale
was assumed that dinosaurs were ectotherms, as modern reptiles
have been removed from
their natural environment, are. However, new evidence indicates that at least some dinosaurs
causing a decline in their were endotherms. The microscopic structure of the bones of some
native populations. dinosaurs resembles that of modern endotherms, both in growth
Forming Reasoned rate and growth pattern. In addition, chemical analysis indicates
Opinions that the bones of some Cretaceous dinosaurs probably formed
Evaluate the pros and under endothermic conditions. A lively debate on this question will
cons of owning a reptile.
probably continue for some time.
What advice
would you give
to someone The Cretaceous Extinction
who wants Toward the end of the Cretaceous period, sea levels began to fall
a pet
and the climate began to cool. Many kinds of dinosaurs began to
reptile?
decrease in number. Then, 65 million years ago, all dinosaurs
abruptly disappeared from the fossil record. No one knows for cer-
tain why this happened. Most scientists now agree that the major
contributing cause was the impact on Earth of one or more mete-
orites or asteroids, the largest of which may have been 8 to 16 km
(5 to 10 mi) in diameter. A crater 320 km (200 mi) wide off the
coast of Mexico’s Yucatán peninsula is very likely the site where
this meteorite or asteroid collided with Earth approximately 65
million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period. A thin line
of sediment marks the end of the Cretaceous period in rocks
throughout the world. This sediment is rich in iridium, a mineral
rare in Earth’s crust but common in meteorites.
Scientists think that such an impact would have thrown large
amounts of material from Earth’s surface into the atmosphere. This
material would have blocked out sunlight for a considerable period
of time and created a prolonged, worldwide cold period. The
endothermic birds and mammals, which were relatively small and
insulated with feathers and fur, survived. The smaller ectothermic
reptiles and amphibians also survived. But the dinosaurs did not
survive.
Scientists are not sure why the dinosaurs did not survive this
www.scilinks.org period of intense cold. Disease or competition from mammals
Topic: Dinosaur Extinction might have led to their extinction. However, if most Cretaceous
Keyword: HX4057 dinosaurs were endotherms, as some scientists now think they
were, the dinosaurs would not have been able to survive the cold.
They lacked the insulation of birds and mammals and could not
lower their activity level as smaller reptiles and amphibians could.

Evolution of Birds Figure 16 Archaeopteryx.
The earliest known bird is Archaeopteryx The Archaeopteryx fossil below
(meaning “ancient wing”), illustrated in shows clear impressions of
feathers surrounding the wings.
Figure 16. Archaeopteryx was about the
The artist’s interpretation of
size of a crow and shared many features Archaeopteryx shows both its
with small theropods. For example, it dinosaurian and avian features.
had a long reptilian tail. This is a feature
of a dinosaur, not of a bird. Archaeopteryx had
no breastbone to anchor its flight muscles, as
do modern birds. And unlike the hollow
bones of modern birds, Archaeopteryx’s bones
were solid. It also had forelimbs similar to those of a dinosaur.
Because of these dinosaurlike features, several Archaeopteryx fossils
were originally classified as dinosaurs.
The impressions of feathers on some Archaeopteryx fossils
raised questions about their classification as dinosaurs.
Archaeopteryx fossils appear avian (birdlike) due to the feathers on
their wings and tails. Archaeopteryx also had other avian features,
notably a fused collar bone—the wishbone—which dinosaurs did
not have. Today, most biologists agree that Archaeopteryx is very
closely related to the small dinosaur Compsognathus. Some biolo-
gists go so far as to classify Archaeopteryx as a “feathered
dinosaur.” Recent fossil discoveries in China, such as the fossil
shown in Figure 17, support this opinion. However, many biolo-
gists continue to classify birds in a separate class, Aves, because of
their distinct features.
The fossil record now reveals a diverse collection of toothed birds
with hollow bones and breastbones adapted for flight. By the early
Cretaceous period, only 15 million years after Archaeopteryx lived,
a variety of birds with many of the features of modern birds
had evolved.
Figure 17 A feathered
dinosaur? This dinosaur
fossil, Protoarchaeopteryx,
found in China in 1996, shows
impressions of feathers along
its back.

Modern Birds
There are more species of birds than of any other terrestrial verte-
brate. All but a few of the modern orders of birds are thought to
www.scilinks.org
have arisen after the Cretaceous extinction. Since the impressions
Topic: Birds
Keyword: HX4024 of feathers are rarely fossilized and since modern birds have hollow
delicate bones, the fossil record of birds is incomplete. Relation-
ships among the families of modern birds are mostly inferred from
studies of the degree of DNA similarity among living birds. These
studies suggest that the ostrich and its relatives belong to the oldest
group of living birds. Ducks, geese, and waterfowl likely arose next
and were followed by a diverse group of woodpeckers, parrots,
swifts, and owls. Next came the songbirds, which include 60 per-
cent of today’s bird species. The most recent birds to appear were
the more specialized orders, including many birds of prey, flamin-
gos, and penguins. Figure 18 shows representative modern birds.
Birds live in a wide variety of environments and differ greatly in
appearance. While most birds have wings and can fly, the ostrich
has wings and does not fly. The penguin’s wings have been modified
to be used as flippers that propel it swiftly through ocean waters.
Striking colors often found in male birds help them attract a mate.
All birds eat frequently because they have a high metabolic rate and
typically store little body fat. The beaks of birds are adapted to the
type of food the bird eats. Most birds consume small, energy-rich
meals of fruits, seeds, worms, or insects. Hawks and owls are preda-
tors; they eat rabbits, rodents, and other small mammals, and
sometimes snakes and lizards. Gulls and pelicans eat fish. Vultures
feed on dead animals.
Figure 18 Modern birds

Although birds vary greatly in appearance, they all have feathers,
a key defining characteristic.
Ostrich
Yellow warbler
American kestrel
Snow goose

Modern Reptiles
Of the 16 orders of reptiles known to have existed, only four remain
today. Representatives of these orders are shown in Figure 19.
Reading Effectively
The turtles have changed very little in structure since the time of
Locate the thecodonts in
the dinosaurs. The vast majority of living reptiles belong to the sec-
Figure 11. Notice how the
ond group to evolve—snakes and lizards. Tuataras belong to the lines leading to the crocodil-
third group of surviving reptiles to evolve. ians and birds stem from the
The fourth line of living reptiles, the crocodilians—crocodiles thecodonts. This suggests
and their relatives, including the familiar alligators—appeared on that crocodiles and birds
Earth much later than the first three groups. Crocodilians have come from a different lin-
eage than the other
changed very little in more than 200 million years. Like dinosaurs,
reptile groups.
crocodilians are descendants of the thecodonts.
In some ways, such as the structure of their heart, crocodilians
resemble birds far more than they resemble other living reptiles.
And crocodilians are the only living reptiles that care for their
young. What does this mean in terms of their relationships to other
vertebrate species? Today, many biologists think that birds are
direct descendants of the dinosaurs. If this is true, then crocodil-
ians and birds are more closely related to dinosaurs, and to each
other, than they are to other living reptiles. This close evolutionary
relationship may account for some of their similarities.
Figure 19 Reptiles
Of the four living orders of reptiles, the order that includes crocodiles and alligators is the most
recent. Crocodiles and their close relatives differ in several ways from other reptiles.
American alligator
Snapping turtle
Boa constrictor
Tuatara

Evolution of Mammals
The first mammals appeared about 220 million years ago, just as the
dinosaurs were evolving from thecodonts. It is most likely that mam-
mals were descendants of the therapsids, an extinct order of animals
that were probably endotherms. Mammals are the only vertebrates
that have fur and mammary glands. Early mammals, such as
Eozostrodon, illustrated in Figure 20, were small—about the size of
mice. They were insect-eating tree dwellers that were active at night.
Figure 20 Eozostrodon.
Only 12 cm (5 in.) in total For 155 million years, while the dinosaurs flourished, mammals
length, Eozostrodon is typical were a minor group that changed little. Only five orders of mammals
of the small, early nocturnal arose in that time, and their fossils are scarce. In the Cretaceous
mammals. extinction, most animal species larger than a small dog disappeared.
The smaller reptiles, including lizards, turtles, crocodilians, and
snakes, survived. Mammals and birds also survived.
Diversification of Mammals
Just as after earlier mass extinctions, the stage was again set for a
great evolutionary play. But the world’s climate was no longer dry,
as it was after the Triassic extinction. The adaptations that served
reptiles well in dry climates were no longer so important. Mammals
and birds became the dominant vertebrates on land. In the Tertiary
period, mammals rapidly diversified, taking over many of the eco-
logical roles once dominated by dinosaurs. Mammals reached their
greatest diversity in the late Tertiary period, about 15 million years
ago. At that time, tropical conditions existed over much of Earth.
During the last 15 million years, world climates have changed, and
the area covered by tropical habitats has decreased. As a result, the
number of mammalian species has declined.
Ice Age Mammals Today, all very large land animals are mammals.
However, many large land mammals existed during the last ice age
(about 2 million to 10,000 years ago). At that time, many species of
enormous mammals such as the Irish elk, illustrated in Figure 21,
roamed Earth.
Figure 21 Irish elk. The
Irish elk was actually a species
of large deer that lived
throughout Europe, northern
Africa, and northern Asia.

Giant ground sloths lived then and weighed three tons, as large
as a modern elephant. Enormous vegetarian cave bears populated
www.scilinks.org
Europe during the ice ages. Large lionlike saber-toothed cats
Topic: Early Mammals
hunted with jaws that opened an incredible 120 degrees to allow Keyword: HX4063
the cat to drive its huge upper pair of saber teeth into prey. The
shoulders of Irish elk, shown in Figure 21, were over 2.1 m (7 ft)
high, and the span of the antlers could be up to 3.65 m (12 ft). All
of these giant mammals are now extinct. Today only elephants
approach the size of the enormous mammoths and giant camels
that roamed Earth then.
Later Mammals Today, there are more than 4,500 species of mam-
mals, and they inhabit virtually every habitat on Earth. They are
found in jungles, deserts, and on polar ice. They live in fresh-water
streams, and deep in the ocean. They even populate the air—bats are
among the most successful of all mammal groups. Mammals range
in size from the blue whale, which may weigh as much as 136,000 kg
(150 tons), to the tiny Kitti’s hognose bat, weighing about 1.5 grams
(less than 0.1 oz). Most mammals are covered with a dense coat of
fur, but some have little fur. Whales have only a few hairs.
If Bones Could Talk
W hen a murder victim has

been dead for weeks,
months, or years, clues can be
violent death (for example, a
hammer blow to the head), an
anthropologist can analyze signs
few and far between. In these of physical injury. Using a micro-
cases, homicide investigators scope, the anthropologist can
often seek the aid of forensic see precise details of tool marks,
physical anthropologists. Physi- which may suggest a likely mur- and height. Based on patterns of
cal anthropology is the scientific der weapon. Such details can muscle attachment, a forensic
study of human variation, classi- also help investigators distin- anthropologist can even deter-
fication, and evolution. Forensic guish saw marks, for example, mine whether the victim was
anthropologists use their know- from postmortem damage right- or left-handed. Computer-
ledge of skeletal anatomy and caused by a gnawing rodent. assisted modeling techniques let
biology to help solve crimes. Based on the condition of the anthropologists create a possi-
body, forensic anthropologists ble “face” that fits the underlying
Silent Witness bone structure of the skull. A law
can also estimate the time that
Long after soft body tissue has has passed since death. enforcement agency or a mem-
decayed, bones remain, bearing ber of the public may recognize
silent witness to their owner’s Who Is It? this image. The anthropologist
fate. In the hands of an experi- Many times a criminal investiga- can also adjust the image to
enced forensic anthropologist, tion will seek to determine the “age” the subject, a technique
telltale evidence will often victim’s identity. Skeletal remains often used when investigating
emerge. If a victim suffered a can reveal the victim’s age, sex, child kidnappings.

Modern Mammals
The first group of mammals to evolve laid eggs, as did their early
ancestors. The only surviving direct descendants of these early
mammals are two species of echidna (ee KIHD nuh) and the duck-
bill platypus, shown in Figure 22. These egg-laying mammals are in
a group of their own called the monotremes.
Mammals other than monotremes show one of two patterns of
development. Both of these groups give birth to live young, but
their embryos develop in different ways.
1. Marsupials. Marsupial (mahr SOO pee uhl) mammals include
kangaroos, also shown in Figure 22, opossums, koalas, and wom-
bats. Their young are born at a very immature stage and com-
plete their development in their mother’s pouch (called a
marsupium).
2. Placentals. Placental mammals include dogs, cats, horses, sheep,
Figure 22 Mammals. gorillas, humans, and most of the other mammals you are familiar
There are three types of with. Placental mammals, such as the goat seen in Figure 22,
mammals—placentals, develop within their mother’s body and are nourished by an organ
marsupials, and monotremes— called the placenta. In a later chapter, you will learn more about the
each represented below. mammals.
Red kangaroo
Duck-bill platypus
Domestic goat
Section 2 Review
Describe two key adaptations that allowed Critical Thinking Forming Reasoned
reptiles to live and reproduce on land. Opinions Evaluate the change in classification
of Archaeopteryx from dinosaur to bird.
Summarize the factors that contributed to the
dinosaurs’ success on land. Standardized Test Prep At the end of the
Cretaceous period 65 million years ago, natural
Compare ectothermic and endothermic animals. selection resulted in the diversification of
A mammals. C theropods.
Relate changes in the world’s climate to the
increase in numbers of mammals. B sauropods. D thecodonts.

Evolution of Primates Section 3
Characteristics of Primates Objectives

Fossil evidence indicates that small, insect-eating mammals with ● Name two unique features
large eyes and small, sharp teeth lived about 80 million years ago, of primates.
during the age of dinosaurs. These ancient mammals were the ● Contrast prosimians
ancestors of the first primates. A primate is a member of the mam- with monkeys.
malian order Primates, which includes prosimians, monkeys, apes,
● Distinguish monkeys
and humans. The first primates evolved about 50 million years ago. from apes.
These animals had two features that enabled them to stalk and cap-
ture prey in the branches of trees. ● Describe the evolutionary
relationship between
1. Grasping hands and feet The grasping hands and feet of pri- humans and apes.
mates enable them to cling to their mothers when they are
● Identify the evidence that
young, grip limbs, hang from branches, and seize food. indicates human ancestors
2. Forward orientation of the eyes Unlike the eyes of their walked upright before their
ancestors, which were located on the sides of the head, the eyes brains enlarged.
of primates are positioned at the front of the face. This forward
placement of the eyes produces overlapping binocular vision that Key Terms
enables the primate brain to judge distance more precisely primate
(depth perception). The ability to judge depth is very important prosimian
for an animal that leaps from branch to branch high above the diurnal
ground. Some other mammals have binocular vision, but only hominid
primates have both binocular vision and grasping hands.
Prosimians
According to the fossil record, the modern primates that most
closely resemble early primates are the prosimians. A prosimian is
a member of a group of mostly night-active primates that live in
trees. Modern prosimians include lorises, lemurs, and tarsiers, such
as the one shown in Figure 23. Fossil evidence indicates that
prosimians were common about 38 million years ago in North
America, Europe, Asia, and Africa.
Figure 23 Prosimian.
The tarsier, left, has bendable,
clawed fingers and toes and
forward-facing eyes, which
are key adaptations for life
in the trees.
SECTION 3 Evolution of Primates 731

Nonhuman Primates
About 36 million years ago, a revolution occurred in how primates
live. Many primate species became diurnal. Diurnal (die UR nuhl)
The word diurnal is from animals are active during the day, and they sleep at night. The evo-
the Latin diurnis, meaning lution of a diurnal pattern gave primates more opportunities to feed
“daily.” Knowing this makes
and enabled them to better detect predators. Modern day-active pri-
it easier to remember that
diurnal primates are active mates include monkeys and apes.
during the day.
Monkeys
Feeding mainly on fruits and leaves, monkeys were among the first
primates to have opposable thumbs. An opposable thumb—such as
your own—stands out at an angle from the other fingers and can be
bent inward toward them to hold an object. This gives the hand a
greatly increased level of ability to manipulate objects.
Apes
Apes, which share a common ancestor with monkeys, first appeared
about 30 million years ago. Modern apes include gibbons, orang-
utans, gorillas, and chimpanzees. Apes have larger brains with respect
to their body size than monkeys, and none of the apes have tails.
The phylogenetic tree shown in Figure 24 represents the theoret-
ical evolutionary relationships between modern apes and humans.
DNA analysis has shown that the genes of humans and chim-
panzees are remarkably similar. Indeed, human and chimpanzee
DNA nucleotide sequences may differ by as little as
5 percent. For example, the 287 amino acids that make up two
kinds of chains of protein in human hemoglobin are identical to the
amino acids in chimpanzee hemoglobin.
Figure 24 Phylogenetic
tree of apes and humans.
The evolutionary group that led
to modern gibbons diverged
earlier than other primate
groups. Gibbons Orangutans Gorillas Chimpanzees Humans

Early Hominids
Hominids (HAHM ih nihds) are primates that walk upright on two
legs. Hominids are members of the group that led to the evolution
of humans. According to the fossil record, hominids first appeared
on Earth about 5 million to 7 million years ago. All early primates
walked on all four limbs. What, then, caused hominids to stand up
and walk on two legs? Hypotheses about this aspect of human evo-
lution differ. Fifteen million years ago, the world’s climate began to
cool, and the great forests of Africa were largely replaced by savan-
nas (treeless plains). Natural selection may have favored primate
forms adapted to living on the ground.
Australopithecines
The early hominids best represented by fossil finds belong to the
group known as australopithecines (aw stray loh PIHTH uh seenz).
Australopithecines belong to the genus Australopithecus. Figure 25
shows Lucy, the fossil remains of an australopithecine that lived
more than 3 million years ago. Their fossil remains indicate that
australopithecines walked upright on two legs; thus they are classi-
fied as hominids. As Table 1 shows, the skeletons of australo-
pithecines differ from those of modern apes in several ways.
The brains of australopithecines had a slightly greater volume, Figure 25 Lucy. Lucy’s
relative to body weight, than the brain of an ape. Some australo- leg bones indicate that she
pithecine species weighed about 18 kg (40 lb) and were approximately walked upright. She stood
about 1 m (3 ft) tall.
1.1 m (3.5 ft) tall, about the size of a small chimpanzee. Other aus-
tralopithecine species were larger, weighing more than 45 kg (100 lb)
and standing more than 1.5 m (5 ft) tall. Their brains, 400 cm3 in vol-
ume, were generally as large as those of modern chimpanzees.
Australopithecine brains were much smaller, however, than the brains
of modern humans, which are about 1,350 cm3 (83 in.3).
Table 1 Comparison of Gorilla and Australopithecine Skeletons

Gorilla Australopithecine
Skull atop C-shaped spine; Skull atop S-shaped spine;

spinal cord exits near rear spinal cord exits at bottom
of skull of skull
Arms longer than legs; arms Arms shorter than legs;

and legs used for walking only legs used for walking
Tall and narrow pelvis, Bowl-shaped pelvis, centering

allowing the body weight the body weight over the legs
to shift forward
Femurs (thighbones) angled Femurs angled inward,

away from pelvis when directly below body to
walking upright carry its weight
Gorilla Skull Spine Arms Pelvis Femurs Australopithecine
SECTION 3 Evolution of Primates 733

Other Early Hominids
In the past few years, scientists have discovered fossils of hominids
that lived at the same time or earlier than Australopithecus. The rela-
The word ardipithecus is tionship between early hominid species, shown in Figure 26, is
from the Afar (the people uncertain. These early fossils indicate that the hominid line is an old
who live in the area where
one, extending back past 6 million years. The discovery in 2002 of a
this fossil was found) word
ardi, meaning “ground” or 6 million to 7 million year old fossil in central Africa, is creating
“floor,” and from the Greek lively debate among scientists about the origins of the hominids.
word pithecus, meaning This new species, Sahelanthropus tchadensis, appears at the same
“ape.” Knowing this makes time more primitive and more modern than the australopithecines.
it easier to remember that Some scientists think that Sahelanthropus represents a species at the
Ardipithecus is the genus
root of the family tree of hominids. The modern features of this very
name of one of the oldest
known hominids. old fossil also suggest to some scientists that australopithecines may
not have been ancestral humans, but rather a group of species that
left no descendants.
Until more early hominid fossils are discovered, the historical pic-
ture remains too unclear to draw any firm conclusion about true
lines of descent. What is clear is that over the last 6 million years, a
variety of different hominids have existed, with more than one
Figure 26 Hominid
evolution. Several species species living at one time. As new fossils are found, our picture of the
of hominids arose and then root of the human phylogenetic tree may come into sharper focus.
died out.
Millions of years before present

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Homo Homo Homo sapiens

Kenyanthropus rudolfensis ergaster
platyops Homo erectus
Orrorin tugenesis
Ardipithecus ramidus Homo

Australopithecus habilis
Sahelanthropus Homo
tchadensis afarensis neanderthalensis
Australopithecus
anamensis
Australopithecus Australopithecus
africanus boisei
Australopithecus Australopithecus
aethiopicus robustus
Section 3 Review
Describe two unique features of primates. Critical Thinking Comparing Structures
Summarize the differences between the skeleton
Describe one characteristic that distinguishes of an ape and the skeleton of an australopithecine.
prosimians from monkeys and one characteristic
that distinguishes monkeys from apes. Standardized Test Prep What evidence would help
scientists establish whether or not a primate was
Identify and explain the evidence that closely bipedal?
links humans to chimpanzees. A skull size C femur weight
B pelvis shape D number of ribs

The Genus Homo Section 4
Homo habilis Objectives

Our genus, Homo, is composed of at least three species. Of these ● Compare H. habilis with
three, modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens, is the only surviving australopithecines.
species. The first members of the genus Homo appeared on Earth ● Describe the characteristics
more than 2 million years ago. In the early 1960s, hominid bones of Homo erectus.
were discovered near the site where Australopithecus fossils had
● Describe the evidence
been found. Stone tools were scattered among the bones. Scientists that suggests that H.
disagreed about whether this fossil was that of an early human or sapiens evolved in Africa.
an australopithecine. Reconstruction of the bones of the skull indi-
● Compare Neanderthals
cated that the volume of the brain was about 640 cm3 (39 in.3). This
with modern humans.
is larger than the australopithecine brain volume of 400 to 550 cm3
(24 to 34 in.3).
Key Terms
Because of its association with tools, this hominid was named
Homo habilis. The Latin word homo means “man,” and the Latin None
word habilis means “handy.” Bones discovered in 1987 indicate that
Homo habilis stood about 1.2 m (4 ft) tall. Fossils indicated
that Homo habilis lived in Africa for about 500,000 years and then
became extinct.
Figure 27 Richard Leakey and Homo habilis skull

Homo habilis lived in eastern Africa.
Homo habilis had a brain volume

of about 700 cm3 on the average
and many of the characteristics
of modern human skulls.
Richard Leakey (seated, far right)

and his co-workers found one of
the most complete Homo habilis
skulls to date.
735
Homo erectus
Our understanding of Homo habilis is limited because it is based on
only a few fossil specimens. In contrast, scientists have found many
fossils of the species that replaced Homo habilis—the species Homo
erectus.
The first Homo erectus specimen found, called Java Man, was dis-
covered in 1891 on the island of Java, in southeast Asia. Homo erec-
tus was larger than Homo habilis—about 1.5 m (5 ft) tall. Homo
erectus also had a large brain of about 1,000 cm3 (60 in.3). Java Man
may be more than about 700,000 years old. Similar fossils found in
Figure 28 Homo erectus.
Homo erectus had large brow China are thought to be as old as 500,000 years. In 1976, a Homo
ridges and smaller teeth than erectus skull that may be 1.5 million years old was discovered in
Homo habilis. eastern Africa. Figure 28 shows a fossil Homo erectus skull.
Homo erectus evolved in Africa and migrated into Asia and
Europe, as shown in Figure 29. Homo erectus probably lived in
groups of 20 to 50 individuals. They hunted large animals, used fire,
and made both stone and bone tools. Homo erectus survived for more
than 1 million years. The species disappeared about 200,000 years
ago, as early modern humans emerged. Most scientists think that
Homo erectus was the direct ancestor of our species, Homo sapiens.
Figure 29 Hominid migration

Homo erectus evolved in Africa and migrated to Asia and Europe. Later,
Homo sapiens appeared in Africa and migrated to Europe and Asia.
Homo sapiens
Homo erectus
[HB04TS000014 A: map of hominid migration]

Homo sapiens
Homo sapiens is the only surviving species of
the genus Homo. The name Homo sapiens is
from the Latin homo, meaning “man,” and
sapiens, meaning “wise.” Homo sapiens is a
newcomer to the hominid family. Homo sapi-
ens has not existed as long as Homo erectus
did. Early Homo sapiens left behind many
fossils and artifacts, including the first
known paintings, such as the one shown in
Figure 30.
Figure 30 Cave painting.
African Origins? This thundering herd of horses
was painted on the wall of a
In the past, some scientists proposed that independent Homo erec-
cave in Lascaux, France. The
tus groups living in Africa, Europe, and Asia interbred and that cave paintings may be about
Homo sapiens thus arose as a new species at the same time all over 20,000 years old.
Earth. Most scientists, however, argue that Homo sapiens appeared
in one place (Africa) and then migrated to Europe and Asia, where
the species gradually replaced Homo erectus.
Exploring Further
The researchers used the mDNA data to
DNA Dating generate a human “family tree.” When analyzed
in this way, the data show a distinct branch
To answer the question of when and where Homo
that arose 52,000 years ago between Africans
sapiens evolved, researchers are studying the
and non-Africans. This supports the hypothesis
DNA of modern humans. Recall that DNA tends
that some modern Homo sapiens left Africa
to accumulate more and more mutations as time
and spread to Europe and Asia. They thus
passes. Therefore, individuals that share a recent
retraced the path taken by Homo erectus
common ancestor have relatively similar DNA. In
many years before.
contrast to this, individuals who share only a dis-
tant common ancestor have less similar DNA. Y Chromosomal DNA
Thus individuals in older human populations Researchers have also analyzed DNA on the
should be more genetically different from each Y chromosome. Like mDNA, DNA on the Y
other than individuals in newer populations are. chromosome does not undergo recombination
during meiosis. Thus DNA on the Y chromosomes
Mitochondrial DNA
is passed down unchanged in males from one
Human DNA has been looked at in two ways
generation to the next. Researchers analyzed DNA
that shed light on the issue. The first approach
variations in more than 1,000 European males.
focuses on mitochondrial DNA (mDNA). Humans
They found that 80 percent of the males studied
inherit mDNA from only their mother—it is found
share a single pattern of DNA. This suggests that
in the egg cell. mDNA is thus passed down
modern Europeans share a relatively recent
unchanged from generation to generation.
common ancestor. The data indicate the shared
Researchers began by comparing the mDNA of
pattern arose about 40,000 to 50,000 years ago.
individuals from different ethnic backgrounds.
This piece of evidence suggests that modern
Based on their data, the researchers hypothesize
humans came to Europe at that time.
that all modern humans share a common ances-
tor that lived about 170,000 years ago. According Taken together, the analysis of both mDNA and
to fossil evidence, this was about the time Homo Y chromosome DNA indicate that modern humans
sapiens appeared in Africa. arose only once, in Africa.
SECTION 4 The Genus Homo 737

Homo sapiens in Europe
Members of the species Homo sapiens first appeared in Europe
about 130,000 years ago. The fossils of a group of Homo sapiens
called Neanderthals (nee AN dur TALZ—the h is silent) were found
in 1856 in the Neander Valley of Germany. The Neanderthals were
short and powerfully built. Their skulls were massive, as shown in
Figure 31, with protruding faces and heavy, bony brow ridges. The
average Neanderthal brain was slightly larger than that of modern
humans, although there is much overlap in size. Many scientists
that study human evolution now classify Neanderthals as a separate
human species, Homo neanderthalensis.
Neanderthals became more and more abundant in Europe and
Asia, and by 70,000 years ago, they had become fairly common.
Neanderthals cared for their injured and sick. They also commonly
buried their dead and often placed food, weapons, and even flowers
Figure 31 Neanderthals. with the bodies. Such attention to the dead suggests that they may
Neanderthals were distin- have believed in a life after death. Neanderthals were the first
guished by massive ridges
hominids to show evidence of abstract thinking.
over the eyes.
Modern Homo sapiens

About 34,000 years ago, the European Neanderthals were abruptly
replaced by Homo sapiens of modern appearance. These early
humans are thought to have evolved first in Africa and then migrated
to Europe and Asia. Early modern humans lived by hunting. They had
complex patterns of social organization, and they probably used lan-
guage. They spread across Siberia and reached North America at least
12,000 years ago, when a land bridge connected Siberia and Alaska.
The ability of humans to make and use tools effectively has been
important to the success of humans. Humans use symbolic language
and can shape concepts out of experience. Written language has
enabled humans to transmit concepts from one generation to another.
Humans can also reason abstractly, applying existing knowledge to
new situations. Humans also have cultural evolution. Through culture,
we have found ways to change our environment to suit our needs,
rather than changing ourselves in response to the environment. This is
both an exciting potential and an enormous responsibility.
Section 4 Review
Describe how Homo habilis differs from Contrast Neanderthals with modern humans.
australopithecines.
Standardized Test Prep What evidence have
Describe the evidence that identifies Homo erec- scientists used to estimate when and where
tus as the first human species to have left Africa. modern humans evolved?
A mDNA C analysis of language
Analyze the two hypotheses of the origin of
B cave paintings D articles buried with
Homo sapiens.
the dead

ZONE
1 Vertebrates in the Sea and on Land Section 1
vertebra (712)
● Vertebrates have an endoskeleton that includes a backbone, agnathan (714)
bilateral symmetry, cephalization, a coelom, a closed circu- acanthodian (715)
latory system, and a chambered heart. cartilage (715)
● The first vertebrates, jawless fishes, evolved about 500

million years ago.
● Spiny fishes with jaws appeared 430 million years ago.
● Cartilaginous sharks and bony fishes evolved about
400 million years ago. Bony fishes account for more than
90 percent of today’s fishes.
● Amphibians, which appeared about 370 million years ago,
were the first group of vertebrates to live on land.
2 Terrestrial Vertebrates Section 2

terrestrial (721)
● Reptiles evolved about 320 million years ago and have thecodont (722)
watertight skin and a watertight egg. Pangaea (722)
● Dinosaurs dominated the land for 150 million years. ectothermic (724)
endothermic (724)
● Modern birds may be the descendants of a group of small therapsid (728)
theropods, a type of dinosaur.
● The first mammals appeared 220 million years ago and took
over many ecological roles once dominated by dinosaurs.
3 Evolution of Primates Section 3

primate (731)
● The first primates evolved 50 million to 60 million years ago. prosimian (731)
● Primates have grasping hands and binocular vision. diurnal (732)
hominid (733)
● DNA evidence indicates that humans are more closely
related to chimpanzees than to any other primate species.
● Early hominids walked upright before their brains became
significantly larger.
4 The Genus Homo Section 4

None
● Homo habilis had a brain much larger than that of
australopithecines and used tools.
● Homo erectus evolved in Africa about 1.5 million years ago
and may have been the direct ancestor of Homo sapiens.
● Homo sapiens probably evolved in Africa and migrated to
the rest of the world.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 7. What evidence convinced scientists that

Archaeopteryx should be classified as a bird
1. To survive as predators, fish had to adapt rather than a small dinosaur?
to which of the following two challenges? a. teeth
a. low oxygen conditions, shallow seas b. hollow bones
b. avoiding predators, grasping prey c. hard-shelled eggs
c. pursuing prey in water, grasping prey d. fused collarbone
d. filtering invertebrates from the water,
avoiding predators 8. What evidence is there that crocodiles and
birds are likely to be more closely related to
2. Which of the following is not an amphibian each other than to other living reptiles?
adaptation for life on land?
a. legs 9. List three causes of death that
b. lungs could be discovered through the work of
c. watertight skin forensic anthropologist.
d. more efficient heart
3. The first fully terrestrial vertebrates were concept map that shows the relationships
a. frogs. among the various living and nonliving ver-
b. reptiles. tebrates. Include the following terms in
c. dinosaurs. your concept map: jawless fishes, spiny
d. mammals. fishes, armored fishes, cartilaginous fishes,
4. As Pangaea broke apart, bony fishes, amphibians, thecodonts,
a. dinosaurs became more alike. dinosaurs, reptiles, therapsids, mammals,
b. mammals became dominant. Archaeopteryx, and birds.
c. dinosaur species flourished.
d. world climates changed.
Critical Thinking
11. Recognizing Relationships Describe the
5. Mammals are thought to have survived
positioning of the eyes in the first primates.
the climatic changes that caused the extinc-
How did this positioning of the eyes
tion of dinosaurs because the
improve the primates’ ability to navigate
bodies of mammals
their environment?
a. have little insulation.
b. are ectothermic. 12. Evaluating Hypotheses Some stone tools
c. were relatively small. are more than 2 million years old. Evaluate
d. lacked insulation. the hypothesis that they must have been
made by a species from the genus Homo.
6. Which sequence reflects the order in which
the major groups of vertebrates are thought Alternative Assessment
to have evolved?
13. Recognizing Relationships Vertebrates
a. bony fishes → reptiles → amphibians
share several characteristics. Develop an
b. bony fishes → amphibians → reptiles
illustrated guide that informs readers about
c. amphibians → mammals → reptiles
these characteristics.
d. birds → mammals → reptiles
14. Forming a Model Make a series of models
or create a mural that shows either the evo-
lution of jaws or the evolution of limbs.
Create a written guide or an audiotape that
guides the viewer through your work.


correct answer.
Fossil evidence collected in the 1980s in
1 Which of the following is not considered a Arctic Alaska suggests that some dinosaurs
key characteristic of vertebrates? lived year-round in areas of freezing temper-
A. backbone C. skull atures and total darkness during the winter
B. jaws D. vertebrae months. This evidence of “Arctic dinosaurs”
contradicts the hypothesis that the extinction
2 What were the earliest fishes called?
of dinosaurs was due to a climate change
F. acanthodians
produced by a meteor collision sending
G. agnathans
debris into the Earth’s atmosphere.
H. thecodonts
I. therapsids 7 Why would this evidence contradict the
hypothesis?
3 Which of the following are night-active
F. All dinosaurs had inadequate insulation
primates?
from cold and could not slow down
A. ectoderms
their metabolism to survive the cold.
B. endoderms
G. The meteor that hit the Earth would
C. prosimians
have made the Arctic regions even
D. thecodonts
colder, killing off dinosaurs there.
4 Apes have larger brains than monkeys. H. Dinosaurs that could survive the Arctic
What do apes lack that monkeys have? climate would not go extinct when
F. bipedalism debris blocked the sun and cooled the
G. depth perception Earth.
H. opposable thumbs I. A period of intense cold that killed other
I. tail dinosaurs would cause Arctic dinosaurs
to evolve and become warm blooded.
5 Which of the following describes reptiles
but not birds? Interpreting Graphics
A. They are ectotherms.
B. They are endotherms.
8 on the drawings below.
C. They have feathers.
D. They have watertight eggs. Two Extinct Animals

write a short response. Lobe-finned fish
6 Analyze the ways in which the adaptations

of reptiles to land are similar to the adap-
tations of plants to land. Early amphibian
Test
When a question uses a word you don’t know, try to
determine the meaning of the word by breaking it 8 What are the bones in the drawings an
down into smaller parts and inferring the meaning of example of?
each part. A. vertebrae C. vestigial structures
B. gill arches D. homologous structure

Exploration Lab
Comparing Hominid Skulls
SKILLS Incisors
Ape F
• Measuring H Canine
• Comparing anatomical
features E G
D Premolars
OBJECTIVES B
Molars
• Identify differences and simi- A
larities between the skulls of C
apes and the skulls of
humans.
• Identify differences and simi-
larities between the fossilized Human
skulls of hominids. F Incisors
H Canine
• Classify the features of
hominid skulls as apelike, Premolars
humanlike, or intermediate. E D G Molars
MATERIALS B
• metric ruler A
• protractor C
Before You Begin

Modern apes and humans share a DATA TABLE 1
common ancestor . Much of our
Name Cranial Lower face Brain Jaw Brow Teeth
understanding of human evolution is capacity area area angle ridge
based on the study of the fossilized (cm3) (cm2) (cm2) (degrees)
remains of hominids. By studying
Ape
fossilized bones and identifying similar
and dissimilar structures, scientists can Human
infer the anatomy, or body structure,
of a species. In this lab, you will iden-
tify differences and similarities
between the skulls of apes, early
DATA TABLE 2
hominids, and humans.
1. Write a definition for each boldface Name
term in the paragraph above. Australopithecus

robustus
2. Make a data table similar to each one
Australopithecus
shown at right. africanus
3. Based on the objectives for this lab, Homo erectus
write a question you would like to Neanderthal
explore about human evolution.

How to Interpret the Features of a Skull Brain area: Measure E to F and G to H in centimeters for each skull.
Cranial capacity: Use the circles drawn on the skulls to estimate brain Multiply these two numbers and multiply the product by 40 to
volume, or cranial capacity. Measure the radius of each circle in cen- approximate the life-size brain area in square centimeters.
timeters. Then cube this number, and multiply the result by 1,000 to Jaw angle: Note the two lines that come together near the nose of
calculate the approximate life-size cranial capacity in cubic centimeters. each skull. Use a protractor to measure the inside angle made by the
Lower face area: Measure A to B and C to D in centimeters for each lines and to determine how far outward the jaw projects.
skull. Multiply these two numbers together, and multiply the prod- Brow ridge: Note the presence or absence of a bony ridge above the
uct by 40 to approximate the life-size lower face area in square eye sockets.
centimeters. Teeth: Count the number of each kind of teeth in the lower jaw.
A. robustus A. africanus Homo erectus Neanderthal
Procedure Analyze and Conclude

PART A: Ape Skulls and Human Skulls 1. Summarizing Results How did skull
1. Examine the diagrams of the skull and jaw structure change as hominids evolved?
of an ape and a human. Look for similari- 2. Drawing Conclusions Which fossil skull
ties and differences between the features is most apelike? most humanlike?
listed in the chart “How to Interpret the 3. Further Inquiry Write a new question
Features of a Skull.” Record your observa- about human evolution that could be
tions and measurements for each feature explored with another investigation.
listed in Data Table 1.
PART B: Fossil Hominids

2. Examine the four fossil hominid skulls. On
the hominid skulls, observe and measure
four features that are listed in the chart
“How to Interpret the Features of a Skull.”
Use the human skull as a model for taking
measurements. Record your observations
and measurements in Data Table 2.
3. Compare your data for the hominids with On the Job
your data for the modern ape and human.
Anthropology is the scientific study of
Classify each feature of the hominid skulls
humans. Do research to learn about a
as being apelike, humanlike, or intermediate
famous anthropologist, such as Louis or
by writing an A, H, or I next to your obser-
Mary Leakey. For more about careers,
vation or measurement for that feature.
visit go.hrw.com and type in the keyword
4. Using your data, predict the order in which HX4 Careers.
the hominids shown here evolved.
CHAPTER 32 Introduction to Vertebrates 743

Show jumper
Leopard frog

CHAPTER
33 Fishes and
Amphibians
1. Describe the process of osmosis. (Chapter 4,
Section 1) The Fish Body
Key Characteristics of Modern Fishes
2. Define the term gills. (Chapter 27, Section 2)
Gills
3. State the function of the excretory systems. Circulation of Blood
Kidneys
4. Distinguish between external and internal Reproduction
fertilization. (Chapter 27, Section 2)
5. Define the term metamorphosis. (Chapter 30, Section 2
Section 3)
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Today’s Fishes
sections indicated. Jawless Fishes
Cartilaginous Fishes
Bony Fishes

Take a break after reading each section of this Amphibians
chapter, and closely study the figures in the sec- Key Characteristics of Modern Amphibians
tion. Reread the figure captions, and for each Frogs and Toads
one write out a question that can be answered Salamanders and Caecilians
chapter review.
www.scilinks.org
The Northern Leopard frog, Rana pipiens, has become
scarce in areas where the populations had once been
dense. This amphibian is now being bred in protected
habitats in those areas to increase its numbers.
CHAPTER 33 Fishes and Amphibians 745

Section 1 The Fish Body
Objectives Key Characteristics
● Describe the characteristics of Modern Fishes
of modern fishes. What makes a goldfish instantly recognizable as a fish? You might
● Summarize how fish name characteristics such as its fins, gills, scales, and typical fish
obtain oxygen. shape as traits that contribute to the goldfish’s “fishiness.” But
● Summarize how blood some fishes don’t look quite so fishy. This is because the term fish
circulates through refers to any member of one of three general categories of verte-
a fish. brates: Agnatha (jawless fishes), Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous
● Contrast how marine and
fishes), and Osteichthyes (bony fishes). The great diversity of fishes
freshwater fishes balance found today reflects various adaptations that enable fishes to live in
their salt and water the oceans and fresh waters around the world. Fishes vary in size
content. from whale sharks longer than a moving van to gobies no larger
● Describe two methods of than your fingernail. Despite the variation seen among fishes,
reproduction in fishes. shown in Figure 1, all share certain key characteristics.
1. Gills. Fishes normally obtain oxygen from the oxygen gas dis-
Key Terms solved in the water around them. They do this by pumping a
gill filament great deal of water through their mouths and over their gills.
gill slit 2. Single-loop blood circulation. Blood is pumped from the heart
countercurrent flow to the capillaries in the gills. From the gills, blood passes to the
nephron rest of the body and then returns to the heart. (Lungfishes,
which have a double-loop circulation, are an exception.)
3. Vertebral column (backbone). All fishes have an internal skele-
ton made of either cartilage or bone, with a vertebral column
surrounding the spinal cord. The brain is fully encased within a
protective covering called the skull or cranium.
Figure 1 Fish diversity. To learn about one common fish, read Up Close: Yellow Perch
While these three fish appear later in this chapter.
quite different externally, they
share a number of characteristics.
Stingray
Sea horse Trout
746 CHAPTER 33 Fishes and Amphibians

Gills
One challenge faced by all animals is the need to get enough
oxygen for cellular respiration. Sponges, cnidarians, many flatworms
and roundworms, and some annelids obtain oxygen by diffusion
through the body surface. Other marine invertebrates, such as mol-
lusks, arthropods, and echinoderms have gills, which are specialized
respiratory organs. Fishes also respire with gills.
If you look closely at the face of a swimming fish, you will notice
that as it swims, the fish continuously opens and closes its mouth, as
if it were trying to eat the water. What looks like eating is actually
breathing. The major respiratory organ of a fish is the gill, shown in
Figure 2. Gills are made up of rows of gill filaments —fingerlike
projections through which gases enter and leave the blood. The gill
filaments hang like curtains between a fish’s mouth and cheeks. At
the rear of the cheek cavity is an opening called a gill slit . When a
fish “swallows,” water is forced over the gills and out through the
gill slits.
This swallowing procedure is the core of a great change in gill
design shown by fishes—countercurrent flow, also shown in Figure 2.
In countercurrent flow , water passes over the gills in one direction
as blood flows in the opposite direction through capillaries in the
gills. Countercurrent flow ensures that oxygen diffuses into the blood
over the entire length of the capillaries in the gills. Due to this
arrangement, the gills of bony fishes are extremely efficient respira-
tory organs. Fish gills can extract up to 85 percent of the oxygen in Figure 2 Fish gill
structure. Countercurrent
the water passing over them.
flow increases the gill’s
efficiency.
Respiration in Fishes
Oxygen-rich water enters the Each gill is composed of rows of gill fila-
1 fish’s mouth and passes over the
2 ments, which have thin membranes through
gills as it exits through the gill slits. which oxygen and carbon dioxide can diffuse.
Gill Blood flow

filaments in capillaries
(back to front)
Water flow
across filaments
(front to back)
Water passes over the filaments from

3 front to back. Blood circulates through
Gill slit the filaments from back to front. When blood
Gill enters the filaments, its oxygen content is
filaments low (blue). When it exits the filaments, its
oxygen content is high (red).
Water flow
SECTION 1 The Fish Body 747

Circulation of Blood
Chordates that were ancestral to the vertebrates had a simple tubular
“heart.” This structure was little more than a specialized zone of
The term sinus venosus is one artery that had more muscle tissue than the other arteries had.
Latin, as are many anatomi-
When a tubular heart contracts, blood is pushed in both directions,
cal terms. The Latin word
sinus means “bend,” and and circulation is not very efficient.
the Latin word venosus For an organism with gills, such as a fish, a simple tubular heart
refers to veins. The sinus is not an adequate pump. The tiny capillaries in a fish’s gills create
venosus is a bent collecting resistance to the flow of blood, so a stronger pump is needed to
chamber that conducts overcome this resistance. In fishes, the tubular heart of early chor-
blood into the heart.
dates has been replaced with a simple chamber-pump heart, shown
in Figure 3. The chamber-pump heart can be thought of as a tube
with four chambers in a row.
1. Sinus venosus (SIE nuhs vuh NOH suhs). This collection cham-
ber acts to reduce the resistance of blood flow into the heart.
2. Atrium. Blood from the sinus venosus fills this large chamber,
which has thin, muscular walls.
3. Ventricle. The third chamber is a thick-walled pump with
enough muscle tissue to contract strongly, forcing blood to flow
through the gills and eventually to the rest of the body.
4. Conus arteriosus (KOH nuhs ahr TIHR ee oh suhs). This cham-
ber is a second pump that smoothes the pulsations and adds still
more force.
The fish heart represents one of the great evolutionary changes
Figure 3 Fish chamber- found in vertebrates—a heart that pumps fully oxygenated blood
pump heart. These four through a single circulatory loop to the body’s tissues.
steps show how blood flows
through the heart of a fish.
Fish Heart Structure
Oxygen-poor blood from the The atrium delivers

1 body enters the sinus venosus.
2 blood to the ventricle.
From there it moves into the atrium.
Atrium
Sinus
venosus
Conus
Ventricle arteriosus
The conus arteriosus

4 smooths the pulsations
of the bloodstream.
Contractions of the ventricle
3 pump the blood toward the gills.

Kidneys
Vertebrates have a body that is about two-thirds water, and most
will die if the amount of water in their body falls much lower than
www.scilinks.org
this. Therefore, minimizing dehydration (water loss) has been a key
Topic: Kidneys
evolutionary challenge facing all vertebrates. Even some fishes Keyword: HX4110
must cope with the problem of water loss. If this seems strange to
you, remember that osmosis causes a net movement of water
through membranes toward regions of higher ion concentration.
The ion (salt) concentration of sea water is three times that of the
tissues of a marine bony fish. As a result, these fishes lose water to
the environment through osmosis. To make up for the water they
lose, marine bony fishes drink sea water and actively pump excess
ions out of their body. Freshwater fishes have the opposite problem.
Because their bodies contain more ions than the surrounding
water, they tend to take in water through osmosis. The additional
water dilutes their body salts, so freshwater fishes regain salts by
actively taking them in from their environment.
Although the gills play a major role in maintaining a fish’s salt and
water balance, another key element is a pair of kidneys. Kidneys are
organs made up of thousands of nephrons. Nephrons are tubelike
units that regulate the body’s salt and water balance and remove
metabolic wastes from the blood. Excess water and bodily wastes
leave the kidneys in the form of a fluid called urine. Marine fishes
excrete small amounts of urine and rid their bodies of ammonia
largely through their gills. Freshwater fishes excrete large amounts
of dilute urine.
Analyzing Ion Excretion in Fish

Background
A few species of fish, such as adult
0100010110
salmon, are able to move between salt-
Ion Excretion in Fish
011101010
0010010001001 water and freshwater environments. The
1100100100010
0000101001001 graph at right shows the excreted ion con-
1101010100100
0101010010010 centration of a fish as it travels from one
concentration
Excreted ion
body of water to another. Examine the

graph, and answer the analysis questions.
Analysis
1. Determine if the fish is losing or gaining ions
by excretion as it travels.
2. Critical Thinking Inferring Conclusions
Is the fish traveling from fresh to salt water or
from salt to fresh water? Distance traveled
3. Summarize the reasoning you used to answer
item 2.
SECTION 1 The Fish Body 749

Reproduction
The sexes are separate in most fishes, and generally fertilization
Real Life takes place externally. In a process called spawning, male and female
How many eggs do gametes are released near one another in the water, as shown in
female fish lay during Figure 4. A yolk sac within each egg contains nutrients the develop-
spawning season? ing embryo will need for growth. The yolk sac remains attached to
The number the hatchling fish but is quickly used up. Then, the growing fish must
of eggs
seek its own food. More likely than not, it will become food for some
laid during
spawning larger animal. Many species of fishes release large numbers of eggs
varies from that are fertilized in a single spawning season. This practice helps
species to ensure that some individuals will survive to maturity.
species. The eggs of sharks, skates, and rays are fertilized inside the
Some fishes, such as female’s body. During mating, the male uses two organs called
sea horses, lay between a
claspers to insert sperm into the female. In most species, the eggs
dozen and several hun-
dred eggs. These eggs are develop inside the female and the young are born live. A few species
well protected, and most of sharks lay eggs.
develop into young sea
horses.
Finding Information
Find out how many eggs
are laid by cod.
Figure 4 Fish spawning.

These salmon spawn in shallow
river waters. Thousands of
eggs are released in a single
mating, but only a small
percentage of hatchlings live
until adulthood.
Section 1 Review
Discuss the key characteristics found in Critical Thinking Forming a Hypothesis
all fishes. A student removes Fish A from a saltwater
aquarium and Fish B from a freshwater aquarium.
Describe how countercurrent flow aids a fish By mistake, the student returns each fish to the
in obtaining oxygen. wrong aquarium. The next day, both fish are dead.
Form a hypothesis that explains why.
Summarize why the fish heart and circulatory
system are considered important evolutionary Standardized Test Prep Which chamber of a fish’s
changes. heart generates most of the force that pumps blood
through the body?
Contrast reproduction in sharks with that of most
A atrium C sinus venosus
other fishes.
B ventricle D conus arteriosus

Today’s Fishes Section 2
Jawless Fishes Objectives

Perhaps the most unusual fishes found today are the surviving jawless ● Distinguish between the
fishes, the lampreys and hagfishes. These primitive creatures have three general categories of
changed little over the past 330 million years. Little is known about modern fishes.
hagfishes, which is not surprising when you consider where they ● Describe the major
live—on the ocean floor at depths as great as 1,700 m (about 1 mi). external and internal
Lampreys are better understood and are found in both salt and fresh characteristics of the
water. Interestingly, all species of lampreys must return to fresh water yellow perch.
to reproduce, suggesting that their ancestors lived in fresh water. ● Summarize features of
Lampreys and hagfishes have scaleless, eel-like bodies with bony fishes.
multiple gill slits and unpaired fins. Their skeletons are made of
cartilage, a strong fibrous connective tissue, and both kinds of Key Terms
fishes retain their notochord into adulthood. Hagfishes, such as the
lateral line
one shown in Figure 5, are scavengers of dead and dying animals on operculum
the ocean bottom. Because of this behavior, they are sometimes swim bladder
called the “vultures of the sea.” When threatened, a hagfish can pro- teleost
duce huge quantities of slime from its roughly 200 slime glands.
Recently, biologists have discovered that hagfishes are far more
numerous than once thought and play a vital role in the ecology of
the oceans.
Most lampreys, such as the one shown in Figure 5, are parasitic
on other living fishes. A lamprey has a suction-cup-like structure
around its mouth that it uses to attach itself to its host. After
attachment, the lamprey gouges out a wound with its rough tongue,
feeding on blood and bits of flesh from the wound.
Figure 5 Hagfish and lamprey

These two modern jawless fishes have changed little
over the past 330 million years.
Hagfish Lamprey
SECTION 2 Today’s Fishes 751

Cartilaginous Fishes
Sharks, skates, and rays are cartilaginous (KAHRT’l AJ uh nuhs)
fishes. Their skeletons are made of cartilage strengthened by the
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Sharks
mineral calcium carbonate (the material oyster shells are made of).
Keyword: HX4163 Calcium carbonate is deposited in the outer layers of cartilage and
forms a thin layer that reinforces the cartilage. The result is a very
light but strong skeleton.
The shark’s light, streamlined body allows it to move quickly
through the water in search of prey. Its skin contains cone-shaped
placoid scales, which give the skin a rough texture. As you can see
in Figure 6, the shark’s scales and teeth are quite similar in struc-
ture. This is because the teeth are actually modified scales. The
teeth are arranged in 6 to 10 rows along the shark’s jaw. The teeth
in front are pointed and sharp and are used for biting and cutting.
Behind the front teeth, rows of immature teeth are growing. When
a front tooth breaks or is worn down, a replacement tooth moves
forward. One shark may use more than 20,000 teeth during its life-
time. This system of tooth replacement guarantees that the teeth
being used are always new and sharp.
Two smaller groups of cartilaginous fishes, the skates and rays,
have flattened bodies that are well adapted to life on the sea floor.
Rays are usually less than 1 m (3.3 ft) long, while skates are typically
smaller. However, the giant manta ray may be up to 7 m (23 ft) wide.
Most species of skates and rays have flattened teeth that are used to
crush their prey, mainly small fishes and invertebrates.
Magnification: 5
Figure 6 Shark scales and
teeth. The shark’s skin feels
Scales
like sandpaper because it is
covered with toothlike scales.
The teeth, which are modified
scales, are similar in structure
but are much larger.
Teeth
Magnification: 1

Bony Fishes
Jawless and cartilaginous fishes are not as diverse as bony fishes,
which are the most numerous of all the fishes. In addition to a
strong, internal skeleton made completely of bone, bony fishes have
Use the information on this
a series of unique structural adaptations that contribute greatly to
page and the next four
their success. pages to draw a concept
1. Lateral line system. Bony fishes have a fully developed lateral map that summarizes the
line system. The lateral line , shown in Figure 7, is a sensory characteristics of bony fishes.
On your concept map,
system that extends along each side of a bony fish’s body.
include information from
As moving water presses against the fish’s sides, nerve impulses Up Close: Yellow Perch.
from ciliated sensory cells within the lateral line permit the
fish to perceive its position and rate of movement. For example,
a trout moving upstream to spawn uses its lateral line system to
obtain the sensory information it needs to orient its head
upstream.
The lateral line system also enables a fish to detect a motionless
object by the movement of water deflected by that object. The way
that a fish detects an object with its lateral line and the way that you
hear music with your inner ear are quite similar. Both processes
share the same basic mechanism—sensory cells with cilia detect
vibrations and send this information to the brain.
Figure 7 Lateral line.

Lateral Line in Bony Fishes The lateral line contains sensory
cells that help a fish perceive its
Lateral line
position in the water.
Lateral line
canal
Sensory
cells
Opening to Nerve
exterior

Up Close
Yellow Perch
● Scientific name: Perca flavescens
● Size: About 0.3 m (1 ft) long and up to 2.3 kg (5 lb)
● Range: Found in lakes and rivers from the Great Lakes to
the Atlantic coast and as far south as South Carolina
● Habitat: Lives concealed among vegetation or submerged
tree roots
● Diet: Feeds on insect larvae, crustaceans, and other fishes
External Structures
Lateral line The lateral line is a sense organ Opercula Movements of the opercula draw water into
that detects vibrations in water that are caused by the perch’s mouth. The water then moves over the gills,
currents or pressure waves. The perch uses this where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged. Then
sensory information to direct its movement as it the water is forced out through the gill slits.
swims and to detect objects in its environment, ▲ Operculum
Anterior Eye
including predators and prey. Nostril
dorsal fin
▲ Lateral line
Posterior
dorsal fin
Caudal fin
Pectoral fin
Fins ▼ Pelvic fin
Anal fin Anus Fins The caudal fin thrusts

from side to side to propel the
fish forward. The dorsal fins
prevent the perch from rolling
▼ Scales over as it swims, and the anal
fin keeps the fish from veering
Scales Perch scales are thin, bony disks that grow from sideways. Paired pectoral and
cavities in the skin. Scales grow throughout the life of the pelvic fins assist the fish in
fish. Because a scale grows more rapidly when food is plen- going up or down through the
tiful (in spring and summer) than when food is scarce (in water, in turning sharply, and
winter), a scale forms growth rings. Counting the growth in stopping quickly.
rings can give a good estimate of a perch’s age.
754 CHAPTER 33
CHAPTER # Chapter TitleAmphibians
Fishes and
Internal Structures
Reproductive organs Yellow perch produce Brain The optic lobe receives information from
gametes during their breeding season in the spring. the eyes, and the olfactory bulbs receive information
The female lays strings of eggs that are fertilized from chemical-sensing cells. The cerebrum processes
externally. In warm water, the young hatch within this and other information. The cerebellum coordinates
days and grow quickly. In cold water, the develop- muscle activity, and the medulla oblongata controls
ment of the eggs may take much longer. the function of many internal organs.
Optic lobe
Female Cerebellum
Cerebrum
Spinal cord
Female
Kidney
Ovary
Oviduct
Medulla
Olfactory bulb
oblongata
Male
Testis ▲ Brain
Male
Vas deferens
Bladder Spinal cord Tongue
Kidney Liver
▲ Reproductive organs Vertebra
Swim bladder
Jaws
Muscle
Gills
Heart
Anus Gallbladder
▼ Intestine ▼ Stomach ▼ Esophagus
Digestive system The digestive system reflects a basic arrangement

of structures found in all vertebrates. Food enters the mouth and passes
from the esophagus to the stomach. The liver secretes bile, and the pan-
creas secretes enzymes into a short intestine. The bile and enzymes help
break down the food. Absorption of digested food occurs through the
inner lining of the intestine. Undigested material exits through the anus.

Operculum 2. Gill cover. Most bony fishes have a hard plate, an operculum ,
closed
that covers the gills on each side of the head. Movements of cer-
Water
tain muscles and of the opercula, shown in Figure 8, permit a
bony fish to draw water over the gills, which enables the fish to
take in oxygen. By using this mechanism, most bony fishes can
move water over their gills while remaining stationary in the
water. A bony fish doesn’t have to swim forward with its mouth
open to move water over its gills. This ability to respire without
Operculum
swimming enables a bony fish to conserve energy that can be
open spent chasing after prey and escaping from predators.
3. Swim bladder. The density of the fish body is slightly greater
than that of sea water. How then do bony fishes keep from sinking?
Bony fishes contain a special gas sac called a swim bladder . By
adjusting the gas content of the swim bladder, bony fishes can
regulate their buoyancy. As the swim bladder fills, the fish rises,
and as it empties, the fish sinks. The swim bladder of early bony
Water fishes was connected to their throat, and they gulped air to fill it.
The swim bladder of modern bony fishes, shown on the previous
Figure 8 Operculum. page, does not have a direct passage to the mouth. Instead, gas is
When a fish’s mouth opens, exchanged between the bloodstream and the swim bladder. This
water enters and the opercula permits the fish to maintain or change its depth in the water.
close over the gills. When the
mouth closes, the opercula There are two groups of bony fishes, the ray-finned fishes and the
open and water moves across lobe-finned fishes. The yellow perch described in Up Close: Yellow
the gills and out of the fish. Perch on the previous two pages is a common type of ray-finned fish.
Modeling the Action of a

Swim Bladder
Most fish use a swim bladder to regulate their
depth in water. As gas enters the swim bladder, the
fish rises in the water. As gas is expelled, the fish
sinks to a lower depth.
Materials
100 mL beaker or small glass; cold, clear, carbonated
soft drink; 2 very dry raisins
Procedure
1. Fill a 100 mL beaker with a 2. Forming Hypotheses 4. Critical Thinking Form-
cold, carbonated soft drink. Develop a hypothesis to ing Reasoned Opinions
explain your observations. Think about the energy you
2. Drop two raisins into the
would have to expend to
beaker, and observe what 3. Critical Thinking
keep yourself in one position
happens over the next Analyzing Results How
under water. What advantage
5 minutes. does the lifting of the raisins
might a swim bladder provide
differ from the use of a swim
Analysis to a fish?
bladder to control buoyancy?
1. Describe what happened
after you dropped the raisins
into the soft drink.

Ray-Finned Bony Fishes Figure 9 Pacific bluefin tuna
Ray-finned bony fishes, such as the ones shown in Figure 9, At sexual maturity, Pacific
comprise the vast majority of living fishes. Their fins are supported bluefin tuna can weigh about
by bony structures called rays. Teleosts (TEL ee ahsts), such as the 136 kg (300 lb), although
some grow larger.
yellow perch you saw in Up Close, are the most advanced of the ray-
finned bony fishes. Teleosts have highly mobile fins, very thin
scales, and completely symmetrical tails. About 95 percent of all liv-
ing fish species are teleosts.
Lobe-Finned Bony Fishes

Only seven species of lobe-finned fishes survive today. One species is
the coelacanth (SEE luh kanth), shown in Figure 10, and the other six
species are all lungfishes. The lobe-finned fishes have paired fins that
are structurally very different from the fins of ray-finned fishes. In
many lobe-finned fishes, each fin consists of a long, fleshy, muscular
lobe that is supported by a central core of bones. These bones are con-
nected by joints, like the joints between the bones in your hand. Bony
rays are found only at the tips of each lobed fin. Muscles within each
lobe can move the bony rays independently of each other.
Scientists have debated whether the direct ancestor of amphibians
was a coelacanth or a lungfish. However, recent evidence has led biol-
ogists to believe that it was neither. The ancestor of the amphibians
most likely was a third type of lobe-finned fish that is now extinct.
Figure 10 Coelacanth.
Coelacanths were thought to
have been extinct for millions
of years, until one was caught
off the coast of Africa in 1938.
Coelacanths can reach up to
nearly 3 m (9.8 ft) in length.
Section 2 Review
Compare the three categories of modern fishes. Critical Thinking Evaluating Conclusions
An unidentified species of fish has rough skin,
Summarize the role of the operculum in fish several rows of teeth, and no opercula. Based on
respiration. these characteristics, a student infers that the
fish has a swim bladder. Explain why you agree
Summarize how the swim bladder can be
or disagree with this conclusion.
viewed as an energy-saving mechanism.
The mouth of a lamprey is
Describe the digestive process in a yellow
specialized for
perch.
A straining plankton.
Relate a yellow perch’s lateral line system to B chewing seaweed.
the human ear. C scavenging dead animals.
D parasitizing other fish.

Section 3 Amphibians
Objectives Key Characteristics
● Summarize the of Modern Amphibians
characteristics of modern The next time you see a frog, consider that it is a surviving member
amphibians. of an ancient amphibian group, the first vertebrates to walk on
● Compare the three orders of land. The croaking and peeping of frogs, such as the one shown in
living amphibians. Figure 11, make it difficult not to notice them, but their smaller, qui-
● Describe the major external eter relatives live nearby, hidden in damp habitats. Class Amphibia
and internal characteristics contains three orders of living amphibians: order Anura (frogs and
of the leopard frog. toads), order Urodela (salamanders and newts), and order Apoda
(caecilians). Most amphibians share five key characteristics.
Key Terms
1. Legs. The evolution of legs was an important adaptation for liv-
lung ing on land. Frogs, toads, salamanders, and newts have four legs.
pulmonary vein Caecilians lost their legs during the evolutionary course of
septum adapting to a burrowing existence.
2. Lungs. Although larval amphibians have gills, most adult
amphibians breathe with a pair of lungs. Lungless salamanders
are an exception.
3. Double-loop circulation. Two large veins called pulmonary
veins return oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the heart. The
blood is then pumped to the tissues at a much higher pressure
than in the fish heart.
4. Partially divided heart. The atrium of the amphibian heart is
divided into left and right sides, but the ventricle is not. A mix-
ture of oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood is delivered to the
amphibian’s body tissues.
5. Cutaneous respiration. Most amphibians supplement their
oxygen intake by respiring directly through their moist skin.
Figure 11 Spring peeper. Cutaneous respiration (“skin breathing”) limits the maximum
In some areas, the call of the body size of amphibians because it is efficient only when there
spring peeper is one of the first is a high ratio of skin surface area to body volume.
signs of spring.
Lungs
Although air contains about 20 times as much oxygen as sea water
does, gills cannot function as respiratory organs when out of
water. Thus, one of the major challenges that faced the first land
vertebrates was that of obtaining oxygen from air. The evolutionary
solution to this challenge was the lung.
A lung is an internal, baglike respiratory organ that allows oxy-
gen and carbon dioxide to be exchanged between the air and the
bloodstream. The amount of oxygen a lung can absorb depends on
its internal surface area. The greater the surface area, the greater
the amount of oxygen that can be absorbed. In amphibians, the

lungs are hardly more than sacs with folds on their inner
membrane that increase their surface area, as shown in
Figure 12. With each breath, fresh oxygen-rich air is drawn
into the lungs. There it mixes with a small volume of air
that has already given up most of its oxygen. Because of
this mixing, the respiratory efficiency of lungs is much less
than that of gills. Because there is much more oxygen in
air than there is in water, however, lungs do not
have to be as efficient as gills. Many amphib-
ians also obtain oxygen through their thin,
moist skin.
Double-Loop Circulation
As amphibians evolved and became active on
land, their circulatory system changed, result-
ing in a second circulatory loop. This change Figure 12 Amphibian
allowed more oxygen to be delivered to their lungs. The lungs of an
muscles. Figure 13 compares the single-loop circulation of most amphibian are sacs with a
fishes with the double-loop circulation of amphibians (also found folded internal membrane that
provides a large surface for
in lungfishes). Notice that amphibians have a pair of blood vessels
gas exchange.
not found in fishes, the pulmonary veins. The pulmonary veins
carry oxygen-rich blood from the amphibian’s lungs to its heart.
The heart pumps the oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body.
The advantage of this arrangement is that oxygen-rich blood can be
pumped to the amphibian’s tissues at a much higher pressure than
it can in fishes. (Recall that in fish, blood is pumped through the
gills before reaching the body organs. As a result, much of the force
of the heartbeat is lost.)
Figure 13 Circulatory loops

Circulation in fishes involves a single loop. Amphibians have a second loop that
goes from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart.
Gill capillaries Lung capillaries
Pulmonary vein
Heart Heart
Oxygen-rich
Body organ blood
capillaries Oxygen-poor
blood
Fish Amphibian
SECTION 3 Amphibians 759

Not only did the path of circulation in amphibians change, but
several important changes occurred in the heart. As you read about
www.scilinks.org
these changes, use Figure 14 to trace the flow of blood through the
Topic: Circulation in
Amphibians amphibian heart.
Keyword: HX4043 The sinus venosus continues to deliver oxygen-poor blood from
the body to the right side of the heart, as shown in step 1. (You can
see the sinus venosus on the left side of Figure 14.) In addition,
oxygen-rich blood from the lungs enters the left side of the heart
directly, as shown in step 2.
A dividing wall known as the septum separates the amphibian
atrium into right and left halves. You cannot see the septum in
Figure 14 as it is beneath the conus arteriosus. The septum prevents
the complete mixing of oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood as each
enters the heart. As shown in step 3, both types of blood empty into
a single ventricle, where some mixing of oxygen-rich and oxygen-
poor blood occurs. However, due to the anatomy of the ventricle,
the two streams of blood remain somewhat separate, as shown in
step 4. Oxygen-rich blood tends to stay on the side that directs
blood toward the body. Oxygen-poor blood tends to stay on the side
that directs blood toward the lungs.
A number of amphibians have a spiral valve that divides the
conus arteriosus. The spiral valve also helps to keep the two streams
of blood separate as they leave the heart. Even so, some oxygen-
poor blood is delivered to the body’s tissues. Recall, however, that
Figure 14 Amphibian amphibians also obtain oxygen through their skin. This additional
heart. These four steps show oxygen partly offsets the limitations of their circulatory system.
how blood flows through the
heart of an amphibian.
Amphibian Heart Structure
The pulmonary veins

To body 2 carry oxygen-rich
1 Oxygen-poor blood
from the body enters To lungs blood from the lungs to the
From left atrium.
the right atrium.
body
From
Pulmonary lungs
vein
Pulmonary
Sinus Conus vein
venosus arteriosis
Left
Right atrium
atrium
A mixture of oxygen-
3 rich and oxygen-poor
blood enters the ventricle.
Ventricle
4 The ventricle pumps

blood to the lungs
and the body tissues. From body

Frogs and Toads
The order Anura is made up of frogs and toads that live in envi-
ronments ranging from deserts to rain forests, valleys to moun-
tains, and ponds to puddles. Adult anurans are carnivorous, eating
a wide variety of small prey. Some species have a sticky tongue that
they extend rapidly to catch their prey. The frog body, particularly
its skeleton, is adapted for jumping, and its long muscular legs
provide the power. To learn about the leopard frog, see Up Close:
Leopard Frog on the next two pages. Toads, such as the one shown
in Figure 15, are very similar to frogs but have squat bodies and
shorter legs. Their skin is not smooth like that of a frog but is
covered with bumps.
Figure 15 Toad. Toads like
this common Asian toad have
Reproduction in Frogs dry, bumpy skin and relatively
Like most living amphibians, frogs depend on the presence of water short legs.
to complete their life cycle. The female releases her eggs into the
water and a male’s sperm fertilize them externally. After a few days,
the fertilized eggs hatch into swimming, fishlike larval forms called
tadpoles. Tadpoles breathe with gills and feed mostly on algae. After
a period of growth, the body of the tadpole changes into that of an
adult frog. The rate at which tadpoles develop depends on the
species and the availability of food. This process of dramatic physical
change, called metamorphosis, is shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16 Frog life cycle

The transition of a larval frog (tadpole) to an adult involves a complex series of
external and internal body changes.
Young Adult
frog
Front legs
appear
Fertilized
Hatchling eggs
Hind legs
tadpole
appear

Up Close
Leopard Frog
● Scientific name: Rana pipiens
● Size: Body length (legs excluded) of 5–9 cm (2–3.5 in.)
● Range: From northern Canada to southern New Mexico and
from eastern California to the Atlantic coast
● Habitat: Lives in the short grass of meadows and around
ponds
● Diet: Feeds on crickets, mosquitoes, and other small animals
External Structures
Tympanic membrane
When sound causes the tym-
▼
panic membrane (eardrum) to Tympanic membrane
vibrate, a tiny bone transmits

the vibrations to the inner ear.
There, ciliated sensory cells
(similar to those found in the
lateral line of a fish) detect the
vibrations and help the frog
maintain balance. Leopard
frogs hear well in both water
and air. Foreleg
▼ Skin ▼ Eye
Skin Mucous glands embed-
ded within the skin supply a
lubricant that keeps the skin
Eye Because its eyes bulge out from its
head, the leopard frog can stay almost
moist, a necessity for respira-
fully submerged while literally “keeping
tion. Unlike those of many
an eye out” for predators above the
frogs and toads, the leopard
water. Its eyes work equally well in or out
frog’s skin glands do not
of water. Eyelids that blink protect the
secrete poisonous or foul-
eyes from dust. In addition, a transparent
tasting substances. Instead,
membrane covers each eyeball, keeping
the leopard frog must rely on
it moist and protecting it when the frog
its protective coloration and
is underwater.
speed to evade predators.
Jumping leg
Webbed toe
762 CHAPTER 33
CHAPTER # Chapter TitleAmphibians
Fishes and
Internal Structures
Brain The frog’s brain differs from the Tongue and jaw The tongue flicks out with
fish’s brain in that its components are great speed, curls around the prey, and returns
more complex. For example, the larger, to the mouth. Two large teeth that project from
more complex cerebrum of a frog is able the roof of the mouth impale struggling prey.
to process a wider assortment of sen- In addition the upper jaw is lined with small,
▼
sory information than the cerebrum of Brain sharp teeth that prevent the prey from escap-
a fish can. ing. Food is not chewed but swallowed whole.
Cerebrum Optic lobe

▼
Tongue
Cerebellum
Teeth
Esophagus
Olfactory lobe Medulla oblongata Sacral Kidney

vertabra
Skeleton The skeletal system of Urostyle

the leopard frog (and all other mod-
▼
ern frogs) has only nine vertebrae Pelvic girdle

and no ribs. The rest of the verte-
brae are fused into a single bone
(urostyle). When a frog is sitting, the
urostyle points upward, which gives
the frog its characteristic humped
back. When a frog jumps the long
hind legs extend, which produces Lung
Heart
a powerful thrust forward. Liver
Intestine Stomach
Urinary ▼ Reproductive organs

bladder
Male Female
Mature
ovary
Oviduct
Testis Kidney
Ureter
▼ Cloaca Cloaca
Cloaca Undigested material passes
into the cloaca, a chamber that opens Reproductive organs Prior to breed-
to the outside of the body. Urine from ing, the reproductive organs of male and
the kidneys travels to the bladder and female leopard frogs produce enormous
then passes into the cloaca, as do numbers of gametes. The female releases
gametes from the reproductive organs. a large cluster of eggs into the water.
All of these materials exit the body The male then discharges his sperm
through the cloacal opening. over them, fertilizing them externally.

Salamanders and Caecilians
Salamanders have elongated bodies, long tails, and smooth, moist
skin. There are about 369 species of salamanders, all belonging to
the order Urodela. They typically range from 10 cm to 0.3 m (4 in.
to 1 ft) in length. However, giant Asiatic salamanders of the genus
Andrias grow as long as 1.5 m (5 ft) and weigh up to 41 kg (90 lb).
Because salamanders need to keep their skin moist, most are unable
Figure 17 Salamander. to remain away from water for long periods, although some sala-
This four-toed salamander has mander species manage to live in dry areas by remaining inactive
deposited its eggs in a damp, during the day.
mossy environment. Salamanders lay their eggs in water or in moist places,
as shown in Figure 17. Fertilization is usually external. A
few species of salamanders practice a type of internal
fertilization in which the female picks up a sperm packet
that has been deposited by the male and places it in her
cloaca. Unlike frog and toad larvae, salamander larvae
do not undergo a dramatic metamorphosis. The young
that hatch from salamander eggs are carnivorous and
resemble small versions of the adults, except that the
young usually have gills. A few species of salamanders,
such as the North American mudpuppy and the Texas
spring salamander, never lose their larval characteristics.
They retain their external gills as adults.
Caecilians
Caecilians (order Apoda) are a highly specialized group
of tropical, burrowing amphibians with small, bony
scales embedded in their skin. They feed on small inver-
tebrates found in soil. These legless, wormlike animals,
shown in Figure 18, grow to about 0.3 m (1 ft) long,
although some species can be up to 1.2 m (4 ft) long.
Figure 18 Caecilian. Like
During breeding, the male deposits sperm directly into the female.
most caecilians, this one from
Colombia, South America, Depending on the species, the female may bear live young or lay
burrows beneath the soil and eggs that develop externally. Caecilians are rarely seen, and scien-
is rarely seen. tists do not know a lot about their behavior.
Section 3 Review
Summarize how amphibians take in oxygen. Relate the tongue of the leopard frog to its
feeding habits.
Contrast the single-loop circulation of fish with
the double-loop circulation of amphibians. Explain why it is difficult to “sneak up” on
a frog.
Compare the external characteristics of each
order of amphibians. Standardized Test Prep In a frog’s heart, the
blood that enters the left atrium
Compare reproduction and development in A comes from the lungs. C then goes to the lungs.
frogs and salamanders.
B comes from the body. D then goes to the body.

ZONE
1 The Fish Body Section 1
gill filament (747)
● All fishes have gills and a backbone, and they circulate gill slit (747)
oxygen-rich blood from their gills directly to body tissues. countercurrent flow (747)
● Countercurrent flow maximizes the amount of oxygen that nephron (749)
can be extracted from water.

● The four-chambered fish heart collects oxygen-poor blood
from the body and pumps it through the gills where it
receives oxygen. Oxygen-rich blood then circulates to the
rest of the body.
● A fish relies on its gills and a pair of kidneys to regulate its
salt and water balance.
● Most fishes fertilize their eggs externally as males and
females release their gametes near one another in the water.
2 Today’s Fishes Section 2

lateral line (753)
● Hagfishes and lampreys are the only surviving jawless operculum (756)
fishes. swim bladder (756)
● Sharks have light, highly streamlined bodies well suited teleost (757)
for rapid swimming, which makes them swift and
efficient predators.
● Bony fishes are the most diverse and abundant group
of fishes.
● Bony fishes have an internal skeleton made completely of
bone, a swim bladder, a lateral line sensory system, and a
set of gill covers called opercula.
3 Amphibians Section 3
lung (758)
● Most amphibians have legs, breathe with lungs and through pulmonary vein (759)
their skin, and have two circulatory loops. septum (760)
● Most amphibians supplement their oxygen intake through
cutaneous respiration—respiration through their moist skin.
● An amphibian lung is basically an air sac with a large
surface area for gas exchange.
● The amphibian heart pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs
and receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs. The oxygen-
rich blood is then pumped to the body.
● Salamanders are semiaquatic predators with tails, and
caecilians are legless amphibians specialized for burrowing.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. How do tadpoles differ from frogs?

a. Tadpoles have gills; frogs do not.
1. Which of the following is not a key charac- b. Tadpoles are carnivorous; frogs are
teristic of fishes? herbivorous.
a. vertebral column c. Frogs show body symmetry; tadpoles
b. gills do not.
c. single-loop circulation d. Frogs live in water; tadpoles live in
d. tympanic membrane damp vegetation.
2. Which of the following shark characteristics 9. Compare amphibian metamorphosis
is not an adaptation for predation? with insect metamorphosis. (Hint: See
a. streamlined body Chapter 30, Section 3.)
b. internal fertilization of eggs
c. sharp, replaceable teeth 10. Concept Mapping Construct a
d. lightweight skeleton concept map describing the characteristics
3. Yellow perch and sharks share all of the fol- of jawless, cartilaginous, and bony fishes.
lowing characteristics except Try to include the following terms in your
a. gills. concept map: gills, countercurrent flow,
b. an internal skeleton. cartilage, operculum, and teleosts.
c. a single-loop circulatory system.
d. a swim bladder.
Critical Thinking
11. Inferring Relationships Explain how marine
4. A shark’s skeleton is
and freshwater fishes differ in the way they
a. composed of cartilage.
maintain their salt and water balance.
b. composed of bone.
c. very dense. 12. Distinguishing Relevant Information
d. quite rigid. A student is writing a paper on the
evolution of the heart. Which of the
5. Most adult amphibians respire
following terms do not pertain to her topic?
a. through their skin.
Explain. Sinus venosus, pulmonary veins,
b. through their skin and gills.
septum, osmotic balance, atrium, opercu-
c. through their lungs.
lum, conus arteriosus, and
d. through their skin and lungs.
cutaneous respiration.
6. Which of the following is not a characteris-
tic of amphibians? Alternative Assessment
a. lungs 13. Forming a Model Construct a model
b. heart with two ventricles that shows how water passes over the gills
c. cutaneous respiration of a bony fish. Then explain in writing why
d. double-loop circulation countercurrent flow increases respiratory
7. Which of the following characteristics efficiency.
of leopard frogs is not an adaptation for 14. Finding and Communicating Information
avoiding predators? Use the media center or Internet resources
a. fast, flicking tongue to learn more about amphibians that live in
b. skeleton adapted for jumping your area. Create an illustrated reference
c. spotted, greenish-brown skin table that includes their scientific and
d. position of the eyes common names and information about
size, habitat, diet, and population size.


correct answer.
A scientist writes the following description
1 What organ in bony fishes senses pressure of a vertebrate circulatory system: Oxygen-
changes in water? rich blood is pumped from the capillaries to
A. gill a small chamber in the heart. From the small
B. lateral line chamber, the blood is pumped to a larger
C. operculum chamber in the heart where it mixes with
D. septum some oxygen-poor blood. The blood is then
pumped to the rest of the body. When it
2 What organ in bony fishes regulates
returns from the body, the oxygen-poor
buoyancy?
blood enters another small chamber in the
F. atrium
heart. From that chamber the blood is
G. conus arteriosus
pumped to the larger chamber and then on
H. lateral line
to the capillaries.
I. swim bladder
3 A newspaper article reports that some 6 In which type of environment would you
be most likely find an animal that has this
carp in a local pond are approximately 50
kind of circulatory system?
years old. How can this claim be verified?
A. coral reef
A. by counting the number of growth
B. deep ocean
rings on a scale from one of the fish
C. moist habitat on land
B. by comparing the size of the fish with
D. icy habitat on a glacier
younger fish from the same pond
C. by comparing the color of the fish with Interpreting Graphics
younger fish from the same pond Directions (7): Base your answer to question
D. by counting the layers of dark and light
layers in a cross section of one fish
Vertebrate Circulatory Systems
4 What group of amphibians is legless?
F. caecelians X
G. lampreys
oxygen = oxygen =
H. skates rich blood rich blood
I. toads oxygen =
poor blood
Directions (5): For the following question, oxygen =
write a short response. poor blood
5 Assess why you would not expect the

digestive system of a tadpole to function
like that of an adult frog.
Test A B
When using a diagram to answer questions, carefully
study each part of the figure as well as any lines or 7 Where are the capillaries labeled X located?
labels used to indicate parts of the figure. F. in the brain H. in muscles
G. in the gills I. in the lungs

Exploration Lab
Observing a Live Frog
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Observing • live frog in a
• Relating terrarium
• live insects (crickets
OBJECTIVES or mealworms)
• Examine the external • 600 mL beaker
features of a frog.
• aquarium half-filled
• Observe the behavior of a with dechlorinated
frog. water
• Explain how a frog is
adapted to life on land
and in water.
Before You Begin 3. Based on the objectives for this lab,

write a question you would like to explore
Frogs, which are amphibians , are adapted
about frogs.
for living on land and in water. For example,
a frog’s eyes have an extra eyelid called the
nictitating membrane . This eyelid protects Procedure
the eye when the frog is underwater and keeps PART A: Observing a Frog
the eye moist when the frog is on land. The 1. Observe a live frog in a terrarium. Closely
smooth skin of a frog acts as a respiratory examine the external features of the frog.
organ by exchanging oxygen and carbon diox- Make a drawing of the frog. Label the eyes,
ide with the air or water. The limbs of a frog nostrils, tympanic membranes, front legs,
enable it to move both on land and in water. and hind legs.
In this lab, you will examine a live frog in
2. Watch the frog’s movements as it breathes
both a terrestrial environment and an
air into and out of its lungs. Record your
aquatic environment.
observations.
3. Look closely at the frog’s eyes, and note
their location. Examine the upper and
term: tympanic membrane.
lower eyelids as well as a third transparent
2. Make a data table similar to the one below. eyelid called a nictitating membrane.
Describe how the eyelids move.
DATA TABLE
Behavior/structure Observations
Breathing
Eyes
Legs
Response to food
Response to noise
Skin
Swimming behavior

4. Study the frog’s legs, and note the differ- 2. Recognizing Relationships How does
ence between the front and hind legs. the position of a frog’s eyes benefit the frog
5. Place a live insect, such as a cricket or a while it is swimming?
mealworm, into the terrarium. Observe 3. Analyzing Data What features of an adult
how the frog reacts. frog provide evidence that it has an aquatic
6. Tap the side of the terrarium farthest from life and a terrestrial life?
the frog, and observe the frog’s response. 4. Analyzing Methods Were you able to
7. Place a 600 mL beaker in the determine in this lab how a frog hears?
terrarium. CAUTION: Handle Explain.
live frogs gently. Frogs are slippery! 5. Inferring Conclusions What can you
Do not allow a frog to injure itself by infer about a frog’s field of vision from the
jumping from a lab table to the floor. position of its eyes?
Carefully pick up the frog, and examine 6. Forming Hypotheses How is the
its skin. How does it feel? Now place the coloration on the dorsal and ventral sides
frog in the beaker. Cover the beaker with of a frog an adaptive advantage?
your hand, and carry it to a freshwater
aquarium. Tilt the beaker, and gently
about frogs that could be explored with
lower it into the water until the frog
another investigation.
swims out.
8. Watch the frog float and swim. Notice
how the frog uses its legs to swim. Also
notice the position of the frog’s head. As
the frog swims, bend down to view the
underside of the frog. Then look down on
the frog from above. Compare the color
on the dorsal and ventral sides of the frog.

9. Dispose of broken glass in the
designated waste containers. Put
live animals in the designated containers.
Do not pour chemicals down the drain or
put lab materials in the trash unless your
teacher tells you to do so.
10. Clean up your work area and all
lab equipment. Return lab equip-
On the Job
ment to its proper place. Wash your hands
thoroughly before you leave the lab and Herpetology is the study of reptiles and
after you finish all work. amphibians. Do research to discover
how herpetologists are working with
the Declining Amphibian Task Force
Analyze and Conclude (FROGLOG) to solve the mystery of the
1. Summarizing Information How does a worldwide decline in amphibian popula-
frog use its hind legs for moving on land tions. For more about careers, visit
and in water? go.hrw.com and type in the keyword
HX4 Careers.
CHAPTER 33 Fishes and Amphibians 769

Show jumper
A reptile emerging from an amniotic egg
CHAPTER
34 Reptiles
and Birds
1. Describe the process of molting in arthropods.
(Chapter 30, Section 1) The Reptilian Body
Key Characteristics of Reptiles
2. Distinguish between ectotherms and
Water Retention
endotherms. (Chapter 32, Section 2)
Respiration
3. Summarize the evolutionary relationships
Reproduction
between reptiles and birds. (Chapter 32,
Section 2)
4. Relate countercurrent flow to the efficiency of
Section 2
the fish gill. (Chapter 33, Section 1) Today’s Reptiles
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Lizards and Snakes
sections indicated. Other Orders of Reptiles
Section 3
Reading Activity Characteristics and
Write down the title of this chapter and the Diversity of Birds
titles of its three sections on a piece of paper or Key Characteristics of Birds
in your notebook. Leave a few blank lines after Adaptations of Birds
each section title. Then, write down what you
think you will learn in each section. Save your
check off everything that you learned that
was on your list.
www.scilinks.org
Ancient amphibians gave rise to a new group of resources are located throughout this chapter.
animals that were able to lay eggs on dry land—the
reptiles. The amniotic egg is a significant evolution-
ary milestone for land-dwelling animals, such as
reptiles and birds.
CHAPTER 34 Reptiles and Birds 771

Section 1 The Reptilian Body
Objectives Key Characteristics of Reptiles
● Describe the key character- Many people react with fear or repulsion when they see a snake
istics of reptiles. slither across a yard or field. But snakes and their reptile relatives
● Relate a reptile’s ectothermic are important members of most ecosystems, and they kill large
metabolism to its activity numbers of insect pests and small rodents. It’s true that some rep-
level. tiles—venomous snakes and crocodilians (crocodiles and alligators)
● Summarize the adaptations —are dangerous. Most reptiles, however, live quietly and go about
that enable reptiles to live their business, preferring to avoid humans.
on land. Members of class Reptilia live throughout the world in a wide vari-
ety of habitats, except in the coldest regions, where it is impossible
Key Terms for ectotherms to survive. Reptiles share certain fundamental char-
acteristics, features they retain from the time when reptiles replaced
amniotic egg
oviparous amphibians as the dominant terrestrial vertebrates. Figure 1 summa-
ovoviviparous rizes these key features.
Reptiles have a strong, bony skeleton, and most have two pairs of
limbs, although snakes and some lizards are legless. The legs of rep-
tiles are positioned more directly under their body than are the
limbs of amphibians. Thus, reptiles can move more easily on land
than amphibians can. Unlike amphibians, reptiles have toes with
claws, which are used for climbing and digging. Claws also enable
www.scilinks.org
reptiles to get a good grip on the ground, allowing many reptiles to
Topic: Characteristics run quickly for short distances.
of Reptiles The nervous system of a reptile is very similar to that of an
Keyword: HX4038 amphibian. Like their dinosaur ancestors, modern reptiles have a
brain that is small in relation to their body. For example, an alligator
about 2.5 m (8 ft) long has a brain that is about the size of a walnut.
Despite this small brain size, reptiles are capable of complex behav-
iors, including elaborate courtship.
Figure 1 Characteristics Key Features of Reptiles

of living reptiles. This male
• Strong, bony skeleton and toes with
anole is extending his dewlap,
claws
a display used during court-
• Ectothermic metabolism
ship and when defending
• Dry, scaly skin, almost
territory.
watertight
• Amniotic eggs, almost
watertight
• Respiration through well-developed
lungs
• Ventricle of heart partly divided by a
septum
• Internal fertilization
772 CHAPTER 34 Reptiles and Birds

Ectothermic Metabolism
Reptiles’ ectothermic metabolism is too slow to generate enough
heat to warm their bodies, so they must absorb heat from their sur-
roundings. As a result, a reptile’s body temperature is largely deter-
mined by the temperature of its environment. Many reptiles regulate
their temperature behaviorally, by basking in the sun to warm up or
seeking shade to cool down. Figure 2 shows that a lizard can main-
tain a relatively constant body temperature throughout the day by
moving between sunlight and shade. At very low temperatures, most
reptiles become sluggish and unable to function. Intolerance of cold
generally limits their geographical range and, in temperate climates,
forces them to remain inactive through the winter.
Changes in Lizard Body Temperature Figure 2 Body

temperature in a lizard. A
lizard may regulate its body
Activity Resting in Returns temperature by moving repeat-
40 Basking shade to den edly between sun and shade.
35
Temperature (°C)
Emerges
30 from
25 den
20
15 Air temperature
10
Lizard's body
5 temperature
0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sunrise Noon Sunset
Time of day
Body Temperatures of Two Animals

Identifying Ectotherms
Species A Species B Air
Background
Temperature (°C)
40
The body temperature of all animals
0100010110
011101010 changes during the course of a day. How it 30
0010010001001 changes can help you identify an animal as 20
1100100100010
0000101001001 an ectotherm or an endotherm. 10
1101010100100
0101010010010
12 A.M. 6 A.M. 12 P.M. 6 P.M.

Analysis Time of day
1. Analyze the data and deter- 3. Identify the time
mine which animal species, of day the animal
A or B, is most likely an ecto- you identified as an ectotherm 5. Predict what the endo-
therm. Explain your reasoning. reaches its highest body therm’s graph line would look
temperature. like if it were extended to
2. Identify the time of day the
show body temperature
animal you identified as an 4. Propose a reason why the
between 6 P.M. and midnight.
ectotherm reaches its lowest ectotherm’s body temperature
body temperature. is highest at this time.
SECTION 1 The Reptilian Body 773

Water Retention
Amphibians such as frogs cannot be considered fully terrestrial
because they lose too much water through their skin. Amphibians must
Reviewing Information stay moist to avoid dehydration, and their method of reproduction
Reread the bulleted list of requires a moist environment. Reptiles have evolutionary adap-
key features of reptiles in
Figure 1. Then write them
tations that free them from the water requirements of amphibians.
down on a separate piece
of paper, leaving room to Watertight Skin
write notes about each
Terrestrial animals face a serious problem of water loss as water
characteristic. As you read,
summarize how the informa- evaporates through their skin. Modern reptiles have evolved a skin
tion relates to a particular made of light, flexible scales. These scales overlap and form a pro-
characteristic. tective, almost watertight skin that minimizes water loss, as shown
in Figure 3.
Figure 3 Reptilian scales.

The scales of a reptile’s
skin form a tight seal that
retains moisture within the
reptile’s body.
Modeling Watertight Skin

Scales make a reptile’s skin almost watertight. This
is one of reptiles’ adaptations to terrestrial life. You
can use grapes to model and compare water loss in
different types of skin.
Materials
forceps, 2 grapes, balance, Petri dish
Procedure
1. Find the mass of one grape, 3. Wait 15 minutes, and then 3. Determine which grape
and record it in a data table. find and record the mass of represents an amphibian’s
Then place the grape in an each grape again. skin and which represents a
open Petri dish. reptile’s skin.
Analysis
2. Using forceps, peel the 1. Calculate the difference 4. Describe how a watertight
skin from the second grape. between the original and final skin is an adaptation to ter-
Find and record the mass of masses of each grape. restrial life. Include informa-
the peeled grape. Then place tion you have learned in this
it in the same Petri dish, but 2. Propose an explanation for lab in your explanation.
do not let the two grapes any changes in mass you
touch. observed.

Watertight Eggs
For a reptile living on dry land, reproduction presents another seri-
ous water-loss problem. Without a watery environment, both sperm
and eggs will dry out. A reptile’s fertilized eggs need a moist envi-
ronment in which to develop. As you will read later in this chapter,
the first problem is overcome by internal fertilization.
The nature of a reptile’s amniotic (am nee AHT ic) egg solves the
second problem. An amniotic egg contains both a water supply and
a food supply and is key to a reptile’s success as a terrestrial animal.
Because the egg’s tough shell makes it essentially watertight, it does
not dry out, even in very dry habitats. Most reptiles, all birds, and
three species of mammals reproduce by means of amniotic eggs with
shells. (Other mammals produce amniotic eggs, but the embryo
develops within the female’s uterus rather than within a shell. You
will learn about the development of these eggs in a later chapter.) The
formation of amniotic eggs with shells suggests that these three
groups of animals evolved from a common ancestor.
The Amniotic Egg

Embryo Allantois
Air space Albumen
(egg white)
B oth reptiles and birds have

amniotic eggs, which are
very much alike internally.
water in which am-
phibians lay their
eggs. This watery
Amnion
Although a reptile’s eggshell is enclosure also pro- Chorion

leathery and a bird’s is hard, tects the embryo by
both are almost watertight. cushioning it.
Yolk sac
However, the shells are porous The yolk sac con-
enough to allow oxygen to enter tains the yolk, the
the egg and carbon dioxide to developing embryo’s
leave. The shell and the albumen food supply. The
(egg white) lying beneath it pro- embryo absorbs
tect and cushion the developing nourishment from
embryo. The albumen is also a the yolk through
source of protein and water for blood vessels con- Eggshell
the embryo. necting its gut and
Yolk
Within the egg, four special- the yolk sac.
ized membranes—the amnion, The allantois (uh
the yolk sac, the allantois, and LAHN toh is) is a sac that stores awn). The chorion allows oxygen
the chorion—play important waste products from the to enter the egg and carbon diox-
roles in maintaining a stable embryo. It also serves as the ide to leave.
environment in which the embryo’s organ for gas ex-
embryo can develop. change. Blood vessels in its
The amnion (AM nee awn) walls carry oxygen to and carbon www.scilinks.org
encloses the embryo within a dioxide from the embryo. Topic: Amniotic Egg
watery environment. In a sense, Surrounding the amnion, yolk Keyword: HX4005
this membrane creates a little sac, and allantois is a membrane
pond that substitutes for the called the chorion (KAWR ee

Respiration
Because most reptiles are far more active than amphibians, they
have greater metabolic requirements for oxygen. Their bodies meet
this demand in several ways.
Lungs
A reptile’s scaly skin does not permit gas exchange, so reptiles can-
not use their skin as an additional respiratory surface, as many
amphibians can. However, the lungs of most reptiles have many
internal folds, as shown in Figure 4. These folds greatly increase the
respiratory surface area of a reptile’s lungs. In addition, reptiles
have strong muscles attached to their rib cage. The action of these
muscles helps to move air into and out of the lungs, increasing the
lungs’ efficiency.
Figure 4 Reptilian lungs.

The lungs of reptiles contain Heart
numerous internal folds. Recall that the ventricle of the amphibian heart is not divided by a
septum. Oxygen-poor blood and oxygen-rich blood mix somewhat
in the amphibian’s ventricle. In most reptiles, however, the septum
extends into the ventricle, partly dividing it into right and left
halves, as shown in Figure 5. The septum enables a much better, but
still incomplete, separation of oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood.
As a result, oxygen is delivered to the body cells more efficiently
than in amphibians.
Unlike most reptiles, crocodilians have a heart with a com-
pletely divided ventricle that consists of two pumping chambers.
This arrangement fully separates the lung circulation from the
body circulation. Thus, the delivery of oxygen throughout the
Figure 5 Reptilian heart.
In most reptiles, the ventricle
body is further improved in these animals.
of the heart is partly divided by
a septum.
Reptilian Heart Structure
An incomplete septum partly

2 divides the ventricle. Thus,
Oxygen-poor blood from the body From body To body there is less mixing of oxygen-rich
1 enters the right atrium. Oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood than there is
To lungs
blood from the lungs enters the left atrium. in the amphibian heart.
From
To body lungs
Right Left
atrium atrium
Right
half of
ventricle Left
half of Arteries carry oxygen-rich
ventricle
3 blood from the left half of
Incomplete the ventricle to the body and
septum oxygen-poor blood from the right
half of the ventricle to the lungs.

Reproduction
Unlike the eggs of most amphibians, reptilian eggs are fertilized
within the female, a process called internal fertilization. The male
reptile introduces his semen directly into the female’s body. The The term ovoviviparous
semen contains sperm and fluid secretions. Internal fertilization comes from three different
Latin words: ovum, meaning
protects the gametes from drying out, even though the adult ani-
“egg,” vivus, meaning
mals are fully terrestrial. “alive,” and parere, mean-
Many reptiles are oviparous (oh VIHP urh uhs), meaning the ing “to bring forth or bear.”
young hatch from eggs, as shown in Figure 6. In most cases, the
eggs are not protected by the parents. Most snakes and lizards, all
turtles and tortoises, and all crocodilians are oviparous. All birds
and three species of mammals are also oviparous.
Some species of snakes and lizards are ovoviviparous , which
means the female retains the eggs within her body until shortly Figure 6 Reproduction.
before hatching, or the eggs may hatch within the female’s body. Sea turtles hatch from eggs
buried on sandy beaches.
Although the embryos receive water and oxygen from the female,
The eggs of some species of
their nourishment comes from the yolk sac. The offspring of a snake, snakes are incubated within
shown in Figure 6, are born able to fend for themselves. In ovovivip- the female’s body, and the
arous reptiles, the eggs are less vulnerable to predators. young are born live.
Sea turtles Hatchling snakes
Section 1 Review
Identify seven characteristics of reptiles. Describe how reptiles meet their need for more
oxygen than amphibians require.
Describe how the ectothermic nature of reptiles
influences their physical activity and feeding habits. Standardized Test Prep If a lizard’s internal
temperature sensors detect a decrease in body
Summarize the skin and egg adaptations that temperature, the lizard can maintain
allow reptiles to live on land. homeostasis by
A speeding up its metabolism.
Critical Thinking Forming Reasoned
Opinions Data show that an animal’s tempera- B slowing its metabolism.
ture changes over the course of a day. A student C basking in the sunshine.
asserts that this proves the animal is an ecto- D resting in the shade.
therm. What must the student consider before
making such a claim?

Section 2 Today’s Reptiles
Objectives Lizards and Snakes
● Compare the four living You’ve probably walked by a snake or lizard without even knowing
orders of reptiles. it was there. Most are quiet, and their coloration often conceals
● Describe the timber rattle- them from view. Even if you visited the jungles of South America,
snake’s adaptations for you might not notice an anaconda unless it moved. What’s an ana-
locating and capturing prey. conda? It’s the world’s largest snake, frequently reaching 5 m (about
● Compare the parental care 16 ft) in length. The largest anaconda ever found was twice that
of crocodilians with that of long. Very large anacondas have been known to prey on jaguars.
other reptiles. After such a meal, the anaconda may not eat again for up to a year.
Snakes and lizards belong to order Squamata. A distinguishing
Key Terms characteristic of this order is a lower jaw that is only loosely con-
nected to the skull. This allows the mouth to open wide enough to
carapace
accommodate large prey and explains how an anaconda can swal-
plastron
low a jaguar. This ability is a contributing factor to the success of
snakes and most lizards as predators.
Lizards
Common lizards include iguanas, chameleons, geckos, anoles, and
horned lizards (often mistakenly called “horny toads”). A few species
of lizards are herbivores, but most are carnivores. Most lizards are
small, measuring less than 30 cm (1 ft) in length, but lizards that
belong to the monitor family can be quite large. The Komodo dragon
of Indonesia, shown in Figure 7, is the largest monitor lizard. It can
be up to 3 m (10 ft) in length and weigh up to 125 kg (275 lb). The
tail of some species of lizards, such as the gecko shown in Figure 7,
breaks off easily when seized by a predator, allowing the lizard to
escape. Lizards can regenerate a new tail, but it does not have any
vertebrae in it.
Gecko
Figure 7 Lizards. Geckos

are small reptiles, rarely
exceeding 24 cm (10 in.) in
length. The Komodo dragon is
the world’s largest lizard.
Komodo dragon

Snakes
Snakes probably evolved from lizards during the Cretaceous period.
The close relationship between lizards and snakes is reflected in
Real Life
their many similarities. In fact, it is often difficult to distinguish the Need a lizard?
legless species of lizards from snakes. Snakes lack movable eyelids Instead of calling an
and external ears, as do several species of lizards. Also, both snakes exterminator to rid their
and lizards molt periodically, shedding their outer layers of skin. homes of unwanted pests,
some adventuresome
Body Structure The skeleton of snakes is unique. Most snakes have homeowners keep a Tokay
no trace of a pectoral girdle (the supporting bones for the bones of gecko. This gecko preys
the forelimbs), which is found even in legless lizards. The snake’s voraciously on mice and
jaw is very flexible because it has five points of movement. (Your insects and is very efficient
at ridding a home of
jaw, in contrast, has only one movement point.) One of these points
these pests.
is the chin, where the halves of the lower jaw are connected by an
Finding Information
elastic ligament. This ligament permits the lower jaw to spread Investigate the pros and
apart when a large meal is being swallowed. The African egg-eating cons of using geckos for
snake, shown in Figure 8, can swallow eggs that are much larger pest control. Who should
than its head in a process that can take an hour or more. try this method and who
should avoid it?
Feeding While many snakes simply seize their prey and swallow it
whole, some snakes use other methods to subdue their prey. Many
very large snakes, such as anacondas, boas, and pythons, are con-
strictors, as are some smaller species, such as king snakes.
Constrictors wrap their body around their prey, gradually squeezing
tighter and tighter until the prey suffocates. The snakes then swal-
low their prey whole, even if the prey is very large. Like all snakes,
constrictors have no teeth that are suited for cutting and chewing.
Some snakes kill their prey with venom (poison). Of the 13 or
more commonly recognized families of snakes, only four are ven-
omous: (1) cobras, kraits, and coral snakes; (2) sea snakes; (3)
adders and vipers; and (4) rattlesnakes, water moccasins, and cop-
perheads. In most venomous snakes, modified salivary glands pro-
duce a venom that is injected into the victim through grooved or
hollow teeth. The African boomslang and twig snakes produce
venom but do not inject it. Instead, they bite their prey with fangs
located at the back of their mouth. Grooved teeth direct the venom
Figure 8 Snake feeding.
into their victim’s wound. You can read more about the biology of Snakes have flexible jaws that
snakes in Up Close: Timber Rattlesnake, on the following pages. allow them to swallow prey
much larger than their head.
SECTION 2 Today’s Reptiles 779

Up Close
Timber Rattlesnake
● Scientific name: Crotalus horridus
● Size: Typically 90–150 cm (36–60 in.) long; maximum 189 cm (74 in.)
● Range: Eastern and central United States, from northern
New York to northern Florida and west, to central Texas
● Habitat: Prefers thick brush, dense woodland, or swamp
● Diet: Primarily small mammals
External Structures
Rattle The rattle typically consists of 5 to 7 interlocking rings

▲
Rattle
made of keratin, a protein. When shaken, it produces a rattling
sound that serves as a warning. Contrary to popular belief, the
snake does not add a rattle each year. Instead, each time the
snake sheds its skin during molting, a new ring is added
to the base of the rattle. The more rapidly the snake
grows, the more rattles it accumulates during a
given time. This is why the number of rattles
a snake has increases with the size
of the snake.
Eye
Pit organ Between each eye and nostril of the rattlesnake is an organ
that can detect infrared radiation. The snake can locate a warm-bodied
▼
Pit organ animal in a cool, nighttime environment by detecting the difference in

infrared radiation emitted by the animal and the cooler background. Thus,
Nostril a rattlesnake can hunt in total darkness.

Internal Structures
Venom glands The timber rattle- Jacobson’s organs Flicking its
▼
snake has hollow upper front teeth, Jacobson’s organs forked tongue into the air, the rattle-
or fangs. When the rattlesnake snake takes in chemical samples
strikes, these hinged fangs swing from the environment. These chemi-
forward from the roof of the mouth cals are transferred to two depres-
and inject venom deep into the prey. Fang sions in the roof of the mouth called
The venom contains hemotoxins, Jacobson’s organs, which detect
proteins that attack the circulatory the odor of the chemicals. The
▼
Venom
system, destroying red blood snake uses these organs to follow
gland
cells and causing internal the scent trail of prey.
hemorrhaging. Modified salivary
Tongue
glands in the upper jaw produce
the venom. Stomach
Small intestine
Trachea
Esophagus
Gallbladder Right lung
Pancreas Left lung
Internal anatomy Heart

The internal organs are
elongated, matching the
snake’s body shape. The Liver
left lung is nonfunctional.
Large Kidneys
intestine
Cloaca
▼ Testes ▼ Spine
Reproductive structures This male rattlesnake Spine The rattlesnake’s spine is

produces sperm in his testes. Female timber rattlesnakes made up of several hundred ver-
are ovoviviparous. A female carries her fertilized eggs in her tebrae, each with its own pair of
body while they develop. Each egg has a thin membrane attached ribs. It provides the frame-
through which water and oxygen pass from the mother to work for thousands of muscles that
the embryo. All nourishment is provided by the egg’s yolk. manipulate not only the skeleton but
After the eggs hatch in the mother’s body, the live young also the snake’s skin, causing the
are ejected and must fend for themselves. overlapping scales to extend or lie flat.

Other Orders of Reptiles
The remaining orders of living reptiles contain far fewer species than
the order Squamata does. There are about 250 or more species of tur-
tles (which generally live in water) and tortoises (which live on land),
all classified in the order Chelonia. The order Crocodilia is composed
of 25 species of large, aquatic reptiles. The order Rhynchocephalia
(RING koh seh FAY lee uh) contains only two species of tuataras.
Turtles and Tortoises

Turtles and tortoises, shown in Figure 9, differ from other reptiles
in that their bodies are encased within a hard, bony, protective
shell. Many of them can pull their head and legs into the shell for
effective protection from predators. While most tortoises have a
dome-shaped shell, water-dwelling turtles have a streamlined, disk-
shaped shell that permits rapid maneuvering in water. Turtles and
tortoises lack teeth but have jaws covered by sharp plates, which
form powerful beaks. Many are herbivores but some, such as the
snapping turtle, are aggressive carnivores.
Today’s turtles and tortoises differ little from the earliest known
turtle fossils, which date to more than 200 million years ago. This
Figure 9 Turtle and evolutionary stability may reflect the adaptive aspects of their basic
tortoise. Like other sea
shell-covered body structure. The shell is made of fused plates of
turtles, this green sea turtle
(top) spends virtually its entire bone covered with horny shields or tough, leathery skin. In either
life in the sea. The Galápagos case, the shell consists of two basic parts. The carapace is the dor-
tortoise (bottom) spends its life sal (top) part of the shell, and the plastron is the ventral (bottom)
on land. portion. The vertebrae and ribs of most species are fused to the
inside of the carapace, as shown in Figure 10. The shell provides the
support for all muscle attachments in the torso.
Crocodiles and Alligators

Of all the living reptiles, the crocodilians are most
closely related to the dinosaurs. In addition to
crocodiles and alligators, shown in Figure 11, the
order Crocodilia includes the alligator-like
caimans and the long-snouted gavial. Crocodilians
are aggressive carnivores. Some are quite large.
American alligators can reach 5.5 m (18 ft) in
length, and Nile crocodiles can reach 6 m (20 ft) in
Figure 10 Turtle interior.
length and weigh 750 kg (1,650 lb). Crocodilians
In this ventral view, a turtle’s generally capture prey by stealth, often floating
plastron has been removed to just beneath the water’s surface near the shore. When an animal
show the relationship of the comes to the water to drink, the crocodilian explodes out of the water
vertebral column, ribs, pelvis, and seizes its prey. The crocodilian then hauls the prey back into the
and pectoral girdle to water to be drowned and eaten. The bodies of crocodilians are well
the carapace.
adapted for this form of hunting. Their eyes are high on the sides of
the head, and their nostrils are on top of the snout. As a result, they
can see and breathe while lying nearly submerged in the water. Croc-
odilians have a very strong neck and an enormous mouth studded

Australian crocodiles
American alligator
with sharp teeth. A valve in the back of the mouth pre-

vents water from entering the lungs when crocodilians
feed underwater.
Unlike other living reptiles, crocodilians care for
their young after hatching. For instance, a female Figure 11 Crocodilians. In general, the
American alligator builds a nest of rotting vegetation snouts of alligators are shorter and broader
than those of crocodiles.
for her eggs. After the eggs hatch, the mother may tear
open the nest to free the hatchlings. The young alliga-
tors remain under her protection for up to a year.
Tuataras
The two living species of tuataras are members of the
genus Sphenodon and are native to New Zealand.
Sphenodon punctatus, the more common species, is
shown in Figure 12. Tuataras are lizardlike reptiles up
to 70 cm (2 ft) long. Unlike most reptiles, tuataras are
most active at low temperatures. They burrow or bask
in the sun during the day and feed on insects, worms,
and other small animals at night. Tuataras are some-
times called living fossils because they have survived
almost unchanged for 150 million years. Since the
arrival of humans in New Zealand about 1,000 years Figure 12 Tuatara. Tuataras live on
ago, the tuatara’s range has diminished, and their only a few small islands in New Zealand.
numbers are declining.
Section 2 Review
Describe the characteristics shared by lizards Critical Thinking Recognizing Relationships
and snakes. How does the position of a crocodile’s nostrils and
eyes relate to its method of hunting?
Describe the function of two different organs
that help snakes locate their prey. Standardized Test Prep The pit organ of a rattle-
snake is sensitive to
Summarize the ways turtles and tortoises differ A airborne chemicals.
from other reptiles.
B faint sounds.
Compare the parental care shown by alligators C ground vibrations.
with that shown by most other reptiles. D infrared radiation.

Section 3 Characteristics and
Diversity of Birds
Objectives Key Characteristics of Birds
● Summarize the key charac- Why do people use the expression “free as a bird”? Most likely it
teristics of birds. comes from a bird’s ability to fly seemingly wherever it wishes.
● Describe how a bird’s Through human history, the gift of flight has been celebrated in sto-
feathers and bone structure ries, poetry, and songs. But there is more to birds than flight; in
aid flight. fact, some species of birds can’t fly.
● Summarize how a bird’s The birds you see today are the modern members of class Aves.
lungs and heart are adapted Unlike their reptilian relatives, birds usually lack teeth and have a
for high efficiency. tail that is greatly reduced in length. But they do retain some rep-
tilian characteristics. For instance, birds lay amniotic eggs that
● Relate the structure of a
bird’s feet and beak to its are very similar to those of reptiles, and the feet and legs of birds
habits and diet. are covered with scales. Other characteristics unique to birds dis-
tinguish them from all other animals. The most obvious is the
Key Terms presence of feathers and the modification of the forelimbs into
wings. Figure 13 lists some distinguishing features of birds. To
contour feather
learn more about the anatomy and habits of one bird, see Up
preen gland
Close: Bald Eagle later in this section.
down feather
Feathers
Feathers are modified reptilian scales that develop from tiny pits,
called follicles, in the skin. Just as snakes and lizards replace their
skin by molting, birds molt and replace their feathers. However, few
birds shed all of their feathers at one time.
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Characteristics Birds have two main types of feathers: contour feathers and
of Birds down feathers. Contour feathers cover the bird’s body and give
Keyword: HX4036 adult birds their shape. Specialized contour feathers, called flight
feathers, are found on a bird’s wings and tail. These feathers help
provide lift for flight. As shown in Figure 14, a contour feather has
many branches called barbs. Each barb has many projections, called
Figure 13 Characteristics Characteristics of Birds

of birds. Like most birds, this
• Forelimbs modified into wings
tern is well adapted to flight.
• Body covered with feathers
• Lightweight bones
• Endothermic metabolism
• Super-efficient respiratory
system
• Heart with completely
divided ventricle

Figure 14 Contour feather
The structure of a contour feather helps create a smooth,
aerodynamic surface, aiding flight.
Vane
Shaft Barb Barbule Hook
barbules, that are equipped with microscopic hooks. These hooks link
the barbs to one another, giving the feather a continuous surface and
a sturdy but flexible shape. With use, the connections become
undone. When you see a bird pulling its feathers through its beak,
it is relinking these connections. This process is called preening.
Preening also serves another function. Most birds have a gland called
a preen gland which secretes oil. When a bird preens, it spreads the
oil over its feathers, cleaning and waterproofing them.
Down feathers cover the body of young birds and are found
beneath the contour feathers of adults. Their soft, fluffy structure
provides good insulation for the bird, helping the bird conserve
body heat.
Feathers are important for other reasons too. Their coloration
may be protective (as camouflage) or may be important in the selec-
tion of a mate. For example, the feathers of some birds allow them
to blend in with their surroundings. In other species, the males
develop special plumage during the breeding season.
Figure 15 Avian skeleton.
A bird’s large, keeled attach-
Strong, Lightweight Skeleton ment point for flight muscles,
If you have ever picked up a bird, such as a para- while its fused collarbones
keet, you may have been surprised at how light it (wishbone) help absorb the
was compared to a mammal of a similar size. This stresses of flight.
is because the bones of birds are thin and hollow.
Many of the bones are fused, making a bird’s skel-
eton more rigid than a reptile’s. The fused sections
form a sturdy frame that anchors muscles during
flight. The power for flight (or for swimming
underwater in the case of some birds, like pen-
guins) comes from large breast muscles that can
make up 30 percent of a bird’s body weight. These
muscles stretch from the wing to the breastbone.
The breastbone is greatly enlarged and bears a
prominent keel for muscle attachment, as illus-
Fused
trated in Figure 15. Muscles also attach to the fused collarbones
collarbones (wishbone). No other living vertebrates
have a keeled breastbone or fused collarbones. Keeled breastbone
SECTION 3 Characteristics and Diversity of Birds 785

Endothermic Metabolism
Birds are endotherms; that is, they generate enough heat through
metabolism to maintain a high body temperature. Birds maintain
Interpreting Graphics body temperatures ranging from 40°C to 42°C (104°F to 108°F),
After studying Figure 18, use which is significantly higher than the body temperature of most
your own words to summa-
mammals. For comparison, your body temperature is 37°C (98°F).
rize how one breath of air
circulates through a bird’s These high temperatures are due to a high rate of metabolism,
lungs. Remember to include which satisfies the increased energy requirements of flight.
both the inhalation and the
exhalation cycle.
Completely Divided Ventricle
As in crocodilians, the ventricle of birds is completely divided by a
septum, as shown in Figure 16. Oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood
are kept separate, meaning that oxygen is delivered to the body cells
more efficiently. The sinus venosus, which is a prominent part of
the fish heart, is not a separate chamber of the heart in birds (or
mammals). However, a small amount of tissue from it remains in
the wall of the right atrium. This tissue is the point of origin of the
heartbeat and is known as the heart’s pacemaker.
Highly Efficient Lungs

Birds such as the geese shown in Figure 17 use a considerable
amount of energy when they fly. Since birds often fly for long pe-
riods of time, their cellular demand for energy exceeds that of even
the most active mammals. How do birds get the energy they need?
Recall that reptiles meet their increased need for oxygen with
lungs that have a larger surface area than the lungs of amphibians.
But there is a limit to how much the efficiency of a lung can be
Figure 16 Avian heart. improved just by increasing its surface area. Another way to
A bird’s heart has a
complete septum.
Avian Heart Structure
Oxygen-poor blood from the body enters Oxygen-rich blood from the
1 the right atrium. The right atrium pumps
3 lungs enters the left atrium,
To body
this blood to the right ventricle. From body which pumps it to the left ventricle.
To lungs
From
lungs
Left
Right atrium
atrium
Left
ventricle
Right Complete
ventricle septum
The right ventricle pumps the The left ventricle pumps

2 oxygen-poor blood to the lungs.
From body 4 the oxygen-rich blood to
the body.

increase the efficiency of a lung is to have air
pass over its respiratory surface in one direc-
tion only, just as water flows over a fish’s gills in
one direction. This is what happens in birds.
One-way air flow is possible in birds because
they have air sacs connected to their lungs, as
shown in Figure 18. There is no gas exchange in
the air sacs. They simply act as holding tanks.
There are two important advantages to one-
way air flow. First, the lungs are exposed only to
air that is almost fully oxygenated, increasing
the amount of oxygen transported to the body
cells. Second, the flow of blood in the lungs Figure 17 Flight. These
runs in a different direction than the flow of air does. Unlike the barnacle geese expend an
flow of water and blood in fish gills, the flow of air and blood in bird enormous amount of energy
during take off and flight.
lungs are not completely opposite (countercurrent). Nevertheless,
the difference in direction does increase oxygen absorption.
These three characteristics—endothermic metabolism, a com-
pletely divided ventricle, and highly efficient lungs—provide the
energy a bird needs for takeoff and sustained flight. They enable a
hummingbird to flap its wings rapidly (20–80 beats per second) as it
hovers by a flower. They also permit migrating birds to fly thou-
sands of kilometers without stopping. One species of shorebirds
called the lesser yellowlegs flies across the open ocean from Massa-
chusetts to Martinique in the West Indies. Incredibly, some of these
birds cover this distance of 3,220 km (about 2,000 mi) in less than
6 days. Note, however, that many birds, such as gulls and vultures,
Figure 18 Avian
remain aloft for long periods of time using little energy. These birds respiration. A single breath
take advantage of upward air movements that lift them. of air stays in a bird’s respi-
ratory system for two cycles
of inhalation and exhalation.
Avian Lung Structure

Right lung
Inhalation
During inhalation, most of the
1 fresh air (yellow) inhaled is
pulled into the posterior air sacs.
At the same time, stale air (green)
Trachea from the previous inhalation is
pulled into the anterior air sacs.
Anterior air sacs

Posterior air sacs
During exhalation, fresh air
2 (yellow) from the posterior
Exhalation air sacs enters the lungs. At the
same time, stale air (green) from
the previous inhalation moves
from the anterior air sacs out
of the body.

Up Close
Bald Eagle
● Scientific name: Haliaeetus leucocephalus
● Size: Wingspan is typically over 2 m (6.5 ft), and body
weight often exceeds 7 kg (15 lb)
● Range: Nearly all of North America, from Florida to
northern Alaska
● Habitat: Forested areas near water that have tall
trees for perching and nesting
● Diet: Fish, small mammals, birds, carrion
External Structures
Eyes Vision is a bald

eagle’s most important
sense. The bird’s keen
eyesight allows it to see
prey at great distances.
Its visual acuity is 3–4
times higher than ours.
▼ Feathers ▲ Eye
Feathers The body of

the bald eagle is covered
with feathers everywhere
except the feet and the
beak, which are bare.
Nostril
Both sexes develop the
characteristic white head
and neck at maturity.
▼ Beak
Grasping feet The bald eagle Beak The beak is mas-
has large feet and talons—the hind sive, with an elongated,
talon may be 5 cm (2 in.) long. The sharp, downward-curving
talons are used to snatch fish from tip. Because they have no
▲
the water while the eagle is flying. Grasping feet teeth, bald eagles do not
When the muscles of the legs chew their food. Instead,
contract, the tendons in the lower they use their beak to tear
legs are pulled, and the talons their prey into portions
lock together around the fish. Talon that they swallow whole.

Internal Structures
Brain In the ratio of brain size to body size, birds rank Cerebellum Cerebrum
second among vertebrates, behind only mammals. The
large cerebellum receives and integrates information from
the muscles, eyes, and inner ears. This makes possible the
precise control of movement and balance necessary for flight.
The optic lobe is large because it processes input from the
eagle’s most important sense organs—the eyes. The
Brainstem Optic lobe
cerebrum performs many functions, including evaluation of
sensory information, control of behavior, and learning. ▲ Brain
Excretory system The excretory system is

efficient and lightweight. It does not store waste
liquids in a bladder. Instead, the bald eagle
(and other birds) converts its nitrogenous
wastes to uric acid, which is concen- Left lung
trated into a harmless white paste.
Left ovary Esophagus
The uric acid travels to the
cloaca and is eliminated.
▼
Kidney Trachea
Air sac
Crop
Small intestine
Large intestine Heart
Liver
Pancreas ▼ Gizzard
Digestive system Large

meals are temporarily stored in
the crop, the expandable
lower portion of the esophagus.
▼ Cloaca
The food then passes into a
Cloaca The cloaca is a common two-chamber stomach. In the
collecting chamber for the excretory, first chamber, stomach acids
digestive, and reproductive systems. begin breaking down the food.
As fertilized eggs travel down the The partially digested food is
female eagle’s oviduct, egg white, then passed to the second
membranes, and the shell are added. chamber, the gizzard, where
The completed egg then passes it is ground and crushed.
into the cloaca and out of the Undigested material is
female’s body. eliminated through the cloaca.

Adaptations of Birds
While there is great diversity among the 28 orders of birds,
60 percent of all bird species belong to order Passeriformes.
These birds, also known as the songbirds, number approxi-
mately 5,300 species and are by far the largest group of ter-
restrial vertebrates. Birds are adapted for different ways of
life, and you can tell a great deal about the habits and diet of
a bird by examining its beak (bill), legs, and feet. Carnivorous
birds such as hawks have curved talons for seizing prey and
a sharp beak for tearing apart their meal. The beaks of ducks
are flat for shoveling through water or mud, and their
webbed feet enable them to swim. Finches are seed eaters,
and their short, thick beak is adapted for crushing seeds
while their curved toes enable them to cling to branches.
Other birds, such as the penguins shown in Figure 19,
are flightless, and their wings and feet are modified for
swimming.
During the evolutionary history of birds, their beaks, legs,
and feet have been adapted to the particular environment the
Figure 19 Penguin. The birds live in, as shown in Table 1. Some birds are more highly
penguin’s wings are adapted specialized than others, and many birds are highly flexible in
for swimming rather than flying.
their eating habits. The song sparrow, for example, has a
strong bill that it uses in winter to crack hard seeds. In sum-
mer, the sparrow uses its bill to catch soft-bodied insects.
Table 1 Avian Adaptations

Type of bird Beak adaptations Foot adaptations
Songbirds (e.g., cardinal, robin) Perching: Toes can cling to

Seed-cracking: branches; one toe points backward
Short, thick,
strong beak
Insect-catching:
Long, slender
beak for probing
Hummingbirds Probing: Thin, slightly curved beak Hovering: Legs so small the
for inserting into flowers to sip nectar bird cannot walk on the ground;
tiny feet

Type of bird Beak adaptations Foot adaptations
Woodpeckers Drilling: Strong, chisel-like beak Grasping: Feet with two toes
pointing forward and two pointing
backward
Parrots Cracking, tearing: Short, stout, Climbing/grasping: Strong toes,

hooked beak used to crack seeds two pointing forward, two pointing
and nuts and to tear vegetation backward; adapted for perching,
climbing, and holding food
Birds of prey Tearing: Curved, pointed beak for Grasping: Powerful, curved talons
pulling apart prey for seizing and gripping prey
Ducks Sieving: Long, flattened, rounded bill Swimming: Three toes linked by
webs for improved swimming
Long-legged waders Fishing: Long, slender, spear-shaped

beak for fishing
Wading: Long
legs; toes
spread out over
a large area to
support bird on
soft surfaces

Other Adaptations
There are many groups of birds, each of which is adapted to its par-
ticular living conditions. For example, gulls and terns have stream-
lined bodies that are adapted for flying over the water in search of
fish. Owls’ excellent low-light vision enables them to survive as noc-
turnal hunters. For a list of the orders of birds, see “Classification
in Kingdoms and Domains” in the Appendix.
8
0
493 2
5
x2 + <
6x -
7 Calculating Average Bone Density
Background
Density is the ratio of the mass of an object to its volume. Several teams of students
determined the density of bones from two different animals. You can use their data
to practice calculating average bone density.
DATA TABLE
Bone type Team 1 Team 2 Team 3 Team 4
Animal 1 1.6 g/cm3 1.0 g/cm3 1.2 g/cm3 1.4 g/cm3
Animal 2 2.3 g/cm3 1.8 g/cm3 1.8 g/cm3 2.1 g/cm3
1. Add the densities of one bone type. For example, if three bone samples have
densities of 3.0, 3.1, and 2.9 g/cm3, their sum would be 9.0 g/cm3.
2. Divide the sum of the densities by the number of samples.
sum of the densities 9.0 g/cm3
Average density 3.0 g/cm3
number of samples 3
Analysis
1. Calculate the average bone 2. Critical Thinking 3. Critical Thinking Drawing
density for each of the two Evaluating Methods Conclusions Based on your
animals in the data table. Why is it important to analyze answer to item 1, which of the
Express your answer in grams several samples and obtain two animals is more likely to
per cubic centimeter. the average of your data? be a bird?
Section 3 Review
Identify the adaptations of birds for Critical Thinking Evaluating Hypotheses
flight. A student examines a bird that has delicate,
perching feet with long, slender toes. Its beak is
Summarize how birds obtain the energy small but slightly long and pointed. The student
necessary for flight. concludes that the bird is a seed-eating songbird.
Do you agree? Explain your reasoning.
Relate the bald eagle’s methods of hunting and
feeding to its external body features. Standardized Test Prep Which structure is part of
the excretory, digestive, and reproductive systems
of a bird?
A kidney C gizzard
B cloaca D ovary

ZONE
1 The Reptilian Body Section 1
amniotic egg (775)
● Reptiles have a strong, bony skeleton. oviparous (777)
● Reptiles are ectothermic. ovoviviparous (777)
● Reptiles have nearly watertight skin and eggs, both of which
enable them to be terrestrial animals.
● Reptiles have paired lungs that have a greater surface area
for gas exchange than the lungs of amphibians.
● Reptiles have a double-loop circulatory system. Most have
a ventricle that is partly divided into right and left halves,
resulting in incomplete separation of oxygen-rich and
oxygen-poor blood.
● Reptilian fertilization is internal.
2 Today’s Reptiles Section 2

carapace (782)
● Snakes and lizards (order Squamata) share many character- plastron (782)
istics, such as periodic molting, but snakes have no legs.
● The shells of turtles and tortoises (order Chelonia) are
made of fused plates of bone covered with horny shields or
leathery skin.
● Unlike other reptiles, crocodilians (order Crocodilia), care
for their young after hatching. They also have a completely
divided ventricle.
● There are only two species of tuataras (order Rhynchocephalia).
3 Characteristics and Diversity of Birds Section 3

contour feather (784)
● Birds are endotherms. Their high rate of metabolism helps preen gland (785)
them meet the large energy requirements for flight. down feather (785)
● A bird’s contour feathers give the bird its shape and aid
flight. Its down feathers provide insulation.
● The bones of birds are thin and hollow, and many of them
are fused; all are adaptations for flight.
● One-way airflow through the lungs provides the large
amounts of oxygen birds need for flight.
● The ventricle of the bird heart is completely divided by
a septum.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Which group of living reptiles is most

closely related to birds?
1. Which is not an adaptation of reptiles a. snakes c. rhynchocephalians
for life on land? b. turtles d. crocodilians
a. watertight skin
b. external fertilization 9. Name the four membranes
c. amniotic egg contained in an amniotic egg, and describe
d. kidneys how they make the egg an independent life-
support system.
2. The heart of most reptiles has
a. no septum. 10. Concept Mapping Construct a con-
b. a partly divided ventricle. cept map that describes the characteristics
c. a fully divided ventricle. of both reptiles and birds. Include the fol-
d. two pumping chambers. lowing terms in your map: ectotherm,
3. In reptiles, fertilization endotherm, oviparous, ovoviviparous,
a. is internal. scales, feathers, reptiles, snakes, lizards,
b. is external. tuataras, turtles, crocodilians, three- cham-
c. always occurs in water. bered heart, and four-chambered heart.
d. does not occur.
Critical Thinking
4. Snakes differ from lizards in that snakes do
11. Predicting Outcomes How might having
not have
a three-chambered heart, like that of
a. lungs. c. a pectoral girdle.
most reptiles, affect a hummingbird
b. kidneys. d. a flexible jaw.
in flight?
5. Jacobson’s organs are involved in the
12. Recognizing Logical Connections How
sense of
might a long period of parental care be
a. smell. c. sight.
related to the number of offspring an
b. hearing. d. touch.
animal produces?
6. The feathers of most birds are well
adapted for
a. swimming and repelling water. 13. Being a Team Member and Communicating
b. expelling heat and feeding. Work with two or three of your classmates
c. flying and conducting heat. to find out what kinds of birds are common
d. flying and insulating. in your area. Select at least six birds to
explore in depth and research the following:
7. The foot illustrated below is most likely of
its habitat, its food, its beak and foot adap-
a bird adapted for
tations, and where it winters. Present the
a. wading. c. perching.
information you gathered in an illustrated
b. grasping. d. swimming.
guide. Make copies of your guide available
for interested students.
14. Organizing Information Create a habitat in
a terrarium for a small lizard, and observe
the lizard’s behavior. Make a labeled draw-
ing of the environment you create, and
keep a journal of your observations.


correct answer.
Reptile and bird eggs contain the water,
1 What term describes the eggs of reptiles nutrients, and protection a delicate embryo
and birds? needs during development. Unlike amphib-
A. amniotic ian eggs, reptile and bird eggs are watertight.
B. oviparous Because they do not dry out, the eggs can
C. ovoviviparous remain on dry land yet still provide the
D. externally fertilized embryo with all of the water it needs.
Though water cannot pass through the shell,
2 What is the function of the preen gland?
oxygen and carbon dioxide can pass through.
F. secreting oil
G. sensing chemicals 6 Why is it important that egg shells be
H. stimulating egg production permeable to some gases?
I. changing body temperature A. Embryos use water vapor to maintain
homeostasis.
3 When a piece of a lizard’s tail breaks off,
B. Embryos need to take up oxygen for
the separated portion may wiggle about
cellular respiration.
forcefully. How might this adaptation be
C. Embryos need to release carbon diox-
an advantage for the lizard?
ide for photosynthesis.
A. The movement of the tail frightens the
D. Embryos use nitrogen gas to build
predator away.
proteins and nucleic acids.
B. Eating the tail provides the lizard with
the energy it needs to escape. Interpreting Graphics
C. Predators are distracted by the wiggling
tail, giving the lizard time to escape. 7 on the chart below.
D. The wiggling tail can injure a predator,
preventing it from pursuing the lizard. Normal Ranges of Body Temperature
4 What are the two basic parts of a turtle’s

Tuataras
shell called? Turtles
F. keratin and cloaca Lizards
G. septum and amnion Snakes
H. chorion and allantois Crocodilians
I. carapace and plastron
0 10 20 30 40 50
Directions (5): For the following question, Body temperature (qC)
5 Many viviparous snakes and lizards live in 7 Which of these statements is supported by
cold climates. Evaluate why viviparity the data in the chart?
might be advantageous in such F. Turtles and snakes have similar body
environments. temperature ranges.
G. Lizards always have a higher body
Test temperature than tuataras.
H. Crocodilians have a greater body
Scan the answer choices for words such as never temperature range than tuataras.
and always. Such words often are used in incorrect I. Some tuataras can have a higher body
statements because they are too broad. temperature than some crocodilians

Exploration Lab
Observing Color Change in Anoles
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Using scientific methods • glass-marking pencil
• Observing • 2 large, clear jars with
wide mouths and lids
OBJECTIVES with air holes
• Observe live anoles. • 2 live anoles
• Relate the color of an • 6 shades each of brown
anole to the color of its and green construction
surroundings. paper, ranging from
light to dark (2 swatches
of each shade)

Lizards are a group of reptiles. There are PART A: Make Observations
250–300 species of anoles, lizards in the 1. Observe live anoles in a terrarium. Make a
genus Anolis. Like chameleons, anoles can list of characteristics that indicate that
change color, ranging from brown to green. anoles are reptiles.
Anoles live in shrubs, grasses, and trees.
2. Work with a partner to place anoles
Light level, temperature, and other factors,
to be studied in separate glass jars.
such as whether the animal is frightened or
CAUTION: Handle anoles gently, and
has eaten recently, can all affect the color of
follow instructions carefully. Anoles run
an anole. When anoles are frightened, they
fast and are easily frightened. Plan your
usually turn dark gray or brown and are
actions before you start. By working effi-
unlikely to respond to other stimuli . Anoles
ciently, you can keep your anole from
generally change color within a few minutes.
becoming overly frightened. Carefully pick
In this lab, you will observe the ability of
up one anole by grasping it firmly but gen-
anoles to change color when they are placed
tly around the shoulders. Do not pick up
on different background colors. You will also
anoles by their tail. Place the anole in a
determine how this ability might be an
glass jar. Quickly and carefully place a lid
advantage to anoles.
with air holes on the jar.
3. When anoles become overly frightened,
the paragraph above.
they remain dark. While you are designing
2. Make a data table similar to the one below. your experiment, do not disturb your
3. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a anoles, and let them recover from your
question you would like to explore about handling.
the color-changing behavior of anoles.
PART B: Design an Experiment
DATA TABLE
Color 1 Color 2
Anole Change Time Change Time explore one of the questions written for
1
step 3 of Before You Begin. To explore the
2

You Choose
As you design your experiment, decide the following: 1. Summarizing Results Briefly state how
a. what question you will explore the variable you tested influenced the color-
b. what hypothesis you will test changing behavior of anoles.
c. how many anoles you will need 2. Evaluating Results Did any unplanned
d. what background colors you will use variables influence your data? (For exam-
e. how many times you will test each back- ple, was there a loud noise, or was a jar
ground with an anole suddenly moved?)
f. how long you will observe each test and 3. Analyzing Methods How could your
how you will keep track of time
experiment be modified to improve the cer-
g. what your control will be
tainty of your results?
h. what data to record in your data table
4. Analyzing Data Were there any inconsis-
tencies in your data? (For example, two
anoles reacted in different ways.) If so,
offer an explanation for them.
procedure and safety precautions before 5. Drawing Conclusions After considering
you begin the experiment. your data, make a statement about color-
changing behavior in anoles.
6. Set up and carry out your experiment.
about anoles that could be explored with
PART C: Cleanup and Disposal another investigation.
7. Dispose of construction paper and
broken glass in the designated waste
containers. Put anoles in the designated
container. Do not put lab materials in the
Do You Know?
trash unless your teacher tells you to do so.
its proper place. Wash your hands thor- 1. What other behaviors are characteristic
of anoles?
oughly before you leave the lab.
2. How is a chameleon different from
an anole?
explore your own questions about lizards
that change color.
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Adaptations of Reptiles
Keyword: HX4003
CHAPTER 34 Reptiles and Birds 797

Mountain lion

CHAPTER
35 Mammals

1. Define the term metabolism. (Chapter 1,
Section 2) The Mammalian Body
Key Characteristics of Mammals
2. Compare the diets of carnivores and
Mammalian Teeth
herbivores. (Chapter 16, Section 2)
Body Temperature
3. Summarize the difference between
Parental Care
endothermic and ectothermic animals.
4. Describe the breakup of Pangaea.
Section 2
(Chapter 32, Section 2) Today’s Mammals
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Mammalian Diversity
sections indicated. Reproduction
Modern Placental Mammals
Reading Activity
After reading each section of this chapter, closely
study the figures in the section. Reread the figure
captions, and for each one, write a question that
can be answered by referring to the figure and its
caption. As you review the chapter, but before
you complete the Performance Zone chapter
review, refer to your list of figures and questions.
www.scilinks.org
The mountain lion, Puma concolor, has the widest resources are located throughout this chapter.
distribution of any species of native mammals in the
Western Hemisphere—from Canada throughout
South America. It is now threatened or
endangered in much of its range.
CHAPTER 35 Mammals 799

Section 1 The Mammalian Body
Objectives Key Characteristics of Mammals
● Describe three functions If you were to look out over an African landscape, you would notice
of hair. the big mammals—lions, elephants, antelopes, and zebras. Your eye
● Relate a mammal’s teeth would not as readily pick out the many birds, snakes, lizards, and
to its diet. frogs that also live there. The fact that almost all of today’s large,
land-dwelling vertebrates are mammals makes them much more
● Summarize how mammals
maintain a high body easily noticed. While most mammals are terrestrial, some, like
temperature. whales, swim in the sea, and others—the bats—fly through the air.
In spite of their differences, mammals share key characteristics
● Relate the characteristics of
that are summarized in Figure 1.
mammals to one mammal,
the grizzly bear. Mammals are well adapted for terrestrial living and are able to
retain water more efficiently than reptiles. That’s because the
● Describe parental care in mammalian kidney has an exceptional ability to concentrate waste
mammals.
products in a small volume of urine. Later in this book, you will
find out how the mammalian kidney functions.
Key Terms
hair Hair
alveolus
mammary gland
Of all animal species, only mammals have hair. Even whales and
weaning dolphins, which appear to be hairless, have a few sensitive bristles
on their snout. A hair is a filament composed mainly of dead cells
filled with the protein keratin. The evolutionary origin of hair is
unknown, but hair probably did not derive from reptilian scales.
The primary function of hair is insulation. Mammals, such as the
polar bear shown in Figure 1, typically maintain body temperatures
higher than the temperature of their surroundings. As a result, they
tend to lose body heat. However, the dense coat of hair that covers
most mammals holds heat in. Like other mammals that live in cold
environments, the polar bear has a layer of fat under its skin that
provides additional insulation from the cold. Humans have a sparse
Figure 1 Characteristics of Characteristics of Mammals

mammals. Despite their vast
• Hair
external differences, mammals
share a number of distinctive • Diverse and specialized teeth
features. • Endothermic metabolism
• Mammary glands that
produce milk
800 CHAPTER 35 Mammals

covering of hair and a limited amount of body fat; in Figure 2 Functions of hair. This tiger’s
most climates we need clothes to provide adequate stripes and reddish fur help the tiger blend in
with the surrounding grasses. Porcupines
insulation.
often use their quills for defense.
Hair has functions other than insulation. The col-
oration and pattern of a mammal’s coat often enable
the animal to blend in with its surroundings. A small
brown mouse is almost invisible against the dark for-
est floor. The orange and black stripes of a Bengal
tiger, shown in Figure 2, conceal it in the tall, orange-
brown grass in which it hunts. Some animals, such as
the arctic fox, show a seasonal change in the color of
their coat from white in winter to brown in summer
that provides protective coloration year round. The
color of a mammal’s coat may also be a clear signal;
the black and white fur of a skunk, for instance, warns
would-be predators to stay away.
In some animals, specialized hairs serve a sensory
function. The whiskers of cats and dogs are stiff hairs
that are very sensitive to touch. Mammals that are
active at night or that live underground often rely on
their whiskers for information about the environment.
Other specialized hairs can be used as a defensive
weapon. For example, when threatened, porcupines
defend themselves by raising their sharp, barbed
quills, also shown in Figure 2.
Evaluating the Insulation

Value of Hair
When you are getting dressed on a cold day, why
are you are more likely to choose a wool sweater
than a cotton one? In this lab you will compare
the insulating abilities of the animal fiber wool and
the vegetable fiber cotton.
Materials
MBL or CBL system with appropriate software, tempera-
ture probe, 1 wool sock, beaker of ice, graph paper
(optional), 1 cotton sock
Procedure Analysis
1. Set up an MBL/CBL system to sock-covered probe into a 1. Analyze your data and
collect data from a temperature beaker of ice. Collect temper- determine which sock was the
probe at 6-second intervals ature data for 10 minutes. better insulator.
for 100 data points.
4. View the graph of your data. If 2. Summarize why these
2. Find and record the room possible, print out the graph. results are of importance to
temperature. Otherwise, plot the graph on mammals.
graph paper.
3. Insert the end of the probe
into one thickness of wool 5. Repeat steps 1–4 using a
sock. Then place the cotton sock and fresh ice.
SECTION 1 The Mammalian Body 801

Mammalian Teeth
Unlike some other vertebrates whose teeth are constantly being lost
and replaced, mammals usually have only two sets of teeth. The
first set, commonly called baby teeth or milk teeth, is replaced by
permanent teeth, which are not replaced if lost or damaged. Ani-
mals use their teeth in a variety of ways—to secure and chew food,
for protection or as a threat signal, and to perform tasks, as when
a beaver cuts down trees to make a dam.
In most mammals, four types of teeth can be recognized: incisors,
canines, premolars, and molars. Each type of tooth performs a dif-
ferent function in eating. Incisors, the front teeth, are for biting and
cutting. Behind them are canines used for stabbing and holding.
Lining the jaw are the premolars and molars. As a mammal chews,
its upper and lower molars fit together, crushing and grinding the
food more thoroughly than a reptile’s teeth can. The resulting
smaller bits of food can be quickly digested, which permits a mam-
mal to eat enough food to fuel its endothermic metabolism.
A mammal’s teeth are specialized for the food it eats, and it is
usually possible to determine a mammal’s diet by examining its
teeth. Figure 3 shows the differences between the teeth of a coyote
www.scilinks.org (a carnivore) and those of a deer (a herbivore). The coyote has long
Topic: Mammals canine teeth that are suited for grasping prey, and its sharp molars
Keyword: HX4118 can cut off pieces of flesh. In contrast, the deer’s canines are small,
and it uses its incisors to nip off selected pieces of plant material.
The deer’s premolars and molars are flat and covered with ridges
that form a surface on which plant material can be ground.
Figure 3 Specialized teeth

A mammal’s teeth provide clues about its diet.
Coyote Deer
Incisor
Incisor
Molar Molar Canine

Canine Premolar
Premolar

Body Temperature
Like birds, mammals are endotherms, generating heat internally
through the rapid metabolism of food. Because a mammal’s body
Real Life
temperature remains relatively constant regardless of the tempera- Some wild mammals
ture of its surroundings, mammals can be active at any time of day love city life!
or night. They also can live in very cold climates, where most Rats and mice have
ectothermic amphibians and reptiles cannot. In addition, endother- adapted quite successfully
to urban environments.
mic metabolism permits mammals to sustain activities that require
Some large cities contain
high levels of energy, such as running or flying long distances. as many rodents as
To maintain the high metabolic rate required by an endotherm, people. But when rodents
a mammal must eat about 10 times as much food as an ectotherm decide to move into our
of similar size. Metabolizing this food requires a considerable living space, they cause
amount of oxygen. Mammals, like birds, have respiratory and trouble. In addition to
being destructive, some
circulatory systems that are very efficient at acquiring and distrib-
harbor diseases.
uting oxygen.
Finding Information
Find out what people can
Respiratory System do to discourage wild
Mammalian lungs, shown in Figure 4, have a large internal surface mammals from invading
their dwellings.
area that aids the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Thus,
mammalian lungs are much more efficient at obtaining oxygen from
the air than are reptilian and amphibian lungs. Respiration in
mammals is aided by the diaphragm, a sheet of muscle that separates
the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. When the diaphragm
contracts, the chest cavity enlarges, drawing air into the lungs.
The lungs of mammals contain small, grape-shaped chambers
called alveoli (al VEE uh lie), (singular, alveolus), also shown in
Figure 4. Alveoli provide a very large respiratory surface area. In more Figure 4 Mammalian
active mammals, the alveoli are smaller and more numerous, further lungs. The lungs of mammals
increasing the surface area for diffusion. contain clusters of alveoli that
provide a very large internal
surface area.
Heart and Circulatory System
Like crocodiles and birds, mammals have a
four-chambered heart with a septum that
completely divides the ventricle. The divi-
sion of the ventricle creates two pumping
chambers, one for each loop of the mam-
mal’s double-loop circulatory system. One
chamber pumps oxygen-rich blood to the
body, while the other pumps oxygen-poor
blood to the lungs. Because the two do not
Alveoli
mix, only oxygen-rich blood is delivered to
the tissues, a condition vital for meeting the
oxygen needs of endotherms.
You will learn more about the mammalian
respiratory and circulatory systems later in
this book. You can read more about the
anatomy of one mammal in Up Close: Grizzly
Bear on the following two pages.

Up Close
Grizzly Bear
● Scientific name: Ursus arctos horribilis
● Size: Males average 160 kg (350 lb) and can reach 1.2 m
(4 ft) at the shoulder; females are smaller
● Range: Alaska and western Canada, with small popula-
tions in Washington, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming
● Habitat: Tundra and mountainous forests and meadows
● Diet: Omnivorous; primary diet is vegetation; hunts insects, Female with cub
small mammals, and fish; eats carrion
External Structures
Fur Thick fur—ranging from yellowish-brown to Senses Grizzlies have good hearing but rela-
black—covers the body. The name “grizzly” comes tively poor eyesight. They rely primarily on their
from silver-tipped hairs that are often sprinkled over excellent sense of smell to follow an odor trail or
the bear’s head and back. catch the scent of distant food.
▲ Fur ▲ Ear ▲ Eye
▲
Powerful limbs
Strong limbs Grizzlies are extremely strong and have great endurance. Forepaw
The hump atop the bear’s back is a knot of strong muscles that power the
forelimbs. The paws are tipped with curved claws up to 10 cm (4 in.) long.
One swat of the forepaw can kill an adult moose or elk. Unlike a cat’s, the
Hind paw
bear’s claws do not retract, and they are not adapted for climbing.
804 CHAPTER 35
CHAPTER # Chapter
MammalsTitle
Internal Structures
Brain Like most mammals,
▼
Brain
the bear has a well-developed
▼
Skull
cerebrum, the portion of the
brain where higher mental
Salivary
functioning occurs. The glands
cerebellum, a center for
motor coordination, is also Neck
large and connects directly to muscles Skull The long skull protects
the portions of the cerebrum the bear’s brain and serves as an
that govern motor activity. anchor for the strong jaw muscles.
Molars at the back of the jaw are
Esophagus
rounded and have a wrinkled
Trachea surface that is used for grinding
up tough grasses and leaves.
Lung
Heart
Liver Stomach
Fat layer Grizzlies Spleen
snooze away the winter in

underground dens. During
this time, the bear’s metab-
Gallbladder
olism slows, and its heart
rate and breathing rate
Pancreas
decrease. It does not eat or
drink, obtaining all of its Large intestine
energy from a thick layer of
stored fat.
Uterus
▼ Ovary
Bladder Small intestine
▼
Reproductive
Digestive system Although
system Like all
they eat large amounts of plant
placental mammals,
material, bears have no specialized
grizzlies nourish their
structures, such as
embryos through a
a multi-chambered
placenta. Mating
stomach, for digesting
occurs from May to
cellulose. However, a bear’s small
June, but the fertilized eggs are not implanted in the uterus
and large intestines are relatively
until late fall. Females reproduce every 2–4 years. One to
long, which helps break down
four cubs about the size of a rat are born in late winter. The
hard-to-digest plant material.
cubs suckle their mother’s rich milk, and by the time they
Bacteria in the large intestine
emerge from the den in spring, their weight may have
also contribute to the digestion
increased 20-fold. Cubs usually remain with their mother
of plants.
at least 2 years.

Parental Care
Mammals are unique among the vertebrates in the way that they
nourish their young after birth. Mammary glands located on the
female’s chest or abdomen produce a nutrient-rich energy source
Work with a partner to
called milk and give this class its name, Mammalia. Milk is rich in
review the four characteris-
tics of mammals. For each protein, carbohydrates (chiefly the sugar lactose), and fat. It also
characteristic, both partners contains water, which prevents dehydration, and minerals, such as
should write a question. calcium, that are critical to early growth. Young mammals are
Exchange questions, and nourished on milk from birth until weaning , the time when their
find the answers to your mother stops nursing them.
partner’s questions.
Unlike other vertebrates, young mammals are dependent on their
mother for a relatively long period, receiving milk and other food,
protection, and shelter from her. For most animals, once the young
can fend for themselves, the mother leaves them. The participation
of the father in raising the young varies from species to species.
Figure 5 Parental care.
Young mammals, such as the sea otter shown in Figure 5, often
This young otter will spend 6 learn necessary survival skills during the time they are dependent
to 8 months with its mother. In on their mother. For primates, such as the chimpanzees in Figure 5,
contrast, this baby chimp will this early learning is especially important, and primates have the
remain close to its mother for longest period of parental dependency of all mammals.
several years.
Section 1 Review
Describe three functions of hair. Critical Thinking Justifying Conclusions
You and your lab partner examine a mammalian
Compare the functions of the different types skull and jaw that contains only incisor teeth. Your
of mammalian teeth. partner concludes that you do not have enough
information to identify the specimen as a herbivore
Relate the mammal’s heart and respiratory
or carnivore. Evaluate this conclusion.
systems to its endothermic metabolism.
Standardized Test Prep If two species of mammals
Summarize the ways in which mammals
are the same size but one is more active than the
provide parental care. other, the more active mammal is likely to have
Summarize how the grizzly bear exhibits A smaller lungs. C smaller alveoli.
characteristics typical of mammals. B fewer alveoli. D a smaller diaphragm.

Today’s Mammals Section 2
Mammalian Diversity Objectives

Cave paintings, some perhaps 40,000 years old, show that human ● Recognize how mammals
life has long been intertwined with the lives of animals. The vast are adapted to different
majority of the animals shown in ancient cave paintings are mam- environments.
mals. While some of the mammals represented are extinct, the ● Compare reproductive
descendents of many (horses, hyenas, rhinoceroses, panthers, patterns in monotremes,
bison, and lions) still live. They are a part of the astounding array marsupials, and placental
of mammals that share our planet with us. In their diversity of size, mammals.
anatomy, and habitat, mammals surpass all other vertebrate ● Relate the distribution of
groups. Mammals range in size from tiny shrews that weigh about monotremes and marsupials
1.5 g (less than 0.1 oz) to gigantic blue whales that can weigh up to to the breakup of
136,000 kg (150 tons). Pangaea.
Consider also the differences between a bat and a whale, com-
pared in Figure 6. These two mammals are adapted to live in very Key Terms
different environments. Bats fly and are active primarily at night, placenta
while whales are permanently aquatic. However, both groups face a gestation period
similar challenge—how to navigate in an environment where visi- ungulate
bility is often limited. Bats and some whales have a similar solution cud
to this problem: they use echolocation, which works something like
the sonar of a ship. In echolocation, animals emit high-frequency
sound waves. As the waves travel, they strike objects in the envi-
ronment, and a portion of each wave is reflected back to the animal.
The brain interprets the reflected wave, or echo, revealing the
object’s size and location.
Comparison of Bats and Whales Figure 6 Comparison of

bats and whales. Although
Bats
both are mammals, bats and
• Forelimbs modified into wings
whales are adapted to live in
and covered with leathery skin
different environments.
• Body covered with hair
• Active at night; use echolocation
to navigate
Whales
• Forelimbs flattened and paddle-
shaped; no hind limbs
• Nearly hairless, streamlined body
• Communicate with sound; some
use echolocation
SECTION 2 Today’s Mammals 807

Reproduction
All mammals reproduce by internal fertilization: The male releases
sperm into the female’s reproductive tract where one or more eggs
are fertilized. But there is some variation among mammals in how
and where the fertilized egg develops. Present-day mammals are
divided into three groups—monotremes, marsupials, and placental
mammals—based on their pattern of development.
Monotremes
The monotremes, the most primitive of the mammals, are repre-
sented by only one order, Monotremata. All modern monotremes
live in Australia, New Guinea, and South America. This distribution
may be the result of the movement of these landmasses by conti-
Figure 7 Platypus.
Although these platypus nental drift.
young hatched from eggs, The three living monotreme species—the duckbill platypus and
they drink milk produced two species of echidnas (ee KIHD nuhz), or spiny anteaters—show
by their mother’s mammary a curious mix of characteristics. They have shoulders and fore-
glands. limbs that are quite reptilian in appearance. Among living
mammals, only monotremes reproduce by laying eggs. Their eggs,
like reptile eggs, have leathery shells. Like birds, the female
monotreme incubates her eggs with her body heat, and at hatch-
ing, the newborns are only partially developed. Also like birds and
reptiles, monotremes have a cloaca, a common passageway for the
digestive, reproductive, and urinary systems. No other mammals
have a cloaca. Unlike other mammals, adult monotremes do not
have true teeth. Because of these characteristics, monotremes
may more closely resemble early mammals than do many other
living mammal species.
Two features monotremes share with other mammals are hair
and milk production. Unlike other mammals, however, a female
monotreme does not have nipples and young monotremes do not
nurse. Instead, the young lap up milk that oozes from glands
located on their mother’s belly.
The platypus, shown in Figure 7, inhabits lakes
and streams in eastern and southern Australia. Its
broad, flat tail and webbed front feet make it
an excellent swimmer. The platypus uses its flat
bill to probe for crustaceans, worms, and snails.
Echidnas, shown in Figure 8, are found in parts
of Australia and in New Guinea. They are terres-
trial and have very strong, sharp claws and an
elongated, beaklike snout which they use for
burrowing and for digging out insects and other
invertebrates.
Figure 8 Echidna. Echidnas are covered with sharp,

barbless quills. They use their powerful claws and long,
beaklike snout to dig for their main food, termites and ants.

Marsupials
Order Marsupialia includes not just the well-known kanga- Figure 9 Virginia opossum.
roos, but wombats, wallaroos, koalas, and the opossums At birth, these four young opos-
sums looked like the pink newborn
shown in Figure 9. In marsupial mammals the young are
opossum, which is smaller than
born only days or weeks after fertilization—tiny and your thumb.
incompletely developed except for their front limbs. With-
out any parental help, the newborns crawl to their mother’s
nipples, usually located in a pouch (the marsupium) on her
abdomen. There each newborn attaches itself to a nipple
and continues its growth and development for several
months. When the young marsupials are able to function
on their own, they emerge from the pouch, although they
continue to return there to nurse.
Today, many marsupial species are found in the Aus-
tralian region—Australia, New Guinea, and a few nearby
islands—where about half of mammalian species are
marsupials. This limited distribution is the result of the
breakup of Pangaea. About 70 million years ago, the Aus-
tralian region separated from the continents of Antarc-
tica and South America. As placental mammals had not
yet reached the Australian region, the marsupials there
developed in isolation.
Selecting Dairy Products
U nlike all other mammals,

humans continue to drink
milk (and eat products made
cottage cheeses, hard cheeses,
and string cheeses.
Read the Label
from it) far into adulthood.
Today, most of our dairy prod- Although dairy products are
ucts are made from cow’s milk, nutritious and an excellent
although goat milk products are source of calcium, some are high
becoming increasingly popular. in fat. This does not mean that
In other parts of the world, milk you should never eat them, but
from other mammals, such as you can make informed deci- refrigeration, so do your other
water buffalo, sheep, horses, sions about how much to eat. shopping first, and pick up
and even reindeer, is used as a Begin by locating the information perishable items last.
food source. on the label that tells you the
Next time you are in the product’s per-serving calorie and
dairy section of a supermarket, fat content.
take a look at what is available. Once you’ve made a purchas- www.scilinks.org
Just deciding which milk to ing decision, be certain to check Topic: Dairy Products
purchase—whole, skimmed, 2 per- the expiration date on the pack- Keyword: HX4056
cent, lactose reduced, flavored— aging. Consume perishable dairy
may take some time. And then products while they are still
there is the array of yogurts, kefirs, fresh. Dairy products require

Placental Mammals
The young of placental mammals develop within the female’s
uterus, where they are nourished by nutrients from her blood. An
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Placental Mammals organ called the placenta allows the diffusion of nutrients and oxy-
Keyword: HX4138 gen from the mother’s blood, across placental membranes, and into
the blood of the developing fetus. Waste materials from the fetus
diffuse in the opposite direction and are eliminated by the mother’s
excretory system.
The period of time between fertilization and birth is called the
gestation (jeh STAY shuhn) period. Most placental mammals have
a longer gestation period than marsupial mammals do, and their
young are more completely developed at birth. Some placental
mammals, like the foal in Figure 10, can stand and walk within a
few hours of birth. Others, like the rabbits in Figure 10, are born
blind, deaf, and helpless.
Placental mammals vary greatly in size, shape, diet, and habits.
They live in a variety of habitats, from hot, moist rainforests to the
frigid tundra. Although mammals share many similarities, species
have different characteristics. For example, some placental mam-
mals are adapted for running, leaping, swimming, or flying.
Alone among vertebrates, some placental mammals have hooves,
horns, or antlers. Hooves, such as the zebra hoof shown in Figure 11,
are specialized pads that cover the toes of many running mammals.
Hooves are made of keratin, a versatile protein that is a component
of many mammalian structures. The horns of sheep, cattle, and
antelopes are composed of a core of bone surrounded by a sheath of
keratin. This bony core is firmly attached to the skull, and the horn
is never shed. (The horn of a rhinoceros is composed not of bone but
of hairlike fibers of keratin that form a hard structure.)
Other placental mammals, such as deer and elk, grow and shed a
set of antlers each year. Antlers, grown only by the male, are com-
posed of bone but are not covered by a keratin sheath. While they
Figure 10 Young mammals

Newborn foals are on their feet nursing within a couple of hours, while young
rabbits do not even open their eyes until they are about 10 days old.
Mare and foal Baby rabbits

are growing, the antlers are covered by a thin layer of soft skin
called velvet. When the antlers are fully grown, the velvet dries up
and comes off. The male uses his antlers during breeding season to
attract females and to combat other males. After the breeding sea-
son is over, the antlers are shed, and a new pair grows the next year.
Hoof
Because the male grows a larger pair of antlers each year, antler
size gives an indication of a male deer’s age.
Domestic Animals Domestic animals are animals that have been
kept and bred by people for special purposes. Most domestic ani- Bones of toe
mals are placental mammals whose association with humans dates
back at least 2,000 years. These animals include dogs, cats, cattle,
horses, donkeys, mules, rabbits, sheep, goats, pigs, camels, llamas,
and alpacas. Figure 11 Hoof. A zebra’s
Different breeds of domestic mammals have been developed foot is modified so that the
through selective breeding. For example, some breeds of goats pro- zebra walks on a single toe
duce more milk than others. Their milk is used to produce a variety that is covered with a hoof
made of keratin.
of dairy products. Other goats, such as angora goats, are bred for their
fine hair, which is spun into yarn. Some domestic mammals are
hybrids of two different species. Mules, for example, are the offspring
of a female horse (mare) and a male donkey. Like most hybrids, mules
are sterile. The mule’s strength, endurance, and surefootedness make
it valuable as a pack animal and for chores such as plowing.
Comparing Gestation Periods

Background
If you have ever raised gerbils or hamsters, you know that they can
0100010110
011101010 produce several litters of young each year. That’s because they have
0010010001001 a very short gestation period compared to other mammals. Use the
1100100100010
0000101001001 table below to find out more about gestation periods.
1101010100100
0101010010010
Analysis
1. Critical Thinking Gestation Periods in Mammals
Mammal Gestation period Offspring per pregnancy
State a generalization
about the relationship Vampire bat 210 days 1
between the length Gerbil * 19–21 days 4–7
of the gestation period Human about 265 days 1
and the number of off-
Quarter horse 332–342 days 1
spring per pregnancy.
Black spider monkey 226–232 days 1
Grey squirrel 44 days usually 3
Forming Hypotheses
Propose a hypothesis to Rabbit * about 31 days 3–6
explain this relationship. Sperm whale 420–430 days 1
3. Recommend a way that Arctic wolf 63 days 4–5
the information in the table *More than two litters per year
could be rearranged to
show this relationship
more clearly.

Modern Placental Mammals
There are 19 orders of placental mammals, which
include more than 90 percent of all mammal species.
Terrestrial placental mammals inhabit all continents
except Antarctica, and aquatic placental mammals
inhabit all oceans. The following 12 orders contain
the vast majority of mammal species.
Order Order Rodentia

Over 40 percent of all placental mammals are
gnawing mammals called rodents. Rodents are dis-
tinguished from most other mammals by their teeth,
Figure 12 Mouse which are specialized for gnawing. All rodents have
two pairs of large, curving incisor teeth that grow
continuously. As the rodent gnaws, the back side of
the incisors wears away faster than the front, creat-
ing a sharp chisel edge on the teeth. The success of
this group of herbivores can be attributed to
their intelligence, small size, and rapid rate of repro-
duction. Most rodents, such as the mouse shown
in Figure 12, are small, but a few are larger. For
example, beavers can weigh between 18 and 43 kg
(between 40 and 95 lb).
Order Order Chiroptera

This order is composed of bats, the only mammals
capable of true flight. A bat’s front limbs are modi-
fied into wings. The thumb, which is not attached to
the wing, has a curved claw that can be used for
clinging or grasping. Bats generally live in groups
and are active only at night. During the day, bats
hang upside down in caves or some other protected
place, as shown in Figure 13. Most bats are carnivo-
Figure 13 Bat rous, using echolocation to find insects, which they
catch while in flight. Other bats eat fruit or nectar
from night-blooming flowers.
Order Order Insectivora

Insectivores are the mammals most similar to the
ancestors of the placental mammals. As their name
implies, these small mammals eat mainly insects, but
their diet may also include fruit, small birds, and
snakes, as well as other insectivores. Insectivores
have an enormous appetite, and some, such as the
shrew shown in Figure 14, must eat more than two
times their body weight daily to fuel their extremely
high metabolic rate.
Figure 14 Shrew

Order Order Carnivora
Some of the best-known animals are the flesh-eating
hunters called carnivores. Scientists generally divide
this order into two subgroups: the cat family and
the dog family, represented by the fox shown in Fig-
ure 15. Carnivores are strong and extremely intelli-
gent, and they have keen senses of smell, vision, and
hearing—characteristics that have enabled them to
become successful hunters. Their long canine teeth
are specialized for capturing prey and tearing flesh.
Some members of this order are no longer carnivo-
rous: raccoons and bears are omnivores, while pan-
das are herbivores.
Order Order Pinnipedia

This order of marine carnivores includes seals and Figure 15 Fox
sea lions that feed at sea but return to land to mate,
rear their young, and rest. All four limbs are modified
as flippers for swimming, and their bodies are
streamlined for rapid movement through the water.
An insulating layer of blubber protects them from the
cold ocean waters. Most species live in large colonies
called rookeries which are headed by a large male,
such as the walrus shown in Figure 16.
Order Order Primates

Humans belong to the order Primates. Other members
of this order include the prosimians, which are active
at night, and monkeys and apes, which are active
during the day. Most nonhuman primates, like the
monkey in Figure 17, are tree dwellers, and many of
their characteristic features are adaptations for living Figure 16 Walrus
in trees. Flexible, grasp-
ing hands and feet aid
tree-dwelling primates in
climbing. Monkeys and
prosimians have a tail
that is used for balance.
The excellent depth per-
ception of the primates is
critical for those that live
in the trees. Primates are
extremely curious and
their ability to learn is
exceptional.
Figure 17 Monkey

Order Order Artiodactyla
Mammals belonging to this order and the following
order, Perissodactyla, are classified as ungulates
(UNG gyoo lits), mammals with hoofs. Ungulates
walk, not on their entire foot as most vertebrates
do, but with their weight supported by their hoof-
covered toes. Most ungulates are herbivores that live
together in herds. The young are well developed at
birth and can move along with the herd within a day
or two. An ungulate’s main means of defense are the
security of the herd and the ability to run very fast
when danger approaches.
Artiodactyls have an even number of toes within
their hooves. Many of these mammals have a stom-
ach with a storage chamber called a rumen. Microbes
in the rumen break down the cellulose in the plant
material artiodactyls eat. Mammals with a rumen
Figure 18 Sheep regurgitate partly digested food, called cud , rechew
it, and swallow it again for further digestion. This
order includes pigs, hippopotamuses, camels, deer,
antelope, cattle, goats, and giraffes as well as sheep,
such as the one shown in Figure 18.
Order Order Perissodactyla

Ungulates with an odd number of toes within their
hooves are classified as perissodactyls. This order
includes horses, zebras, tapirs, and rhinoceroses,
such as the two shown in Figure 19.
Perissodactyls do not chew their cud. Instead of a
rumen, they have a cecum, a pouch branching from
their large intestine. The cecum contains microbes
that digest the cellulose in their diet. Perissodactyls
are far less numerous than artiodactyls.
Figure 19 Rhinoceroses Order Order Cetacea

Cetaceans are divided into two groups: the predatory
toothed whales, dolphins, and porpoises, and the
filter-feeding baleen whales. Whales, such as the orca
Figure 20 Orca shown in Figure 20, are probably descendants of land
mammals that returned to the sea about 50 million
years ago and have adapted to a fully aquatic life.
Their streamlined bodies have front limbs modified
into flippers, no hind limbs, and a broad, flat tail for
swimming. A nostril called a blowhole is located on
top of their head. Cetaceans are very intelligent ani-
mals that communicate with each other by making
sounds that we hear as a series of clicks.

Order Order Lagomorpha
This order is composed of rabbits and hares. Like
rodents, they have one pair of long, continually grow-
ing incisors, but they also have an additional pair of
peg-like incisors that grow just behind the front pair.
Rabbits and hares have long hind legs and are spe-
cialized for hopping, as shown in Figure 21. Rabbits
build nests that the female lines with fur. The young
are born furless and their eyes are closed. Hares do
not construct nests. Their young are born with fur
and their eyes are open.
Order Order Sirenia

These somewhat barrel-shaped marine animals
Figure 21 Rabbit
include the dugongs and manatees, shown in Figure
22. Like whales, they have front limbs modified as
flippers and no hind limbs. A flattened tail is used for
propulsion through the tropical oceans, estuaries,
and rivers where sirenians live, grazing on aquatic
plants. Despite their appearance and habitat, sireni-
ans are closely related to elephants and are often
called sea cows.
Order Order Proboscidea

The two living species of this order, the African el-
ephant and the Indian elephant shown in Figure 23,
are the largest land animals alive today. Their long,
boneless trunk is really an elongated nose and upper
lip and is used for a variety of tasks. An elephant’s
upper incisor teeth are modified into long ivory tusks.
Figure 22 Manatees
Elephants live in herds made up of a dominant male,
a number of females, and young of varying ages.
Figure 23 Indian elephant

The seven remaining orders of placental mammals are sum-
marized in Table 1. These orders contain few species, but some
are quite interesting. The hyrax, for example, looks as if it could
be kin to rabbits or rodents. But traits such as its hooflike nails
lead some biologists to think the hyrax is most closely related to
elephants or perissodactyls.
Table 1 Orders of Placental Mammals

Order Description
Edentata Toothless or with poorly developed

anteaters, teeth that lack enamel; found
armadillos only in the Western Hemisphere
Ground-dwelling insect eaters;

Macroscelidea long, flexible snout; hop
elephant shrews about somewhat like small
kangaroos
Omnivorous; small, squirrel-like

Scandentia mammals; long snout, sharp
tree shrews teeth; live mainly on the ground,
despite their name
Pholidota Body covered with overlapping

pangolins scales; no teeth; very long
(scaly anteaters) tongue for capturing ants
Rabbitlike body; short ears;

Hyracoidea
four hoofed toes on front feet;
hyraxes
three hoofed toes on back feet
Squirrel-like; glide on a sheet of

Dermoptera
skin stretching between their
flying lemurs
forelegs and hind legs
Nocturnal; piglike body; big

Tubulidentata
ears; long snout used to feed
aardvarks
on ants and termites
Section 2 Review
Compare the reproductive patterns of Summarize the ways in which aquatic mammals
monotremes, marsupials, and placental are adapted to life in the water.
mammals.
Standardized Test Prep In which biome would you
Relate the location of modern-day marsupials most likely find a mammal that uses baleen for
to the breakup of Pangaea. filter feeding?
A tundra C deep ocean
Describe how artiodactyls and perissodactyls are
B savanna D temperate grassland
adapted for digesting plant material.

ZONE
1 The Mammalian Body Section 1
hair (800)
● Mammals are the only animals with hair. The primary func- alveolus (803)
tion of hair is to insulate a mammal’s body, though it can mammary gland (806)
also provide camouflage or a clear signal through coloration, weaning (806)
serve a sensory function, or be a defensive weapon.
● Mammals usually have two sets of teeth in their lifetime. Teeth
in the second set are not replaced, even if lost or damaged.
● The four types of mammalian teeth are highly specialized:
incisors are for biting and cutting; canines are for stabbing
and holding; and premolars and molars crush and grind
the food.
● Mammals are endotherms, generating heat internally through
the rapid metabolism of food. Endothermy is made possible
by highly efficient respiratory and circulatory systems.
● Mammals nurse their young with milk from the mammary
glands of the female.
2 Today’s Mammals Section 2

placenta (810)
● In terms of anatomy and habitat, mammals are the most gestation period (810)
diverse of all vertebrate groups. ungulate (814)
cud (814)
● All mammals reproduce by internal fertilization.
● Monotremes consist of three species that have a cloaca
and lay eggs.
● Marsupials give birth to incompletely developed young
that complete their development in the mother’s pouch.
● Placental mammals nourish their unborn young in the
uterus through the placenta.
● The different mammalian species have evolved a variety
of adaptations that permit them to live in a wide range
of habitats.
● Many aquatic mammals have a layer of blubber that insu-
lates them from the cold. Their forelimbs are modified into
flippers, and they have no hind limbs. A flattened tail aids in
swimming.
● Ungulates have digestive systems modified for digesting
cellulose. Even-toed ungulates chew their cud.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Which of the following grizzly bear fea-

tures is not typical of most mammals?
1. The primary function served by a. thick hair c. powerful claws
mammalian hair is b. specialized d. placental
a. camouflage. teeth reproduction
b. insulation.
c. defense. 9. What advice would you give
d. sensory. to someone who wanted to include more
dairy products in their diet?
2. Which of the following is not a type
of mammal tooth? 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
a. canine map that describes the different methods of
b. baleen mammalian reproduction. Include the fol-
c. molar lowing terms in your map: monotreme,
d. incisor marsupial, mammal, mammary gland, egg,
3. Endothermic metabolism permits mammals and placenta.
to do all of the following except
a. live in very cold climates.
Critical Thinking
b. generate heat internally. 11. Drawing Conclusions How do hair and a
c. run or fly for long distances. high rate of metabolism help a mammal
d. eat less than ectotherms. maintain homeostasis?
4. Care given by mammals to their young 12. Applying Information A mammal must eat
a. begins after the young are weaned. about 10 times as much food as an
b. is similar to that given by reptiles. ectotherm of similar size. What role might
c. involves nursing and teaching survival the respiratory system play in this need?
skills.
13. Comparing Structures In what way are a
d. ends soon after the young are born.
mammal’s hair and a bird’s down feathers
5. Monotremes differ from marsupials in that alike? How are they different?
monotremes
14. Evaluating Conclusions Some mammal
a. lay eggs.
species must care for their young for many
b. are viviparous.
years before they reach maturity and can
c. nourish unborn via the placenta.
survive on their own. Can you conclude
d. do not have mammary glands.
that all vertebrate young would benefit
6. Artiodactyls differ from perissodactyls in from this type of parental care? Explain
that artiodactyls why or why not.
a. have a cecum.
b. do not have a rumen.
c. seldom live in herds. 15. Recognizing Patterns Find out more about
d. have an even number of toes. how plate tectonics can explain the pattern
of distribution of mammals on Earth.
7. Which of the following is not a mammalian
Analyze and critique the theory, and write a
adaptation for aquatic living?
report on your findings. Include a descrip-
a. limbs modified as flippers
tion of how the breakup of Pangaea led to
b. layer of blubber
the predominance of placental mammals on
c. streamlined body
all the continents except Australia.
d. keen sense of smell


correct answer.
Mammals are the only animals with hair,
1 Clusters of what structures greatly but not all mammalian hair serves the same
increase the respiratory surface of function. Hair serves some unusual func-
the lungs? tions in some mammals. For example, some
A. alveoli mammals have specialized hairs that act as
B. mammary glands defensive weapons. Porcupine quills are stiff,
C. placentas sharp hair structures that can injure an
D. ungulates attacker. Rhinoceros horns are formed from
hair. Though biologists are not certain of the
2 After what stage does a young animal no
horn’s function, mother rhinoceroses have
longer nurse?
been known to use their horns to protect
F. gestation
their young from predators.
G. hibernation
H. insulating 6 What is the primary function of hair?
I. weaning A. It attracts a mate.
B. It insulates the body.
3 What term describes an animal with
C. It has a sensory function.
hooves?
D. It acts as a defensive weapon.
A. cetacean
B. marsupial Interpreting Graphics
C. monotreme
D. ungulate
4 Which statement describes the function of Anatomy of a Bear
the mammalian heart?
F. Two pumping chambers supply
oxygen-rich blood to the lungs.
G. Four pumping chambers supply
oxygen-poor blood to the lungs.
H. One pumping chamber supplies blood
to the lungs and body organs.
A
I. One pumping chamber supplies
oxygen-poor blood to the lungs, and B
one pumping chamber supplies
oxygen-rich blood to the body organs.
C
5 What function does the placenta serve in
placental mammals?
Test 7 Which organisms in structure C contribute

Before looking at the answer choices for a question, to the digestion of plant material?
try to answer the question yourself. F. algae H. tunicates
G. bacteria I. yeasts

Exploration Lab
Exploring Mammalian Characteristics
Magnification: 28
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Observing • hand lens or stereo-
• Drawing microscope
• Inferring • prepared slide of
mammalian skin
OBJECTIVES • compound microscope
• Examine distinguishing • mirror
characteristics of
• specimens or pictures of
mammals.
vertebrate skulls (some
• Infer the functions of mammalian, some non-
mammalian structures. mammalian)
Mammalian skin (human scalp)
Before You Begin 2. Look at a prepared slide of mammalian

skin under low power of a compound
Mammals are vertebrates with hair , mammary
microscope. Notice the glands in the skin.
glands, a single lower jawbone, and specialized
Look for the oil (sebaceous) glands and the
teeth. Other characteristics of mammals
sweat glands. Draw and label an example
include endothermy and a four-chambered
of each type of gland.
heart. Mammals also have oil (sebaceous)
glands in their skin, and most have sweat
glands . In this lab, you will examine some of PART B: Examining Mammalian Teeth
the characteristics of mammals that distin- and Skulls
guish them from other vertebrates. 3. Wash your hands thoroughly with
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in soap and water. Use a mirror to look
the paragraph above. in your mouth. Identify the four kinds of
2. Make a data table similar to the one below. mammalian teeth you see.
4. Count each kind of tooth on one side of
DATA TABLE your lower jaw. Multiply the number of
Mammal Incisors Canines Premolars Molars each kind of tooth by four, and record
Human
these numbers in the appropriate columns
of your data table. Wash your hands again
before continuing.
5. Look at the skulls of several mammals.
3. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a Identify the kinds of teeth in each skull.
question you would like to explore about For each skull, find the number of each
the characteristics of mammals. kind of tooth as you did in step 4.
6. Look at the skulls of several nonmam-
Procedure malian vertebrates, and compare nonmam-
malian teeth to mammalian teeth.
PART A: Examining Mammalian Skin
7. Compare the jaws of mammalian skulls to
1. Use a hand lens to look at several areas of
those of nonmammalian vertebrates. As
your skin, including areas that appear to be
you look at each skull, notice the structure
hairless. Record your observations.

of the lower jawbone and how the upper 4. Forming Hypotheses Besides the role
jaw-bone and the lower jawbone connect. of hair you identified in item 3 above,
what other roles do you think hair might
play in mammals?
5. Recognizing Patterns Where are the
8. Dispose of broken glass in the
oil (sebaceous) glands located in the skin
waste container designated by
of mammals?
your teacher.
6. Forming Hypotheses Do you think the
mammals in the photos on the left below
have more sweat glands or fewer sweat
glands than humans? Explain.
you finish all work. 7. Comparing Structures How is the
mammalian jaw different from nonmam-
malian jaws?
8. Inferring Conclusions Based on the
1. Summarizing Information List the char- shape of your teeth, would you classify
acteristics that distinguish mammals from humans as carnivores (meat eaters), her-
other vertebrates. bivores (plant eaters), or omnivores (meat
2. Interpreting Graphics Compare the and plant eaters)? Explain.
amount of hair on humans to that on the 9. Evaluating Conclusions Justify the fol-
mammals shown in the photographs below. lowing conclusion: The kinds and shapes
3. Inferring Relationships What role, if of a mammal’s teeth can be used to deter-
any, might hair or fur play in enabling mine its diet.
mammals to be endotherms? 10. Further Inquiry Write a new question
about the characteristics of mammals
that could be explored with a new
investigation.
On the Job
Comparative anatomy is the study of the
anatomical similarities and differences
between organisms. Do research to dis-
cover how comparative anatomy is used
to hypothesize the relationships among
the animal phyla. For more about careers,
visit go.hrw.com and type in the keyword
HX4 Careers.
CHAPTER 35 Mammals 821

Show jumper
Great egret and chicks

CHAPTER
36 Animal
Behavior
1. Describe the relationship of genes to
inherited traits. (Chapter 30, Section 1) Evolution of Behavior
What Is Behavior?
2. Relate natural selection to adaptation.
Natural Selection and Behavior
Genetically Influenced Behavior
Learning and Behavior
sections indicated.
Genetic and Learned Aspects of Behavior
Section 2
Reading Activity Types of Behavior
Categories of Animal Behavior
Communication
all of the things you know about animal behavior.
Reproductive Behavior
Then write a list of the things that you want to
know about animal behavior. Save your list, and
to assess what you have learned, see how many
of your own questions you can answer after
reading this chapter.
www.scilinks.org
The great egret, Casmerodius albus, lays from three

to five eggs. Young birds may stay with their parents
for more than six weeks.
CHAPTER 36 Animal Behavior 823

Section 1 Evolution of Behavior
Objectives What Is Behavior?
● Distinguish between “how” A squirrel buries a nut; a hungry baby cries. A frog jumps into a
and “why” questions about pond to avoid a predator, and a driver applies the brakes when
behavior. approaching a red traffic light. These are all examples of behavior.
● Describe how natural selec- A behavior is an action or series of actions performed by an animal
tion shapes behavior. in response to a stimulus. The stimulus might be something in the
● Compare innate and learned environment, such as a sound, a smell, a color, or another individ-
behaviors. ual. The stimulus can also be related to the internal state of the ani-
mal, such as being hungry or cold. For example, when under threat,
● Summarize how behavior is
the lizard shown in Figure 1 flares out the folds of skin around its
influenced by both heredity
and learning. head. This gives it a threatening appearance, which tells potential
enemies to stay away.
Key Terms Scientists studying behavior investigate two kinds of questions—
“how” questions and “why” questions. “How” questions are about
behavior how a behavior is triggered, controlled, and performed. For
innate behavior
instance, consider the squirrel, also shown in Figure 1. “How” ques-
fixed action pattern
behavior
tions about squirrel behavior might include “How does a squirrel
learning select which nuts to bury?” “How does it choose where to bury the
conditioning nut?” and “How does it remember where the nut is?”
reasoning However, answering “how” questions provides only a partial
imprinting understanding of a behavior. Scientists also try to answer “why”
questions, such as “Why do squirrels bury nuts?” “Why” questions
concern the reasons a behavior exists and are really questions
about the evolution of behavior. A study of animal behavior may
therefore seek to identify the benefits of a particular behavior.
Figure 1 Animal behavior.

This Australian frilled lizard
and European red squirrel are
engaging in behaviors typical
of their species.
824 CHAPTER 36 Animal Behavior

Natural Selection and
Behavior
Recall that evolution by natural selection is a
process by which populations change in
response to their environment. Natural selec-
tion favors traits that improve the likelihood
that an individual will survive to reproduce.
Over time, traits that provide a reproductive
advantage become more common. Traits that
do not provide an advantage become less com-
mon and may disappear.
An understanding of natural selection can
help answer a “why” question. A good example
of this is seen in East African lions, which live
in small groups called prides. Each pride con-
tains several adult females, several young lions
(called cubs), and one or more adult males. The
adult males father all the cubs and defend the
pride against other males. But a male or group
of males usually can control a pride for only a
couple of years. Then they are forced out by
younger males who take over the pride. When
this happens, the new males often kill all the
young cubs in the pride, as shown in Figure 2.
In contrast, male lions are usually quite tolerant
of their own offspring, also shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 Behavior in male
lions. After taking over a
To understand this behavior, we need to understand how the new
pride, a male lion often kills
males would benefit from it. The new males will control the pride the young cubs in the pride.
for only a few years, so they have a very short time in which to However, the males are usually
reproduce. But female lions with cubs will not breed until their tolerant of their own cubs.
cubs are grown, which may take more than two years. If a female’s
cubs die, however, she will mate again almost immediately.
Why do the new males kill the cubs? One hypothesis suggests
that the new males will father more cubs as a result of this behav-
ior. Note, however, that this does not suggest that male lions are
aware that they are killing the offspring of other males, or that they
understand how they will benefit from this behavior.
Individual Selection
You may have heard it said that a trait or behavior ensures the
survival of the species. This once popular belief is now considered
false. Most scientists now agree that natural selection favors traits
that contribute to the survival and reproduction of individuals, not
species. The actions of male lions support this idea. Cub-killing www.scilinks.org
increases the already high death rate among cubs and actually Topic: Animal Behavior
reduces the likelihood that the species will survive. Because natural Keyword: HX4008
selection favors traits that benefit individuals, the male lions
usually will behave in ways that are favorable for them, not for
the pride as a whole.
SECTION 1 Evolution of Behavior 825

Genetically Influenced Behavior
From years of observation and experimentation, biologists have
learned that many kinds of animal behaviors are influenced by
genes. Genetically programmed behavior is often called innate
behavior, or more commonly, instinct. The orb spider, shown in
Figure 3, builds her web the same way every time. There is little or
no variation in what she does, and her female offspring will build
their webs in the same manner without being taught. This type of
innate behavior is called fixed action pattern behavior because the
action always occurs the same way.
Demonstrating the Genetic

Basis of Behavior
Figure 3 Fixed action Nest building is an innate behavior exhibited by most birds, including
pattern behavior. Like all web- African lovebirds, shown in Figure 4. These small parrots construct
building spiders, the orb spider their nests from materials that they collect and carry back to the nest
is genetically predisposed to
site. One species of lovebird, Fischer’s lovebird, carries a single long
build her web the same way
each time. strip of nesting material in its beak. A second, closely related species,
the peach-faced lovebird, carries several short strips of nesting mate-
rial tucked into the feathers near its tail.
Evidence that these behaviors have a genetic basis comes from
studies in which the two types of lovebirds were interbred. As
shown in Figure 4, the resulting hybrid birds showed nesting
behaviors that resembled those of both parents. They chose
medium-length strips of nesting material and tried to place the
strips in the feathers near their tail. But the hybrid birds were rarely
successful because they did not let go of the strips after placing
them in their feathers. Eventually, some of the hybrid birds learned
to carry the nesting material in their beak.
Figure 4 Nest building behavior

The hybrid offspring of two lovebird species show nest-building behaviors
similar to those of both parents.
Fischer’s lovebirds Peach-faced lovebirds

carry nesting material carry nesting material
in their beak. tucked into the feathers
near their tail.
Their hybrid offspring tuck

nesting material into their
feathers but never let go
of it. As a result, the
nesting material does
not stay in place.

Learning and Behavior
Behaviors are influenced by genes, but to what degree can behaviors
be modified by experience? The development of behaviors through
Recognizing Differences
experience is called learning. Learning can influence the expression
To understand the
of innate behavior and the expression of behaviors that are not
difference between
innate. One simple kind of learning is habituation. In habituation, an classical and operant
animal learns to ignore a frequent, harmless stimulus. For example, conditioning, think about
birds may at first stay away from a garden that has a new scarecrow. how the behavior is learned.
But if the position of the scarecrow is not changed on a regular basis, In classical conditioning, the
the birds learn to ignore it and go into the garden unafraid. stimulus has no relationship
to an activity. In operant
conditioning, there is a
Classical Conditioning direct relationship.
A more complex type of learning is conditioning, or learning by
association. One of the most famous studies of conditioning was
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov’s work with dogs, carried out in
the late 1890s and early 1900s. When Pavlov presented meat powder
(a stimulus) to a hungry dog, the dog salivated—an innate response
to food. At the same time the dog received the meat powder, Pavlov
also presented the dog with a second, unrelated stimulus—a ringing
bell. After repeated trials, the dog learned to associate the ringing www.scilinks.org
bell with the meat powder and would salivate in response to the bell Topic: Conditioning
alone. The dog became conditioned to associate the ringing of the Keyword: HX4050
bell with a reward (meat powder). This type of conditioning, in
which an animal comes to associate an unrelated response with a
stimulus, is called classical conditioning.
Trial-and-Error Learning
Animals also learn by trial-and-error that
performing a certain action will result in a
reward or a punishment. For example, a
dog may learn to avoid a particular cat
after being scratched on the nose once or
twice. When trial-and-error learning
occurs under highly controlled condi-
tions, it is called operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning was demonstrated
in another famous set of experiments con-
ducted by the American psychologist B. F.
Skinner. Skinner studied learning in rats
by placing them in a “Skinner box,” illus-
trated in Figure 5. Once inside, the rat
would explore the box. Occasionally, it
would accidentally press a lever, and a pel-
Figure 5 Skinner box.
let of food would appear. At first, the rat would ignore the lever and
When placed in a Skinner box,
continue to move about, but it soon learned to press the lever to this rat learned by trial-and-
obtain food. This sort of trial-and-error learning is of major impor- error to push a lever to receive
tance to most vertebrates, and it influences many behaviors essential a reward of food.
to survival, such as searching for food.

Reasoning
The ability to analyze a problem and think of a possible solution is
called reasoning . Reasoning involves using experience to develop
an insight into how to solve a new problem. The dog shown in
Figure 6 cannot think of a solution to the situation it is in. Humans
Figure 6 An inability to and some other primates show the ability to reason. For example, in
reason. Although the solution one experiment a chimpanzee was placed in a room with some
seems obvious to humans, boxes and a banana hung high overhead. Although it had not been
this dog is unable to figure out in a similar situation, the chimpanzee stacked up the boxes to reach
how to reach the food. the banana, a behavior that required reasoning.
There has been much research and
debate over the ability of other animals,
such as dolphins, some parrots, and
even octopuses, to reason. So far, there
is no clear evidence that other animals
can reason. Many animals can, how-
ever, learn complex tasks. Some birds
living in cities have learned to remove
the foil covering from bottles of non-
homogenized milk to reach the cream
at the top. Japanese snow monkeys
have learned to float grain on water to
separate the grain from sand.
Recognizing Learned Behavior

Sow bugs must keep moist to survive. Follow the
procedure below to see if sow bugs can learn to
find moisture.
Materials
small wads of paper towel (one moist and one dry), T-maze
made of two 6 cm (about 2.25 in.) pieces of 1.25 cm (0.5 in.)
clear vinyl tubing, sow bug, blunt probe
Procedure
1. Place the moist paper wad in and perform as many trials as 2. Describe any trend in
the open end of the left side time allows. behavior that you observed.
of the T, and place the dry
4. Keep a record of the results 3. Determine if your sow bug
paper wad on the right side.
of each trial. modified its behavior through
2. Place the sow bug at the learning, using evidence to
5. Using the same sow bug,
bottom of the T. If it does not support your answer.
repeat this procedure for
start to crawl, gently prod it
three days. 4. Evaluate the value of per-
with a blunt probe.
forming a final trial in which
Analysis
3. Observe what the sow bug the T-maze contains two dry
does when it reaches the T 1. Summarize your sow bug’s paper wads.
section. Retrieve the sow bug behavior, in writing or on
a graph.

Genetic and Learned Aspects
of Behavior
Do genes determine most behaviors, or do animals usually learn how
to behave from experience? Over the last century, this topic has been
www.scilinks.org
debated. Some scientists argued that most behaviors are genetically Topic: Imprinting
programmed because different individuals in the same species act in Keyword: HX4104
the same ways. Other scientists claimed that behaviors are shaped by
an animal’s experiences. Most biologists who study animal behavior
have come to think that animal behavior, particularly the complex
behavior of vertebrates, has both genetic and learned components.
Imprinting
Learning that can occur only during a specific period early in the
life of an animal and cannot be changed once it occurs is called
imprinting. Imprinting is easily observed in young geese and ducks,
which have no innate recognition of their mother. Instead, these
birds are genetically programmed to follow the first moving object
they see during a short period immediately after they hatch.
There is great survival value to this behavior, as the young must
follow their mother as she leads them to water, helps them find food,
and keeps them out of danger. However, the young will follow any
object they see during this period just as they would their mother—
including toy wagons, boxes, and balloons. Once the young birds
imprint on an object, they prefer to follow it, even when given the
opportunity to follow a member of their own species.
Konrad Lorenz, a Nobel Prize-winning pioneer in the study of ani-
mal behavior, observed imprinting when he raised a group of newly
hatched goslings (young geese) by hand and found that they imprinted
on him. Figure 7 shows Konrad Lorenz leading his “family” of
Figure 7 Imprinting. These
goslings. The goslings ability to imprint on an object during a sensitive
goslings imprinted on Konrad
period is not a learned behavior; it is programmed into their genes. Lorenz and followed him
However, the process of imprinting is a form of learned behavior. Thus around just as if he were
learning determines the final shape of this genetically based behavior. their mother.
Section 1 Review
Describe the difference between “how” and “why” Critical Thinking Forming Reasoned
questions in regard to animal behavior. Opinions A friend is teaching his dog a new
trick in which it is rewarded each time the trick is
Summarize how cub killing by male lions performed correctly. The friend says his method
supports the hypothesis that natural selection is called classical conditioning. Evaluate your
shapes behavior. friend’s use of this term.
Distinguish between and give an example of Standardized Test Prep When an Australian frilled
innate and learned behavior. lizard flares the folds of skin around its head in
response to a threat, the lizard exhibits
Analyze the behaviors involved in imprinting.
A imprinting. C classical conditioning.
B trial-and-error learning. D an innate behavior.

Section 2 Types of Behavior
Objectives Categories of Animal Behavior
● Discuss six types of animal As you sit on a park bench, a pigeon approaches, and you soon real-
behavior. ize that it expects food. You toss out a bit of your sandwich and the
● Discuss how animals use pigeon eats it, immediately looking up for more. This urban pigeon
signals. has been conditioned to seek food from people. Has its human
supplier been conditioned too?
● Summarize how sexual
selection can influence Behavior is an animal’s most immediate way of dealing with its
evolution. environment. Because the environment is complex and can change
rapidly, most animals have many different kinds of behavior, each
Key Terms suited to a particular situation. For instance, a squirrel may
perform one kind of behavior when it finds a nut on the ground—
sexual selection
it digs a hole. It performs a completely different behavior when a
snake approaches—it runs for shelter—because digging a hole
would not help it escape from the snake.
Like the squirrel, the musk oxen of the Arctic display many
different types of behavior, some of them cooperative. When preda-
tors, usually wolves, appear, the adult musk oxen form a defensive
circle around their young, as shown in Figure 8. The tight circle and
the danger of injury from the adult’s horns and hooves usually
prevent a successful attack. While musk oxen can run, running would
not protect the herd in the way that their group defense does.
Biologists have classified the behaviors animals perform into
several broad categories. Figure 9 shows some of these categories
and gives an example of each.
Figure 8 Musk oxen.

When threatened, adult musk
oxen form a defensive circle
around their young.

Influences on Behavior
While many of the behaviors illustrated in Figure 9 may seem differ-
ent from one another, they all tend to favor survival and reproductive
success. To gain a better idea of the nature of animal behavior, let’s
examine one of these behaviors—foraging behavior—in detail.
Foraging is finding and getting food.
Animals can be divided into two broad groups based on the range
of food items each group consumes. Specialists feed primarily or
exclusively on one kind of food. Some species of ants, for example, eat
Figure 9 Animal behavior.
only spider eggs. Generalists, in contrast, consume many different
Although their methods differ,
kinds of food. For example, some insects eat the leaves of a wide vari- all animals engage in at
ety of plants. Generalists are typically less efficient than specialists at least some of the behaviors
shown below.
Foraging behavior Migratory behavior Defensive behavior

Locate, obtain, and consume food Move to a more suitable environment Protect from predators
as seasons change
A raccoon searches along streams and Monarch butterflies migrate thousands When threatened, a hognose snake
ponds for fish, frogs, crayfish, and of kilometers, from the United States to turns onto its back and plays dead.
small rodents. It also hunts for insects central Mexico.
and fruit in woodlands.
Territorial behavior Courtship behavior Parental care

Protect a resource for exclusive use Attract a mate Ensure survival of young
Like many wild cats, this young During its breeding season, the male This robin is feeding an insect to its
cheetah claws on trees, leaving a stickleback fish develops a bright offspring.
scent that marks its territory. coloring and builds an elaborate nest
to attract a female.
SECTION 2 Types of Behavior 831

feeding on any one type of food. However, generalists have the advan-
tage of being able to collect more than one kind of food. Which
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Animal
approach to foraging is better? When one kind of food source is plen-
Communication tiful, specialists forage more successfully. But when food sources are
Keyword: HX4009 diverse and no particular one of them is more common, generalists
find more to eat.
For predators, food typically comes in a variety of sizes. Larger
food items contain more energy. But larger items are harder to cap-
ture, and they are usually less abundant.
Foraging thus involves a trade-off between a food’s energy con-
tent and its availability. Animals tend to feed on prey that maximize
their energy intake per unit of foraging time. This approach is
called optimal foraging. Natural selection has favored the evolution
of foraging behaviors of this sort. Sometimes, however, animals will
consume foods that are low sources of energy. Often this is because
those foods supply an important nutrient. The location of the food
source may also allow the consumer to avoid being captured by
some other predator.
Tracking Animal Movements by Satellite
T he migrations of whales,
birds, butterflies, bats, and
other animals are among the
this computer on the Internet,
biologists all over the world can
get information on the move-
most fascinating examples of ments of the animals they are
animal behavior. Some animals interested in tracking.
migrate thousands of kilometers
Why Use Satellites?
between the same two places
every year. To track these move- Satellite tracking allows biologists
ments, biologists have turned to to track animals that would be Swainson’s hawk
satellites for help. impossible to follow on foot or in a
vehicle. For example, biologists
How Satellite used satellite tracking to trace
Tracking Works the winter migration of Swainson’s
As shown on the right, a small hawks. Over the past few dec-
transmitter containing electronic ades, the number of these hawks
circuitry, a battery, and an has been declining in some areas
antenna is attached to an animal. of North America. Satellite track-
For birds and other small ani- ing showed that the hawks spend Horned lizard
mals, these parts must be kept the winter in a specific region in
as light as possible. Satellites central Argentina. By traveling to
orbiting about 850 km (530 mi) that region, researchers discov-
above Earth pick up the radio ered that thousands of the hawks www.scilinks.org
signals produced by the trans- were being killed accidentally as Topic: Tracking Animals
mitter and relay the signals to a a result of the use of pesticides. by Satellite
central computer on the ground. The Argentinian government and Keyword: HX4177
The computer analyzes the infor- the pesticide manufacturers are
mation and calculates the ani- now working together to protect
mal’s location. By connecting to the hawks.

Figure 10 Animal
communication. A dog’s
play bow means “I’m available
to play,” while a snarl is a
signal of aggression and
sometimes fear.
Communication
You approach an unfamiliar dog and it begins to bark. You know
that if you go closer, the dog might bite you, so you stop and talk to
it. The dog continues to bark but not so aggressively, and it begins
to wag its tail. You and the dog have each responded to a signal
given by the other.
A signal can be a sound, posture, movement, color, scent, or
facial expression. These signals are sent and received through all of
the senses familiar to us—sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste.
Animals use signals to influence the behavior of other animals.
Because they face a variety of social situations in which communi-
cation is needed, animals usually have several different signals,
each suited to a different situation, as shown in Figure 10.
Natural selection has shaped animal signals so that they reach the
intended receiver efficiently and stimulate a response. To be trans-
mitted efficiently, a signal must be able to travel through the
environment from sender to receiver. A signal must also be recog-
nizable to the receiver, or it won’t have any effect on behavior. Figure 11 Primate
Consider the loud mating call emitted by the male túngara frog. The communication. Vervet
call carries a long distance, reaching even far-off females. At night, monkeys have distinct calls
when túngara frogs are active, a loud call is the best way to that identify different kinds
of predators.
communicate. Visual signals, such as colors and
movements, would be noticeable from only a short
distance away and would not be nearly as effective
at attracting a mate.
Primate Communication
Among animals, vocal communication may be most
developed in the primates. Some primates, such as
those shown in Figure 11, have a “vocabulary” of
calls that allows individuals to communicate the
identity of specific predators, such as eagles, leop-
ards, and snakes. Chimpanzees and gorillas can be
taught by humans to recognize and use a large num-
ber of symbols to communicate abstract concepts.
Chimpanzees and gorillas cannot talk, however,
because they are physically unable to produce the

sounds of speech. Some researchers believe that chimpanzees can
Real Life combine symbols they have learned in meaningful ways. But chim-
Just say /r/. panzees cannot rearrange symbols to form a new sentence with a
If you are having trouble different meaning. That is a very complex task, which only humans
mastering the throaty can perform.
sound of a French /r/, just In humans, language develops at a very early age. Infants begin to
remember that a French
student struggles with the
learn language by trial-and-error during the “babbling baby” phase
English /th/ sound, and of childhood, at about six months of age. At first, infants all over the
will probably pronounce world babble the same consonant sounds, including sounds they
the as zee. have never heard. Soon, however, the infants pick out the sounds
Finding Information used by the people around them and repeat only those sounds. The
Interview a native speaker other sounds begin to drop away and are forgotten. Children quickly
of a foreign language. and effortlessly learn a vocabulary of thousands of words, a feat no
Ask him or her to identify
chimpanzee can do. This ability to learn language rapidly seems to
three sounds in his or her
language that are difficult be genetically influenced. But language is not the only form of
for English speakers human communication. Evidence suggests that odors and nonver-
to master. bal signals (body language) may also be important.
Observing Territorial
Behavior in Crickets DATA TABLE
The chirp of a male cricket attracts females Cricket Behavior
and warns other males to stay away from Cricket Apple Potato Jar Tent Female
his territory. You can study chirping behav-
Blue
ior by observing crickets in an aquarium.
Yellow
Materials
Red
5 male crickets, each marked with a different
color; 5 unmarked female crickets; covered Green
aquarium; slice of apple and of potato; small White
plastic jar; 5 cm (2 in.) square of cardboard
Procedure Analysis
1. Place the crickets and food in 4. For each observation of 1. Critical Thinking
an aquarium. Make two shel- aggressive behavior, record Analyzing Data Were
ters by turning the plastic jar the color of the aggressive any crickets more aggressive
on its side and by folding the male and where the behavior than the others? Give
cardboard in half to form a occurred—for example, next evidence to support your
tent-like structure. to the jar or the tent. answer.
2. Make a chart like the one 5. For each cricket, tally the 2. Describe the circumstances
above to record the behavior number of times aggressive in which most aggressive
of the male crickets. behavior was observed. behavior occurred.
Make a list that ranks each
3. Observe the crickets for 10 3. Propose a reason to explain
cricket, placing the cricket
minutes. Among the males, your answer to item 2.
with the highest tally on top.
look for territorial (aggressive)
4. Critical Thinking Form-
behaviors—chirping, stroking 6. Then tally the numbers for
ing Hypotheses For each
others with antennae, push- where the behaviors
aggressive behavior you
ing others away, etc. occurred. Rank the locations.
observed, form a hypothesis
that explains its function.

Reproductive Behavior
When ready to mate, animals produce signals to communicate with
potential partners. Each species usually produces a unique
courtship signal that ensures that individuals do not mate with
individuals of another species. For example, the flash patterns of
fireflies differ between species. A female firefly recognizes a male of
her own species by the pattern of his flashes, and she will ignore
any male that has a different flash pattern. The chemical produced
by a female silk moth attracts only males of her own species. Many
species of insects, amphibians, and birds produce unique sounds or
songs to attract mates. A white-crowned sparrow will respond to
the song of another white-crowned sparrow, but it will totally
ignore the song of an English sparrow.
During the breeding season, animals make several important
“decisions” concerning mating and parenting. These include how
many mates to have and how much time and energy to devote to
rearing offspring. These decisions are all aspects of an animal’s
reproductive strategy, a set of behaviors that have evolved and that
maximize reproductive success.
Mate Choice
Males and females usually differ in their reproductive strategies. In
many animals, females do not mate with the first male they
encounter. Instead, the female seems to evaluate the male before
she decides whether to mate. This behavior, called mate choice, has
been observed in many invertebrate and vertebrate species. Female
túngara frogs, for instance, have been observed “shopping around”
among calling males. A female will sit near
a male and listen to his call for several
minutes, then move on to another male
and listen to his call. She may evaluate sev-
eral males before choosing one with which
to mate.
Sexual Selection What characteristics do
animals use in choosing a mate? When
Charles Darwin considered this question
more than a century ago, he made an
important discovery about evolution. Dar-
win noticed that males often have extreme
characteristics that they use in their
courtship displays. Take, for example,
Figure 12 Widowbirds.
widowbirds, shown in Figure 12. During the During breeding season, the
breeding season, the male widowbird grows tail of the male widowbird,
an extremely long tail, up to five times shown above, grows to more
longer than the female’s. How did such than three times the length of
differences between the sexes evolve? The his body. At other times of the
year, it is similar in length to
long tail of the male widowbird cannot be
that of the female, which is
essential for survival, since the female bird the bird on the left in the
survives quite well with a much shorter tail. inset photograph.

Darwin recognized that extreme traits, such as the male widow-
bird’s tail, could have evolved if they helped males attract or acquire
mates. He proposed the mechanism of sexual selection to account
for such traits. Sexual selection is selection in which a mate is cho-
sen based on a certain trait or set of traits. Thus, traits that increase
the ability of individuals to attract or acquire mates appear with
increased frequency. Even traits that have a negative effect on
survival can evolve in this way, provided that their benefits to repro-
duction are high enough.
It is usually females that select mates based on their physical
traits. One explanation for this tendency is that reproduction has a
greater metabolic cost and requires a greater investment from
females. For example, eggs are less numerous and much larger
than sperm. (Humans’ eggs are about 195,000 times larger!) In
mammals, females are also responsible for gestation and milk pro-
Figure 13 Gorillas. On duction. Males may show mate choice as well if their parental
average, male gorillas are 50 involvement is high. This happens in crickets, where the sperm
percent larger than females. packet a male deposits makes up 30 percent of his body weight,
Full grown males can weigh as contributes nutrition for the female, and helps her develop eggs.
much as 200 kg (440 lb).
Competition by Males What kinds of traits help males acquire
mates? Because male animals usually compete among themselves
for the chance to mate with a female, selection has often favored
traits that make males more intimidating or better at combat. For
example, in many animal species, such as the gorillas shown in
Figure 13, the male is much larger than the female, and the largest
male will have the most opportunities to mate. Other examples of
traits related to male competition are antlers in deer and moose,
horns in bighorn sheep, and manes in lions. The extreme traits of
some male animals, such as large size and tusks in walrus, often
permit males to assess each other. Males that are not physically
well matched rarely engage in serious fights. Thus, some extreme
traits may reduce conflict among males rather than increase it.
Competition among males can also take subtle forms. In some
species, a male can gain a reproductive advantage over other males
by interfering with their reproduction. For instance, in some
species of worms, butterflies, and snakes, the male seals the
female’s reproductive tract after mating, thus preventing other
males from mating with her.
Section 2 Review
Describe the function of six different animal Standardized Test Prep A female firefly recognizes
behaviors. males of her own species because the males
produce a specific
Summarize in words and with examples the
A chemical.
ways in which animals use signals.
B flash pattern.
Discuss how selection can account for the C sound.
extreme traits found in the males of some D type of nest.
species.

ZONE
1 Evolution of Behavior Section 1
behavior (824)
● A behavior is an action or a series of actions performed in innate behavior (826)
response to a stimulus. fixed action pattern behavior (826)
● Natural selection favors behavioral traits that increase the learning (827)
conditioning (827)
likelihood of an individual’s survival and reproduction. reasoning (828)
● Genetically programmed behaviors are called innate behav- imprinting (829)
iors, instincts, or fixed action pattern behaviors, and there
is little or no variation in how they are performed.
● Learning is the modification of behavior by experience.
Learning may occur by association with an unrelated stimulus
(classical conditioning) or by trial-and-error (one type of
which is operant conditioning).
● Reasoning is the ability to think of a possible solution to a
problem.
● Many behaviors, especially complex behaviors, have both
genetic and learned aspects.
● Learning determines the final shape of many genetically
based behaviors, such as imprinting.
2 Types of Behavior Section 2

sexual selection (836)
● Animal behaviors fall into several broad categories,
which include parental care, courtship behavior, defensive
behavior, foraging behavior, migratory behavior, and
territorial behavior.
● Most animals use signals, often vocal or visual, to
communicate with one another.
● Primates are unique among animals in using symbols to
communicate.
● The human ability to learn language rapidly during child-
hood seems to be genetically influenced.
● By the mechanism of sexual selection, traits that increase
the ability of an individual to attract a mate appear with
increased frequency.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. What advantages does satel-

1. A male lion that takes over a pride may kill lite tracking of animals provide over other
all the young cubs in order to ensure the methods, such as radio collars?
survival and reproduction of 9. Summarize the mechanism of natural
a. the females. selection, and explain why behaviors are
b. the pride. just as important to survival and reproduc-
c. himself. tion as physical features are. (Hint: See
d. his siblings. Chapter 13, Section 1.)
2. The nest-building behavior of Fischer’s
lovebirds is
a. learned.
concept map describing animal behavior.
b. a result of operant conditioning.
Use the following terms in your map:
c. innate.
behavior, stimulus, innate behavior, fixed
d. gradually learned.
action pattern behavior, learned behavior,
conditioning, reasoning, imprinting, and
3. Which of the following best represents clas- sexual selection.
sical conditioning?
a. the feeding behavior shown by rats in Critical Thinking Skills
Skinner boxes 11. Evaluating an Argument “A child’s behav-
b. a male túngara frog calling to a female ior closely resembles the behavior of its
c. a dog salivating at the sound of a bell parents. Therefore, most human behaviors
d. a primate giving a warning signal to are genetically controlled.” Explain the
members of its troop logical flaw in this argument.
4. Parental care is performed in order to 12. Recognizing Relationships In many bird
a. ensure survival of young. species, the male is more brightly colored
b. protect parents from predators. and heavily plumed than the female. Explain
c. protect a resource for exclusive use. this in terms of sexual selection
d. locate, obtain, and consume food. and evolution.
5. The purpose of foraging behavior is to Alternative Assessment
a. ensure survival of young.
b. protect individuals from predators. 13. Finding and Communicating Information
c. protect a resource for exclusive use. Use the media center or Internet resources
d. locate, obtain, and consume food. to learn more about imprinting. Work with
a small group to find examples of imprint-
6. Which of the following behaviors is least ing, and develop a class presentation on the
likely to be associated with food resources? subject.
a. territorial c. foraging
b. migratory d. defensive 14. Summarizing Information At times, some
species of whales seem to deliberately swim
7. Which of the following best demonstrates into waters that are shallow. Often they end
the mechanism of sexual selection? up stranded on the beach, where they can-
a. a male túngara frog listening carefully to not survive. Using the Internet or other
the call of a potential mate resources, search for information you can
b. the flash pattern found in fireflies use to answer the “how” and “why” ques-
c. the long tail of a male widowbird tions about this phenomenon. Present your
d. the killing of cubs by male lions findings in a report to your class.


correct answer.
Imprinting is learning that can occur
1 What is learning by association? only during a specific period early in the life
A. assuming C. imprinting of an animal and cannot be changed once it
B. conditioning D. reasoning occurs. Many birds, such as ducks and geese,
imprint on their mother shortly after they
2 The orb spider builds her web in exactly
hatch. Goslings can even imprint on
the same way every time. What is this an
humans. When they do, they will follow the
example of?
human around in single file just as if he or
F. learned behavior
she were their mother.
G. random behavior
H. inherited behavior 6 Why might natural selection have favored
I. fixed action pattern behavior the evolution of imprinting behavior?
A. Goslings that can recognize a human
3 What is the ability to analyze a problem
are more likely to find food.
and think of a possible solution?
B. Adult geese that associate with humans
A. assuming
are more likely to reproduce.
B. conditioning
C. Adult geese that travel in single file as a
C. imprinting
group are more likely to avoid predators.
D. reasoning
D. Goslings that follow their mother are
4 How can a behavior that results in the more likely to find food and avoid
death of one offspring evolve by natural danger.
selection?
F. The behavior has no adaptive value. Interpreting Graphics
G. The behavior protects all the young Directions (7): Base your answer to question
in a group. 7 on the diagram below.
H. The behavior leads to the death of all
Fisher’s Lovebird and Peach-faced Lovebird
the young in a group.
I. The behavior helps more of one
individual’s offspring to survive.
5 Captured male widowbirds whose tails

have been cut mate with half as many
Fischer’s lovebirds Peach-faced lovebirds carry
females as wild males with longer tails. carry nesting material nesting material tucked into
How can a scientist design an experiment in their beak. the feathers near their tail.
to determine whether female widowbirds
prefer males with longer tails? 7 If the nest-building behaviors of these two
kinds of lovebirds are innate, how might
the hybrid offspring raised in captivity try
Test to carry nesting materials?
When using experimental data to answer a question, F. balanced on their backs
determine the constants, variables, and control G. carried in their claws
before answering the question. H. kicked along the ground
I. tucked near their tail feathers

Exploration Lab
Studying Nonverbal
Communication
SKILLS • Determine the
• Observing relationship of gender
• Analyzing to the postural changes
• Graphing that occur during a
conversation.
OBJECTIVES
• Recognize that posture MATERIALS
is a type of nonverbal • stopwatch or clock with
communication. a second hand
• Observe how human • paper
posture changes during a • pencil
conversation.
People communicate nonverbally with their
nonverbal communication.
posture , or body position. The position of
the body while standing is called the stance .
In an equal stance , the body weight is sup- Procedure
ported equally by both legs. In an unequal PART A: Observing Behavior
stance , more weight is supported by one
1. Work in a group of two or three to observe
leg than by the other. In this lab, you will conversations between pairs of people.
observe and analyze how stance changes dur- Each conversation must last between 45
ing conversations between pairs of people seconds and 5 minutes. One person in your
who are standing. group should be the timekeeper and the
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in other group members should record data.
the paragraph above. Note: Be sure that your subjects are
2. Make a data table similar to the one below. unaware they are being observed.
The sample data entered in row 1 show 2. Observe at least three conversations. Record
how to enter data. Do not copy these data. the genders of the two participants in each
conversation and the gender of the one per-
son whose posture you observe. Note: Be
DATA TABLE sure that the timekeeper accurately clocks
Gender 15-s intervals
the passage of each 15-second interval.
3. For each 15-second interval, record all of
Pairs Involved Observed 15 s 30 s 45 s the changes in stance by the person you are
observing. For example, note every time
1 F, M M U, W E E your subject shifts from an equal stance to
an unequal stance, or vice versa. To record
2
the stance simply, you may write E to iden-
3 tify an equal stance and U to identify an
unequal stance.
4. If the subject assumes an unequal stance, Analyze and Conclude
also record the number of weight shifts
1. Analyzing Results Which stance was
from one foot to the other. Indicate a
used most often during a conversation?
weight shift simply by writing W.
2. Recognizing Relationships Which
5. When a conversation ends, write down
behavior most often signals that a conver-
whether the pair departed together or sep-
sation is about to end: stance change or
arately. To record this, write T to indicate
weight shift?
departing together or S to indicate depart-
ing separately. 3. Drawing Conclusions Do males and
females differ in their departure signals?
6. After you have completed each observa-
Justify your conclusion.
tion, tally the total number of weight
shifts within each 15-second block. 4. Forming Hypotheses What do you think
IMPORTANT! Retain data only for con- might be an adaptive significance of a
versations that last at least 45 seconds. departure signal?
If a conversation ends before you have 5. Forming Reasoned Opinions What
collected data for 45 seconds, observe other behaviors you observed were forms
another conversation. of nonverbal communication? Justify your
answer.
PART B: Analyzing Data 6. Further Inquiry Write a new question
7. After all observations have been com- about animal behavior that could be
pleted, combine the data from all of the explored with a new investigation.
groups in your class. Analyze the data,
without regard to gender.
a. Determine the most common stance
during the first 15 seconds of a conver-
sation, the middle 15 seconds, and the
last 15 seconds. Make a bar graph to
summarize the class data.
b. Find the average number of weight
shifts in the beginning, middle, and
end intervals. Make a bar graph to
summarize the class data.
8. Repeat step 7, but analyze the data
according to gender this time.
On the Job
9. Compile the data and make bar graphs
Psychology is the study of human and
for each of the following: males talking
animal behavior. Do research to discover
with a male, males talking with a female,
how psychology is used to treat behav-
females talking with a male, and females
ioral disorders in humans or in pets. For
talking with a female. Compare these
more about careers, visit go.hrw.com
graphs with the ones you made in
and type in the keyword HX4 Careers.
Step 7.
CHAPTER 36 Animal Behavior 841

Exploring Human
UNIT 9 Biology
Chapters
38 Introduction to
37
Body Structure
38 Circulatory and
Respiratory Systems
39 Digestive and
Excretory Systems
40 The Body’s Defenses
41 Nervous System
42 Hormones and the

Endocrine System
43 Reproduction and
Development
Donated blood saves

thousands of lives
every year.

Circulation
Colleagues of William
Harvey, a 17th century
English anatomist, con-
sidered his conclusion that blood flows one way
in a continuous system of vessels to be a strange
William Harvey’s
idea. Read to learn how valves prevent blood
theory of blood
from flowing backwards. In the 1940s, Dr. Charles circulation
Drew, the first African-American to earn an M.D. at
Columbia University, developed commercial proce-
dures for the safe transfusion of plasma, the liquid
component of blood.
Dr. Charles Drew
Scientists know that lifestyle choices—

for example, what we eat and how
much we exercise—affect the health
of our circulatory system. Eating a healthful diet and
exercising regularly will reduce the likelihood of hyper-
tension (commonly called high blood pressure) and
lower the risk of heart attack. What are the dangers
of hypertension?
Moderate exercise
Blood is the river of

life. Researchers are
currently exploring
artificial substitutes for red blood
cells. What are the components of
blood? www.scilinks.org
Topic: Blood
Keyword: HX4025
Artificial blood research
843
Hurdler

CHAPTER
37 Introduction to
Body Structure

1. Describe the role of ATP in metabolism.
(Chapter 5, Section 1) Body Organization
Levels of Structural Organization
2. Summarize the two stages of cellular
Organ Systems
respiration. (Chapter 5, Section 1)
3. Distinguish between tissues, organs,
and organ systems. (Chapter 20, Section 3) Section 2
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Skeletal System
sections indicated. The Skeleton
Growth of Bones
Joints

Before you read this chapter, survey the sub- Muscular System
titles, headings, captions, and words in boldface Muscles and Movement
type. Try to identify the purpose of this chapter. Muscle Contraction
As you read each section, create a descriptive
reading organizer. Section 4
Skin, Hair, and Nails
Skin
Skin Disorders
www.scilinks.org
National Science Teachers Association sciLINKS Internet
An activity as complicated as jumping hurdles while

running full speed requires a tremendous amount of
energy and the coordination of many body systems.
CHAPTER 37 Introduction to Body Structure 845

Section 1 Body Organization
Objectives Levels of Structural Organization
● Identify four levels of The human body contains more than 100 trillion cells and more
structural organization than 100 kinds of cells. How do these cells work together? The body
within the human body. is structurally organized into four levels: cells, tissues, organs, and
● Analyze the four kinds of organ systems. Recall that a tissue is a group of similar cells that
body tissues. work together to perform a common function. The cell types of the
● List the body’s major organ body are grouped by function into four basic kinds of tissues:
systems. epithelial, nervous, connective, and muscle tissues. These tissues,
shown in Figure 1, are the building blocks of the human body.
● Evaluate the importance of
endothermy in maintaining
homeostasis. Four Kinds of Tissues
Epithelial tissue There are many different kinds of epithelial (ehp ih
Key Terms THEE lee uhl) tissue. Epithelial tissue lines most body surfaces,
epithelial tissue and it protects other tissues from dehydration and physical dam-
nervous tissue age. An epithelial layer is usually no more than a few cells thick.
connective tissue These cells are typically flat and thin, and they contain only a small
muscle tissue amount of cytoplasm. Epithelial tissue is constantly being replaced
body cavity as cells die.
Figure 1 Body tissues

Cells of the body are grouped into different kinds of tissues.
Connective Nervous
tissue tissue
Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle
Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle
846 CHAPTER 37 Introduction to Body Structure

Nervous Tissue The nervous system is made of nervous tissue.
Nervous tissue consists of nerve cells and their supporting cells.
Real Life
Nerve cells carry information throughout the body. You will learn A black eye is the
more about the nervous system in Chapter 41. common name for
bruised tissues around
Connective Tissue Various types of connective tissue support, pro- the eye that may also
tect, and insulate the body. Connective tissue includes fat, cartilage, be swollen.
bone, tendons, and blood. Some connective tissue cells, such as The dark color of the
those in bone, are densely packed. Others, such as those found in bruise is caused by blood
blood, are farther apart from each other. oozing into spaces
between the tissues from
Muscle Tissue Three kinds of muscle tissue enable the movement tiny blood vessels that
of body structures by muscle contraction. The three kinds of mus- were broken when the eye
cle tissues are skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle. was injured.
1. Skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle is called voluntary muscle
because you can consciously control its contractions. Skeletal
muscles move bones in the trunk and limbs.
2. Smooth muscle. Smooth muscle is called involuntary muscle
because you cannot consciously control its slow, long-lasting
contractions. Smooth muscles line the walls of blood vessels and
hollow organs. Some contract only when stimulated by signal
molecules; others contract spontaneously.
3. Cardiac muscle. Cardiac muscle is involuntary and is found in
the heart. The powerful, rhythmic contractions of cardiac muscle
pump blood to all body tissues. Groups of cardiac cells contract
all at once, stimulating adjacent groups of cells to contract.
Stem Cells
Every human starts life as a single fertilized egg, which rapidly
divides into a small cluster of cells. After about 5 days, a small ball
of a few hundred cells is formed, which encloses a mass of embry-
onic stem cells. These early, undifferentiated cells will give rise to
all of the types of cells of the developing body. Embryonic stem cells
are immortal—that is, they divide indefinitely. And embryonic stem
cells are not yet specialized. Indeed any embryonic stem cell is
capable of becoming any type of tissue found in the adult body.
Because they can develop into any tissue, embryonic stem cells
offer the possibility of repairing damaged tissues. Stem cell therapy
in mice has been shown to repair heart muscle and to produce
functional nerve cells in the brain. The use of human embryonic
stem cells is very controversial. Because obtaining embryonic stem
cells destroys an early embryo, therapeutic use of embryonic stem
cells raises serious ethical issues.
Adults also have stem cells. Stem cells in bone marrow produce
different types of blood cells. The adult brain contains stem cells
that develop into new nerve cells. Adult stem cells are not as versa-
tile as embryonic stem cells, and they are not immortal. Most stop
reproducing after fewer than 100 cell divisions. Scientists are now
at work on several therapeutic applications of adult stem cells.
SECTION 1 Body Organization 847

Organ Systems
Body organs are made of combinations of two or more types of tis-
sues working together to perform a specific function. The heart, for
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example, contains cardiac muscle tissue and connective tissue, and
Topic: Organ Systems
Keyword: HX4131 the heart is stimulated by nervous tissue. Each organ belongs to at
least one organ system, which is a group of organs that work
together to carry out major activities or processes. The different
organs in an organ system interact to perform a certain function,
such as digestion. The digestive system is composed of the mouth,
throat, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and pan-
creas. Some organs function in more than one organ system. The
pancreas, for example, functions in both the digestive system and
the endocrine system. Table 1 lists the body’s major organ systems.
Table 1 Major Organ Systems of the Body

System Major structures Functions
Circulatory Heart, blood vessels, blood (cardiovascular) Transports nutrients, wastes, hormones, and gases
lymph nodes and vessels, lymph (lymphatic)
Digestive Mouth, throat, esophagus, Extracts and absorbs nutrients from food;
stomach, liver, pancreas, removes wastes; maintains water and
small and large intestines chemical balances
Endocrine Hypothalamus, pituitary, pancreas Regulates body temperature, metabolism,

and many other endocrine glands development, and reproduction; maintains
homeostasis; regulates other organ systems
Excretory Kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters, urethra, Removes wastes from blood; regulates concentration
skin, lungs of body fluids
Immune White blood cells, lymph nodes Defends against pathogens and disease
and vessels, skin
Integumentary Skin, nails, hair Protects against injury, infection, and fluid
loss; helps regulate body temperature
Muscular Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac Moves limbs and trunk; moves substances
muscle tissues through body; provides structure and support
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, Regulates behavior; maintains homeostasis; regulates

nerves, sense organs other organ systems; controls sensory and
motor functions
Reproductive Testes, penis (in males); Produces gametes and offspring

ovaries, uterus, breasts (in females)
Respiratory Lungs, nose, mouth, trachea Moves air into and out of lungs; controls gas
exchange between blood and lungs
Skeletal Bones and joints Protects and supports the body and organs; interacts
with skeletal muscles, produces red blood cells,
white blood cells, and platelets

Body Cavities
The body contains four large fluid-filled spaces, or body cavities, that
house and protect the major internal organs. Within the body cavities,
shown in Figure 2, organs are suspended in fluid that supports their
weight and prevents them from being deformed by body movements.
These organs are also protected by bones and muscles. For example,
your heart and lungs are protected by the rib cage and the sternum
inside the thoracic (thoh RAS ik) cavity. Your brain, encased within
the cranial (KRAY nee uhl) cavity, is protected by the skull. Your diges-
tive organs, located in the abdominal cavity, are protected by the
pelvis and abdominal muscles. Your spinal cord is protected by
the vertebrae that surround the spinal cavity.
Figure 2 Body cavities.
Many organs and organ sys-
Endothermy tems are encased in protective
Like all mammals, humans are endotherms. Humans maintain a body cavities.
fairly constant internal temperature of about 37°C (98.6°F). Your
body uses a great deal of energy to maintain a stable internal con-
dition. For example, a large percentage of the energy you consume Cranial
cavity
in food is devoted to maintaining your body temperature. You
would not survive very long if your temperature fell much below
the normal range. Very high temperatures, such as occur with fever, Spinal
are also dangerous because they can inactivate critical enzymes. cavity
Your body maintains a constant temperature due to the flow of

blood through blood vessels just under the skin. To release heat to Thoracic
cavity
the air, blood flow is increased to these vessels. To retain heat, blood
is shunted away from the skin. As an endotherm, you can remain
active at external temperatures that would slow the activity of Diaphragm
ectotherms. Endothermy enables you to sustain strenuous activity,
such as exercise, for a long time.
To maintain homeostasis, the body’s organ systems must func-
Abdominal
tion smoothly together. The nervous system and the endocrine sys- cavity
tem operate on negative feedback with other organ systems. This
promotes stability throughout the body. In addition to temperature
regulation, homeostasis involves adjusting metabolism, detecting
and responding to environmental stimuli, and maintaining water
and mineral balances.
Section 1 Review
Summarize the four levels of structural Critical Thinking Inferring Why should fever
organization in the body. be controlled during an illness?
List the four different kinds of body tissues, Standardized Test Prep In which part of the body
and give an example of each kind. would you most likely find flat, thin cells that
contain only a small amount of cytoplasm?
Describe the relationship between organs A bone
and organ systems.
B cardiac muscle
Relating Concepts How is endothermy C digestive tract lining
advantageous to humans? D skeletal muscle
SECTION 1 Body Organization 849

Section 2 Skeletal System
Objectives The Skeleton
● Distinguish between the What keeps your body from collapsing like a limp noodle? An inter-
axial skeleton and the nal skeleton of bones shapes and supports your body. Your skeleton
appendicular skeleton. provides protection for internal organs and, along with muscles,
● Analyze the structure of enables movement with a versatile system of levers and joints. Mus-
bone. cles pull against bones at joints, moving the limbs and the trunk.
● Summarize the process Your skeleton is made mostly of bone, a type of hard connective
of bone development. tissue that is constantly being formed and replaced. The human skel-
eton, shown in Figure 3, contains 206 individual bones. Of these, 80
● List two ways to prevent
bones form the axial skeleton , which includes bones of the skull,
osteoporosis.
spine, ribs, and sternum. The other 126 bones, including those of the
● Identify the three main arms, legs, pelvis, and shoulder, form the appendicular (ap uhn
classes of joints. DIHK yoo luhr) skeleton .
Key Terms
Skeleton Axial Skeleton
axial skeleton The most complex part of the
appendicular skeleton
Skull axial skeleton is the skull. Of the
bone marrow
periosteum 29 bones in the skull, 8 bones
Clavicle
Haversian canal form the cranium, which en-
osteocyte Scapula cases the brain. The skull also
osteoporosis contains 14 facial bones, 6
Sternum
joint middle-ear bones, and a single
ligament Humerus bone that supports the base of
Vertebra the tongue. The skull is attached
to the top of the spine, or back-
Radius bone, which is a flexible, curving
Ulna column of 26 vertebrae that sup-
ports the center of the body.
Pelvic
girdle
Curving forward from the mid-
dle vertebrae are 12 pairs of ribs,
which form a protective rib cage
around the heart and lungs.
Metacarpals
Carpals
Appendicular Skeleton
The appendicular skeleton forms
Femur
the appendages or limbs—the
Figure 3 Skeleton. Bones Patella shoulders, arms, hips, and legs.
of the appendicular skeleton Tibia The arms and legs are attached to
“hang” from bones of the axial the axial skeleton at the shoul-
skeleton (purple). Immature Fibula
ders and hips, respectively. The
humans have 33 vertebrae. Tarsals
During development, vertebrae
shoulder attachment, called the
of the sacrum and coccyx fuse Metatarsals pectoral girdle, contains two
so that there are 26 separate large, flat shoulder blades, or
bones. scapulas, and two slender, curved

collarbones, or clavicles. The clavicles connect the scapulas to the
upper region of the sternum and hold the shoulders apart. This
arrangement enables full rotation of the arms about the shoulder. The The word periosteum is
hip attachment, called the pelvic girdle, contains two large pelvic from the Greek peri, mean-
ing “around,” and osteon,
bones. The pelvic bones distribute the weight of the upper body meaning “bone.”
evenly down the legs.
Structure of Bone
As shown in Figure 4, bones are made of a hard outer covering of
compact bone surrounding a porous inner core of spongy bone.
Compact bone is a dense connective tissue that provides a great
deal of support. Spongy bone is a loosely structured network of sep-
arated connective tissue. Some cavities in spongy bone are filled
with a soft tissue called bone marrow. Red bone marrow begins the
production of all blood cells and platelets. The hollow interior of
long bones is filled with yellow bone marrow. Yellow bone marrow
consists mostly of fat, which stores energy. Bones are surrounded
and protected by a tough exterior membrane called the periosteum
(pair ee AHS tee uhm). The periosteum contains many blood vessels
that supply nutrients to bones.
Figure 4 Structure of bone

Many bones contain bone marrow, blood vessels, and both compact and
spongy bone tissue.
Bone marrow Periosteum

(outer layer)
Spongy bone
Compact
bone
Blood vessels
SECTION 2 Skeletal System 851

Growth of Bones
In early development, the skeleton is made mostly of cartilage, a
Real Life type of connective tissue that serves as a template for bone forma-
Years after an unsolved tion. During development, most cartilage is gradually replaced by
murder is committed, bone as minerals are deposited. Deposits of calcium and other min-
the victim’s bones may erals harden bones, enabling them to withstand stress and provide
hold clues to the crime.
support. In compact bone, new bone cells are added in layers
Forensic anthropologists
around narrow, hollow channels called Haversian canals. Haver-
have solved many cases
by analyzing bones and sian canals extend down the length of a bone, and they contain
other human remains blood vessels that enter the bone through the periosteum.
found at crime scenes. As shown in Figure 5, layers of new bone cells form several con-
Finding Information centric rings around Haversian canals. These rings form columns
Read some accounts of that enable the bone to withstand tremendous amounts of stress.
crimes solved by forensic Eventually, bone cells called osteocytes (AHS tee oh siets) become
anthropologists to learn
embedded within the bone tissue. Osteocytes maintain the mineral
how these scientists ana-
lyze bones. content of bone. The blood vessels that run through each Haversian
canal supply the osteocytes with nutrients needed to maintain bone
cells. Bones continue to thicken and elongate through adolescence
as bone cells replace cartilage. Bone elongation occurs at the ends
of long bones. Cartilage degenerates as new bone cells are added,
causing bones to lengthen.
Figure 5 Compact bone

In compact bone, concentric rings of bone surround Haversian canals.
Bone marrow
Haversian canal
Osteocytes
Periosteum
Vein
Artery
Haversian
canals

Normal bone Bone in osteoporosis Dowager’s hump
Osteoporosis Figure 6 Effects of

osteoporosis. Compare the
In young adults, the density of bone usually remains constant. How-
density of a normal bone with
ever, around the age of 35, bone replacement gradually becomes less that of a bone weakened by
efficient and some bone tissue is lost. Severe bone loss, as shown in osteoporosis. One sign of
Figure 6, can lead to a condition called osteoporosis (ahst ee oh puh osteoporosis is the familiar
ROH sihs), which means “porous bone.” Bones affected by osteo- “dowager’s hump” of the
porosis become brittle and are easily fractured. back, caused by curvature of
the spine.
Although both women and men lose bone tissue as they age, more
women than men are affected by osteoporosis. Because women’s
bones are usually smaller, women cannot afford to lose as much
bone tissue as men. In addition, the production of sex hormones
decreases after menopause. This decrease in hormone production
has been linked to an increased rate of bone loss in women follow-
ing menopause.
You can take action now to prevent future osteoporosis. Building
strong bones now will make you less likely to be affected by osteo-
porosis later in life. A mineral-rich diet that includes dairy products,
green leafy vegetables, whole grains, and legumes such as those
shown in Figure 7, together with regular exercise throughout your Figure 7 Preventing
life will help maintain bone density. osteoporosis. A proper diet
and regular exercise help
reduce the risk of osteoporosis.

Joints
A joint is where two bones meet. Pads of cartilage cushion the ends
of the bones of a joint, enabling the joint to withstand great pressure
and stress. The bones of a joint are held together by strong bands of
connective tissue called ligaments . Ligaments not only help stabi-
lize joints but also prevent joints from moving too far in any one
direction. Many sports-related injuries to ligaments are caused by
an impact that forces a joint to overextend. Injury occurs because
the impact exceeds the tension that the ligaments can withstand.
Three Main Types of Joints

The skeletal system contains three main types of joints that enable
varying degrees of movement: immovable joints, slightly movable
joints, and freely movable joints. Examples of the three types of
Figure 8 Types of joints. joints are shown in Figure 8.
The body contains immovable,
slightly movable, and freely Immovable Joints Tight joints that permit little or no
movable joints. movement of the bones they join are called immovable
joints. The cranial bones of the skull are joined by
Immovable joint sutures, a type of immovable joint in which the bones
are separated by only a thin layer of connective tissue.
Slightly Movable Joints Joints that permit limited move-
Pivot joint
ment of the bones they join are called slightly movable
joints. For example, the vertebrae of the spine are joined
by cartilaginous joints, which are a kind of slightly mov-
Slightly movable able joint in which a bridge of cartilage connects the
joints bones. Slightly movable joints are also located between
bones of the rib cage.
Freely Movable Joints In joints that permit movement,
Hinge joint the direction of bone movement is determined by the
structure of the joint. Joints that permit the most
Saddle joint movement are called freely movable joints. Some kinds
Table 2 Movable Joints

Ball-and- Joint Type of movement Examples
socket joint
Ball-and-socket All types Shoulders and hips
joint
Pivot joint Rotation Top of spine

(turning of head)
Hinge joint Bending and Elbows, knuckles of

straightening fingers and toes
Gliding joint Sliding motion Wrists and ankles

Gliding
joint Saddle joint Rotation, bending, Base of thumbs
and straightening

Figure 9 Knee. The knee
is an example of a freely
movable joint.
Muscle Tendon
Cartilage
Patella
(kneecap)
Ligaments
Fibula Tibia
(bone) (bone)
of freely movable joints are listed in Table 2. The structure of one

freely movable joint, the knee, is shown in Figure 9.
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Topic: Joint Disorders
Disorders of Joints Keyword: HX4107
Recall that ligaments hold the bones of a joint together. A lining of
tissue that surrounds the joint secretes a lubricating fluid that
reduces friction at the ends of the bones. When a disease afflicts the
bones, connective tissue, or lubricating tissues in a freely movable
joint, the joint’s ability to move may be greatly impaired.
Rheumatoid arthritis is a painful inflammation of freely movable
joints. This condition occurs when cells of the immune system
attack the tissues around joints, severely damaging the joints.
Symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis include stiffening and swelling
of the joints. Osteoarthritis is a similar disorder that causes the
degeneration of cartilage that covers the surfaces of bones. As the
cartilage wears away, the bones rub together, causing pain.
Section 2 Review
Distinguish between the axial skeleton and Critical Thinking Relating Concepts
the appendicular skeleton. The bones of a newborn baby are made mostly
of cartilage. Why is that an advantage during
Differentiate between compact bone and childbirth?
spongy bone.
Standardized Test Prep What effect does regular
Describe how bones elongate in development. exercise have on the skeletal system?
A reduces bone mass
List the three main types of joints, and give an
example of each type. B leads to osteoporosis
C maintains bone density
Analyzing Information Why are women more D makes bones more porous
likely than men to develop osteoporosis?

Section 3 Muscular System
Objectives Muscles and Movement
● Describe the action of Every time you move, you use your muscles. Walking and running,
muscle pairs in moving for example, require precisely timed and controlled contractions of
the body. many skeletal muscles. When you lift a heavy object, the total force
● Relate the structure of produced by muscle contractions in your arm must overcome the
a skeletal muscle to the weight of the object. Muscles in your jaw contract and enable you to
muscle’s ability to chew food with your teeth. Even when you are idle, many skeletal
contract. muscles, including those in your back and neck, remain partially
● Describe how energy is contracted to maintain balance and posture.
supplied to muscles for
contraction. Movement of the Skeleton
Muscles can move body parts because muscles are attached to
Key Terms
bones of the skeleton. As shown in Figure 10, most skeletal muscles
tendon are attached to bones by strips of dense connective tissue called
flexor tendons . One attachment of the muscle, the origin, is a bone that
extensor remains stationary during a muscle contraction. The muscle pulls
actin
against the origin. The other attachment, the insertion, is the bone
myosin
that moves when the muscle contracts. Movement occurs when a
myofibril
sarcomere muscle contraction pulls the muscle’s insertion toward its origin.
Skeletal muscles are generally attached to the skeleton in oppos-
ing pairs. One muscle in a pair pulls a bone in one direction, and
the other muscle pulls the bone in the opposite direction. In the
limbs, each opposing pair of muscles includes a flexor muscle and
an extensor muscle, as shown in Figure 10. A flexor muscle causes
a joint to bend. An extensor muscle causes a joint to straighten.
Figure 10 Muscle pair

Pairs of opposing muscles work together to move bones at joints.
Biceps Origin Triceps

muscle muscle
(flexor) (extensor)
Triceps Biceps
muscle Tendon muscle
(extensor) (flexor)
Insertion
Biceps contraction Triceps contraction

Figure 11 Skeletal muscle
In skeletal muscle, contraction occurs within the sarcomeres of muscle fibers.
Muscle fiber
Z line
Myosin
filament
Actin
filament Sarcomere
Myofibril
Muscle Structure
Muscles contain some connective tissue, which holds muscle cells
together and provides elasticity. Muscle tissue also contains large
amounts of contractile protein filaments. These protein filaments,
called actin and myosin (MIE oh sihn), enable muscles to contract.
Actin and myosin are usually found in the cytoskeleton of eukary-
otic cells, but they are far more abundant in muscle cells. Other
characteristics of muscle tissue include the ability to stretch or
expand and the ability to respond to stimuli, such as signal mol-
ecules released by nerve cells.
Skeletal muscle tissue consists of many parallel elongated cells
called muscle fibers. As shown in Figure 11, each muscle fiber con-
tains small cylindrical structures called myofibrils (mie oh FIE
bruhlz). Myofibrils have alternating light and dark bands that pro-
duce a characteristic striated, or striped, appearance when viewed
under a microscope. In the center of each light band is a structure
called a Z line, which anchors actin filaments. The area between
two Z lines is called a sarcomere (SAHR koh mihr). Thus, a myofib-
ril is a grouping of sarcomeres linked end to end. Each sarcomere
contains overlapping thin and thick protein filaments that move www.scilinks.org
and interact with each other. The thin filaments are actin, and the Topic: Muscle Structure
thick filaments are myosin. The filaments run parallel to one Keyword: HX4126
another along the length of the sarcomere. The dark bands that
occur in the middle of the sarcomere are regions where the thick
filaments and the thin filaments overlap.
SECTION 3 Muscular System 857

Muscle Contraction
How does a muscle contract? Muscle contraction occurs in the sar-
comeres of myofibrils. The overlapping arrangement of the thick and
thin protein filaments in a sarcomere enables muscle contraction.
The events of a muscle contraction are summarized in Figure 12.
Step Before a muscle is stimulated, the sarcomere is relaxed.
Myosin and actin filaments partially overlap one another.
Step A muscle contraction usually begins when a muscle fiber is
stimulated by signal molecules released by a nerve cell.
This causes myosin and actin filaments to “slide” along one
another so that they overlap even more. The sarcomere
becomes shorter as the Z lines are pulled closer together.
Step The sarcomere is fully contracted, and myosin and actin
completely overlap one another. This shortening of sar-
Figure 12
comeres occurs down the entire
Figure 38-12
length of the muscle fiber.
BIO
graph ic
Muscle Contraction
During a muscle contraction,
What determines the force of con-
traction? A muscle exerts the greatest
sarcomeres in myofibrils shorten.
force when all of its fibers are con-
tracted. When a fiber is stimulated,
its sarcomeres contract. The total
Myofibril Sarcomere
amount of force a muscle exerts
depends on how often muscle fibers
are stimulated and how many muscle
fibers contract.
How is the force of muscular con-
Myosin Actin
traction controlled? As different
1 The sarcomere is relaxed. Z line numbers of fibers in a muscle con-
tract at one time, the total force
generated by contraction varies. For
example, the total amount of force
needed to lift a pencil is much less
than the force needed to lift a brick.
2 Contraction begins as actin and myosin overlap. Thus, fewer muscle fibers in your
arm contract when you lift a pencil
than when you lift a brick.
The set of muscle fibers activated
by a nerve cell is called a motor
unit. Every time a nerve cell acti-
vates its motor unit, all the fibers in
that unit contract. Muscles that
require a finer degree of control,
3 Contraction is completed.
such as muscles that move the fin-
gers, have only a few muscle fibers
in each motor unit. Large muscles,
such as muscles in the leg, have sev-
eral hundred muscle fibers in each
motor unit.

Interaction of Myosin and Actin
How do actin and myosin cause sarcomeres to shorten during a
muscle contraction? Myosin filaments have long, finger-like projec-
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tions with an enlarged “head” at one end. Actin filaments contain
Topic: Muscle Contraction
many sites to which myosin can bind during a muscle contraction. Keyword: HX4125
Stimulation of a muscle fiber leads to the exposure of these binding
sites on actin filaments. As shown in Figure 13, the myosin heads
attach to the binding sites on actin filaments and then rotate, caus-
ing myosin to move relative to actin.
Step Muscle contraction begins as a myosin head attaches to an
exposed binding site on an actin filament.
Step The myosin head rotates, causing the actin filament to
“slide” against the myosin filament. This sliding causes the
filaments to overlap one another.
Step ATP is used as the myosin head detaches and snaps back
into its original position. The myosin head reattaches to
actin at a binding site farther along the actin filament. When
the myosin heads cannot move farther, they release momen-
tarily and reposition themselves to grab the actin and pull
again. Thus, the myosin heads “walk” along actin filaments,
essentially “stepping” at each available binding site. This
grabbing and pulling action is repeated, causing the sar-
comere to shorten as the Z lines are pulled closer together.
A lot of energy is needed to power a muscle contraction. ATP is
used each time a myosin head moves from one binding site on an
actin filament to another. Without ATP, myosin heads would remain
attached to actin filaments, keeping the muscle contracted. ATP is
also used to regulate calcium ions in muscle cells. Calcium ions are
needed for binding sites to be exposed on actin filaments. Without
calcium ions and ATP, a muscle could not contract.
Figure
Figure13
38-13
B IO Interaction of Muscle Protein Filaments

gra hic
p During a muscle contraction, myosin and actin move against one another.
Muscle contraction begins 2 The myosin head rotates, ATP is used as the myosin
1 as a myosin head attaches causing the actin filament
3 head detaches from the
to a binding site on an to "slide" against the binding site and snaps back
actin filament. myosin filament. into its original position.
Myosin head
Myosin filament
Myosin head
Z line
Binding site
ATP
Actin Binding site ATP
filament
SECTION 3 Muscular System 859

Aerobic and Anaerobic Energy Pathways
The ATP used to power contractions is usually supplied by aerobic
Real Life respiration. During prolonged exercises, such as a long-distance
What is the best way to walk, oxygen is consumed at a sustainable, steady rate, and aerobic
increase muscle size, respiration yields most of the ATP. However, during brief, intense
strength, and activities, such as sprinting and weight lifting, anaerobic processes
endurance?
take over. Most of the ATP used in such activities comes from gly-
If you want to have large
colysis, as the oxygen available to muscle cells rapidly decreases.
muscles and be strong
enough to lift large loads, When both anaerobic and aerobic energy pathways become
you should train with insufficient for muscle contraction, muscles can use only glycogen
heavy weights. On the as an energy source. As glycogen is used up, the body begins to use
other hand, repeatedly lift- fat as an energy source. When ATP consumption exceeds ATP pro-
ing lighter weights builds duction, muscle fatigue and soreness may result, leaving muscle
muscle endurance.
fibers unable to recover from contraction.
Exercise and Fitness

Consistent aerobic exercise makes the heart pump more efficiently
and thus increases the energy available to muscles as a result of
improved blood circulation. More oxygen is extracted by the body
with each breath, increasing the oxygen supply to muscles. More
ATP is available for muscle contractions, thereby reducing muscle
fatigue. The increase in muscle efficiency results in greater
endurance, or the ability to continue exercising.
Resistance exercises, such as weight lifting, shown in Figure 14,
can increase muscle size and strength. Resistance exercises are
mostly anaerobic, so they do not usually improve the uptake of oxy-
gen to muscles. Muscle mass is increased by resistance training.
The amount of tension and the rate of exercise are both important
factors. However, the short-term demands of such strength training
do not cause the circulatory changes that increase endurance.
Figure 14 Resistance
Excessive exercise or failure to warm up properly can lead to
exercise. Weight lifting and
other resistance exercises muscle injury. Muscles can tear if they are stretched too far during
primarily involve anaerobic strenuous exercise. If excessive stress causes tendons to become
energy pathways in muscles. inflamed, a painful condition called tendinitis results.
Section 3 Review
Describe how muscle pairs work together to Critical Thinking Applying Information
move body parts. What causes muscle cramping after rigorous
exercise or a repeated movement?
Compare the roles of thick and thin filaments in
muscle contraction. Standardized Test Prep Which main organ
systems are involved when you flex your arm
Identify the energy pathway that is primarily at the elbow?
involved with exercises that increase muscle size A muscular, skeletal, immune
and strength.
B nervous, muscular, skeletal
C skeletal, excretory, nervous
D endocrine, muscular, immune

Skin, Hair, and Nails Section 4
Skin Objectives
The skin, which makes up about 15 percent of your total body ● Analyze the structure and
weight, is the largest organ of the body. Many specialized struc- function of the epidermis.
tures are found in the skin, which along with the hair and nails, ● Describe how the dermis
forms the integumentary system. The skin protects the body from helps the body maintain
injury, provides the first line of defense against disease, helps regu- homeostasis.
late body temperature, and prevents the body from drying out ● Summarize how hair and
through evaporation. As shown in Figure 15, the skin is made nails are formed.
mostly of connective tissue and layers of epithelial tissue. The two
● Identify various types of
primary layers of skin are the epidermis and the dermis.
skin disorders.
Epidermis Key Terms

The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin. About as thick as
epidermis
this page, the epidermis is made of several layers of epithelial cells. keratin
The part of the epidermis you see when you look in a mirror is a melanin
thin layer of flattened, dead cells that contain keratin. Keratin is a dermis
protein that makes skin tough and waterproof. The cells of the epi- hair follicle
dermis are continuously damaged by the environment. They are subcutaneous tissue
scraped, ripped, worn away by friction, and dried out because of sebum
moisture loss. Your body deals with this damage not by repairing
the cells, but by replacing them.
Figure 15 Structure of skin

Skin has two distinct layers that contain many blood
vessels, nerve cells, muscles, hairs, and glands.
Hair
follicle
Hair
Pore shaft
Epidermis Oil
(outer layer) gland
Dermis
(inner layer)
Subcutaneous
tissue
Vein
Nerve Muscle Sweat Artery
cells fibers gland
SECTION 4 Skin, Hair, and Nails 861

The outermost cells of the skin are continually shed and replaced
by a layer of actively dividing cells at the base of the epidermis. As
new skin cells form, they migrate upward and produce large
amounts of keratin. These cells are shed about a month after they
reach the surface. The inner layer of the epidermis also contains
cells that produce the pigment melanin. Melanin (MEHL uh nihn)
ranges in color from yellow to reddish brown to black, and it helps
determine skin color. People with more melanin tend to have
darker skin, and people with less melanin usually have lighter skin.
Melanin also absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation, protecting the skin
from exposure to sunlight. Exposure to UV radiation increases the
production of melanin. This is why some people become “tan” after
exposure to sunlight. However, UV radiation has been shown to
cause skin cancer, especially in people with light skin. Thus, you
should avoid excessive exposure to sunlight and wear sunscreen
when outdoors.
Dermis
The dermis is the functional layer of skin that lies just beneath the
epidermis. Connective tissue in the dermis makes the skin tough
and elastic. The dermis contains many nerve cells, blood vessels,
hair follicles , and specialized skin cells. Sensations of touch,
Courtroom Science
I n the United States, medical

evidence is often used in
criminal trials. Hairs left at a
DNA Fingerprinting
Hair consists of cells that contain
DNA. Thus, scientists can get
crime scene can provide enough additional evidence from hair
information to make or break a through DNA fingerprinting. First
case. To the unaided eye, the Forensic scientist
used as forensic evidence in the
differences between hairs amount 1980s, DNA fingerprinting is now (0.4 in.) per month; a 10 cm (4 in.)
to no more than color, coarse- fairly common in many kinds of length of hair gives evidence of a
ness, and whether the hairs are criminal trials. By 1997, DNA fin- person’s drug use during the last
curly or straight. Using a micro- gerprinting had been used in 10 months. Such evidence has
scope, however, scientists can more than 50,000 cases in the been introduced in cases involv-
distinguish more than two dozen United States. ing illegal drug use.
characteristics in a single hair.
Experts compare hairs found at Drug Testing
a crime scene with hairs of sus- Hair can also provide evidence
pects. These comparisons can of drug use. Hair collects drugs www.scilinks.org
rule out a suspect when the that are delivered to hair follicles Topic: Forensic Analysis
hairs are different, but they usu- by blood. Hair provides a longer Keyword: HX4087
ally are not enough to convict a record of drug exposure than
suspect without other evidence. blood or urine does. Head hair
grows an average of about 1 cm

temperature, and pain originate in nerve cells within the dermis.
The dermis also contains tiny muscles that are attached to hair fol-
licles in your skin. When you get cold, these muscles contract and
pull the hair shafts upright, helping to insulate the body. These
muscles also cause goose bumps on the skin’s surface.
Temperature Regulation A network of blood vessels in the dermis
provides nourishment to the living cells of the skin. These blood ves-
sels also help regulate body temperature by either radiating heat into
the air or conserving heat. If your body gets too hot, blood vessels just
under the skin dilate so that blood flows near the skin’s surface, releas-
ing heat from the body. This is why people with light complexions turn
slightly red during strenuous exercise, as shown in Figure 16. If your
body gets too cold, the blood vessels constrict, reducing heat loss.
Sweat glands in the dermis also help remove excess body heat. Figure 16 Cooling
The evaporation of sweat from the skin’s surface removes heat mechanism. Flushed
(reddened) skin is a sign that
more efficiently than the dilation of blood vessels. Most sweat is
the body is overheated and is
about 99 percent water and 1 percent dissolved salts and acids. Cer- releasing heat from the skin.
tain sweat glands located in body areas with dense hair, such as the
armpits, also secrete proteins and fatty acids. Because these sub-
stances provide a rich food source for bacteria, stale sweat often
releases the offensive odor of bacterial waste products.
Subcutaneous Tissue
Subcutaneous tissue, located beneath the skin just under the der-
mis, is a layer of connective tissue made mostly of fat. Subcutaneous
tissue acts as a shock absorber, provides additional insulation to
help conserve body heat, and stores energy. Subcutaneous tissue
also anchors the skin to underlying organs. The thickness of subcu-
taneous tissue varies in different parts of the body. For example, the
eyelids have very little, while the buttocks and thighs may have a lot.
The pads of subcutaneous tissue in the soles of your feet may be
more than 6 mm (0.25 in.) thick.
Hair and Nails

Hair and nails are derived from the epidermis. Hair follicles pro-
duce individual hairs, which help protect and insulate the body.
Shown in Figure 17, hair is made mostly of dead, keratin-filled cells.
A shaft of hair grows up from the hair follicle and through the skin’s
surface. Each hair on your head grows for several years. Then the
follicle enters a resting phase for several months, and the hair is
eventually shed. Hair color is primarily determined by the presence
of the pigment melanin. Blonde hair and red hair typically contain
less melanin than brown hair and black hair.
Nails are produced by specialized epidermal cells located in the
light, semicircular area at the base of each nail. These cells become
filled with keratin as they are pushed outward by new cells. Nails Figure 17 Hair. An average
protect the tips of the fingers and toes and continue to grow human head contains about
throughout life. 100,000 hairs.
SECTION 4 Skin, Hair, and Nails 863

Skin Disorders
The skin is continuously exposed to damaging factors such as insect
bites, microorganisms, and ultraviolet radiation. Injuries such as
www.scilinks.org
scrapes and blisters are often minor and usually heal rapidly with-
Topic: Skin Cancer
Keyword: HX4165 out permanent scarring. Burns, however, can be very serious and
can result in permanent scarring or even death. Some skin disorders
are the result of changes that occur within the body over time.
Acne
Figure 18 Skin cancer. In
The most common skin problem for teenagers is acne (AK nee), a
its early stages, a carcinoma chronic inflammatory condition that involves the skin’s oil-producing
may look like a wart. A malig- glands. Oil glands in the dermis release sebum (SEE buhm), an oily
nant melanoma often looks secretion that lubricates the skin. Sebum is released through ducts, or
like a mole that changes in pores, into nearby hair follicles. These oil glands are especially active
size, shape, or color. during adolescence. Acne is caused by excessive secretion of sebum,
which blocks pores with oil, dirt, and bacteria. Makeup and other
cosmetic products can contribute to clogging. As a result, the sur-
rounding tissue becomes infected and inflamed, and the pores
accumulate pus, producing pimples. Serious acne may need to be
treated using antibiotics. Although acne cannot be prevented, it can
usually be managed with proper skin care.
Skin Cancer
Skin cancer can result from genetic mutations caused by overexpo-
Carcinoma
sure to UV radiation. The most common types of skin cancer are
carcinomas (kahr sih NOH mahz), which originate in skin cells that
do not produce pigments. If they are detected early, carcinomas can
be treated. A small percentage of skin cancers are caused by muta-
tions that occur in pigment-producing skin cells. These cancers,
called malignant melanomas (mehl uh NOH mahz), grow very
quickly and spread easily to other parts of the body. About 8 out of
10 skin cancer deaths are from malignant melanomas. A carcinoma
and a malignant melanoma are shown in Figure 18. You can reduce
the risk of skin cancer by avoiding overexposure to either natural or
Malignant melanoma artificial UV radiation and by using protective sunscreens.
Section 4 Review
Describe the structure of the epidermis. Critical Thinking Recognizing
Relationships Why is a third-degree burn,
List two ways that the dermis helps regulate which destroys the epidermis and dermis of the
body temperature. skin, such a serious injury?
Summarize how nails are formed. Standardized Test Prep When your body tempera-
ture becomes too low, blood vessels just under
Identify the most common cause of skin cancer
your skin
and how it can be avoided.
A dilate. C release sweat.
B constrict. D raise hair shafts.

ZONE
1 Body Organization Section 1
epithelial tissue (846)
● Cells are grouped into four types of body tissues: epithelial nervous tissue (847)
tissue, nervous tissue, connective tissue, and muscle tissue. connective tissue (847)
● Body organs contain several types of body tissues. muscle tissue (847)
body cavity (849)
● Organs are grouped into organ systems in which organs
interact to perform a certain function, such as digestion.
● Endothermy enables the body to maintain homeostasis at
all times, regardless of the temperature outside the body.
2 Skeletal System Section 2

axial skeleton (850)
● The skeleton supports the body, provides protection for appendicular skeleton (850)
internal organs, and enables movement. bone marrow (851)
periosteum (851)
● The 206 bones of the skeleton are divided into the axial Haversian canal (852)
skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. osteocyte (852)
● Bones are made of hard compact bone surrounding porous osteoporosis (853)
joint (854)
spongy bone. ligament (854)
● Early in development, the skeleton is mostly cartilage. Bones
harden as calcium and other mineral deposits build up.
● Bones thicken and elongate as development continues.
● Three kinds of joints fasten bones together: immovable
joints, slightly movable joints, and freely movable joints.
3 Muscular System Section 3

tendon (856)
● Muscles are attached to bones by tendons. flexor (856)
● Muscle pairs move parts of the body by pulling on bones. extensor (856)
actin (857)
● Sarcomeres shorten during muscle contraction. myosin (857)
● During muscle contraction, actin and myosin interact. myofibril (857)
sarcomere (857)
● Energy is required for muscles to contract.
4 Skin, Hair, and Nails Section 4

epidermis (861)
● The skin consists of two layers: the epidermis and keratin (861)
the dermis. melanin (862)
dermis (862)
● Subcutaneous tissue anchors skin to underlying organs. hair follicle (862)
● Hair and nails are derived from the epidermis. subcutaneous tissue (863)
sebum (864)
● Most skin disorders are caused by damage to
the epidermis.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Give an example of a ball-and-socket joint

and a hinge joint. What type of movement
1. The thoracic cavity contains is permitted by each of these joints?
a. the spinal cord.
b. the brain. 9. What are some ways in which
c. organs of the respiratory system. forensic science can help in identifying a
d. organs of the reproductive system. criminal? Which method produces the
most compelling evidence?
2. Which of the following is a function
of the skeletal system? 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
a. support c. movement map that illustrates the body’s four levels of
b. protection d. All of the above structural organization. Try to include the
3. Resistance exercises following terms in your map: muscle tissue,
a. decrease muscle endurance. connective tissue, epithelial tissue, nervous
b. decrease muscle strength. tissue, organ, and organ system.
c. increase muscle size.
d. increase the number of muscle cells. Critical Thinking
4. Shortening of sarcomeres causes 11. Inferring Relationships Relate the
a. muscles to contract. events of muscle contraction to cellular
b. Z lines to move apart. respiration.
c. muscles to relax. 12. Inferring Relationships Young thorough-
d. None of the above bred horses that are raced too early in life
5. The dermis helps regulate body tempera- have an increased risk of breaking the
ture by producing bones in their legs. Using this information,
a. sweat. c. oil. what can you infer about bone develop-
b. acne. d. sebum. ment in horses?
6. The risk of developing skin cancer is 13. Predicting Outcomes Oil glands in the skin
increased by secrete a substance that helps kill
a. eating oily foods. c. exercising. bacteria. What might happen if you washed
b. using sunscreen. d. sunbathing. your skin too often?
7. What factors contribute to acne, shown in Alternative Assessment
the photograph below?
14. Relating Structure to Function Use a
compound light microscope to compare pre-
pared slides of bone, muscle, and epithelial
tissue. Write a short report that describes
the structural differences between cells.
Relate the structure of cells to their func-
tions.
15. Communicating Find out about the causes,
symptoms, and treatment of muscular disor-
ders such as muscular dystrophy and Lou
Gehrig’s disease. Summarize your findings
in an oral report.


correct answer.
The incidence of skin cancer is different
1 What do the bones of the arms and legs in different parts of the world. Skin cancer
form? is more common in fair-skinned people and
A. the appendicular skeleton in places with intense sunshine, such as
B. the axial skeleton Arizona and Hawaii. It is very common in
C. the pectoral girdle Australia because many residents are fair-
D. the vertebrae skinned people of European descent who
have little natural melanin to protect them
2 Which sequence identifies the levels of
from sun.
organization found in the body?
F. muscle cell > muscular system > 6 What types of causes result in skin cancer?
muscle > muscle tissue A. It is a result of only genetic causes.
G. muscle cell > muscle tissue > B. It is a result of only environmental
muscle> muscular system causes.
H. muscular system > muscle tissue > C. It is a result of both genetic and
muscle cell > muscle environmental causes.
I. muscle > muscle cell > D. It is a result of neither genetic nor
muscle tissue > muscular system environmental causes.
3 What is the bone at the end of a muscle Interpreting Graphics

attachment that does not move during Directions (7): Base your answer to question
muscle contraction called?
A. flexor
B. insertion Sarcomere Under Two Conditions
C. origin
D. tendon
4 Which of the following is made mostly of

connective tissue?
F. dermis
G. epidermis X
A
H. hair
I. keratin

5 Red blood cells are produced in red bone

marrow. How are red blood cells trans-
ported to the rest of the body?
B
Test 7 When a sarcomere changes from

Allow a few minutes at the end of the test-taking condition A to condition B, what happens
period to check for mistakes made in marking to the muscle cell that contains it?
answers. F. It contracts. H. It rotates.
G. It relaxes. I. It slides.

Exploration Lab
Analyzing the Work of Muscles
SKILLS
• Data collection
• Data interpretation
OBJECTIVE
• Relate muscles to the work
they do.
• Observe the effects of fatigue
MATERIALS
• watch with second hand
• graph paper
• spring hand grips
Striated muscle
Before You Begin fatigue affects the amount of work that

muscles can do.
Muscles are attached to bones. As muscles
contract, they move the bones to which they 1. Write a definition for the bold face term in
are attached. This is a basic type of work the preceding paragraph.
accomplished by the human body. As muscles 2. Create a data table like the one below.
are used, lactic acid builds up, resulting in
fatigue . In this lab you will investigate how
for Muscle Contractions

Number of Muscle Contractions in 10-Second Intervals
Time 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th
10 sec. 10 sec. 10 sec. 10 sec. 10 sec. 10 sec. 10 sec. 10 sec. 10 sec. 10 sec. 10 sec. 10 sec. 10 sec. 10 sec.
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Trial 4

Procedure Analyze and Conclude
1. Perform this investigation with a partner. 1. Summarizing Results Plot the results
Designate one laboratory partner to of the three trials on a graph. The X axis
observe and record while the other should be used for time in seconds, and
performs the experiment. the Y axis for the number of muscle
2. Hold the spring hand grips in your left contractions.
hand if you are righthanded, or in your 2. Analyzing Data Account for the differ-
right hand if you are lefthanded. Squeeze ences in the amount of work done by the
the grips rapidly and as hard as possible muscles during the three trials.
at a steady pace, until complete fatigue is 3. Drawing Conclusions What is the rela-
experienced in the muscles of your hand tionship between the work muscles can do
and forearm. and fatigue?
3. The recorder should count and record the 4. Predicting Patterns How does the work
number of squeezes for every 10 seconds. done in the muscles of your hands and
4. Allow the experimenter to rest for one arms relate to the work done by the muscle
minute and repeat the procedure for two of your heart?
more trials. 5. Further Inquiry Compare the charts and
5. Record the data in your table. Some spaces the graphs of the athletes and nonathletes.
may be left blank.
6. Switch roles with your partner and repeat
Do You Know?
the procedure.
1. Some bacteria produce lactic acid.
Explain how lactic acid from bacteria
can be used as a food preservative.
Origin
2. Some sports drink labels claim to
include ingredients that neutralize lac-
Tendon tic acid. Why would they make this
Scapula claim? Can a sports drink eliminate
lactic acid from muscles?
Biceps Use the following Internet resources
(flexor) to explore your own questions about
muscle contraction.
Humerus Insertion
Ulna
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Muscle Contraction
Keyword: HX4125
Radius
Biceps Muscle
CHAPTER 37 Introduction to Body Structure 869

Show jumper
Teen playing soccer

CHAPTER
38 Circulatory and
Respiratory
Systems
1. Define homeostasis. (Chapter 1, Section 1)
The Circulatory System
2. Define the terms diffusion and osmosis.
Transport and Distribution
Blood Vessels
3. Summarize the role of oxygen in aerobic Components of Blood
respiration. (Chapter 5, Section 3)
4. Describe cardiac muscle, smooth muscle,
epithelial tissue, and connective tissue.
Section 2
(Chapter 37, Section 1) The Heart
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the A Muscular Pump
sections indicated. Circulation of Blood
Section 3
Reading Activity The Respiratory System
Gas Exchange
Before you begin to read this chapter, write Breathing
down all of the key words for each of the three Gas Transport
sections in the chapter. Then, write a definition Respiratory Diseases
next to each word that you have heard of.
As you read the chapter, write definitions next
to the words that you did not previously know,
and modify as needed any definitions of words
you knew.
www.scilinks.org
Sports that require running, such as soccer, provide
aerobic exercise. Aerobic exercise increases the
body’s use of oxygen and causes breathing
rate and heart rate to increase.
CHAPTER 38 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems 871

Section 1 The Circulatory System
Objectives Transport and Distribution
● List five types of molecules Regardless of your activities—whether you are roller-blading,
that are transported by the swimming, singing, reading, or just sleeping—your body transports
cardiovascular system. nutrients, hormones, and gases, and it gets rid of wastes. Two body
● Differentiate between systems play major roles in these functions. The circulatory system,
arteries, capillaries, which includes the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems, trans-
and veins. ports these materials to different parts of the body. The respiratory
● Relate the function of the
system exchanges gases with the environment—it takes in oxygen,
lymphatic system to the func- O2, and releases carbon dioxide, CO2.
tions of the cardiovascular The human cardiovascular system , shown in Figure 1, functions
and immune systems. like a network of highways. The cardiovascular system connects the
● Relate each component of
muscles and organs of the body through an extensive system of
blood to its function. vessels that transport blood, a mixture of specialized cells and fluid.
The heart, a muscular pump, propels blood through the blood vessels.
● Summarize how a person’s
Different kinds of molecules move through the cardiovascular
blood type is determined.
system:
Key Terms 1. Nutrients from digested food are transported to all cells in the
body through the blood vessels of the cardiovascular system.
cardiovascular system
artery 2. Oxygen from the lungs, where the oxygen is taken in, is trans-
capillary ported to all cells through blood vessels.
vein 3. Metabolic wastes, such as carbon
valve
Cardiovascular System dioxide, are transported through
lymphatic system
plasma blood vessels to the organs and
red blood cell tissues that excrete them.
anemia 4. Hormones, substances which
white blood cell help coordinate many activities
platelet
of the body, are transported
ABO blood group system
through blood vessels.
Rh factor
5. The cardiovascular system also
distributes heat more or less
evenly in order to maintain a
constant body temperature. For
example, in a warm environ-
ment, blood vessels in the skin
relax to allow more heat to leave
the body. In a cold environment,
blood vessels constrict, conserv-
Figure 1 Blood vessels, ing heat by diverting blood to
blood, and a heart. deeper tissues. This diversion of
The cardiovascular system blood prevents heat from escap-
transports materials
ing the body.
throughout the body and
distributes heat.
872 CHAPTER 38 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

Blood Vessels
Blood circulates through the body through a network of vessels.
Arteries (AHRT uh reez), shown in Figure 2, are blood vessels that
carry blood away from the heart. Blood passes from the arteries
You can remember that
into a network of smaller arteries called arterioles (ahr TIHR ee arteries take blood away
ohls). Eventually, blood is pushed through to the capillaries. from the heart and veins
Capillaries are tiny blood vessels that allow the exchange of carry blood toward the heart
gases, nutrients, hormones, and other molecules in the blood. The by remembering the letter a
molecules are exchanged with the cells of the body. From the capil- at the beginning of the word
laries, the blood flows into small vessels called venules (VEHN artery and at the beginning
of the word away.
yools). From the venules, blood empties into larger vessels called
veins (vaynz). Veins are blood vessels that carry the blood back to
the heart.
Arteries
With each contraction, the heart forcefully ejects blood into arteries.
To accommodate each forceful pulse of blood, an artery’s wall
expands and then returns to its original size. Elastic fibers in the
walls of arteries allow arteries to expand.
The wall of an artery is made up of three layers of tissue, as
shown in Figure 2. The innermost layer is a thin layer of epithelial
tissue called the endothelium. The endothelium is made up of a
single layer of cells. Surrounding the endothelium is a layer of
smooth muscle tissue with elastic fibers. Finally, a protective layer
of connective tissue with elastic fibers wraps around the smooth
muscle tissue. Just as a balloon expands when you blow more air
into it, the elastic artery expands when blood is pumped into it.
Figure 2 Blood vessels

Blood vessels transport blood and allow for the exchange of substances.
Endothelium
Smooth muscle
Connective tissue
Arteriole Venule
(connects arteries (connects veins
to capillaries) to capillaries)
Capillaries
(exchange gases, nutrients,
wastes, and hormones)
Artery Vein
(carries blood away from the heart) (returns blood to the heart)
SECTION 1 The Circulatory System 873

Capillaries
No cell in your body is more than a few cell diameters away from a
Real Life capillary. At any moment, about 5 percent of your blood is in capil-
How long are all of your laries. In capillaries, gases, nutrients, hormones and other mol-
capillaries? ecules are transferred from the blood to the body’s cells. Carbon
If all of the capillaries of dioxide and other wastes are transferred from the body’s cells to the
your body were laid end to capillaries.
end, they would extend all
The extensive back-and-forth traffic in the capillaries is possible
the way across the United
States! The network of because of two key properties. Capillary walls are only one cell
capillaries in the body thick, so gas and nutrient molecules easily pass through their thin
is several thousand walls. Capillaries are also very narrow, with an internal diameter of
miles long. about 8 µm (0.0003 in.)—a diameter only slightly larger than the
Finding Information diameter of a red blood cell. Thus, blood cells passing through a cap-
Find out how capillaries illary slide along the capillary’s inner wall, as shown in the photo in
respond to long-term
Figure 2. This tight fit makes it easy for oxygen and carbon dioxide
aerobic training.
to diffuse to and from red blood cells through the capillaries.
Veins
The walls of veins consist of a much thinner layer of smooth muscle,
than the walls of arteries. They are farther from the heart pump and
exposed to lower pressures. Veins do not receive the pulsing pres-
sure that arteries do.
As shown in Figure 2, veins also differ from arteries in that
they are larger in diameter. A large blood vessel offers less resis-
tance to blood flow than a narrower one, so the blood can move
more quickly through large veins. The largest veins in the human
body are about 3 cm in diameter—about the same diameter as
your thumb.
Most veins have one-way valves. A valve is a flap of tissue that
ensures that the blood or fluid that passes through does not flow
Figure 3 Valves in veins. back. Valves in veins, such as the one shown in Figure 3, prevent the
Valves are most abundant blood from flowing backward during its trip to the heart. When the
in the veins of the arms skeletal muscles in your arms and legs contract, they squeeze
and legs, where the upward against the veins, causing the valves to open and thus, allowing the
flow of blood is opposed
blood to flow through. When the skeletal muscles relax,
by gravity.
Magnification: 122 the valves close, preventing the backflow of blood.
Sometimes the valves in the veins become weak and the
veins become dilated (larger in diameter). Veins that are
dilated because of weakened valves are called varicose
veins. Dilated veins that occur in the anal area are called
hemorrhoids.
Lymphatic System
Because the blood plasma is rich in proteins, most of the
fluid remains in the capillaries due to osmotic pressure.
However, every time the heart pumps, some fluids are
forced out of the thin walls of the capillaries. The fluid
that does not return to the capillaries collects in spaces
around the body’s cells. The fluid that collects around the

Mapping the Valves
in Veins
By applying pressure to your arm, you can locate
the valves in the veins of your arm.
Materials
nontoxic felt-tip pen
Procedure Analysis
1. Have a classmate make a fist 2. Gently place a second finger 1. Identify the direction blood
and extend his or her arm, along the vein about 5 cm flows in the vein you chose.
with the hand palm up and from the first finger (toward the
2. Propose why the subject
slightly below elbow level. elbow). Release the second
must make a fist and hold his
Locate a prominent vein on finger, but not the first. The
or her arm slightly down.
the inside of the forearm. vein should refill partway. Mark
Using one finger, press down this point, which indicates the 3. Infer what effect standing in
on the vein at a point near the location of a valve, with a pen. one place for long periods of
wrist to block the blood flow. You may have to try more than time might have on the veins
one vein to locate a valve. in the legs.
cells is picked up by the lymphatic system and Lymphatic System

returned to the blood supply.
The lymphatic system collects and recycles fluids
leaked from the cardiovascular system and is involved
in fighting infections. As shown in Figure 4, the Tonsils
lymphatic system is made up of a network of vessels
called lymphatic vessels and tiny bean-shaped struc- Thymus
tures called lymph nodes. Lymph tissue is also located
Lymph node
in various places throughout the body, including the
thymus, tonsils, spleen, and bone marrow. Spleen
Lymphatic vessels carry the leaked fluid, called
lymph, back to two major veins in the neck. Similar to
veins, lymphatic vessels contain valves that prevent the
backflow of the fluid. The fluid is pushed through Lymphatic vessel
the lymphatic vessels when the skeletal muscles in the
arms and legs contract.
Bone marrow
The lymphatic system also acts as a key element in
the immune system. Immune cells in the lymph nodes
and lymphatic organs help defend the body against
bacteria, viruses, other infecting microbes, and can-
cerous cells. Lymph nodes, which are concentrated in
the armpits, neck, and groin, sometimes get tender
and swell when they are actively fighting infection
and filled with white blood cells. Health-care pro-
fessionals are trained to detect certain types of
infections by feeling for the lymph node swellings on Figure 4 Lymphatic tissues. Lymphatic
the body. tissues are located throughout the body.

Components of Blood
Blood has been called the river of life because it is responsible for
Real Life transporting so many substances throughout the body. In life-
Several proteins from threatening situations, a person’s blood volume is carefully moni-
vampire bats stop blood tored, as shown in Figure 5. Typically, blood appears to us as a red,
from clotting. watery fluid. Blood is composed of water, but it also contains a vari-
These proteins, including ety of molecules dissolved or suspended in the water, as well as
one named draculin, are
three kinds of cells.
being used to develop
drugs to fight heart
disease. Plasma
Finding Information About 60 percent of the total volume of blood is plasma, the liquid
Investigate other drugs portion of blood. Plasma is made of 90 percent water and 10 percent
that are currently being
developed to help fight
solutes. The solutes include metabolites, wastes, salts, and proteins.
heart disease. Water Water in the plasma acts as a solvent. It carries other
substances.
Metabolites and Wastes Dissolved within the plasma are glucose
and other nutrient molecules. Vitamins, hormones, gases, and
nitrogen-containing wastes are also found in plasma.
Salts (Ions) Salts are dissolved in the plasma as ions. The chief
plasma ions are sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate. The ions have
many functions, including maintaining osmotic balance and regu-
lating the pH of the blood and the permeability of cell membranes.
Proteins Plasma proteins, the most abundant solutes in plasma,
play a role in maintaining the osmotic balance between the cyto-
plasm of cells and that of plasma. Water does not move by osmosis
from the plasma to cells because the plasma is rich in dissolved pro-
teins. Some of the plasma proteins are essential for the formation
of blood clots. Other proteins called antibodies help the body fight
Figure 5 The river of life. disease.
The loss of too much blood
can create a life-threatening Some plasma proteins help thicken the blood. The thickness of
situation. blood determines how easily it flows through blood vessels. Other
plasma proteins serve as antibodies, defending the body
from disease. Still other plasma proteins, called clotting pro-
teins or blood-clotting factors, play a major role in blood
clotting. When blood is collected for clinical purposes, the
blood-clotting factors are removed from the blood and stored
for later use.
Blood Cells and Cell Fragments

About 40 percent of the total volume of blood is cells and cell
fragments that are suspended in the plasma. There are three
principal types of cells in human blood: red blood cells, white
blood cells, and platelets.
Red blood cells Most of the cells that make up blood are
red blood cells —cells that carry oxygen. Each milliliter of
human blood contains about 5 million red blood cells. Red
blood cells are also called erythrocytes (eh RIHTH roh seyets).

Red blood cells White blood cell Platelets
Figure 6 Three kinds of
blood cells. Red blood cells
Most of the interior of a red blood cell is packed with hemo- transport oxygen and some
globin. Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that binds oxygen carbon dioxide. White blood
in the lungs and transports it to the tissues of the body. Mature red cells help defend the body
blood cells do not have nuclei and therefore cannot make proteins against disease. Platelets are
or repair themselves. Red blood cells have a biconcave shape, as involved in blood clotting.
shown in Figure 6, and a short life span (about 4 months). New red
blood cells are produced constantly by stem cells, specialized cells
in bone marrow.
An abnormality in the number or function of red blood cells can
result in anemia. Anemia (uh NEE mee uh) is a condition in which
the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood is reduced. Anemia may
result from blood loss or nutritional deficiencies.
White Blood Cells There are only 1 or 2 white blood cells, or
leukocytes (LOO koh sites), for every 1,000 red blood cells.
White blood cells are cells whose primary job is to defend the body
against disease. White blood cells, shown in Figure 6, are larger
than red blood cells and contain nuclei.
There are many different kinds of white blood cells, each with a
different immune function. For example, some white blood cells
take in and then destroy bacteria and viruses. Other white blood
cells produce antibodies, proteins that mark foreign substances for
destruction by other cells of the immune system.
Platelets In certain large cells in bone marrow, bits of cytoplasm
are regularly pinched off. These cell fragments, called platelets
(PLAYT lihts), are shown in Figure 6. Platelets play an important
role in the clotting of blood. If a hole develops in a blood vessel
wall, rapid action must be taken by the body, or blood will leak out
of the system and death could occur. www.scilinks.org
When circulating platelets arrive at the site of a broken vessel, Topic: White Blood Cells
they assume an irregular shape, get larger, and release a substance Keyword: HX4190
that makes them very sticky. The platelets then attach to the protein
fibers on the wall of the broken blood vessel and eventually form a
sticky clump that plugs the hole.

Figure 7 Blood-clotting cascade For wounds such as an open cut, the platelets
The release of enzymes release a clotting enzyme that activates a series of
Stimulus
from platelets at the site chemical reactions. Eventually, a protein called fib-
of a damaged blood Blood vessel rin is formed. The fibrin threads form a net, trapping
vessel initiates a damage
blood cells and platelets, as shown in Figure 7. The
“clotting cascade.” net of fibrin and platelets develops into a mass, or
clot, that plugs the blood vessel hole. A mutation in
a gene for one of the blood-clotting proteins causes
Platelets release
clotting protein hemophilia, a blood clotting disorder.
(enzyme)
Blood Type
Fibrin net Blood cells Occasionally, an injury or disorder is so serious
Clotting that a person must receive blood or blood compo-
reaction occurs
nents from another person. The blood types of the
recipient, the person receiving the blood, and that
of the donor, the person giving the blood, must
Fibrin net forms,
match. Blood type is genetically determined by the
trapping blood cells presence or absence of a specific complex carbo-
and platelets hydrate found on the surface of red blood cells.
One system used to type blood is the
ABO blood group system. Under this system, the
Result primary blood types are A, B, AB, and O. The let-
ters A and B refer to complex carbohydrates on
Blood clot
the surface of red blood cells that act as antigens,
substances that can provoke an immune response.
Blood Witness
B lood is the most common

evidence in the world of
criminal justice. Serology is the
substance found is blood, then
verifies that it is human blood.
In a violent crime, blood can
AB sample
might actu-
ally consist
scientific study of blood and its reveal the identities of both the of blood
components. A forensic serolo- victim and the criminal. Red from a type
gist analyzes blood, semen, blood cells contain telltale anti- A victim and a type B assailant.
saliva, and other body fluids to gens attached to their surfaces. ABO blood typing evidence
help solve crimes. Blood plasma contains proteins could exclude a suspect whose
that serve as antibodies. Using blood type did not match the evi-
A Link Between Suspect
antibodies, serologists can dence. But it could not positively
and Victim
determine the blood type of a identify a suspect.
Many criminals attempt to clean sample. Today blood is commonly
up a violent crime scene, but used in DNA testing, which
blood often remains behind. Positive Identification
results in highly accurate identifi-
Investigators may find blood For decades, ABO blood typing cation. DNA evidence can also
under a victim’s fingernails, on was the primary tool of forensic indicate familial relationships,
automobile upholstery, on carpet serologists. One problem, how- which can help investigators dis-
or clothing, or sometimes even in ever, is that blood evidence from cover that the assailant is related
a household drain. A forensic two or more individuals can to the victim.
serologist first determines if the combine. For example, a type

Table 1 Blood Types
Blood Antigen on the Antibodies Can receive Can donate
type red blood cell in plasma blood from blood to
A A B O, A A, AB
B B A O, B B, AB
AB A, B Neither A nor B O, A, B, AB AB
O Neither A nor B A, B O O, A, B, AB
As summarized in Table 1, people with type A blood have the

A antigen on their red blood cells. People with type B blood have the
B antigen. People with type AB blood have both the A and the B
antigen, while those with type O blood have neither antigen.
Antibodies are defensive proteins made by the immune system. Peo-
ple with type A blood produce antibodies against the B antigen, even
if they have never been exposed to it. In these people, type B red blood
cells clump and can block blood flow. For this reason, blood transfu-
sion recipients must receive blood that is compatible with their own.
People with type AB blood are universal recipients (they can
receive A, B, AB, or O blood) because they do not have anti-A or
anti-B antibodies. Type O individuals are universal donors (they can
donate blood to those with A, B, AB or O blood) because their blood
cells do not carry A or B antigens and therefore do not react with Real Life
either anti-A or anti-B antibodies. RhoGAM is a blood
product that can sup-
press the ability to
Rh Factor respond to Rh red
Another important antigen on the surface of red blood cells is blood cells.
called Rh factor, which was originally identified in rhesus mon- It is given to an Rh
keys. People who have this protein are said to be Rh, and those woman who is pregnant
who lack it are Rh. When an Rh mother gives birth to an Rh with an Rh fetus to pre-
infant, the Rh mother begins to make anti-Rh antibodies. The vent her from developing
mother’s antibodies may be passed to an Rh fetus in a future preg- antibodies that would
harm her baby.
nancy, which can lead to fetal death.
Section 1 Review
Name the system that transports nutrients, oxygen, Predict the blood types that would be safe for
wastes, hormones, and heat. a person with type A blood to receive during a
transfusion.
Compare the structures and functions of
arteries, capillaries, and veins. Standardized Test Prep Which antigens are on the
red blood cells of a person with type O blood?
Describe the role of the lymphatic system.
A 0 antigens C Either A or B antigens
Summarize the functions of water, red blood B Both A and B D Neither A nor B
cells, white blood cells, and platelets. antigens antigens

Section 2 The Heart
Objectives A Muscular Pump
● Differentiate the pulmonary Blood vessels allow for the movement of blood to all cells in the
circulation loop from body. The pumping action of the heart, however, is needed to pro-
the systemic circulation vide enough pressure to move blood throughout the body. The heart
loop. is made up mostly of cardiac muscle tissue, which contracts to
● Summarize the path that pump blood.
blood follows through the
heart. Two Separate Circulatory Loops
● Name the cluster of heart As shown in Figure 8, the human heart has two separate circulatory
cells that initiates contraction loops. The right side of the heart is responsible for driving the pul-
of the heart. monary (PUHL muh nehr ee) circulation loop, which pumps
● Describe three ways to oxygen-poor blood through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs.
monitor the health of the Gas exchange—the release of carbon dioxide and pick up of oxy-
circulatory system. gen—occurs in the lungs. The oxygenated blood is then returned to
● Name two vascular diseases, the left side of the heart through pulmonary veins.
and identify factors that The left side of the heart is responsible for driving the systemic
contribute to their circulation loop, which pumps oxygen-rich blood through a net-
development. work of arteries to the tissues of the body. Oxygen-poor blood is
then returned to the right side of the heart through the veins.
Key Terms
atrium Figure 8 Simplified diagram mapping
ventricle
vena cava The pulmonary circuit transports blood between the heart and lungs; the
systemic circuit transports blood between the heart and the rest of the body.
aorta
coronary artery
sinoatrial node Lung
Pulmonary capillaries
blood pressure artery
Pulmonary
pulse circulation
heart attack
stroke Heart
Pulmonary
vein
Veins
Valves Systemic
circulation
Arteries
Body Capillaries
Oxygen-poor blood Oxygen-rich blood

As shown in Figure 9, the heart has a wall that divides the right and
left sides of the heart. At the top of the heart are the left and right
atria (AY tree uh). The atria (singular, atrium), are chambers that
In human anatomy, the
receive blood returning to the heart. Below the atria are the left and terms left and right always
right ventricles , thick-walled chambers that pump blood away refer to the left and right
from the heart. A series of one-way valves in the heart prevent blood from the perspective of the
from moving backward. Figure 9 summarizes the path blood subject. This will help you
follows through the heart: understand why the terms
left and right appear
Two large veins called the inferior vena cava and superior vena reversed in anatomical
cava collect all of the oxygen-poor blood from the body. The drawings, such as that
venae cavae empty blood directly into the right atrium of the of the heart in Figures 8
heart. and 9.
The blood from the right atrium moves into the right ventricle.
As the right ventricle contracts, it sends the blood into the pul-
monary arteries.
The pulmonary arteries carry the blood to the right and left
lungs. At the capillaries of the lungs, oxygen is picked up and
carbon dioxide is unloaded.
The freshly oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the left
side of the heart through the pulmonary veins, which empty the
blood directly into the left atrium.
From the left atrium, the blood is pumped into the left ventricle.
Figure 9 Blood flow through the heart

The arrows trace the path of blood as it travels through the heart.
Superior vena cava Aorta sends blood to the coronary

sends O2-poor blood arteries, the brain, and the rest of
from upper body to the body.
right atrium.
Pulmonary arteries
send blood to the lungs.
Right lung Left lung
Pulmonary veins
Right atrium
return blood to the
sends blood to the
left atrium from
right ventricle.
the lungs.
Right ventricle Left atrium

sends blood to the sends blood to the
pulmonary artery. left ventricle.
Inferior vena cava Left ventricle

sends O2-poor blood sends blood to
from lower body to the aorta.
right atrium.
Blood from aorta to body
SECTION 2 The Heart 881

Figure 10 Electrical After a slight delay that permits the left atrium to empty com-
regulation of the heart. The
SA node, or pacemaker, fires
pletely, the left ventricle contracts. The walls of the left ventricle
ahead of each heart contrac- are muscular, so the left ventricle’s contraction is forceful.
tion. The wave of contraction The blood then enters one of the largest arteries of the body, the
spreads across both atria and
aorta (ay OHR tuh).
delays for an instant before it
travels to the ventricles. The first arteries to branch from the aorta are the coronary
(KOHR uh neh ree) arteries , which carry freshly oxygenated blood
to the heart muscle. Other arteries also branch from the aorta and
Sinoatrial carry oxygen-rich blood to all parts of the body.
(SA) node
After delivering oxygen to the cells of the body and picking up
carbon dioxide, the cycle continues when blood returns to the heart
through the inferior or superior venae cavae.
Initiating Contraction
Contraction of the heart is initiated by a small cluster of cardiac mus-
cle cells called the sinoatrial (SIE noh ay tree uhl) node, which is
embedded in the upper wall of the right atrium. The cells that make
up the sinoatrial node (SA node, for short) act as the pacemaker of
the heart. These cells “fire” an electrical stimulus in a regular
rhythm. Each stimulus is followed immediately by a contraction that
travels quickly in a wave and causes both atria to contract almost
simultaneously, as shown in Figure 10.
The wave of contraction spreads from the atria to the ventricles,
but almost one-tenth of a second passes before the ventricles start
to contract. The delay permits the atria to finish emptying blood
into the ventricles before the ventricles contract simultaneously.
The wave of contraction is conducted rapidly over both ventricles
by a network of fibers in the heart.
On average, heart contractions occur at a rate of about 72 times
per minute. During sleep the rate decreases, and during exercise it
increases. The SA node is controlled by two sets of nerves with
antagonistic (opposite) signals and is influenced by many factors,
including hormones, temperature, and exercise.
Monitoring the Cardiovascular System

Heart disease is one of the leading causes of death among people in
the United States. Health professionals use several different meth-
ods to monitor the health of the circulatory system.
Blood pressure Doctors routinely measure patients’ blood pressure.
Blood pressure is the force exerted by blood as it moves through
blood vessels. Blood pressure readings provide information about
the conditions of the arteries.
Blood pressure is measured with a blood pressure cuff and gauge,
shown in Figure 11. Blood pressure is expressed in terms of mil-
Figure 11 Monitoring
limeters of mercury (mm Hg) and is usually reported as the systolic
blood pressure. Blood
pressure is measured with pressure written over the diastolic pressure. The first number, the
a blood pressure cuff, a systolic pressure, is the pressure exerted when the heart contracts
stethoscope, and a mercury and blood flows through the arteries. The diastolic pressure is the
(Hg) column gauge. pressure exerted when the heart relaxes.

Normal blood pressure is less than 120 for systolic pressure and
less than 80 for diastolic pressure. An example of a normal reading
would be written 115/75 mm Hg. These figures indicate the blood The Greek word for heart is
is pushing against the artery walls with a pressure of 115 mm Hg as kardia. Because of the k in
this word, electrocardiogram
the heart contracts and 75 mm Hg as the heart rests.
is sometimes abbreviated as
Many Americans suffer from a condition called high blood pres- EKG instead of ECG.
sure, or hypertension. High blood pressure places a strain on the
walls of the arteries and increases the chance that a vessel will burst.
Left untreated, hypertension can lead to heart damage, brain dam-
age, or kidney failure. Regular aerobic activity can help people to
maintain a healthy blood pressure. Hypertension can be easily diag-
nosed and usually can be controlled by medicine, diet, and exercise.
Electrocardiograms (ECGs or EKGs) A common way to monitor the
heart’s function is to measure the tiny electrical impulses produced
by the heart muscle when it contracts. Because the human body is
composed mostly of water with dissolved ions, it conducts electrical
currents. A small portion of the heart’s electrical activity reaches the
body surface. As shown in Figure 12, an instrument called an electro-
cardiograph uses special sensors to detect the electrical activity. A
recording of these electrical impulses is called an electrocardiogram,
abbreviated as ECG or EKG. In one normal heartbeat, three succes-
sive electrical-impulse waves are recorded, as shown in Figure 12.
Heart Rate It takes only a watch with a second hand to measure
your pulse. Your pulse is a series of pressure waves within an artery
caused by the contractions of the left ventricle. A person’s pulse is
an indicator of his or her heart rate—how fast or slow the heart is
beating. Each time the blood surges from the aorta, the elastic walls
in the blood vessels expand and stretch. This rhythmical expansion Figure 12 Monitoring
can be felt as a pulse in areas where the vessels near the surface of heart contractions. The
the skin. The number of pulses counted per minute represents the electrical changes with each
number of heartbeats per minute. The most common site for taking heart contraction can be
detected with an electrocar-
a pulse is at a radial artery, on the thumb side of each wrist. The diograph. The characteristic
average pulse rate ranges from 70 to 90 beats per minute for adults. up-and-down waves are
analyzed to assess the health
of the heart.
Electrocardiogram
Atria contract Ventricles relax
Ventricles contract
Atria relax
SECTION 2 The Heart 883

Diseases of the blood vessels serving the heart and brain are lead-
ing causes of premature death and disability in the United States.
When either the heart or the brain does not get enough blood, parts
of the organ die. A heart attack occurs when an area of the heart
muscle stops working and dies. When an area of the brain dies the
result is a stroke. Death or varying degrees of disability may result.
Factors that contribute to heart attacks and strokes are cigarette
smoking, lack of physical activity, diets high in saturated fats, and
unmanaged stress.
Cholesterol
Exploring Further crystals
What Is a Heart Attack?

You may feel a sharp, crushing, squeezing pain in
your chest. You may have mild pain in your jaws
or down an arm. You may break into a cold sweat
and feel nauseated. Some of these symptoms Fat
occur in almost 2 million Americans each year
when they experience a heart attack. Some Normal artery Artery with fatty deposits
people experience almost no symptoms.
When calcium is deposited in the fatty buildup,
Why Do Heart Attacks Occur? the condition is called arteriosclerosis (ahr tihr ee
Heart attacks usually happen when the arteries oh skluh ROH sihs), or hardening of the arteries.
that deliver oxygen to the heart, the coronary Hardened arteries cannot expand to handle the
arteries, become blocked. Heart cells begin to volume of blood that enters every time the heart
die very quickly without blood. If a large part of contracts. Pressure builds up in the artery and
the heart is affected, the victim can die immedi- causes the heart to work harder.
ately or within a few days or weeks.
Prevention
Blockage of Arteries High blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, and
A blood clot formed somewhere else in the body cigarette smoking are all controllable risk factors
can break loose and flow to the heart or to the in heart disease. Not smoking at all, early diagno-
brain, where it blocks the flow of blood. Blood sis and treatment of high blood pressure, regular
flow is also blocked by the buildup of fatty medical checkups, a healthy diet, and regular
deposits, including cholesterol, a condition called exercise can all help prevent a heart attack or
atherosclerosis (ath uhr oh skluh ROH sihs). decrease the severity of one.
Section 2 Review
Summarize the path of blood through the body Identify three ways that the condition of the
starting and ending with blood that has just cardiovascular system can be monitored.
returned from the lungs to the heart.
Differentiate between a heart attack and a
List the sequence of events that results in atrial stroke.
and ventricular contraction.
Standardized Test Prep When the right ventricle
Describe the function of the SA node. contracts, it pumps blood to the
A lungs. C right atrium.
B aorta. D rest of the body.

The Respiratory System Section 3
Gas Exchange Objectives

A person can go without water for a few days and without food for ● Summarize the path that
more than a week. But if a person stops breathing for more than a air follows when it enters
few minutes, he or she will die. Breathing is the means by which the body through the nose
your body obtains and releases gases. Oxygen is used by your cells or mouth.
to completely oxidize glucose and then make ATP, the main energy ● Describe the role of the rib
currency in your cells. Without oxygen, your body cannot obtain muscles and diaphragm in
enough energy from food to survive. Excess carbon dioxide pro- breathing.
duced as a waste product of aerobic respiration is toxic to cells and ● Describe how breathing
must be removed. rate is regulated.
● Summarize how oxygen
The Path of Air and carbon dioxide are
Breathing is only one part of gas exchange. The gases must be transported in the blood.
transported by the cardiovascular system and then exchanged at ● Identify three serious
the cells. All of the organs and tissues that function in this exchange diseases of the lungs.
of gases make up the respiratory system, as shown in Figure 13.
A breath of air enters the respiratory system through the nose or Key Terms
mouth. Air is made up of many gases. About 21 percent of air is pharynx
oxygen gas. Hairs in your nose filter dust and particles out of the larynx
air. Tissues that line the nasal cavity moisten and warm the air. trachea
bronchus
alveolus
diaphragm
Respiratory System
Capillaries
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Left lung
Right lung
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Figure 13 Taking in and
Diaphragm Alveoli
exchanging gases. The
respiratory passages, lungs,
and diaphragm make up the
respiratory system.
SECTION 3 The Respiratory System 885

From the nose, air passes through a muscular tube in the upper
Real Life throat called the pharynx (FAIR ingks), which serves as a passage-
The lungs of human way for air and food. The air continues on through a passageway
fetuses do not function for air, called the larynx (LAIR ingks), or voice box located in the
until birth. neck. A flap of tissue, the epiglottis (ehp uh GLAHT ihs), covers the
A fetus’s opening to the larynx when you swallow food and liquids. This pre-
umbilical
cord contains
vents food and liquids from passing into your lungs.
blood vessels From the larynx the air passes into the trachea (TRAY kee uh), a
that lead to long, straight tube in the chest cavity. The trachea, or windpipe,
and from the divides into two smaller tubes, the bronchi (BRAHNG kie), which
placenta, lead to the lungs. Within the lung, the bronchi (singular, bronchus)
which con- divide into smaller and smaller tubes called bronchioles (BRAHNG
tains fetal
and maternal
kee ohls). The smallest bronchioles end in clusters of air sacs called
capillaries. The O2 in alveoli (al VEE uh lie), where gases are actually exchanged. As
the mother’s capillaries shown in Figure 13, each of the 300 million small alveoli is sur-
diffuses to the fetus’s rounded by a jacket of capillaries. Alveoli increase the surface area
capillaries, and the CO2 of your lungs to as much as 42 times the surface area of your body.
in the fetus’s capillaries The cells that line the bronchi and trachea secrete mucus that traps
diffuses into the mother’s
capillaries.
foreign particles in the air. The mucus is directed upward by cilia to
the epiglottis, where the mucus is swallowed and digested. Microbes
Finding Information
Determine the signal that in the mucus are destroyed by acids and enzymes in the stomach.
stimulates the baby to start
breathing at birth. Lungs
The lungs, which are among the largest organs in the body, are sus-
pended in the chest cavity, bounded on the sides by the ribs and on
the bottom by the diaphragm (DIE uh fram). The diaphragm is a
powerful muscle spanning the rib cage under the lungs, and it aids
in respiration. A double membrane surrounds both lungs. The outer-
most membrane is attached to the wall of the thoracic cavity, and the
inner membrane is attached to the surface of the lungs. Between
both membranes is a small space filled with fluid.
8
0
493 2
5
x2 + <
6x -
7 Calculating the Amount
of Air Respired
Background
Most adults take in about 0.5 L of air with each
breath. The normal breathing rate is about 8 to 15
breaths per minute.
Analysis
1. Calculate the volume of air 2. Calculate the volume of air 3. Critical Thinking
in liters an adult breathes per in liters an adult breathes per Inferring Conclusions The
minute if his or her breathing hour if his or her breathing breathing rate of an infant is
rate is 15 breaths per minute. rate is 15 breaths per minute. about 40 breaths per minute.
Why might infants have higher
respiratory rates than adults?

Breathing
Air is drawn into and pushed out of the lungs by the mechanical
process known as breathing. Breathing occurs because of air pres-
sure differences between the lungs and the atmosphere, as shown in
Figure 14. To draw air into the lungs, a process called inhalation, the
rib muscles contract. This draws the rib cage up and out, and the
diaphragm contracts, moving downward. The volume of the chest
cavity increases, which reduces the air pressure within the cavity
below the atmospheric pressure. Because air flows from a high pres-
sure area to a low pressure area, air is drawn into the lungs.
Normal exhalation (breathing out) is a passive process. The rib
cage and diaphragm muscles relax, which returns the rib cage and
diaphragm to their resting position. The relaxation of these muscles
decreases the volume in the chest cavity and increases the air pres-
sure in the lungs. Because the air pressure is now higher in the
lungs than in the atmosphere, air is forced out—from a high pres-
sure area to a low pressure area.
Breathing Rate
You took your first breath within moments of being born. Since then,
you have repeated the process more than 200 million times. What
controls how fast or slow you breathe? Receptors in the brain and car-
diovascular system continually monitor the levels of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the blood. The receptors enable the body to
automatically regulate oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations by
sending nerve signals to the brain. The brain responds by sending
nerve signals to the diaphragm and rib
Figure 14 Inhalation and exhalation
muscles in order to speed or slow the rate
of breathing. The diaphragm and the muscles between the ribs are involved
It may surprise you to know that in the movement of the chest cavity during breathing.
carbon dioxide levels have a greater Inhalation Exhalation
effect on breathing than do oxygen lev-
els. For example, if the concentration of
carbon dioxide in your blood increases,
such as during exercise, you respond by
breathing more deeply, ridding your
body of excess carbon dioxide. When the
Lung
carbon dioxide level drops, your breath-
ing slows. Factors such as stress, pain, Rib
and fear also influence breathing rate.
Rib cage
The signals that travel from the muscles
breathing center of the brain are not
subject to voluntary control. You cannot
Diaphragm
simply decide to stop breathing indefi-
nitely. You can hold your breath for a
while, but even if you lose consciousness
When the diaphragm contracts, When the diaphragm
your respiratory control center will take it moves down and air rushes in. relaxes, it moves up
over and force your body to breathe. and air is forced out.

Gas Transport
Breathing is the first step to getting oxygen to the trillions of cells
in your body. When oxygen molecules move from the air into your
alveoli, their journey has just begun, as shown in Figure 15. As
oxygen passes into the plasma of the bloodstream, it is picked up
by red blood cells that carry an iron-containing protein called
hemoglobin.
Oxygen Transport
Each hemoglobin molecule contains four atoms of iron. The iron
atoms in the hemoglobin give red blood cells their red color. The
iron atoms bind reversibly with oxygen. Reversible binding means
that at the appropriate time, the oxygen can be released elsewhere
in the body and be taken up by the cells that need it.
Figure 15 summarizes the path of oxygen and carbon dioxide
Figure 15 O2 and CO2 through the body:
transport in the blood.
Hemoglobin molecules inside
Oxygen from the outside air reaches the lungs.
red blood cells transport The oxygen diffuses from the alveoli to the pulmonary capillar-
oxygen, while most carbon ies. At the high oxygen levels that occur in the blood within the
dioxide is transported as bicar- lungs, most hemoglobin molecules carry a full load of oxygen.
bonate ions in the plasma.
The oxygen-rich blood then
CO2 is exhaled. O2 is inhaled.
travels to the heart. The heart
CO2 O2 pumps the blood to the tis-
Alveoli sues of the body.
Oxygen diffuses into the cells
for use during aerobic respi-
CO2 is released
CO2 in its gaseous ration. In the tissues, oxygen
form to the levels are lower. This causes
alveoli.
O2 the hemoglobin to release its
oxygen.
CO2
In tissues, the presence of
Pulmonary Pulmonary
arteries vein carbon dioxide produced by
O2 cellular respiration makes the
O2 diffuses
HCO3– into blood. blood more acidic and causes
HCO3– O2 the hemoglobin molecules to
Most CO2 Red blood cells assume a different shape, one
travels in the HCO3– carry O2.
blood as
that gives up oxygen more eas-
O2
bicarbonate Heart ily. The carbon dioxide diffuses
ions (HCO3– ). Systemic Systemic
from the cells to the blood.
arteries veins
Most of the carbon dioxide
CO2 O2
travels to the heart as bicar-
bonate (HCO3–) ions.
CO2 diffuses to the blood. O2 diffuses into cells.
The heart pumps the blood to
CO2 O2
the lungs. In the lungs, carbon
dioxide is released in its
gaseous form to the alveoli.
Cells The carbon dioxide is expelled.

Carbon Dioxide Transport
At the same time that the red blood cells are unloading oxygen to
tissues, they are also taking in carbon dioxide from the tissues.
Carbon dioxide is carried by the blood in three forms:
1. About 7 percent of CO2 is dissolved in the blood plasma.
2. About 23 percent of CO2 is attached to hemoglobin molecules
inside red blood cells.
3. The majority of CO2, 70 percent, is carried in the blood as bicar-
bonate ions.
How is CO2 carried as bicarbonate ions? In the presence of a cer-
tain enzyme, carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic
acid, H2CO3. This is shown in the equation below. The carbonic acid
then breaks up to form a bicarbonate ion, HCO3–, and a hydrogen
ion, H+:
H O CO ← 2
→ H CO ← → HCO H
2
– +
2 3 3
Thus, most of the CO2 travels in the blood as bicarbonate ions. The
hydrogen ions make the blood more acidic. When the blood reaches
the lungs, the series of reactions is reversed:
HCO – H+ ← 
→ H CO ←
3

→ H O CO 2 3 2 2
A bicarbonate ion combines with a hydrogen ion to form carbonic
acid, which in turn forms CO2 and water. The CO2 diffuses out of
the capillaries into the alveoli and is exhaled into the atmosphere.
Modeling the Role of

Bicarbonate in Homeostasis
You can use pH indicator paper, water, and baking soda to
model the role of bicarbonate ions in maintaining blood pH
levels in the presence of carbon dioxide.
Materials
two 250 mL beakers, 250 mL distilled water, 2.8 g baking soda,
glass stirring rod, 4 strips of wide-range pH paper, 2 drinking straws
Procedure
1. Label one beaker A and Test and record the pH of the 3. Propose the chemical reac-
another B. Fill each beaker resulting solution. tion that might have caused a
halfway with distilled water. change in pH in beaker A.
5. Repeat step 4 for beaker B.
2. Add 1.4 g of baking soda to 4. Summarize the effect the
Analysis
beaker B, and stir well. baking soda had on the pH
1. Describe what happened to of the solution in beaker B
3. Test and record the pH of the the pH in the two beakers after blowing.
contents of each beaker. during the experiment.
4. Gently blow through a straw, 2. State the chemical name for Applying Information
into the water in beaker A. baking soda. Relate what happened in
beaker B to what occurs in
the bloodstream.

Respiratory Diseases
Respiratory diseases affect millions of Americans. A chronic pul-
monary—or lung—disease is one for which there is no cure.
Figure 16 Healthy lungs

Asthma
and cancerous lungs. The Asthma (AZ muh) is a chronic condition in which the bronchioles
top photo shows a healthy of the lungs become inflamed, because of their sensitivity to certain
lung. The bottom photo stimuli in the air. The bronchial walls tighten and extra mucus is
shows a cancerous lung produced, causing the airways to narrow. In severe asthma attacks,
which contains cells that divide the alveoli may swell enough to rupture. Stressful situations and
uncontrollably.
strenuous exercise may trigger an asthma attack. Left untreated,
asthma can be deadly. Fortunately, prescribed inhalant medicines
may help to stop an asthma attack by expanding the bronchioles.
People of all ages can have asthma.
Emphysema
Emphysema (ehm fuh SEE muh) is a chronic pulmonary disease
resulting from a chemical imbalance that destroys elastic fibers in
the lungs. Normally, these elastic fibers allow the lungs to expand
and contract. Emphysema begins with the destruction of alveoli. Dam-
age to the alveoli is irreversible and results in constant fatigue and
breathlessness. Severely affected individuals must breathe from tanks
of oxygen in order to live. Smoking is the cause of up to 90 percent of
emphysema cases. Emphysema affects millions of lives annually.
Lung Cancer
Lung cancer is one of the leading causes of death in the world today.
As shown in Figure 16, cancer is a disease characterized by abnormal
cell growth. In the United States alone, about 28 percent—155,000—
of all cancer deaths each year are attributed to lung cancer. Smoking
is the major cause of lung cancer. Once cancer is detected, the
affected lung is sometimes removed surgically. Even with such dras-
tic measures, lung cancer usually is not curable. About 15 percent of
lung cancer victims live more than 5 years after diagnosis.
Section 3 Review
Sequence the path a breath of air follows through Evaluate the role that bicarbonate plays in
the respiratory system. (Begin with air that enters transporting carbon dioxide in the blood.
through the nose or mouth.)
State the direction that the diaphragm and rib Would a person with emphysema have trouble
cage move to cause inhalation. climbing stairs? Explain.
Name the main factor that regulates the rate of Standardized Test Prep Gases are exchanged
breathing. between the blood and inhaled air in the
A larynx. C trachea.
B alveoli. D bronchi.

ZONE
1 The Circulatory System Section 1
cardiovascular system (872)
● The human cardiovascular system is made up of blood artery (873)
vessels, blood, and the heart, which together function to capillary (873)
transport materials, remove wastes, and distribute heat. vein (873)
valve (874)
● Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Materials are lymphatic system (875)
exchanged at the capillaries. Veins contain valves and carry plasma (876)
blood back to the heart. Fluids not returned to the capillaries red blood cell (876)
anemia (877)
are picked up by lymphatic vessels.
white blood cell (877)
● Blood consists of plasma (water, metabolites, wastes, salts, platelet (877)
and proteins), red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. ABO blood group system (878)
Rh factor (879)
● Blood types are defined by the presence or absence of
complex carbohydrates on the surface of red blood cells.
2 The Heart Section 2

atrium (881)
● The right side of the heart receives oxygen-poor blood from ventricle (881)
the body and circulates it to the lungs. In the lungs, gases vena cava (881)
are exchanged. The left side of the heart receives oxygenated aorta (882)
blood from the lungs and circulates it to the rest of the body. coronary artery (882)
sinoatrial node (882)
● Atria receive blood entering the heart. Ventricles pump blood pressure (882)
blood away from the heart. pulse (883)
heart attack (884)
● Contraction of the heart is initiated by the sinoatrial node. stroke (884)
The health of the cardiovascular system can be monitored by
measuring blood pressure, electrical impulses, and pulse rate.
● Blockages in blood vessels can lead to heart attacks or strokes.
3 The Respiratory System Section 3

pharynx (886)
● A series of tubes and bunched air sacs (alveoli) take in larynx (886)
oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. trachea (886)
● Breathing is caused by pressure changes within the chest cavity. bronchus (886)
alveolus (886)
● The concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood is the most diaphragm (886)
critical factor affecting a person’s breathing rate and depth.
● Oxygen is transported to tissues by combining with hemo-
globin molecules inside red blood cells. Most carbon dioxide
is transported to the lungs as bicarbonate ions.
● Asthma, emphysema, and lung cancer limit lung function.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 9. One of the effects of

1. Lymphatic vessels aspirin is that it thins the blood. Why is
a. transport blood. aspirin sometimes prescribed for people at
b. return fluid to the blood. risk for heart attack?
c. produce antibodies.
d. control blood clotting.
map that outlines the path of blood
2. What type of blood contains A antibodies through the body. Try to include the follow-
(but not B antibodies) in the plasma and ing terms in your map: artery, capillary,
lacks Rh antigens? vein, lymphatic system, pulmonary circula-
a. AB negative tion, systemic circulation, atrium, ventricle,
b. A positive aorta, and vena cava.
c. B negative
d. O positive Critical Thinking
3. Blood in the pulmonary veins is 11. Forming Reasoned Opinions The frequency
a. oxygen-rich. c. oxygen-poor. of blood clots and heart attacks is much
b. iron-poor. d. calcium-rich. lower among the Inuit, the nomadic hunters
4. The diaphragm contracts and the pressure of the North American Arctic, than it is
in the chest cavity decreases during among other North Americans. This differ-
a. bronchitis. c. inhalation. ence is credited to fish oils in the Inuit diet
b. exhalation. d. asthma attacks. that cause blood platelets to be more slippery.
How might slippery platelets affect the clot-
5. Breathing rate will automatically increase ting ability of the Inuit’s blood?
when
a. blood pH is high. 12. Evaluating Results As altitude increases,
b. the amount of carbon dioxide in the the atmosphere becomes thinner. When a
blood increases. runner who trained at sea level competes at
c. blood acidity decreases. a location 500 m above sea level, how will
d. hemoglobin is unloaded. his or her performance compare with his or
her training performance?
6. Which organ receives the richest oxygen
supply from blood returning from the 13. Inferring Function How is body tempera-
lungs? ture regulated by blood vessel diameter?
a. stomach c. heart 14. Finding Information Use the media center
b. brain d. kidney or Internet resources to find out which
7. Which is not a factor that contributes foods are recommended as foods that
to chronic coronary disease? prevent heart disease.
a. a diet rich in fat Alternative Assessment
b. unmanaged stress
c. cigarette smoking 15. Career Connection Respiratory
d. vigorous exercise Therapist Research the field of respiratory
therapy, and write a report on your find-
8. Why does DNA testing of ings. Your report should include a job
blood lead to a more reliable match of description, training required, kinds of
blood to suspect than does blood typing? employers, growth prospects, and
starting salary.


correct answer.
Dr. Charles Drew (1904–1950) was an
1 Which part of the heart is the pacemaker? African-American physician who worked at
A. coronary sinus Columbia University in New York. Among
B. inferior vena cava his many accomplishments was the develop-
C. left ventricle ment of a way to keep blood plasma fresh.
D. sinoatrial node He separated the plasma from the red blood
cells and froze these parts of blood sepa-
2 In what organ is carbon dioxide released
rately. Dr. Drew also helped save many lives
in its gaseous form?
by starting the first blood bank.
F. diaphragm H. lung
G. heart I. muscle 7 Which component of blood allows it to
carry oxygen to tissues in the body?
3 Which of the following is a disease in
F. plasma
which the elastic fibers in the alveoli are
G. platelets
destroyed?
H. red blood cells
A. arteriosclerosis
I. white blood cells
B. asthma
C. atherosclerosis Interpreting Graphics
D. emphysema
4 Which chamber of the heart sends blood 8 on the graph below.
to the lungs? Daily Salt Intake and
F. left atrium H. left ventricle Blood Pressure in Humans
G. right atrium I. right ventricle
170
5 Which of the following is a factor that
Systolic pressure (mm Hg)
160
contributes to heart attacks and strokes?
A. unmanaged stress 150
B. regular physical activity 140
C. avoiding cigarette smoke 130
D. diet high in unsaturated fats
120
Directions (6): For the following question, 110
write a short response. 0
10 20 30
6 What role do surface markers play in Daily salt intake (g)
blood typing?
8 What conclusion can be drawn from the
chart?
Test A. A person can reduce hypertension by
When using a graph to answer a question, read the consuming more salt.
graph’s title and the labels on the graph's axes. For B. A daily intake of 10 g or less is
graphs that show a change in some variable over associated with a risk to health.
time, keep in mind that the steepness and direction C. Raising one’s systolic pressure leads
of a curve indicate the relative rate of change at a to a greater appetite for salt.
given point in time. D. Increasing one’s salt intake leads to
an increased systolic pressure.

Exploration Lab
Determining Lung Capacity
SKILLS • Predict how exercise
• Measuring will affect tidal volume,
• Organizing data vital capacity, and lung
• Comparing capacity.
OBJECTIVES MATERIALS
• Measure your tidal vol- • spirometer
ume, vital capacity, and • spirometer mouthpiece
expiratory reserve volume.
• Determine your inspira-
tory reserve capacity and
lung capacity.
Before You Begin DATA TABLE

Lung capacity is the total volume of air that Tidal volume
the lungs can hold. The lung capacity of an Expiratory reserve volume
Inspiratory reserve volume
individual is influenced by many factors,
Vital capacity
such as gender, age, strength of diaphragm
Estimated residual volume
and chest muscles, and disease.
Estimated lung capacity
During normal breathing, only a small
percentage of your lung capacity is inhaled
and exhaled. The amount of air inhaled or
question about breathing that you would
exhaled in a normal breath is called the
like to explore.
tidal volume . An additional amount of air,
called the inspiratory reserve volume , can be
forcefully inhaled after a normal inhalation. Procedure
The expiratory reserve volume is the amount PART A: Measuring Volume
of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a
1. Place a clean mouthpiece in the end
normal exhalation. Vital capacity is the maxi-
of a spirometer. CAUTION: Many
mum amount of air that can be inhaled or
diseases are spread by body fluids, such
exhaled. Even after you have exhaled all the
as saliva. Do NOT share a spirometer
air you can, a significant amount of air
mouthpiece with anyone.
called the residual volume still remains in
your lungs. 2. To measure your tidal volume, first inhale
In this lab, you will determine your lung a normal breath. Then exhale a normal
capacity by using a spirometer , which is an breath into the spirometer through the
instrument used to measure the volume of mouthpiece. Record the volume of air
air exhaled from the lungs. exhaled in your data table.
1. Write a definition for each boldface term 3. To measure your expiratory reserve vol-
in the paragraph above. ume, first inhale a normal breath and then
exhale normally. Then forcefully exhale as
2. Make a data table similar to the one
much air as possible into the spirometer.
shown.
Record this volume.
4. To measure your vital capacity, first inhale Analyze and Conclude
as much air as you can, and then forcefully
1. Interpreting Data How does your expira-
exhale as much air as you can into the
tory reserve volume compare with your
spirometer. Record this volume.
inspiratory reserve volume?
2. Interpreting Tables How does the resid-
PART B: Calculating Lung Capacity ual volume and lung capacity of an average
The table below contains average values for young adult female compare with those of
residual volumes and lung capacities for an average young adult male?
young adults.
3. Analyzing Data How did your tidal
Residual Volumes and Lung Capacities volume compare with that of others?
Males Females 4. Recognizing Relationships Why was
the value you found for your lung capacity
Residual volume* 1,200 mL 900 mL
an estimated value?
Lung capacity* 6,000 mL 4,500 mL
5. Analyzing Methods Why didn’t you mea-
*Athletes can have volumes 30–40% greater than the average for their gender.
sure inspiratory reserve volume directly?
5. Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) can be 6. Inferring Conclusions Why would males
calculated by subtracting tidal volume (TV) and athletes have greater vital capacities
and expiratory reserve volume (ERV) from than females?
vital capacity (VC). The formula for this 7. Justifying Conclusions Use data from
calculation is as follows: your class to justify the conclusion that
IRV VC TV ERV exercise increases lung capacity.
Use the data in your data table and the 8. Further Inquiry Write a new question
equation above to calculate your estimated that could be explored with another
inspiratory reserve volume. investigation.
6. Lung capacity (LC) can be calculated by
adding residual volume (RV) to vital capac-
ity (VC). The formula for this calculation is
as follows:
LC VC RV
Use the data in your data table and the
table above to calculate your estimated
lung capacity.

On the Job
7. Dispose of your mouthpiece in the
designated waste container. Spirometry is the use of a spirometer to
study respiratory function. Nurses and
respiratory therapists use spirometers
to evaluate patients with respiratory
diseases. Do research to discover how
spirometry is used to distinguish differ-
ent respiratory diseases. For more about
CHAPTER 38 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems 895

Healthier lifestyles can lower the

risk of diabetes, while new treat-
ments help reduce the damage
caused by the disease.
Controlling
Diabetes
t is the fifth leading cause of death in the United
I States, killing more than 200,000 people each

year. But almost one-third of the peo-
ple who have this disease—more than 5 million
individuals—are unaware they are sick. During the
7 to 10 years that typically elapse between the onset
expenses, disability payments, and other costs.
Although all racial and ethnic groups suffer from
diabetes, it is much more common among
of the illness and diagnosis, the heart, eyes, kid- African Americans, Native Americans, and
neys, and nerves in the hands and feet can suffer Hispanics.
irreversible damage. In later stages, the disease can With a combination of drugs, diet, and exer-
cause blindness, kidney failure, heart disease, cise, many diabetics can prevent the development
stroke, and infections so severe that often the of complications and delay the progression of the
affected limb must be amputated. disease—although no cure yet exists. Even better
The disease is diabetes mellitus. It affects news is that people at risk for diabetes can take
nearly 17 million Americans and is responsible some simple steps to dramatically lower their
for more than $100 billion a year in medical likelihood of becoming sick. The bad news is that,
despite these advances in treatment and preven-
tion, the number of diabetics is rising fast in the
United States and throughout the world.
What Is Diabetes?
Diabetes is a disease of the endocrine system in
which the body loses the ability to regulate the
amount of glucose in the blood. It stems from a
defect in the body’s production, use, or transport
of insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas
Smart choices
A healthful diet helps reduce
the likelihood of diabetes.
896 UNIT 9
C a re e r
Young diabetic
Diabetes affects both young and old. Community
Health
Educator
that stimulates cells to take in glucose. Blood glu-
Diabetes educator
cose levels, normally tightly controlled, rise Profile
abnormally high, and the excess glucose is
excreted in the urine.
There are two forms of diabetes. Type I dia-
C ommunity health educators counsel individuals
and groups on health practices designed to pre-
vent disease and promote good health.
betes usually begins suddenly when the person is
a child or young adult. The immune system Job Description
attacks the insulin-producing cells of the pan- Persons who work in community health education
creas. What stimulates this attack remains a may specialize in a particular disease (such as dia-
mystery, although some recent research suggests betes) and its effects and treatments. Many commu-
a virus may be responsible. People with Type I nity health educators are employed by state and local
diabetes cannot make insulin and must take governments, public health clinics, social service
daily injections of insulin to survive. agencies, or resident care facilities. Employment is
By contrast, in Type II diabetes, the pancreas expected to grow rapidly as the population ages and
either stops producing enough insulin or the public interest in health education continues to
body’s cells become insensitive to insulin’s increase.
effects, taking in less glucose. In both cases,
Science/Math Career Preparation
chronically high blood glucose levels result.
Between 90 and 95 percent of diabetics have this Biology Biochemistry
form of the disease, which can often be con- Microbiology Psychology
trolled by diet and exercise instead of insulin Chemistry Sociology
injections.
Type II diabetes results from a combination of
genetic and environmental causes. Susceptibility Although it’s more often diagnosed in people
to the disease runs in families—the odds of over 40, Type II diabetes results from damage that
becoming sick are higher if a parent or sibling accumulates over years or decades. However,
suffers from the disease. Your lifestyle is just as Type II diabetes is becoming more common in
important, since the disease is usually brought on younger adults and children. Eating a healthful
by an environmental risk factor. The environ- diet, getting plenty of exercise, and avoiding obe-
mental risk factors are a diet high in fat and sugar sity will reduce your likelihood of diabetes and
but low in fiber, lack of exercise, high blood pres- can pay off in other ways, such as reducing your
sure, and obesity (weighing more than 20 percent risk of heart disease, stroke, and some kinds of
over your ideal body weight). cancers. ■

Science and Society steps make a big difference. What type of diet can
1 What are some other lifestyle diseases? help prevent diabetes? What other measures can be
Diabetes is often called a lifestyle disease because it taken to maintain a healthy lifestyle?
frequently results from how one chooses to live—diet, Technology: Biomedical Devices
activity level, and so forth. Using library resources or 3 How might new technology further improve
the Internet, research some other lifestyle diseases, diabetes treatment? Over the last few decades,
such as certain kinds of cancer and heart disease. new methods for treating diabetes have come on the
What are the risk factors for these diseases? How market. These include new ways of delivering insulin
have the frequencies of these diseases changed over and better methods for monitoring blood glucose
the last century? levels. Research a new technology for treating dia-
2 What are healthy lifestyle choices to pre- betes that is being developed or tested. Then write a
vent diabetes? When it comes to health, little short report describing what you learned.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. Science • Technology • Society 897
Villi in human intestine (1,280)

CHAPTER
39 Digestive
and Excretory
Systems
1. Differentiate between carbohydrates, fats,
and proteins. (Chapter 2, Section 3) Your Body’s Need for Food
Food
2. Compare saturated and unsaturated fatty
Energy and Building Materials
acids. (Chapter 2, Section 3)
Vitamins, Minerals, and Water
3. Describe the role of enzymes in chemical
reactions. (Chapter 2, Section 4)
4. Summarize the function of cellular respiration.
Section 2
(Chapter 5, Section 3) Digestion
5. Discuss the balance of water and salt in Breaking Down Food
vertebrates. (Chapter 33, Section 1) The Small Intestine
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the The Large Intestine
sections indicated.
Section 3
Excretion
Reading Activity Water and Metabolic Wastes
The Kidneys
Before you begin to read, survey the chapter,
noting the red headings at the tops of pages and
the blue subheadings. Use these heads to make
an outline of the chapter, leaving space after
each heading. Fill important facts in as you read.
www.scilinks.org
National Science Teachers Association sciLINKS Internet
The multiple, protruding villi of the small intenstine

greatly increase the surface area through which
nutrients are absorbed.
CHAPTER 39 Digestive and Excretory Systems 899

Section 1 Your Body’s Need
for Food
Objectives Food
● Identify five nutrients Your body uses energy to move, to grow, and even to lie still and
found in foods. sleep. The amount of energy you need depends on many factors,
● Relate the role of
including your age, your sex, your rate of growth, and your level of
carbohydrates, proteins, physical activity. Different activities use different amounts of
lipids, vitamins, minerals, energy, as shown in Figure 1.
and water in maintaining You obtain energy from the nutrients in the foods and beverages
a healthy body. you consume. A nutrient is a substance required by the body for
● Describe each of the parts energy, growth, repair, and maintenance. Nutrients in food and
of the USDA food guide beverages include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and
pyramid. minerals. Each nutrient plays a different role in keeping your body
● Name one health disorder
healthy. Water is essential for life and for maintaining health.
associated with high levels The large molecules in food must be broken down in order to be
of saturated fats in absorbed into the blood and carried to cells throughout the body.
the diet. The process of breaking down food into molecules the body can use
is called digestion . Your cells then break the chemical bonds of the
Key Terms digested food molecules and use the energy that is released to make
nutrient ATP during the process of cellular respiration.
digestion The energy available in food is measured by using a unit called a
calorie calorie. A calorie is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
vitamin temperature of 1 g of water 1°C (1.8°F). The greater the number of
mineral calories in a quantity of food, the more energy the food contains.
Because a calorie represents a very small amount of energy, nutri-
tionists use a unit called the Calorie (with a capital C), which is
equal to 1,000 calories. On food labels and throughout this book,
the word calories represents Calories (1,000 calories).
Figure 1 Energy required

for common activities. Quiet
activities require just a little
more energy than what it takes
to keep you alive. Strenuous
activities require more energy.
900 CHAPTER 39 Digestive and Excretory Systems

Energy and Building Materials
Each nutrient plays a different role in maintaining a healthy body.
Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are involved in providing both
energy and building materials to the cells.
information about food
Carbohydrates nutrients and water. Across
Carbohydrates that exist as single sugar molecules are called mono- the top, write the headings
saccharides or simple carbohydrates. Carbohydrates made of two Carbohydrates, Proteins,
Lipids, Vitamins, Minerals,
or many sugar molecules linked together by chemical bonds are and Water. Along the left
called complex carbohydrates. Complex carbohydrates must be side, write Functions, Food
digested (broken down) into simple sugars before cells can use their sources, and Additional
energy. comments. Add information
Many foods contain carbohydrates, as shown in Figure 2. Glucose, to the table as you read
fructose, and other simple sugars are found in fruits, honey, and Section 1.
onions. Glucose, a simple sugar, is used by cells for energy, and it
can be directly absorbed into your bloodstream. Table sugar con-
tains sucrose, two simple sugars linked together. Starches are long
chains of sugars found in cereal grains and in vegetables such as
potatoes, beans, and corn. Cellulose is a major component of plant
cell walls and is found in all foods that come from plants. Cellulose,
which is a major part of fiber, does not provide energy because we
do not have the enzymes to digest it. However, cellulose aids in
human digestion by stimulating the walls of the digestive tract to
secrete mucus, which helps pass food through the digestive tract.
If excess carbohydrates are consumed, they are stored as the
carbohydrate glycogen in the liver and in some muscle tissue.
Glycogen can later be broken back down into glucose when the
body needs energy. The remainder of the excess glucose is con-
verted to fat and stored in fatty tissue.
Figure 2 Nutrients in food

Although most foods contain a mix of nutrients, some foods are richer
than others in a specific nutrient.
Carbohydrate-rich foods Protein-rich foods Fat-rich foods
(Carbohydrates contain (Proteins contain 4 calories per (Fats contain 9 calories per gram.)
4 calories per gram.) gram.) Fish, eggs, poultry, beef Milk, cheese, meats, butter,
Breads, pasta, grains, cereals, pork, nuts, legumes, milk, olives, avocados, fried foods,
potatoes, fruits cheese, tofu oils, chips
SECTION 1 Your Body’s Need for Food 901

Proteins
The digestive products of proteins—amino acids—are normally
used by the body for making other protein molecules, such as
enzymes and antibodies. When more protein is eaten than is needed
by the cells, the amino acids are used for energy or converted to fat.
The body requires 20 different amino acids to function. A child’s or
teen’s body can make 10 of the amino acids from other amino acids.
The other 10, called essential amino acids, must be obtained
directly from food. Most animal products, such as eggs, milk, fish,
poultry, and beef, contain all of the essential amino acids. No single
plant food contains all of the essential amino acids. But eating
certain combinations of two or more plant products can supply all
the essential amino acids. Adults must get eight essential amino
acids from food.
The guidelines for healthy eating are summarized in the USDA
(U.S. Department of Agriculture) food guide pyramid, as shown in
Figure 3. The pyramid lists the daily number of servings needed
from each food group to obtain a variety of nutrients in your diet.
Lipids
Lipids, organic compounds that are insoluble in water, are used to
make steroid hormones and cell membranes and to store energy.
Fats are lipids that store energy in plants and animals. Fats are
Figure 3 The USDA food guide pyramid

Food groups at the bottom of the pyramid should be eaten in greater amounts than those at the top.
Fats, oils, and sweets

(Use sparingly.)
Milk, yogurt, cheese Meat, beans, eggs, nuts

(2–3 servings a day) (2–3 servings a day)
Vegetables
Fruits
(3–5 servings
(2–4 servings a day)
a day)
Grains
(6–11 servings a day)
Serving Sizes
Milk, yogurt, cheese Meat, beans, eggs, nuts Vegetables Fruits Grains
• 1 cup of milk • 1 egg • 1
—
2
cup of vegetables • 1 apple, banana, • 1 slice of bread
1
• 1 cup of yogurt • 2 tbsp of peanut butter • 3
—cup of vegetable or orange •—2
cup of rice or
4
• 1.5 oz of cheese • 2–3 oz of meat, chicken, juice • —12 cup of fruit pasta
1
• 2 oz of processed or fish • 1 cup of raw, leafy • —34 cup of fruit •—2
cup of hot cereal
cheese •—1
2
cup of cooked beans vegetables juice • 1 oz cold cereal
• 1 tortilla

stored around organs and act as padding and
insulation. Fats also act as solvents for fat-soluble Energy-Giving Percentage of
vitamins. Nutrient Daily Calories
Although lipids are essential nutrients, too much
fat in the diet is known to harm several body sys- Carbohydrates 45 to 65
tems. For example, a diet high in saturated fats is
linked to high blood-cholesterol levels, which in Protein 10 to 15
turn may be connected to cardiovascular diseases.
Fats 25 to 35
It is recommended that a person limits his or her
consumption of saturated fats and that most of the
fats in the diet be unsaturated.
Balancing Nutrients and Energy Figure 4 A balanced meal.

Regardless of their source, the excess calories you eat will be stored The percentages of the day’s
as either glycogen or body fat, and you will gain weight. If you use total calories that should come
from each nutrient are shown.
more calories than you take in, additional energy will be obtained
About half of your day’s
from your body’s energy stores, and you will lose weight. Your diet calories should come from
and overall activity level determine in part whether you store excess foods high in complex
calories as glycogen or as fat. Figure 4 summarizes what percentage carbohydrates.
of the day’s total calories should come from each nutrient.
Obesity is described as being more than 20 percent heavier than
your ideal body weight. Obesity significantly increases an individ-
ual’s risk of diabetes, heart disease, osteoarthritis, and many other
disorders. Regular physical activity is important in maintaining
energy balance.
Obesity and Health
T he National Center for Health

Statistics reported that by
the year 2000, 31 percent of
diabetes. Late-onset diabetes
affected 14 million Americans in
2000, and 80 percent of those so
adults in the United States were affected were obese. Like the rate
obese. Medically, obesity is of obesity, the rate of late-onset
defined as having a body mass diabetes is soaring, up 40 percent
index (BMI) of 30 or higher. To in the last 10 years.
calculate your BMI, first multiply Late-onset diabetes is a disor- that fat cells produce a hormone
your weight in pounds by 703, der in which the hormone insulin called resistin that prompts cells
and then divide by your height in is unable to induce the body’s to resist insulin. Mice given
inches squared. cells to take up glucose from the resistin by researchers lose
weight in pounds 703 blood. Glucose-starved tissues much of the ability to respond to
BMI
(height in inches) 2
consume their own protein, and insulin and fail to take up blood
For example, someone who is waste away. Diabetes is the sugar. Drugs that inhibit resistin
6'0" (72 inches) tall and who leading cause of kidney failure, restore insulin’s effectiveness.
weighs 189 pounds has a body blindness, and amputation in Researchers hypothesize that
mass index of (189 703) (72 adults. resistin blocks the same glucose-
72) 25.6. What is the link between obe- transporting molecules in the
Unfortunately, being obese often sity and late-onset diabetes? plasma membrane that insulin
has a serious consequence— Researchers have recently found activates.

Vitamins, Minerals, and Water
Vitamins, minerals, and water are required in our diets. They do
not provide energy, but they contribute to many different functions,
including regulating the reactions that release energy.
Vitamins Many different vitamins , organic substances that occur in
many foods in small amounts, are necessary in trace amounts for
the normal metabolic functioning of the body.
Vitamins dissolve in either water or fat, as summarized in Table 1.
Fat-soluble vitamins—vitamins A, D, E, and K—can be stored in
body fat. Excessive amounts of vitamins A and D can be toxic.
Excess water-soluble vitamins—vitamin C and the B vitamins—are
excreted in urine and must be replenished by the diet.
Table 1 Vitamins
Vitamin Food sources Role Effects of deficiency
Water-soluble
Most vegetables, nuts, whole Assists in carbohydrate Digestive disturbances,

Vitamin B1
grains, organ meats metabolism, helps nerves and impaired senses
(thiamin)
heart to function properly
Fish, poultry, Needed for healthy skin and Blurred vision, cataracts,
Vitamin B2
cheese, yeast, tissue repair, assists in cracking of skin, lesions of
(riboflavin)
green vegetables carbohydrate metabolism intestinal lining
Vitamin B3 Whole grains, fish, poultry, Keeps skin healthy, assists in Mental disorders, diarrhea,
(niacin) tomatoes, legumes, potatoes carbohydrate metabolism inflamed skin
Vitamin B12 Meat, poultry, milk, dairy Needed for formation of red Reduced number of red
(cobalamin) products blood cells blood cells
Citrus fruits, strawberries, Needed for wound healing, Swollen and bleeding gums,
Vitamin C
potatoes healthy gums and teeth loose teeth, slow-healing
(ascorbic acid)
wounds
Fat-soluble
Butter, eggs, liver, carrots, Keeps eyes and skin healthy, Infections of urinary and
Vitamin A
green leafy vegetables, needed for strong bones digestive systems, night
(retinol)
sweet potatoes and teeth blindness
Salmon, tuna, fish liver Assists in calcium uptake by Bone deformities in children,
Vitamin D
oils, fortified milk, the gut, needed for strong loss of muscle tone
(cholecalciferol)
cheese bones and teeth
Many foods, especially Protects cell membranes from Reduced number of red
Vitamin E
wheat and other vegetable damage by reactive oxygen blood cells, nerve tissue
(tocopherol)
oils, olives, whole grains compounds (free radicals) damage in infants
Vitamin K Leafy green vegetables, Needed for normal blood Bleeding caused by pro-
(menadione) liver, cauliflower clotting longed clotting time

Minerals Different minerals are required to maintain a healthy
body. Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic substances that
are used to make certain body structures and substances, for nor-
mal nerve and muscle function, and to maintain osmotic balance.
Some minerals are essential for enzyme function. Minerals are not
produced by living organisms. Minerals must be replaced on a daily
basis because they are soluble in water. Teeth and bones require the
minerals calcium and phosphorus. Iron is required for transporting
oxygen. Magnesium, calcium, sodium, potassium, and zinc help
regulate function of the nerves and muscles.
Trace elements, such as those listed in Table 2, are minerals pre-
sent in the body in small amounts. Humans usually obtain adequate
amounts of the required trace elements directly from the plants they
eat or indirectly from animals that have eaten plants.
Water You can survive only a few days without water, though you
can live several weeks without food. Water is used by the body as a
medium to transport gases, nutrients, and waste products. Water
also plays a role in regulating body temperature. Two-thirds of the
body’s weight is water.
Table 2 Trace Elements

Trace element Food sources Role
Seafood, plants grown in Synthesis of thyroid

Iodine
iodine-rich soil, iodized table salt hormones
Cobalt Leafy vegetables, liver, kidney Synthesis of vitamin B12
Synthesis of digestive enzymes, proper

Zinc Meat, shellfish, dairy products
immune function
Molybdenum Legumes, cereals, milk Protein synthesis
Manganese Whole grains, nuts, legumes Hemoglobin synthesis, urea formation
Selenium Meat, seafood, cereal grains Preventing chromosome breakage
Section 1 Review
Predict four nutrients that would be found in a Critical Thinking Applying Information
serving of green beans. Your friend wants to feed her elderly grand-
mother more food in order to keep her healthy.
Compare the functions of carbohydrates and Is this a good idea? Explain.
proteins in maintaining a healthy body.
Standardized Test Prep One of the functions of
Describe the type of information the USDA food lipids in the body is to
guide pyramid provides. A enhance enzyme C make steroid
Evaluate the roles vitamins, minerals, and water
activity. hormones.
play in maintaining a healthy body. B make glycogen. D make proteins.

Section 2 Digestion
Objectives Breaking Down Food
● Relate the four major func- Imagine you just ate your favorite meal. What happens to that
tions of the digestive system food? Before your body can use the nutrients in the food you eat,
to the processing of food. the large food molecules must be broken down physically and
● Summarize the path of chemically. The process of breaking down food into molecules the
food through the digestive body can use is called digestion. The digestive system is the body
system and the major system that is involved in the taking in and processing of food for
digestive processes that use by your body cells. The digestive system takes in food, breaks it
occur in the mouth, stom- down into molecules small enough for the body to absorb, and gets
ach, small intestine, and rid of undigested molecules and waste.
large intestine.
As shown in Figure 5, the digestive system is made up of a long,
● Describe how nutrients are winding tube, the digestive tract, that begins at the mouth and
absorbed from the digestive winds through the body to the anus. Food travels more than 8 m
system into the bloodstream (26 ft) through your digestive tract. The digestive tract includes the
or lymphatic system.
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intes-
● Identify the role of the tine, and rectum. Although the liver and pancreas (PAN kree uhs)
pancreas and liver in are not part of the digestive tract, they deliver secretions into the
digestion. digestive tract through ducts (tubes).
Key Terms
amylase
esophagus Digestive System
pepsin
lipase
villus
colon Mouth Pharynx
Esophagus
Salivary glands
Liver Stomach
Duodenum
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Small intestine
Large intestine
Rectum
Figure 5 Processing food. Anus
The digestive system breaks
down food into individual
nutrient molecules that can be
absorbed into the bloodstream.

Starting Digestion
The digestion of food begins as soon as the food is Incisors
Cuspid
ingested. The teeth rip and chew food into shreds, and the (canine)
tongue mixes the pieces with a watery solution called Bicuspids
saliva. Taste buds on the tongue are sensitive to certain (premolars)
chemicals in the food. Saliva is secreted into the mouth by Molars
three pairs of salivary glands, shown in Figure 5. Saliva
moistens and lubricates the food so that it can be swal- Tonsil
lowed more easily.
Saliva also contains amylases (AM uh lay sehs),
Uvula
enzymes that begin the breakdown of carbohydrates
such as starch, into monosaccharides (single sugars).
The mechanical action of chewing and the chemical
action of amylase are both part of the digestion of carbo-
Opening of duct
hydrates in the mouth. of salivary gland
Notice in Figure 6 that the structure of our teeth helps
in the breakdown of food. The two front teeth, the incisors, cut Figure 6 Teeth and
food. The cuspids, or canines, shred food. The back teeth, the digestion. Canine and incisor
molars, crush and grind food. teeth are used for cutting and
After passing through the region in the back of the throat called tearing food. The molars are
used to grind food.
the pharynx (FAIR ihnks), the food triggers a swallowing response.
The action of swallowing moves the epiglottis (a flap of cartilage)
over the opening of the trachea—the tube that leads to the lungs.
This action prevents food from entering the trachea and eventually
the lungs. Instead, food enters the esophagus (ih SAHF uh guhs).
The Esophagus
The esophagus is a long tube that connects the mouth to the
stomach. No digestion takes place in the esophagus. Its role is to act
Esophagus
as a kind of descending elevator, moving food down to the stomach.
The esophagus is about 25 cm (10 in.) long. The lower two-thirds
of the esophagus is wrapped in sheets of smooth muscle. Food Wave of
does not simply fall into the stomach; it is pushed down, as shown contraction
in Figure 7. Successive rhythmic waves of smooth muscle contrac-
tion in the esophagus, called peristaltic (pehr uh STAHL tihk) Food
contractions, or peristalsis, move the food toward the stomach.
Peristalsis can be thought of as waves moving through the muscle
with the area where the wave is passing causing the muscle to
narrow. It takes about 5 to 10 seconds for food to pass down the
esophagus and into the stomach.
The Stomach
Stomach
Food exits the esophagus and enters the stomach through a muscu-
lar valve called a sphincter (SFIHNGK tuhr). The sphincter prevents
acid-soaked food in the stomach from making its way back into the Figure 7 Peristalsis
moves food. Food is pushed
esophagus. The stomach is a saclike organ located just beneath the
down the esophagus and
diaphragm. Besides temporarily storing food, the stomach, shown toward the stomach by waves
in Figure 8 on the next page, also mechanically breaks down food of smooth muscle contractions
and chemically unravels and breaks down proteins. in the wall of the esophagus.
SECTION 2 Digestion 907

Figure 8 The stomach and When food enters the stomach, gastric juice is secreted by the cells
accessory digestive organs. that line the inside of the stomach. Gastric juice is a combination of
Many organs are involved in
hydrochloric (HIE droh klawr ihk) acid (HCl) and pepsin. The acid
the complete breakdown of
nutrients. breaks the bonds in proteins and unfolds large protein chains into
single protein strands. Pepsin , a digestive enzyme
secreted by the stomach, cuts the single protein strands
into smaller chains of amino acids. Pepsin is effective
Liver only in an acidic environment.
The stomach mixes its contents by using peristaltic
waves. Swallowed food can spend from 2 to 6 hours in the
stomach. Your stomach secretes about 2 L (2.11 qt) of HCl
Stomach every day, which creates a solution about 3 million times
more acidic than your bloodstream. The hormone gastrin
regulates the synthesis of HCl. Thus, HCl is made only
Gallbladder when the pH in the stomach is higher than about 1.5.
A coating of mucus protects the lining of the stomach
from gastric acid. Bicarbonate in the stomach helps neu-
Duodenum tralize digestive fluids. Blood circulation in the stomach
(small intestine) Pancreas lining also helps protect stomach tissues.
Dental Records
T he next time you eat an

apple, pause between bites
to look at the apple. You’ve left
Identifying the Dead
When an unidentified
body is found, forensic
bite marks, patterns that match odontologists examine
your teeth—and no one else’s. If the teeth and the jaw.
the apple were found at a crime Tooth enamel is the hard-
scene, a forensic odontologist est biological substance known. ment officials can match forensic
could use the bite mark evidence Teeth are a reliable source of evi- data with known dental records,
to search for a suspect. dence, lasting long after most of X rays, or photographs.
Forensic odontologists use the body has decayed. The size
dental evidence to identify Linking a Suspect to a
of the teeth and the amount of
human remains of missing or Crime
wear help odontologists esti-
unknown persons. Forensic mate a victim’s age. Sometimes human bite marks
odontologists also use dental Forensic odontologists play are found on the body of the vic-
features to link suspects to an important role in the identifi- tim of a crime. Forensic odontol-
crimes. Odontology is the scien- cation of victims of catastrophic ogists analyze bite marks in
tific study of the teeth, their events, such as airplane crashes, cases of assault or homicide.
anatomy, development, and dis- fires, or terrorist attacks. Disas- Computer modeling can enable
eases. Forensic odontologists ters such as these result in many odontologists to match a bite
compare crime scene evidence casualties and the bodies of vic- mark to a dental mold of a sus-
with the dental records of a pos- tims are often badly damaged. pect’s mouth. The odontologist
sible suspect or victim. After odontologists have com- may also collect saliva from the
pleted their work, law enforce- bite wound for later DNA testing.

The Small Intestine
Food passes from the stomach into the small intestine when a
sphincter between the two organs opens. The small intestine is a
coiled tubular organ about 6 m (19.8 ft) long that is continuous with
the stomach and that functions mainly in the digestion and absorp-
tion of nutrients. The word small refers to the small diameter of the
small intestine as compared with the diameter of the large intes-
tine—not to its length. Peristalsis mixes the food, which remains in
the small intestine for about 3 to 6 hours.
The first part of the small intestine, the duodenum (doo oh DEE
nuhm), receives secretions from the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder,
as shown in Figure 8. Cells that line the small intestine and the pan-
creas secrete digestive enzymes involved in completing the diges-
tion of carbohydrates into monosaccharides, proteins into amino
acids, and lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
Before fats can be digested by pancreatic enzymes called
lipases (LIE pays uhs), the fats must first be treated with bile, a
greenish fluid produced by the liver. Bile breaks up fat globules
into tiny fat droplets, a process called emulsification (ee MUHL
suh fih kay shuhn). The gallbladder, a green muscular sac attached
to the liver, concentrates and stores bile until it is needed in the
small intestine.
Most absorption (passage of nutrients to the blood or lymph)
occurs in the small intestine. The lining of the small intestine is cov-
ered with fine fingerlike projections called villi (singular form, villus).
Villi, shown in Figure 9, are too small to see with the naked eye. In
turn, the cells covering each villus have projections on their outer sur-
face called microvilli. The villi and microvilli greatly increase the area
available for absorption of nutrients. Sugars and amino acids enter
capillaries in the villi and are carried in the blood to the liver for fur-
ther metabolism. Fatty acids and glycerol enter lymphatic vessels in
the villi and eventually enter the bloodstream.
Figure 9 Villi in the small intestine

Inside each villus are capillaries and lymphatic vessels where
nutrients enter the bloodstream. Microvilli Capillaries
Villus
Lymphatic
vessels
Small intestine

The Large Intestine
All components of food that are not for energy production (for
example, cellulose) are considered wastes. The wastes move into
the large intestine. The large intestine, or colon (KOH luhn), shown
in Figure 10, is much shorter than the small intestine. However, the
diameter of the large intestine is about three times larger than the
diameter of the small intestine. The colon is not coiled like the
small intestine. Instead, it is composed of three relatively straight
segments. No digestion takes place in the colon.
The volume of material that flows through the digestive system
each day is large—about 10 L of food, drink, and secretions enter
the small intestine. But the amount of material that leaves the body
as waste is small. This is because almost all of the fluids and solids
(about 90–95 percent) are absorbed during their passage through
the small intestine. Mostly mineral ions and water are absorbed
Figure 10 X ray of the through the wall of the large intestine.
large intestine (colon). Most of the colon’s contents are dead cells, mucus, digestive secre-
Stretched out, the large tions, bacteria, and yeast. A thriving colony of bacteria live in the
intestine, which appears human colon. These microbes synthesize many compounds that
orange, is about 1 m your body needs and cannot get easily from the food you eat, includ-
(3.3 ft) long.
ing vitamin K and several B vitamins. In addition, bacteria aid in
transforming and compacting the undigested materials into the
final waste product, feces.
The final segment of the large intestine is the rectum. Solids in
the colon pass into the rectum as a result of peristalsis in the large
intestine. From the rectum, the solid feces are eliminated from the
body through the anus. Undigested material passes through the
large intestine and is expelled through the anus in 12 to 24 hours.
Balancing water absorption in the intestine is important. Wastes
rushed through the large intestine before the remaining water is
absorbed result in diarrhea (watery feces). When food remains in
the colon for long periods of time, which causes much water to be
absorbed, constipation (hard feces) results. Hard feces are difficult
to pass.
The Liver’s Role in Digestion

The human liver, shown in Figure 8, is about the size of a football and
weighs more than 1.4 kg (3.1 lb). It presses upward against the
diaphragm and occupies the upper right side of the abdominal cavity.
The liver plays several roles in digestion. The liver secretes bile,
which aids in the emulsification of fats. Bile also promotes the
absorption of fatty acids and the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and
K. Bile pigments (the products of hemoglobin breakdown) give bile
a yellowish green color. Jaundice, a condition in which the eyes,
skin, and urine become abnormally yellow, is a result of increased
amounts of bile pigments in the blood. Jaundice often occurs as a
result of hepatitis, an inflammation of the liver.

The Liver’s Role in Metabolism
Digested food molecules in the bloodstream are transported to the
liver. The liver stabilizes blood sugar by converting extra sugar to
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glycogen for storage. The liver then breaks down the glycogen when Topic: Poisons
it is needed for energy. The liver also modifies amino acids. Fat- Keyword: HX4142
soluble vitamins and iron are stored in the liver. The liver monitors
the production of cholesterol and detoxifies poisons. If the liver is
unable to change a substance’s harmful form, it stores it. In this
way, toxins, including heavy metals and pesticides, accumulate in
the liver.
The liver can also be damaged by viral infections, chronic drug
or alcohol use, and traumatic injury. As a result of any of these,
healthy liver cells are destroyed and replaced by scar tissue. The
scarring of the liver is called cirrhosis (suh ROH sihs).
Modeling the Function of Bile

You can use a detergent and cooking oil to simulate the
effect bile has on breaking up (emulsifying) fats as part
of digestion.
Materials
two 250 mL beakers, water, cooking oil, dish
detergent, stirring rod, graduated cylinder
Procedure Analysis
1. Label one beaker A and one 1. Describe how oil reacts 4. Critical Thinking
beaker B. Fill each beaker with the water. Inferring Conclusions
halfway with water. Do the detergents and bile
2. Describe what happened to
increase or decrease the
2. Add 10 mL of the cooking oil the oil when the dish deter-
surface area of oil? In the
to each beaker. gent was added.
case of bile, how does this
3. While stirring, slowly add 3. Compare the effect of dish help the digestive process?
10 drops of dish detergent to detergent on oil with the
beaker B only. effect of bile on fats.
Section 2 Review
Summarize the path a piece of cheese pizza Critical Thinking Applying Information
would follow through the digestive system. A person has a small intestine that has villi but
a reduced number of microvilli. Would you expect
Relate the role of the mouth, stomach, small this person to be underweight or
intestine, and large intestine in the digestion of overweight? Explain.
a piece of cheese pizza.
Standardized Test Prep The enzyme pepsin is
Locate the area of the digestive system where involved in the digestion of
nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream. A starches. C monosaccharides.
State how the liver and pancreas are involved B fats. D proteins.
in digestion.

Section 3 Excretion
Objectives Water and Metabolic Wastes
● Identify major wastes Cleaning up, though not always a pleasant chore, must be done to
produced by humans and maintain a healthy living environment. In the same way, our bodies
the organ or tissue where must get rid of wastes to maintain health. Food residues are elimi-
they are eliminated from nated from the body in the form of feces. Other wastes produced as a
the body. result of metabolic reactions that occur in the body must also be
● Relate the role of nephrons eliminated. For example, water and carbon dioxide are produced dur-
to the filtering of blood in the ing cellular respiration. During the metabolism of proteins and
kidneys. nucleic acids, a toxic nitrogen-containing waste, ammonia, is formed.
● Summarize how nephrons The body must remove wastes. It must also maintain osmotic
form urine. balance and stable pH by either excreting or conserving salts and
● Describe the path of urine
water. Excretion is the process that rids the body of toxic chemicals,
through the human urinary excess water, salts, and carbon dioxide while maintaining osmotic
system. and pH balance.
The organs involved in excretion are shown in Figure 11. Carbon
● Predict how kidney
damage might affect
dioxide (and some water vapor) is transported to your lungs by the
homeostasis and circulatory system and excreted every time you exhale. Excess
threaten life. water is excreted through the skin in sweat and through the kidneys
in urine. In the liver, ammonia is converted to a much less toxic
Key Terms nitrogen waste called urea (yoo REE uh), which is then carried by
the bloodstream to the kidneys, where it is removed from the blood.
excretion
urea
nephron
urine Organs of Excretion
ureter
urinary bladder
urethra
The lungs excrete carbon

Lungs 1 dioxide and water vapor
in exhaled air.
The kidneys excrete nitro-

Kidneys
2 gen wastes, salts, water,
and other substances in urine.
The skin excretes water,

Figure 11 Organs of
3 salts, small amounts of
Skin
excretion. The lungs, the kid- nitrogen wastes, and other
substances in sweat.
neys, and the skin all function
as excretory organs. The main
excretory products are carbon
dioxide, water, and nitrogen
wastes (urea).

The Kidneys
The kidneys are extremely important organs because of their role in
regulating the amount of water and salts contained in blood
plasma. The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped, reddish brown The word glomerulus is
organs located in the lower back. Each kidney is the size of a small from the French gloméruli,
meaning “a compact clus-
fist. The body has to maintain a certain level of salts in the blood
ter.” Knowing this makes it
plasma and in the fluid surrounding cells, or serious harm to the easier to remember that the
body’s cells and organ systems can result. glomerulus is a compact
cluster of capillaries within
a nephron.
Blood Filters
Each kidney is a complex organ composed of roughly 1 million
microscopic blood-filtering units called nephrons (NEHF rahns), as
shown in Figure 12. Nephrons are tiny tubes in the kidneys. One end
of a nephron is a cup-shaped capsule surrounded by a tight ball of
capillaries that filters wastes from the blood, retains useful mol-
ecules, and produces urine. Three different phases occur as the blood
flows through a nephron: filtration, reabsorption and secretion.
Filtration Filtration begins at the cup-shaped capsule called
Bowman’s capsule. Within each Bowman’s capsule an arteriole
enters and splits into a fine network of capillaries called a glomeru-
lus (gloh MEHR yoo luhs). The glomerulus acts as a filtration
device. The blood pressure inside the capillaries forces a fluid com-
posed of water, salt, glucose, amino acids, and urea into the hollow
interior of the Bowman’s capsule. This fluid is called filtrate. Blood
cells, proteins, and other molecules too large to cross the mem-
brane remain in the blood.
Figure 12 Kidneys and nephrons

The kidneys filter out toxins, urea, water, and mineral salts from the blood as fluid
passes through the microscopic filtering units called nephrons.
Renal artery Glomerulus

(blood with wastes) Renal
tubule
Renal vein
(filtered Bowman's
blood) capsule
Blood Collecting
vessels duct
To renal Filtration
vein
Reabsorption
Ureter Loop
Secretion
To ureter
(urine)
SECTION 3 Excretion 913

Reabsorption and Secretion Reabsorption begins when the fil-
Real Life trate passes from the Bowman’s capsules into the renal tubules—
Kidney stones are long, narrow tubes connected to Bowman’s capsules. Renal
painful. tubules bend at their center, which forms a loop. As the filtrate
Kidney stones passes through the renal tubules, the tubules extract from the fil-
form from crys- trate a variety of useful molecules, including glucose, ions, and
tallized mineral
and urea salts.
some water. These substances reenter the bloodstream through
The crystals capillaries that wrap around the tubule. This arrangement pre-
form “stones” vents these molecules from being eliminated from the body in the
that block the passage of urine. Some substances can pass from the blood into the filtrate
urine and result in extreme in a process called secretion.
pain. Ultrasound waves
can be used to crush kid- Urine Formation The urine that is excreted from the body is formed
ney stones until they are from the water, urea, and various salts that are left after the absorp-
small enough to pass with tion and secretion processes. Collecting ducts receive fluid from
the urine. several nephron segments and empty the urine into areas of the kid-
Finding Information neys that lead to the ureters. Ureters (yoo REET uhrs) are tubes
Research the role of that carry the urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder. The col-
nanobacteria in the
lecting duct removes much of the water from the filtrate that passes
formation of kidney
stones. through it. As a result, human urine can be very concentrated. In
fact, it can be as much as four times more concentrated than blood
plasma is.
Elimination of Urine
The ureters, shown in Figure 13, have smooth muscle in their walls.
The slow, rhythmic contractions of this muscle move the urine
Figure 13 The organs through the ureters. The ureters direct the urine into the
of urinary excretion. Urine urinary bladder, a hollow, muscular sac that stores urine. The urinary
exits the kidneys by way of
bladder gradually expands as it fills. The average urinary bladder can
two ureters that empty into
a storage organ called the hold up to about 0.6 L (0.63 qt) of urine. The urinary bladders of
urinary bladder. Urine exits males tend to be larger than those of females.
the body through the urethra. Muscular contractions of the bladder force urine out of the
body. Urine leaves the bladder and exits the body
through a tube called the urethra (yoo REE
thruh). A healthy adult eliminates from about
1.5 L (1.6 qt) to 2.3 L (2.4 qt) of urine a day, depend-
ing on the volume of fluid he or she consumes.
Kidney In females the urethra lies in front of the
vagina and is only about 2.5 cm (1 in.) long. Such
a short length makes it easy for bacteria and
Ureter
other pathogens to invade the female urinary
system, which explains why females are more
prone to urinary infections than males are. There
Urinary is no connection between the urethra and the
bladder genital (reproductive) system in females.
In males the urethra passes through the penis.
In males, both sperm and urine exit the body
Urethra
through the urethra. The tube that carries sperm
from the testes eventually merges with the
urethra.

The elimination of urine from the body through the urethra is
called urination. When the bladder fills with urine, stretch recep-
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tors in the bladder’s wall send nerve impulses to the spinal cord. In Topic: Kidney Diseases
response, the spinal cord returns impulses to the bladder and urethra Keyword: HX4109
simultaneously. These impulses cause contraction of the bladder’s
muscular walls and relaxation of the rings of muscle closing off the
urethra. The bladder then empties its contents through the urethra.
In older children and adults, the brain overrides this urination
reflex, which delays the release of urine until a convenient time.
Damage to the Kidneys

Because of the vital role played by the kidneys in maintaining home-
ostasis, diseases affecting these organs may eventually threaten life. If
one kidney is lost in an accident or by disease, the other may enlarge
and do the work of both. Nephrotic syndrome refers to a number of
signs and symptoms that result from damage to the glomeruli, which
leads over time to kidney failure. The most common causes of kidney
failure are infection, diabetes, high blood pressure, and damage to the
kidneys by the body’s own immune system.
Because of their function in excretion, kidneys often are exposed to
hazardous chemicals that have entered the body through the lungs,
skin, or gastrointestinal tract. Household substances that, in concen-
tration, can damage kidneys include paint, varnishes, furniture oils,
glues, aerosol sprays, air fresheners, and lead. When kidneys fail,
toxic wastes, such as urea, accumulate in the plasma, and blood-
plasma ion levels increase to dangerous levels. If both kidneys fail,
there are only two treatment options. Figure 14 Hemodialysis.
Hemodialysis has prolonged
Kidney Dialysis Kidney dialysis, also called hemodialysis (HEE moh the lives of many people with
die AL uh sihs), is a procedure for filtering the blood by using a damaged or diseased kidneys.
dialysis machine, as shown in Figure 14. A dialysis machine, just as The dialysis machine functions
the nephrons in the kidney, sorts small molecules in the blood, keep- like a kidney in that it filters
urea and excess ions from
ing some and discarding others. Dialysis machines are sometimes
the blood.
used for kidneys that are damaged but
either will eventually heal or be replaced
by a kidney transplant.
Kidney Transplants A more permanent
solution to kidney failure is transplanta-
tion of a kidney from a healthy donor. A
major problem with kidney transplants
is common to all organ transplants—
rejection of the transplanted organ by the
recipient’s immune system. Recall that
the cells of your body have “self-markers,”
or antigens, on their surfaces that identify
the cells to your immune system so it will
not attack them. The combination of
these antigens displayed on your body’s
cells is as unique as your fingerprints.
SECTION 3 Excretion 915

Only identical twins have the same set of antigens. The more closely
related two individuals are, the more likely they are to have common
antigens. This is why tissue transplants are more likely to succeed if
the donor and recipient are closely related. But even in close
matches, there is some chance of transplant rejection. To reduce
chances of rejection, the recipient is treated with drugs that sup-
press the activity of the immune system.
Dialysis machine Semipermeable

Exploring Further membrane
Catheter
Kidney Dialysis
People whose kidneys are damaged cannot filter Blood
their blood. Kidney dialysis is one option for artifi-
cially filtering the blood. In kidney dialysis, tubes Solution
called catheters are surgically inserted into an
artery and a vein, usually on a forearm. The
catheters are equipped with valves. Every few
Fresh dialysis
days the catheters are connected to a dialysis solution
machine, as shown to the right.
Used
Blood Is Filtered Compressed dialysis
Blood passes from the patient’s artery into the air solution
dialysis machine. Inside the machine, the blood
travels through many hollow tubes, each of which
is surrounded by a thin, permeable membrane. because the dialysis machine cannot regulate
Waste materials and ions that have accumulated these blood components as well as the
in the person’s blood diffuse through the mem- kidney can.
brane into a fluid that has the same makeup
as normal blood plasma and is free of wastes.
The filtered blood is then returned to the
person’s vein. www.scilinks.org
Topic: Kidney Dialysis
Dialysis is not a permanent solution to kidney
Keyword: HX4108
failure. A single healthy kidney can meet all of the
homeostatic needs of the body, but no dialysis
machine can. Dialysis patients must carefully
manage their salt, protein, and water intake
Section 3 Review
Identify how the carbon dioxide in your body Critical Thinking Applying Information
is produced and excreted. A doctor has just informed a patient that his urine
contains a high sugar concentration. Explain why
Relate the following terms to the formation of this may indicate damaged kidneys.
urine: filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.
Standardized Test Prep The substances that are
Name the liquid stored inside the collecting duct removed from the body by the excretory system
of a nephron. are carried to the kidneys by the
A nervous system. C circulatory system.
Summarize how urine is stored and eliminated
from the body. B respiratory system. D digestive system.

ZONE
1 Your Body’s Need for Food Section 1
nutrient (900)
● Food and beverages provide the nutrients and water required digestion (900)
by the body for growth, energy, repair, and maintenance. calorie (900)
● Carbohydrates and lipids provide most of the body’s energy. vitamin (904)
mineral (905)
Proteins are normally used for making other proteins.
● The USDA food guide pyramid graphically summarizes the
daily recommended servings from each food group.
● Vitamins enhance the activity of enzymes and regulate the
release of energy. Minerals are used to make certain body
structures and substances, for normal nerve and muscle func-
tion, to maintain osmotic balance, and for enzyme function.
● Water acts as a lubricant, solvent, and coolant, and as a
support medium for cells and tissues.
2 Digestion Section 2
amylase (907)
● Teeth break down food into smaller pieces. Amylase begins esophagus (907)
the breakdown of starch to sugars. The stomach stores and pepsin (908)
mechanically breaks down food. Stomach acid and pepsin lipase (909)
chemically break down proteins. villus (909)
colon (910)
● Most chemical digestion occurs in the small intestine with the
help of secretions from the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
● Usable compounds are absorbed into capillaries or lymphatic
vessels in villi. Compounds not absorbed are eventually
excreted as feces.
● The liver releases bile, helps to maintain blood sugar levels,
and detoxifies poisons.
3 Excretion Section 3
excretion (912)
● The skin, lungs, and kidneys are specialized to excrete wastes. urea (912)
● Nephrons in the kidneys filter wastes from the blood. Most nephron (913)
of the water, some of the salts, and all of the sugar and urine (914)
ureter (914)
amino acids in the filtrate are reabsorbed into the blood- urinary bladder (914)
stream. The water, urea, and salts that remain in the urethra (914)
nephron are eliminated as urine.
● Kidney dialysis and organ transplants are treatment options
when both kidneys fail.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 7. Which substance is not a waste eliminated

from the body through the kidneys?
1. The primary function of carbohydrates a. urea c. salts
is to b. water d. oxygen
a. break down molecules.
b. aid in digestion. 8. A suspect leaves a half-eaten
c. supply the body with energy. sandwich at a crime scene. How would
d. regulate the flow of acid. the sandwich be useful to a forensic
odontologist?
2. Food from the _______ food group should
be eaten in the greatest abundance. 9. Summarize how a kidney
a. grains dialysis machine filters blood.
b. fats, oils, and sweets
c. vegetables 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
d. milk, yogurt, and cheese map that shows how nutrients are digested.
Try to include the following words in your
3. The body needs vitamins because they map: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes,
a. supply energy. saliva, pancreas, stomach, bile, liver, small
b. activate enzymes. intestine, and large intestine.
c. function as enzymes.
d. act as hormones. Critical Thinking
4. The _______ are involved in excretion. 11. Evaluating Conclusions The length
a. kidneys and stomach of the looped tubule in a nephron varies
b. liver and pancreas among mammal species. A friend believes
c. pancreas and kidneys the looped tubules of mammals that live
d. kidneys and lungs in the water would be shorter than those
5. During secretion in the kidney, substances found in humans. Do you agree or
move from disagree? Explain.
a. the filtrate to the blood. 12. Recommending Information Calcium needs
b. the urethra to the bladder. an acidic environment for optimal absorp-
c. the blood to the filtrate. tion. What kinds of foods would
d. the bladder to the urethra. you recommend be combined with calcium-
6. Identifying Information Identify the food rich foods in order to
groups represented by A and B. Indicate maximize absorption?
the number of servings that should be 13. Relating Concepts Describe the symbiotic
eaten daily for A and B. role of bacteria in the human intestine.
A B Alternative Assessment
14. Communicating Write an article that
discusses diuretics (substances that
increase urine excretion) for your
school or local newspaper. Emphasize
diuretics that most people have heard
of, such as the caffeine in coffee and
soft drinks.


correct answer.
A food is considered to be a good source
1 What biological molecules make up of a vitamin or mineral if it provides at least
proteins? 10 percent of the daily value of that vitamin
A. amino acids or mineral. A nutrition facts label on a box of
B. fatty acids cereal states that one-half cup of the cereal
C. glycerol contains 15% of the daily value of vitamin A,
D. monosaccharides 0% of the daily value of vitamin C, 10% of
the daily value of vitamin D, 50% of the daily
2 Which of the following correctly pairs the
value of iron, and 8% of the daily value of
enzyme with the food molecule it digests?
zinc. Adding half a cup of milk increases
F. amylase, fat H. lipase, starch
vitamin A by 5% and zinc by 2%.
G. lipase, fat I. pepsin, starch
3 Through what structures in the small 7 What can you conclude about a breakfast
that includes half a cup of cereal and half
intestine must nutrients pass in order to
a cup of milk?
enter the blood stream?
A. It is a good source of vitamin A,
A. gastric pits C. nephrons
vitamin C, vitamin D, iron, and zinc.
B. glomeruli D. villi
B. It is a good source of vitamin A,
4 What is the main function of dietary fiber? vitamin D, iron, and zinc but not of
F. to provide energy vitamin C.
G. to maintain osmotic balance C. It is a good source of vitamin A,
H. to provide materials for making vitamin D, and iron but not of
enzymes vitamin C and zinc.
I. to help food pass through the digestive D. It is a good source of vitamin A and
tract vitamin D but not of vitamin C, iron,
and zinc.
short response. Interpreting Graphics
5 A friend believes that a vegetarian diet Directions (8): Base your answer to question
would decrease his intake of saturated fat 8 on the table below.
and cholesterol. Do you agree with his Food Label
idea? Why or why not?
Amount /serving % DV* Amount /serving % DV*
Nutrition
6 For the following set of terms, choose
Facts Total fat 1g 1% Total carb. 43 g 14%
the term that does not belong and explain
why it does not belong: nephron, villi, Serv. size 2 oz Sat. fat 0 g 0% Dietary fiber 2 g 8%
(56 g / –18 box)
glomerulus, renal tubule. Servings per container 8 Cholesterol 0 mg 0% Sugars 3 g
Calories 210 Sodium 0 mg 0% Protein 6 g
Fat Cal. 10
*Percent Daily Values (DV) are Vitamin A 0% • Vitamin C 0% • Calcium 2% • Iron 10%
Thiamin 30% • Riboflavin 10% • Niacin 15%
Test based on a 2,000 Calorie diet.
Sometimes only a portion of a graph or table is 8 Approximately what percentage of the

needed to answer a question. Focus only on the nec- calories in this food come from fats?
essary information to avoid confusion. F. 1 percent H. 10 percent
G. 5 percent I. 14 percent

Exploration Lab
Demonstrating Lactose Digestion
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Using scientific methods • milk-treatment product
• Observing (liquid)
• Comparing • toothpicks
• depression slides
OBJECTIVES
• droppers
• Describe the relationship • whole milk
between enzymes and the
digestion of food molecules. • glucose solution
• Evaluate the ability of a milk- • glucose test strips

treatment product to promote
lactose digestion.
• Infer the presence of lactose
in milk and foods that
contain milk.
ChemSafety
Before You Begin 2. List at least 10 foods that contain milk.

3. Make a data table similar to the one below.
People with a condition known as lactose
intolerance often experience stomach and 4. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a
intestinal pain, bloating, and diarrhea when question you would like to explore about
they eat foods that contain milk. These enzymes and digestion.
symptoms result from an inability to digest DATA TABLE
lactose, a sugar found in milk. Lactose is a Solution Result (+ or –) Interpretation
disaccharide made of one glucose unit and
one galactose unit. Lactose molecules are
broken down into glucose and galactose mol-
ecules during digestion. People who cannot
digest lactose do not produce lactase , the Procedure
digestive enzyme that aids the breakdown of
lactose. In this lab, you will investigate a PART A: Design an Experiment
milk-treatment product that is designed to 1. Read the information sheet that comes
aid lactose digestion. with the milk-treatment product. Discuss
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in with your lab group what the product is
the paragraph above. and what it does. Write a summary of your
discussion for your lab report.

2. Work with the members of your lab group 3. Analyzing Methods What role did the
to explore one of the questions written for glucose solution play in your experiment?
step 4 of Before You Begin. To explore the 4. Drawing Conclusions What does the
question, design an experiment that uses milk-treatment product do to milk?
5. Analyzing Conclusions How do your
results justify your conclusion?
You Choose
6. Evaluating Methods Why should you
test the milk-treatment product with glu-
cose test strips?
c. what your controls will be 7. Analyzing Results What do you infer
d. how much milk and milk-treatment product from the results of this lab about treat-
to use for each test ments for other medical problems result-
e. how to determine whether lactose was ing from enzyme deficiencies?
broken down
8. Forming Reasoned Opinions As a per-
f. what data to record in your data table
son grows older, will he or she be more
likely or less likely to develop lactose
3. Write the procedure for your group’s intolerance? Explain your answer.
experiment. Make a list of all the safety pre- 9. Predicting Patterns Do you think
cautions you will take. Have your teacher lactose intolerance might be inherited?
approve your procedure and safety precau- Explain your answer.
tions before you begin the experiment.
4. Set up your group’s about enzymes and digestion that could
experiment, and be explored with another investigation.
collect data.
PART B: Cleanup and Disposal Do You Know?

5. Dispose of solutions, broken glass, Do research in the library or media center
and glucose test strips in the desig- to answer these questions:
nated waste containers. Do not pour 1. What are some other food-treatment
chemicals down the drain or put lab products that contain digestive
materials in the trash unless your teacher enzymes?
tells you to do so. 2. Why does the improper breakdown of
6. Clean up your work area and all lab certain food molecules cause symp-
toms such as stomach pain, gas, and
equipment. Return lab equipment
diarrhea?
throughly before you leave the lab and Use the following Internet resources
after you finish all work. to explore your own questions about
lactose intolerance.

1. Summarizing Information What are the www.scilinks.org
milk-treatment product’s ingredients? Topic: Lactose Intolerance
2. Recognizing Relationships What is the Keyword: HX4111
relationship between lactose and lactase?
CHAPTER 39 Digestive and Excretory Systems 921

Show jumper
White blood cell attacking bacteria (6,480)

CHAPTER
40 The Body’s
Defenses
1. Identify the role of receptor proteins in cellular
communication. (Chapter 4, Section 2) Nonspecific Defenses
Two Lines of Nonspecific Defenses
2. Explain the relationship between HIV and AIDS.
3. Differentiate between antibodies and antigens.
Section 2
(Chapter 38, Section 1) Immune Response
Specific Defenses
Section 3
Reading Activity Disease Transmission and
Write down the title of this chapter and the titles
Prevention
of its four sections on a piece of paper or in your
Disease Transmission
notebook. Leave a few blank lines after each
section title. Then write down what you think you
Section 4
will learn in each section. Save your list, and
after you finish reading this chapter, check off Disorders of the Immune System
everything that you learned that was on your list. Autoimmune Diseases
HIV Infection
Allergic Reactions
www.scilinks.org
A white blood cell (macrophage) ingests bacteria as
part of the immune system’s response to infection. The
macrophage degrades bacterial proteins into peptides,
which then form antigens on the cell’s surface.
CHAPTER 40 The Body’s Defenses 923

Section 1 Nonspecific Defenses
Objectives Two Lines of Nonspecific Defenses
● Describe how skin and Some animals, including turtles, clams, and armadillos, defend
mucous membranes defend themselves with their hard armor shells. However, even armor will
the body. not protect against the most dangerous enemies that they or the
● Compare the inflammatory human body faces—harmful bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists.
response with the tempera- You, as well as most animals, survive because your body’s immune
ture response. system defends against these pathogens. A pathogen is a disease-
● Identify proteins that kill or
causing agent. The immune system consists of cells and
inhibit pathogens. tissues found throughout the body. The body uses both nonspecific
and specific defense mechanisms to detect and destroy pathogens,
● Analyze the roles of white
thereby preventing or reducing the severity of infection.
blood cells in combating
pathogens.
First Line of Nonspecific Defenses
Key Terms The body’s surface defenses are nonspecific, meaning they do not
pathogen target specific pathogens. Your skin is the first of your immune
mucous membrane system’s nonspecific defenses against pathogens. Skin acts as a
inflammatory response nearly impenetrable barrier to invading pathogens, keeping them
histamine outside the body. This barrier is reinforced with chemical weapons.
complement system Oil and sweat make the skin’s surface acidic, inhibiting the growth
interferon of many pathogens. Sweat also contains the enzyme lysozyme,
neutrophil which digests bacterial cell walls.
macrophage
Mucous membranes cover some body surfaces that come into con-
natural killer cell
tact with pathogens. Mucous (MYOO kuhs) membranes are layers of
epithelial tissue that produce a sticky, viscous fluid called mucus.
Mucous membranes line the digestive system, nasal passages, lungs,
respiratory passages, and the reproductive tract. Like the skin,
mucous membranes serve as a barrier to pathogens and produce
chemical defenses. Cells lining the bronchi and bronchioles in the res-
piratory tract secrete a layer of mucus that traps pathogens before
they can reach the warm, moist lungs, which are an ideal breeding
ground for microorganisms. Cilia on cells of the respiratory tract con-
tinually sweep mucus toward the opening of the esophagus. Mucus
then can be swallowed, sending pathogens to the stomach, where they
are digested by acids and enzymes.
Skin and mucous membranes work to prevent any pathogens
from entering the body. Occasionally these defenses are penetrated.
You take pathogens into your body when you breathe, because
many microbes and microbial spores are suspended in the air.
Other pathogens may be present in the food you eat. Pathogens can
also enter through wounds or open sores. When invaders reach
deeper tissue, a second line of nonspecific defenses takes over.
924 CHAPTER 40 The Body’s Defenses

Second Line of Nonspecific Defenses
What happens when pathogens break through your body’s first line
of defense? When the body is invaded, four important nonspecific
www.scilinks.org
defenses take action: the inflammatory response; the temperature Topic: Immune Systems
response; special proteins that kill or inhibit pathogens; and white Keyword: HX4103
blood cells, which attack and kill pathogens.
Inflammatory response Injury or local infection, such as a cut or a
scrape, causes an inflammatory response. An inflammatory
response is a series of events that suppress infection and speed
recovery. Imagine that a splinter has punctured your finger, creat-
ing an entrance for pathogens, as shown in Figure 1. Infected or
injured cells in your finger release chemicals, including histamine.
Histamine (HIHST uh meen) causes local blood vessels to dilate,
increasing blood flow to the area. Increased blood flow brings
white blood cells to the infection site, where they can attack
pathogens. This also causes swelling and redness in the infected
area. The whitish liquid, or pus, associated with some infections
contains white blood cells, dead cells, and dead pathogens.
Temperature response When the body begins its fight against
pathogens, body temperature increases several degrees above the
normal value of about 37°C (98.6°F). This higher temperature is
called a fever, and it is a common symptom of illness that shows the
body is responding to an infection. Fever is helpful because many
disease-causing bacteria do not grow well at high temperatures.
Although fever may slow the growth of bacteria, very high fever is
dangerous because extreme heat can destroy important cellular
proteins. Temperatures greater than 39°C (103°F) are considered
dangerous, and those greater than 41°C (105°F) can be fatal.
Figure 1 Inflammatory response

When pathogens penetrate your body, an inflammatory response is triggered.
Pathogens
White
Capillary blood cells
1. When the skin is punctured, 2. Blood flow to the area increases, 3. White blood cells attack and
pathogens enter the body. causing swelling and redness. destroy the pathogens.
SECTION 1 Nonspecific Defenses 925

Magnification: 2,280 Proteins Various proteins also provide nonspecific defenses. One
defense mechanism, called the complement system , consists of
about 20 different proteins. Complement proteins circulate in the
blood and become active when they encounter certain pathogens.
Then some of these proteins form a membrane attack complex
(MAC), a ring-shaped structure. The MAC punches a hole in the cell
membrane, causing the cell to leak and die. Another nonspecific
defense is interferon (in tuhr FEER ahn), a protein released by cells
infected with viruses. Interferon causes nearby cells to produce an
enzyme that prevents viruses from making proteins and RNA.
White blood cells The most important counterattacks in the second
line of nonspecific defenses are carried out by three kinds of white
blood cells: neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells.
Figure 2 Macrophage. These cells patrol the bloodstream, wait within the tissues for
Cytoplasmic extensions of this
macrophage (yellow) are cap-
pathogens, and then attack the pathogens. Each kind of cell uses a
turing bacteria (blue). different mechanism to kill pathogens.
1. Neutrophils. A neutrophil (NOO truh fihl) is a white blood cell that
engulfs and destroys pathogens. The most abundant type of white
blood cell, neutrophils engulf bacteria and then release chemicals
that kill the bacteria—and themselves. Neutrophils can also
squeeze between cells in the walls of capillaries to attack pathogens
at the site of an infection.
2. Macrophages. White blood cells called macrophages (MA kroh
fay jez), shown in Figure 2, ingest and kill pathogens they
encounter. They also clear dead cells and other debris from the
body. Most macrophages travel through the body in blood,
lymph, and fluid between cells. Macrophages are concentrated
in particular organs, especially the spleen and lungs.
3. Natural killer cells. A natural killer cell is a large white blood
cell that attacks cells infected with pathogens. Natural killer cells
destroy an infected cell by puncturing its cell membrane. Water
then rushes into the infected cell, causing the cell to swell and
burst. One of the body’s best defenses against cancer, natural
Figure 3 Natural killer cell. killer cells can detect and kill cancer cells, as shown in Figure 3,
This natural killer cell (yellow) is before a tumor can develop.
attacking a cancer cell (pink).
Section 1 Review
Describe how the inflammatory and temperature Standardized Test Prep In the inflammatory
responses help defend against infection. response, local blood vessels dilate when infected
or injured cells release
Identify the role of white blood cells in the second A interferon.
line of nonspecific defenses.
B histamine.
Critical Thinking Relating Concepts C mucus.
Explain why taking a drug that reduces fever D complement proteins.
might delay rather than speed up your recovery
from an infection.

Immune Response Section 2
Specific Defenses Objectives

What happens when pathogens occasionally overwhelm your body’s ● List four kinds of immune-
nonspecific defenses? Pathogens that have survived the first and sec- system cells, and describe
ond lines of nonspecific defenses still face a third line of specific their functions.
defenses—the immune response. The immune response consists of ● Describe how white
an army of individual cells that rush throughout the body to combat blood cells recognize
specific invading pathogens. The immune response is not localized pathogens.
in the body, nor is it controlled by a single organ. It is more difficult ● Identify the role of helper
to evade than the nonspecific defenses. T cells in the immune
response.
Cells Involved in the Immune Response ● Compare the role of T cells
White blood cells are produced in bone marrow and circulate in with that of B cells in the
blood and lymph. Of the 100 trillion or so cells in your body, about immune response.
2 trillion are white blood cells. Four main kinds of white blood cells
participate in the immune response: macrophages, cytotoxic T Key Terms
cells, B cells, and helper T cells. Each kind of cell has a different cytotoxic T cell
function. Macrophages consume pathogens and infected cells. B cell
Cytotoxic (sie toh TAHKS ihk) T cells attack and kill infected cells. helper T cell
B cells label invaders for later destruction by macrophages. antigen
Helper T cells activate both cytotoxic T cells and B cells. Macrophages plasma cell
can attack any pathogen. B cells and T cells, however, respond only to antibody
pathogens for which they have a genetically programmed match.
These four kinds of white blood cells interact to remove pathogens
from the body.
Recognizing Invaders Antigens

To understand how the third line of defenses works, Virus
imagine that you have just come down with
influenza—the flu. You have inhaled influenza virus
particles, but they were not all trapped by mucus in
the respiratory tract. The virus has begun to infect
and kill your cells. At this point, macrophages begin
to engulf and destroy the virus. Receptor
proteins
An infected body cell will display antigens of an
invader on its surface. An antigen (AN tih jihn) is a
substance that triggers an immune response. Anti-
gens typically include proteins and other parts of
viruses or pathogen cells. Antigens are present on the Cytotoxic T cell
surface of the infected body cell. White blood cells of
the immune system are covered with receptor pro-
teins that respond to infection by binding to specific
antigens on the surfaces of the infecting microbes. Figure 4 Antigens. Some cells of the
These receptors recognize and bind to antigens that immune system have receptor proteins that
match their particular shape, as shown in Figure 4. bind to specific antigens.
SECTION 2 Immune Response 927

The Immune Response Has Two Main Parts
Two distinct processes work together in an immune response. One
is the B cell response, a defense that aids the removal of extra-
cellular pathogens from the body. The other is the T cell response,
a defense that involves the destruction of intracellular pathogens by
cytotoxic T cells. Both the T cell response and the B cell response
are regulated by helper T cells. Both responses, which happen
simultaneously, are summarized in Figure 5.
Figure 5
B IO Immune Response
g hic
rap The immune response involves several kinds of white blood cells.
Macrophages engulf the

2 virus and display the
A virus infects body cells, which viral antigens.
1 display the viral antigen.
Virus
Viral
antigen
Viral Macrophage
antigen
Helper
Receptor T cell
Virus-containing macrophages
proteins 3 activate helper T cells. B cell
Cytotoxic Helper T cells activate

T cell
4 cytotoxic T cells
and B cells.
Plasma
cell B cells form
5 plasma cells.
Cytotoxic T cells destroy
8 infected body cells.
Plasma cells release antibodies,
Infected 6 which bind to the viral antigen.
body cell
The binding of antibodies cause

7 viruses to stick together, thus they
are marked for destruction.
Antibodies Key
Viral antigen
Antibody
Receptor
protein
Virus

Step When a virus infects body cells, the infected cells display
the viral antigen on their surfaces.
Real Life
How often do you wash
Step Macrophages engulf the virus and display the viral antigens your hands?
on their surfaces. Hand washing is an effec-
Step Receptor proteins on helper T cells bind to the viral antigen tive way to prevent the
spread of disease. A
displayed by the macrophages. The macrophages release a
recent study found that
protein called interleukin-1 (ihn tuhr LOO kihn). only 68 percent of adults
Step Interleukin-1 activates helper T cells, but helper T cells do wash their hands after
using public restrooms.
not attack pathogens directly. Instead, helper T cells activate
Inferring Relationships
cytotoxic T cells and B cells. Stimulation by interleukin-1
Why is it crucial that food
causes helper T cells to release interleukin-2. Interleukin-2 preparers wash their
stimulates further division of helper T cells and cytotoxic T hands after using
cells, amplifying the body’s response to the infection. a restroom?
Step Interleukin-2 released by helper T cells also activates B cells.
Activated B cells divide and develop into plasma cells.
Plasma cells are cells that release Y-shaped antibodies
into the blood. An antibody is a defensive protein produced
upon exposure to a specific antigen, which can bind to
that antigen.
Step Plasma cells divide repeatedly and make large numbers of
antibodies. Plasma cells release antibodies into the blood-
stream where they attach to the viruses. Antibodies bind
to the viral antigen and mark the virus for destruction.
Step The binding of antibodies cause viruses and antigens to
stick together, forming clumps that can be easily identified
and destroyed by macrophages.
Step Activated cytotoxic T cells destroy infected cells by punc-
turing their cell membranes. Your body makes millions of
different T cells, each with receptor proteins that bind to a
specific antigen. Receptor proteins on cytotoxic T cells
Reading Effectively
bind to the viral antigen displayed by infected cells. For
Antigens trigger an immune
example, any of your body’s cells that bear traces of an response. Remember that
influenza virus will be destroyed by cytotoxic T cells with an antigen is an antibody-
receptor proteins that bind to the antigen of that virus. generating substance.
Section 2 Review
List the different kinds of white blood cells Critical Thinking Predicting Outcomes
involved in the immune response. How would an enzyme that destroys interleukins
affect the immune response?
Describe how white blood cells recognize and
bind to pathogens. Standardized Test Prep Which cells produce anti-
bodies and release them into the blood?
Compare the roles of B cells and T cells in the A cytotoxic T cells C plasma cells
immune response.
B helper T cells D macrophages
Recognizing Relationships Explain the role of
helper T cells in the immune response.
SECTION 2 Immune Response 929
Section 3 Disease Transmission
and Prevention
Objectives Disease Transmission
● List five ways diseases In general, you can get infectious diseases in any of five different
can be transmitted to ways: through person-to-person contact, air, food, water, and animal
humans. bites. Diseases transferred from person to person are considered
● Summarize Koch’s contagious, or communicable. For example, when a person sneezes,
postulates for identifying droplets of saliva and mucus carrying pathogens are expelled from
pathogens. the mouth and nose, as shown in Figure 6. If another person
● Analyze how the body
breathes these droplets, the pathogens can infect that person. Peo-
produces immunity to ple directly transmit some diseases by kissing, shaking hands,
pathogens. touching sores, or having sexual contact. People can also transmit
diseases indirectly through objects contaminated with pathogens,
● Describe how vaccines
produce immunity to
such as drinking glasses, toys, plumbing, and needles used to inject
pathogens. drugs or in tatooing.
By minimizing exposure to pathogens, you can decrease your
Key Terms chances of becoming ill. For example, to prevent illnesses caused by
bacteria found in foods that contain animal products, these foods
Koch’s postulates
should always be cooked thoroughly. Utensils and other surfaces
immunity
vaccination that foods touch should be sanitized.
vaccine
antigen shifting Detecting Disease
The German physician Robert Koch (1843–1910) established a
procedure for diagnosing causes of infection. Koch determined that
bacteria cause anthrax, a disease that afflicts cattle, sheep, goats,
and humans. Anthrax is a serious disease although it is not passed
from person to person. In an experiment, Koch isolated bacteria
from a cow with anthrax and then infected a healthy cow with the
Figure 6 Disease bacteria. The healthy cow developed anthrax and had the same bac-
transmission. When a teria that the first cow had. In his research, Koch developed the
person sneezes, pathogens following four-step procedure, known as Koch’s postulates , as a
are expelled from the mouth guide for identifying specific pathogens.
and nose.
1. The pathogen must be found in an animal with the
disease and not in a healthy animal.
2. The pathogen must be isolated from the sick animal
and grown in a laboratory culture.
3. When the isolated pathogen is injected into a healthy
animal, the animal must develop the disease.
4. The pathogen should be taken from the second
animal and grown in a laboratory culture. The cul-
tured pathogen should be the same as the original
pathogen.

Long-Term Protection
The specific immune response is very
Primary and Secondary Immune Responses
powerful, and it can be a long-lasting
defense. After an immune response,
Antibody concentration
some B cells and T cells become
Subsequent
memory cells that continue to patrol exposure
your body’s tissues. Some memory First exposure
to same
pathogen Secondary
cells provide lifelong protection to pathogen immune
against previously encountered response
pathogens. If a pathogen ever appears
Primary
again, memory cells activate antibody immune
production against that pathogen. As response
shown in Figure 7, a second exposure
to the same pathogen causes a sharp Time
increase in antibody concentration.
This enables macrophages to destroy Figure 7 Immune
the pathogen before you become ill. You are said to be “immune,” or responses. The first time you
resistant, to the disease caused by that pathogen. are exposed to a pathogen,
your immune system responds
normally. If you become
Resistance to Disease exposed to the same
Resistance to a particular disease is called immunity . It has long pathogen again, antibody
been observed that individuals who recover from an infectious dis- production increases quickly.
ease develop an immunity to that disease. This knowledge preceded
the development of immunology, a branch of science that deals
with antigens, antibodies, and immunity. Immunologists study the
body’s defenses and ways to help protect against disease.
In 1796, an English doctor named Edward Jenner performed an
experiment that marks the beginning of immunology. Smallpox,
which is caused by a virus, was a common and deadly disease then.
Jenner observed that milkmaids who had contracted cowpox, a
mild form of smallpox, rarely became infected with smallpox. Jenner
hypothesized that cowpox produced protection against smallpox.
To test his hypothesis, Jenner infected healthy people with cowpox.
As Jenner had predicted, many of the people he infected never
developed smallpox, even though they had been exposed to the
virus. We now know that smallpox and cowpox are caused by two
similar viruses. The cowpox infection caused an immune response
that later prevented smallpox infection in Jenner’s patients.
Vaccination Jenner’s procedure of injecting the cowpox virus to
produce resistance to smallpox is called vaccination. Vaccination
(vak sih NAY shuhn) is a medical procedure used to produce immu-
nity. You have probably been to the doctor for vaccination to guard
against various diseases. Modern vaccination usually involves an
injection, or “shot,” of a vaccine under the skin. A vaccine (vak
SEEN) is a solution that contains a dead or weakened pathogen or
genetic material from a pathogen.
A vaccine triggers an immune response against the pathogen
without symptoms of infection. For several days after you are
vaccinated, your immune system develops antibodies and memory
SECTION 3 Disease Transmission and Prevention 931

cells against the pathogen. You develop a long-lasting immunity to
Real Life the disease. In 1977, smallpox became the first infectious disease to
Flu can be deadly. be eradicated from the public by vaccination. Vaccination has also
In 1918, an influenza (flu) reduced the incidence of many other diseases, including measles,
epidemic killed more than polio, tetanus, and diphtheria.
20 million people. To pre-
vent this from happening Antigen shifting You can get the flu even if you have already been
again, scientists track the infected or vaccinated. Influenza viruses constantly mutate over
antigen shifting of flu time. The viruses produce new antigens that your immune system
viruses and target the new does not recognize, a process known as antigen shifting. With sub-
viral antigens for vaccines. sequent exposure to the virus, your body must make new antibodies.
Simulating Antigen Activity

Using simulated blood, you can see what happens
when antigens encounter specific antibodies.
Materials
safety goggles, disposable gloves, lab apron, 2 blood-typing
trays, simulated blood (types AB and O), simulated anti-A and
anti-B blood-typing serums, 4 toothpicks
Procedure
1. Put on toothpick. Add 3–4 drops of Analysis
safety anti-B blood-typing serum to 1. Determine which blood
goggles, disposable gloves, the other well. Use a new type has antigens that are
and a lab apron. toothpick to stir the mixture. recognized by the blood-
Look for clumps separating typing sera.
2. Place 3–4 drops of type AB
from the mixtures.
simulated blood into each well 2. Evaluating Results What
in a clean blood-typing tray. 4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 using does clumping of the blood
CAUTION: Use only simu- simulated type O blood. mixtures indicate?
lated blood provided by
5. Dispose of 3. Predicting Outcomes
your teacher.
your materials What would happen if you
3. Add 3–4 drops of anti-A according to your teacher’s did the same experiment
blood-typing serum to one directions. Clean up your work using type A blood and
well. Stir the mixture for area and wash your hands. type B blood?
30 seconds using a
Section 3 Review
List two ways that diseases can be transmitted Critical Thinking Relating Concepts Explain
between people. why you cannot get many diseases more
than once.
Summarize Koch’s postulates for identifying
specific pathogens. Standardized Test Prep Smallpox is caused by a
A virus. C fungus.
Describe how vaccination produces immunity.
B bacterium. D protist.

Disorders of the Section 4
Immune System
Autoimmune Diseases Objectives
The ability of your immune system to distinguish cells and antigens ● Describe several auto-
of your body from foreign cells and antigens is crucial to the fight immune diseases.
against pathogens. In some people, the immune system cannot dis- ● Summarize how HIV
tinguish between the body’s antigens and foreign antigens, causing disables the immune
an autoimmune disease. In an autoimmune disease , the body system.
launches an immune response against its own cells, attacking body
● List five ways HIV is
cells as if they were pathogens. The immune system cannot distin- transmitted.
guish between antigens of “self” and “nonself.” This effect may be
caused by the inappropriate production of antibodies specific to the ● Identify causes of an
allergic reaction.
antigens of body cells.
Autoimmune diseases affect organs and tissues in various areas of
Key Terms
the body. For example, multiple sclerosis (skleh ROH sihs) usually
strikes people between the ages of 20 and 40. Multiple sclerosis (MS) autoimmune disease
is generally thought to be an auto-immune disease. In people with AIDS
multiple sclerosis, the immune system attacks and gradually destroys HIV
CD4
insulating material surrounding nerve cells in the brain, in the spinal
allergy
cord, and in the nerves leading from the eyes to the brain. This
impairs and may eventually stop the functioning of these nerve cells.
Multiple sclerosis causes problems with vision, speech, and coordi-
nation. Table 1 lists and describes several autoimmune diseases.
Table 1 Autoimmune Diseases

Disease Areas affected Symptoms
Weakness, irritability, heat intolerance, increased

Graves’ disease Thyroid gland
sweating, weight loss, insomnia
Multiple Weakness, loss of coordination,

Nervous system
sclerosis (MS) problems with vision and speech
Rheumatoid Severe pain, fatigue, disabling

Joints
arthritis inflammation of joints
Systemic lupus Connective tissue, Facial skin rash, painful joints, fever,
erythematosus (SLE) joints, kidneys fatigue, kidney problems, weight loss
Insulin-producing Increased blood glucose level, excessive urine

Type I diabetes production, problems with vision, weight loss,
cells in pancreas
fatigue, irritability
SECTION 4 Disorders of the Immune System 933

HIV Infection
Before 1981, AIDS , or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, was
unknown. Between 1981 and 2000, more than 448,000 Americans
died of AIDS. Since then, the total number of people living with
HIV in the United States has increased to more than 850,000. AIDS
is a disease caused by HIV , or the human immunodeficiency virus.
Many scientists think HIV evolved from a virus similar to
one that infects nonhuman primates in Africa. A mutation
enables HIV to recognize a receptor protein called CD4 on
some human cells. HIV, shown in Figure 8, enters white
blood cells by binding to CD4. HIV usually invades helper T
cells, which begin to produce HIV soon after infection. As
helper T cells die, the immune system gradually weakens and
becomes overwhelmed by pathogens that it would normally
detect and destroy. The body becomes susceptible to other
diseases, called opportunistic infections, that generally cause
illness only in people with weakened immune systems.
Figure 8 HIV. Small HIV
particles (purple) surround a
helper T cell (orange). Testing for HIV
Antibodies to HIV can be detected in blood. Someone whose blood
contains antibodies to HIV is said to be HIV positive. A diagnosis
of AIDS may be made based on several criteria, including a helper
T cell count less than 200 cells/mL of blood. Figure 9 shows how
the number of helper T cells may decline over time in an HIV-
positive person.
The time between HIV infection and the onset of AIDS can exceed
10 years, and this time period is increasing as new treatments for
HIV infection are developed. A person with HIV may feel and appear
healthy but can infect other people. In the United States, the number
of deaths caused by AIDS has dropped from more than 38,000 in
1996 to about 22,000 in 1997, and to about 15,000 in 2000. This
decrease does not reflect a decline in HIV infection, but rather more
effective drug therapies, which postpone onset of the disease.
Figure 9 Onset of AIDS.

The graph at right shows Number of Helper T Cells Following HIV Infection
the decline over time in the
900
Number of helper T cells
number of helper T cells in a

person infected with HIV. 800
(per mL of blood)
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Infection Time since infection (years)

Transmission of HIV
You can become infected with HIV if you come in contact with
body fluids—including the blood—of an infected person. The most
www.scilinks.org
common method of HIV transmission is through sexual contact.
Topic: HIV Transmission
Use of a latex condom during sexual contact reduces but does not Keyword: HX4098
eliminate the risk of getting or spreading HIV. Many people infected
with HIV do not know they are infected. The only sure way to pre-
vent HIV infection by sexual contact is through abstinence (the
conscious decision to refrain from sexual activity).
HIV can be passed between drug users who share a hypodermic
needle because HIV-infected blood often remains in the needle or
syringe. Several years ago, many people became infected with HIV
after receiving transfusions of HIV-contaminated blood. This is
very unlikely now because blood made available for transfusion is
tested for HIV. In addition, pregnant or nursing mothers can pass
HIV to their infants through blood and breast milk.
HIV is not transmitted through the air, on toilet seats, by kissing or
handshaking, or by any other medium where HIV-infected white
blood cells could not survive. Although HIV has been found in saliva,
tears, and urine, these body fluids usually contain too few HIV par-
ticles to cause an infection. Mosquitoes and ticks do not transmit
HIV because they do not carry HIV-infected white blood cells.
Tracking the Spread of AIDS

Background
The graph below shows the total AIDS cases reported in the
0100010110
011101010 United States between 1996 and 2001. Use the graph to answer
0010010001001 the following questions:
1100100100010
0000101001001
1101010100100
0101010010010
AIDS Cases in the United States, 1996-2001

Analysis
Deaths New cases Cumulative cases
1. Describe how the number of (adults and adolescents)
400
people with AIDS has changed
Number of cases (thousands)
since 1996. 350
2. Inferring Relationships 300

Is the number of Americans 250
infected with HIV most likely
200
greater than or less than the
number of people with AIDS? 150
Explain why. 100
3. Evaluating Data The graph 50
indicates that the number of
new AIDS cases reported each 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
year has decreased since
Year
1996. Suggest a possible Estimated data from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
reason for this decline.
SECTION 4 Disorders of the Immune System 935

Allergic Reactions
Many health problems are caused by inappropriate responses of the
immune system. One example is an allergic reaction. An allergy is the
body’s inappropriate response to a normally harmless antigen. Allergy-
causing antigens include pollen, the feces of dust mites, fungal spores,
and substances found in some foods and drugs. Most allergic reactions
are merely uncomfortable. Cells exposed to allergy-causing antigens
release histamine. Histamine causes swelling, redness, increased
mucus production, runny nose, itchy eyes, and nasal congestion. Most
allergy medicines contain antihistamines, which are drugs that pre-
vent the action of histamine. Severe allergic reactions, such as asthma,
can be life threatening if they are not treated immediately.
Asthma
A sthma is an inflammation of
the respiratory tract often
caused by an allergic reaction to
Asthma Attack
During an asthma attack, the
respiratory passages become in-
substances in the air. Asthma flamed and swollen. Then mucus
affects about 15 million Ameri- collects in the lungs, restricting
cans and causes more than airflow. Finally, muscles that sur-
5,000 deaths each year. Inner- round the bronchial tubes tighten,
city residents get asthma three causing shortness of breath.
times as often as people who live
outside cities. In some cities, the Treating Asthma Measuring lung capacity
death rate from asthma is eight Asthma sufferers can take med-
times the national average. Some icines that increase airflow by
scientists think increased asthma relaxing bronchial-tube mus-
rates in inner-city residents is cles, but their effects wear www.scilinks.org
related to pollution, emotional off after a few hours. Other Topic: Asthma
stress, and limited access to health medicines provide long-lasting Keyword: HX4015
care. One study suggests that relief by preventing or reducing
cockroach feces may cause inflammation.
asthma in many inner-city children.
Section 4 Review
Describe the cause of autoimmune diseases. Distinguish between HIV infection and AIDS.
List two ways that HIV can be transmitted and Standardized Test Prep One common symptom of
two ways that it cannot. an allergic reaction to airborne antigens is
A a weakened immune response.
Critical Thinking Recognizing
B opening nasal passages.
Relationships Explain why it might take several
weeks after exposure to HIV for a person’s HIV C reduced mucus production.
antibody test to be positive. D itchy eyes.

ZONE
1 Nonspecific Defenses Section 1
pathogen (924)
● Skin and mucous membranes act as barriers to pathogens. mucous membrane (924)
● The inflammatory response increases blood flow to an inflammatory response (925)
infected area, while the temperature response inhibits histamine (925)
complement system (926)
bacterial growth. interferon (926)
● Complement proteins form a membrane attack complex neutrophil (926)
macrophage (926)
(MAC). Interferon stimulates cells and inhibits viruses.
natural killer cell (926)
● Neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells use dif-
ferent methods to attack and destroy invading pathogens.
2 Immune Response Section 2

cytotoxic T cell (927)
● Receptors on white blood cells bind to specific antigens. B cell (927)
● The T cell response is a defense in which cytotoxic T cells helper T cell (927)
antigen (927)
destroy pathogens.
plasma cell (929)
● The B cell response is a defense in which antibodies antibody (929)
mark pathogens for destruction by white blood cells.
3 Disease Transmission and Prevention Section 3

Koch’s postulates (930)
● Diseases are transmitted to humans through person-to- immunity (931)
person contact, air, food, water, and animal bites. vaccination (931)
● Biologists use Koch’s postulates to identify pathogens. vaccine (931)
antigen shifting (932)
● Memory cells can produce long-term immunity to pathogens.
● Vaccination produces long-term immunity to pathogens.
● Antigen shifting makes the immune response of memory
cells ineffective.
4 Disorders of the Immune System

Section 4
● In an autoimmune disease, the immune system attacks
autoimmune disease (933)
body cells as if they were pathogens. AIDS (934)
● HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, invades helper T cells, caus- HIV (934)
ing them to produce more HIV particles and eventually die. CD4 (934)
allergy (936)
● HIV is transmitted by HIV-infected white blood cells in
body fluids, through sexual contact or by the sharing of a
hypodermic needle with an infected person.
● An allergic reaction is an inappropriate response to normally
harmless antigens.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 11. The graph below shows the decrease in
the number of helper T cells in a person
1. Robert Koch with AIDS. How many months after
a. treated smallpox patients. infection did the onset of AIDS occur?
b. established a four-step procedure for
identifying pathogens. HIV Infection
c. perfected vaccination.
d. identified complement proteins.
Number of helper T cells

800
2. Flu vaccinations are given each year
(per mL of blood)
because 600
a. influenza viruses mutate often.
b. influenza is caused by bacteria. 400
c. very few memory cells are produced.
d. macrophages cannot engulf flu viruses. 200
3. HIV can be transmitted by
0
a. sexual contact. c. shaking hands. 0 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81
b. mosquito bites. d. vaccination only. Infection Time (months)
4. Rheumatoid arthritis is an example of
a. an allergic reaction.
b. an autoimmune disease. Critical Thinking
c. an AIDS-related infection. 12. Analyzing Information Plasma cells contain
d. a bacterial infection. a large Golgi apparatus and large amounts
5. HIV disables the immune system by of rough endoplasmic reticulum. How is
a. blocking the action of macrophages. the presence of these organelles related to
b. destroying helper T cells. the function of plasma cells?
c. activating production of B cells. 13. Inferring Relationships People who are
d. All of the above severely burned often die from infection.
6. For each pair of terms, explain the diff- Given what you know about disease trans-
erences in their meanings. mission, explain why this is common.
a. macrophage, neutrophil
b. immunity, vaccine
c. allergy, histamine 14. Summarizing Information Use the media
center or the Internet to research three
7. Name three types of white blood cells, and
different vaccines. Make a large chart or
explain their roles in the immune system.
table on poster board listing the pathogens
8. How do cytotoxic T cells recognize antigens? they protect against, their effectiveness,
side effects, and boosters required, if any.
9. What symptoms are usually
Present your chart to your class.
associated with an asthma attack?
15. Career Focus Immunologist Research the
10. Concept Mapping Make a concept field of immunology, and write a report on
map that describes the immune response. your findings. Your report should include a
Include the following terms in your map: job description, education and training
pathogen, macrophage, helper T cell, required, kinds of employers, growth
cytotoxic T cell, B cell, plasma cell, and prospects, and starting salary.
antibody.


correct answer.
Scientific research into treatments and a
1 Which of the following is a nonspecific cure for AIDS is an ongoing process. One
defense? important development is a clinical trial of a
A. antibody response potential HIV vaccine conducted in 15 U. S.
B. the B cell response medical centers. Also, a new medication,
C. the inflammatory response which combines two proven medications
D. the T cell response (3Tc and AZT) into one, may help people
2 Which of the following functions is a role with HIV live longer, healthier lives. Another
that mucous membranes play in the medication, alitretinoin, treats lesions of
immune system? Kaposi’s sarcoma.
F. causing blood clots
G. producing antibodies
7 How could an HIV vaccine prevent people
from developing AIDS?
H. activating helper T cells A. The vaccine would treat lesions of
I. secreting mucous, which traps Kaposi’s sarcoma and other symptoms.
pathogens B. The vaccine would cure an infected per-
3 B cells and cytotoxic T cells are stimulated son by destroying all of his HIV viruses.
by interleukin-2. What kind of cell releases C. The vaccine would cause the body to
interleukin-2? produce HIV-fighting cells before a
A. helper T cells person is infected with the virus.
B. macrophages D. The vaccine would prevent a person
C. natural killer cells with HIV from developing AIDS, by
D. neutrophils preventing the virus from mutating.
4 Which of the following statements is true Interpreting Graphics

of plasma cells? Directions (8): Base your answer to question
F. They engulf pathogens. 8 on the diagram below.
G. They produce antibodies.
H. They result from cytotoxic T cells. Immune Response to a Virus
I. They are directly stimulated by Virus Cytotoxic T cell
interleukin-1.
A
short response.
B
5 Under what circumstances can a child be

born with HIV?
6 Differentiate between a helper T cell and a

cytotoxic T cell.
8 Why can structures A and B interact with
Test each other?
To help you learn the stages of the immune response, F. Both of them are “nonself.”
make a note card describing each stage, mix the G. They have matching shapes.
cards up, and practice reordering the stages. H. Both of them are viral proteins.
I. They are produced by the same cells.

Skills Practice Lab
Simulating Disease Transmission
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Modeling • safety goggles
• Organizing and analyzing • lab apron
data • disposable gloves
OBJECTIVES
• dropper bottle of
unknown solution
• Simulate the transmission
of a disease. • large test tube
• Determine the original • indophenol indicator

carrier of the disease.
ChemSafety
DATA TABLE 1
Before You Begin Round number Partner’s name
Communicable diseases are caused by
pathogens and can be transmitted from one
person to another. You can become infected
by a pathogen in several ways, including by
drinking contaminated water, eating contam-
DATA TABLE 2
inated foods, receiving contaminated blood, Names of infected person’s partners
Name of
and inhaling infectious aerosols (droplets infected person Round 1 Round 2 Round 3
from coughs or sneezes). In this lab, you will
simulate the transmission of a communica-
ble disease. After the simulation, you will try
to identify the original infected person in the
closed class population. Procedure
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in PART A: Simulate Disease Transmission
the paragraph above. 1. Put on safety goggles, a
2. Make data tables similar to the ones shown lab apron, and gloves.
at right. 2. You will be given a dropper bottle of
3. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a an unknown solution. When your
question you would like to explore about teacher says to begin, transfer 3 dropper-
disease transmission. fuls of your solution to a clean test tube.

3. Select a partner for Round 1. Record the PART C: Cleanup and Disposal
name of this partner in Data Table 1. 11. Dispose of solutions and broken
4. Pour the contents of one of your test glass in the designated waste con-
tubes into the other test tube. Then pour tainers. Do not pour chemicals down the
half the solution back into the first test drain unless your teacher tells you to
tube. You and your partner now share any do so.
pathogens either of you might have. 12. Clean up your work area and all lab
5. On your teacher’s signal, select a new equipment. Return lab equipment
partner for Round 2. Record this partner’s to its proper place. Wash your hands thor-
name in Data Table 1. Repeat step 4. oughly before you leave the lab and after
6. On your teacher’s signal, select another you finish all work.
new partner for Round 3. Record this
partner’s name. Repeat step 4. Analyze and Conclude
7. Add one dropperful of indophenol indica-
1. Interpreting Data After Round 3, how
tor to your test tube. “Infected” solutions
many people were “infected”? Express
will stay colorless or turn light pink.
this number as a percentage of your class.
“Uninfected” solutions will turn blue.
Record the results of your test. 2. Relating Concepts What do you think
the clear fluids each student started with
represent? Explain why.
PART B: Trace the Disease Source
3. Drawing Conclusions Can someone
8. If you are infected, write your name and who does not show any symptoms of a
the name of your partner in each round disease transmit that disease? Explain.
on the board or on an overhead projector.
Mark your infected partners. Record all
about disease transmission that could be
the data for your class in Data Table 2.
9. To trace the source of the infection, cross
out the names of the uninfected partners
in Round 1. There should be only two
names left. One is the name of the origi-
nal disease carrier. To find the original
disease carrier, place a sample from his or
her dropper bottle in a clean test tube,
and test it with indophenol indicator.
10. To show the disease transmission route,
make a diagram similar to the one below.
Show the original disease carrier and the
people each disease carrier infected. On the Job
Public health officials, such as food
Disease Transmission Route
inspectors, study and work to prevent
Source Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 the spread of diseases in human popula-
tions. Do research to find out how public
health officials trace the origin of com-
municable diseases. For more about
CHAPTER 40 The Body’s Defenses 941

Nerve-cell network (29,500)
Show jumper

CHAPTER
41 Nervous
System
1. Describe the importance of ion channels in cell
transport. (Chapter 4, Section 1) Neurons and Nerve Impulses
Neurons
2. Identify the role of sodium-potassium pumps in
Communication Between Neurons
cells. (Chapter 4, Section 2)
3. Distinguish between endocytosis and
exocytosis. (Chapter 4, Section 2) Section 2
4. List three functions of receptor proteins. Structures of the Nervous System
(Chapter 4, Section 2) Central Nervous System
Did you have difficulty? For help, review the Peripheral Nervous System
sections indicated.
Section 3
Sensory Systems
Reading Activity Perception of Stimuli
Eyes
Copy the following statements in your notebook: Ears
1. Addiction is a purely psychological response Chemical Senses
to drug use.
Section 4
2. Reflexes occur before the brain is aware
of danger. Drugs and the Nervous System
Psychoactive Drugs
3. Prolonged exposure to loud noise can cause
Drug Addiction and Neuron Function
permanent hearing loss. Alcohol
Before you read this chapter, write down Nicotine
whether you agree or disagree with each Drugs of Abuse
statement. After you have finished reading the
chapter, decide whether or not you still agree
with your first response.
www.scilinks.org
Nerve-cell networks like this one transmit thought,

emotions, and sensations by conducting electro-
chemical signals from cell to cell.
CHAPTER 41 Nervous System 943

Section 1 Neurons and
Nerve Impulses
Objectives Neurons
● Analyze the structure and If your body used only chemical signals to send messages, your
function of neurons. interaction with the environment would be slow. A quicker means
● Describe how the resting of communication is needed, especially if your brain has an urgent
potential is established in message for the muscles in your legs, such as “Contract quickly! A
a neuron. speeding car is headed this way!” In addition to chemical signals,
● Sequence the steps of a your nervous system uses electrical signals to send messages
nerve impulse. rapidly throughout your body.
The nervous system contains a complex network of nerve cells, or
● List the events that occur in
neurons (NOO rahns). Neurons, such as those shown in Figure 1,
synaptic transmission of a
nerve impulse. are specialized cells that transmit information throughout the body.
Neurons enable many important functions, such as movement,
Key Terms perception, thought, emotion, and learning.
neuron
dendrite Structure of Neurons
axon A neuron’s unique structure enables it to conduct electrical signals
nerve called nerve impulses. Neurons communicate by transmitting nerve
membrane potential impulses to body tissues and organs, including muscles, glands, and
resting potential other neurons. Neurons vary greatly in form, but a typical neuron is
action potential similar to the one shown in Figure 2. Dendrites (DEHN driets),
synapse
which extend from the cell body of the neuron, are the “antennae”
neurotransmitter
of the neuron. Dendrites receive information from other cells. The
neuron’s cell body collects information from dendrites, relays this
information to other parts of the neuron, and maintains the general
functioning of the neuron. An axon is a long membrane-covered
extension of the cytoplasm that conducts nerve impulses. The ends
of an axon are called axon terminals. When a neuron communicates
with other cells, it does so at its axon terminals.
Figure 1 Two neurons. Nervous tissue consists mostly of neurons and their supporting
An average adult human
cells. Bundles of axons are called nerves. The arrangement of axons
brain contains about
100 billion neurons. in a nerve is similar to a telephone cable with many different
communication channels, each carried by a separate wire.
Nerves appear as fine, white threads when viewed with
the unaided eye.
Insulated Neurons
Many neurons have a layer of insulation on their axon
called a myelin (MIE uh lihn) sheath, as shown in Figure
2. Myelin is produced by supporting cells that surround
the axon. The presence of myelin causes nerve impulses to
move faster down the axon. The myelin sheath is inter-
rupted at intervals, leaving gaps called nodes of Ranvier
944 CHAPTER 41 Nervous System

Figure 2 Myelinated neuron.
A myelin sheath covers the
axons of many neurons. Myelin
increases the speed of
nerve impulses. Cell body Dendrites
Axon
Nucleus
Nodes of
Ranvier
Myelin sheath
Axon terminals
(RAHN vee ay), where the axon membrane is exposed to the sur-
rounding fluid. Conduction of nerve impulses is faster in myeli-
www.scilinks.org
nated axons because nerve impulses “jump” from node to node as
Topic: Neurons
they move down the axon. Myelin is especially beneficial in neurons Keyword: HX4129
that must transmit information very rapidly, such as those involved
with quick movement.
The speed of impulse conduction is also related to axon diameter.
A large-diameter axon conducts impulses faster than a small-
diameter axon, assuming both axons are either myelinated or
unmyelinated.
Neuron Function
All cells have an electrical charge on the inner surface of the cell
membrane that is different from the electrical charge of the fluid
outside the cell. The difference in electrical charge across the cell
membrane, called the membrane potential , results from the move-
ment of ions into and out of the cell. This movement depends on
the relative concentration of ions inside and outside the cell, the
ability of the ions to diffuse across the cell membrane, and the elec-
trical charge of the ions. The membrane potential is expressed as
voltage, like that of a battery.
Ions diffuse across a neuron’s cell membrane by passing through
proteins that act as ion channels. Each type of channel allows
only specific ions to pass. Certain channels are voltage-gated—that
is, whether they are open or closed depends on the membrane
potential. Even a small change in the membrane potential can
affect the permeability of the cell membrane to certain ions. As
these ions diffuse into or out of the neuron, they in turn affect the
membrane potential.
SECTION 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses 945

Resting Potential
When a neuron is not conducting a nerve impulse, the neuron is
said to be at rest. The membrane potential of a neuron at rest is
Reading Effectively
called the resting potential . In a typical neuron, the resting poten-
The membrane potential
of a cell is expressed in
tial is negative, about –70 millivolts (mV). At the resting potential,
millivolts (mV). A millivolt is the inside of the cell is negatively charged with respect to the out-
equal to one-thousandth of side of the cell. Why is the resting potential negative? Recall that
a volt (V). As shown in the sodium-potassium pumps actively transport sodium ions, Na+, out
graph in the Data Lab of a cell and potassium ions, K+, into the cell. This results in a
below, a neuron’s membrane greater concentration of sodium ions outside the cell than inside
potential can be positive
or negative. The resting
the cell, and a greater concentration of potassium ions inside the
potential of an average cell than outside the cell. In a neuron, voltage-gated sodium chan-
neuron is about –70 mV. nels are closed at the resting potential. Thus, very few sodium ions
During an action potential, can diffuse into the cell, despite their strong concentration gradi-
the membrane potential of ent. Some voltage-gated potassium channels are open at the resting
the neuron reaches potential. Potassium ions can therefore diffuse out of the cell down
about +40 mV.
their concentration gradient, carrying their positive charge with
them. Neurons also contain negatively charged proteins that are
too large to exit the cell.
Action Potential
When a neuron is conducting a nerve impulse, changes occur in the
cell membrane of the neuron. A nerve impulse is also called an
action potential. An action potential is a local reversal of polarity—
from a negative charge to a positive charge—inside the neuron. An
action potential moves down an axon like a flame burning down a
fuse. The events of an action potential are summarized in Figure 3.
Analyzing Changes During

a Nerve Impulse
Background
0100010110
011101010 The graph below illustrates changes that occur in the membrane
0010010001001
1100100100010 potential of a neuron during an action potential. Use the graph to
0000101001001
1101010100100 answer the following questions. Refer to Figure 3 as needed.
0101010010010
Action Potential
Analysis
1. Determine about how 4. Critical Thinking Rec- +40
Membrane potential
long an action potential ognizing Relationships +20

A B
lasts. What causes the membrane 0
(millivolts)
potential to become less –20

2. State whether voltage-
negative at point A? –40
gated sodium channels are
–60
open or closed at point A. 5. Critical Thinking Rec-
–80
ognizing Relationships
3. State whether voltage-
What causes the membrane 0 1 2
gated potassium channels
potential to become more
are open or closed at Time (milliseconds)
negative at point B?
point B.

Figure 3
B IO Conduction of a Nerve Impulse

gr hic
ap An action potential moves rapidly down an axon.
Sodium
At the resting potential, Sodium channel ion, Na+
1 sodium channels are closed
and some potassium
channels are open.
Potassium
channel
Potassium
+ + + + + + – – – – + + +
ion, K+
– – – – – – + + + + – – –
Axon
– – – – – – + + + + – – – (enlarged)
+ + + + + + – – – – + + +
During an action Sodium Potassium

2 potential, sodium channel channel
channels open,
allowing sodium
ions to move into
the axon.
Step At the resting potential, the inside of the neuron is nega-

tively charged with respect to the outside of the neuron.
The neuron is ready to conduct an action potential.
Step An action potential begins when a stimulus, such as a sig-
nal molecule, causes a local change in the membrane
potential to a more positive value. This change causes
voltage-gated sodium channels to open, and sodium ions
rapidly flow into the axon. For a brief moment, the mem-
brane potential approaches about +40 mV as the inside of
the axon becomes positively charged. This sudden local
reversal of polarity begins a chain reaction that causes
voltage-gated sodium channels to open down the entire
length of the axon. As each sodium channel opens, sodium
ions flow into the axon. The action potential conducts
rapidly down the axon toward the axon terminals.
Voltage-gated sodium channels close immediately after the action
potential has passed. Then additional voltage-gated potassium chan-
nels open, allowing potassium ions to flow out of the axon. As a
result, the membrane potential becomes negative again immediately
after the action potential. The resting potential is fully restored as
sodium-potassium pumps reestablish the original concentrations of
sodium ions and potassium ions inside and outside the axon. The
neuron cannot conduct another action potential until that time.

Communication Between Neurons
A junction at which a neuron meets another cell is called a synapse
(SIHN aps), shown in Figure 4. At synapses, neurons usually do not
touch the cells they communicate with. Between an axon terminal
and a receiving cell is a tiny gap called a synaptic cleft. At a synapse,
the transmitting neuron is called a presynaptic neuron, and the
receiving cell is called a postsynaptic cell.
When a nerve impulse arrives at an axon terminal of a pre-
synaptic neuron, the impulse cannot cross the synaptic cleft.
Instead, the impulse triggers the release of signal molecules called
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitter mol-
ecules are produced by neurons and are stored inside vesicles.
There are many different neurotransmitters and several mecha-
nisms of neurotransmitter action. For example, in human muscles
the principal neurotransmitter is a chemical called acetylcholine
(as ee tihl KOH leen). The brain utilizes several neurotransmitters
such as glutamate (GLOO tuh mayt) and dopamine.
Release of Neurotransmitter
Figure 4 Synapse. A nerve impulse causes a presynaptic neuron to
A synapse is a junction at release neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic
which signals are transmitted cleft. When an action potential reaches an axon
between a neuron and terminal of the presynaptic neuron, vesicles that con-
another cell. tain neurotransmitter molecules fuse with the cell
Postsynaptic membrane. This releases neurotransmitter molecules
neuron
into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis. Neurotransmitter
molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and interact
Dendrite with the postsynaptic cell. As shown in Figure 5, neu-
rotransmitter molecules bind to receptor proteins on
the postsynaptic cell. In some cells, ion channels open
when a neurotransmitter binds to these receptor pro-
Synapses
teins. Such channels are called chemical-gated ion
channels; whether these channels are open or closed
depends on the binding of a chemical—in this case a
Axon neurotransmitter molecule.
terminal
A neurotransmitter may either excite or inhibit the
Axons activity of the postsynaptic cell it binds to. For exam-
ple, when the neurotransmitter opens chemical-gated
ion channels, ions move across the cell membrane of
the postsynaptic cell. This causes the membrane
potential of the postsynaptic cell to change depending
on the charge of the ions that move into or out of the
Presynaptic cell. If positively charged ions enter a postsynaptic
neuron
neuron, an action potential may be produced (excita-
tion). On the other hand, if positively charged ions
flow out of the postsynaptic neuron, or if negatively
charged ions enter the neuron, an action potential
may be suppressed (inhibition).

Neurotransmitter molecules do not remain in the synaptic cleft
indefinitely. Instead, most neurotransmitter molecules are cleared
from the synaptic cleft very shortly after they are released. Many
presynaptic neurons reabsorb neurotransmitter molecules and use
them again. At other synapses, neurotransmitter molecules are bro-
ken down by enzymes or other chemicals. This happens, for example,
at the synapses between neurons and skeletal muscle cells. The reup-
take or breakdown of the neurotransmitter molecules ensures that
their effect on postsynaptic cells is not prolonged.
Figure 5 Synaptic transmission

Neurotransmitter molecules are released from a presynaptic neuron,
diffuse across the synaptic cleft, and interact with a postsynaptic cell.
Synaptic
vesicles
Synaptic Axon
cleft
Direction of
action potential
Presynaptic
neuron
Axon
terminal
When neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter
molecules are released
molecule Postsynaptic
from a presynaptic
neuron, they either cell
Ion
excite or inhibit a
channel
postsynaptic cell. Receptor
proteins
Section 1 Review
Describe the structure of a typical neuron. Critical Thinking Inferring Relationships
How does the membrane potential affect the
Describe how the movement of ions across permeability of a neuron’s cell membrane?
the cell membrane determines the membrane
potential. Standardized Test Prep The junction at which a
neuron communicates with another neuron or
Summarize the events involved in the synaptic a muscle cell is called a
transmission of a nerve impulse. A myelin sheath. C nerve.
B synapse. D neurotransmitter.

Section 2 Structures of the
Nervous System
Objectives Central Nervous System
● Distinguish between the Neurons are the most important cells of the nervous system. The func-
central nervous system tions of the nervous system depend on the complex interaction
and the peripheral nervous between billions of neurons. Networks of neurons constantly gather,
system. integrate, interpret, and respond to information about the body’s inter-
● Identify the major parts nal state and environmental conditions. How are neurons organized in
of the brain and their the nervous system? As shown in Figure 6, there are two main divi-
functions. sions of the nervous system—the central nervous system, shown in
● Describe the structure orange, and the peripheral nervous system, shown in purple. The
of the spinal cord. central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal
cord. The CNS is the control center of the body. The CNS interprets
● Sequence the events
of a spinal reflex. and responds to information from
the environment and from with-
● Compare the somatic Nervous System in the body. The peripheral nervous
nervous system with
Brain system (PNS) contains sensory neu-
the autonomic nervous
system. rons and motor neurons. Sensory
neurons send information from
Spinal
Key Terms cord sense organs, such as the skin, to
the CNS. Motor neurons send com-
central nervous mands from the CNS to muscles and
system
other organs.
peripheral nervous
system
sensory neuron
motor neuron
Brain
brain The brain is the body’s main pro-
cerebrum cessing center. Encased entirely
cerebellum within the skull, the brain contains
brain stem about 100 billion neurons. An aver-
thalamus age adult brain weighs about 1.5 kg
hypothalamus (3 lb). Thoughts, feelings, emo-
spinal cord
tions, behavior, perception, and
reflex
interneuron
memories are controlled by your
brain. Your brain also enables you
to learn and process information,
such as the text in this book. Scien-
Figure 6 Nervous system. tists have determined the location
The central nervous system of various functions in the brain.
(orange) consists of the brain
The brain consists of three major
and the spinal cord. The
peripheral nervous system parts, shown in Figure 7—the cer-
(purple) branches throughout ebrum, the cerebellum, and the
the body. brain stem.

Cerebrum The cerebrum (seh REE bruhm) is the largest part of the
Real Life
brain. The capacity for learning, memory, perception, and intellec-
tual function resides in the cerebrum. The cerebrum has a folded Each year, nearly 250
outer layer with many bumps and grooves. A long, deep groove bicyclists die because
of brain injuries.
down the center divides the cerebrum into right and left halves, or
Wearing a bicycle helmet
hemispheres. The cerebral hemispheres communicate through a
reduces the risk of head
connecting band of axons called the corpus callosum (KOR puhs trauma by more than
kuh LOH suhm). In general, the left cerebral hemisphere receives 70 percent.
sensations from and controls movements of the right side of the Evaluating Viewpoints
body. The right cerebral hemisphere receives sensations from and Should there be helmet
controls movements of the left side of the body. laws for bicyclists just as
Most sensory and motor processing occurs in the cerebral cortex there are seatbelt laws for
automobile
(KOHR teks), the folded, thin (2–4 mm) outer layer of the cerebrum.
drivers?
The cerebral cortex contains about 10 percent of the brain’s neu-
rons. The folded outer surface of the cerebrum is the cerebral cor-
tex, which has a large surface area. The cerebral cortex is primarily
involved with the functioning of sensory systems.
Cerebellum The cerebellum (ser uh BEL uhm), which is located at
the posterior base of the brain, regulates balance, posture, and
movement. The cerebellum smooths and coordinates ongoing
movements, such as walking, by timing the contraction of skeletal
muscles. The cerebellum integrates and responds to information
about body position from the cerebrum and the spinal cord to con-
trol balance and posture.
Brain Stem At the base of the brain is the stalklike brain stem . The
brain stem is a collection of structures leading down to the spinal
cord and connecting the cerebral hemispheres with the cerebellum.
The lower brain stem consists of the midbrain, the pons, and the
Figure 7 Brain. The

cerebrum is divided into two
hemispheres. This view shows
the right hemisphere.
Thalamus
Upper brain Cerebrum
stem
Hypothalamus
Corpus callosum
Cerebellum
Midbrain
Lower brain Pons Spinal cord

stem
Medulla
oblongata
SECTION 2 Structures of the Nervous System 951

medulla oblongata (mi DUHL uh ahb lahn GAHT uh). These struc-
tures relay information throughout the CNS and play an important
role in homeostasis by regulating vital functions, such as heart rate,
breathing rate, body temperature, and sleep.
think of the spinal cord as
a busy two-way highway The upper brain stem contains important relay centers that
with sensory traffic going direct information to and from different parts of the brain. The
north and motor traffic thalamus (THAL uh muhs) is a critical site for sensory processing.
going south. Sensory information from all parts of the body converges on the
thalamus, which relays the information to appropriate areas of the
cerebral cortex. Below the thalamus, at the base of the brain, is the
hypothalamus. The hypothalamus , along with the medulla oblon-
gata, helps regulate many vital homeostatic functions, such as
breathing and heart rate. The hypothalamus is responsible for feel-
ings of hunger and thirst. It also regulates many functions of the
endocrine system by controlling the secretion of many hormones.
The thalamus and hypothalamus are linked to some areas of the
cerebral cortex by an extensive network of neurons called the limbic
system. The limbic system includes structures of both the brain stem
and the cerebrum. The limbic system has an important role in mem-
ory, learning, and various emotions, such as pleasure and anger.
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord , shown in Figure 8, is a dense cable of nervous tis-
sue that runs through the vertebral column. The spinal cord extends
from the medulla oblongata through the vertebrae to a level just
below the ribs. The spinal cord links the brain to the PNS. The brain
receives information that travels upward through the spinal cord.
Through the spinal cord, the brain also sends commands that con-
trol the rest of the body. In addition to relaying messages, the spinal
cord functions in reflexes. A reflex is a sudden, involuntary con-
traction of muscles in response to a stimulus.
Figure 8 Spinal cord

Spinal nerves have a dorsal root and a ventral root that diverge as they enter the spinal cord.
Back of body
Dorsal
root White matter Sensory
ganglion input
Spinal Spinal
nerve nerve
Ventral Nerve Motor

root fibers Gray matter output
Front of body
Cross section of spinal cord

The spinal cord is linked to the PNS through 31 pairs of spinal
nerves. The spinal nerves, which branch from the spinal cord, carry
information to and from the CNS. Spinal nerves in the upper part
of the spinal cord branch into the arms and upper body, and spinal
nerves in the lower part of the spinal cord branch into the legs and
lower body. Each spinal nerve has a dorsal root and a ventral root.
Dorsal roots contain sensory neurons, which carry information
from areas of sensory input to the CNS. Ventral roots contain motor
neurons, which carry motor responses from the CNS to muscles,
glands, and other organs. As shown in Figure 8, dorsal and ventral
roots come together to form the spinal nerves near the spinal cord.
The spinal cord contains a core of gray matter covered by a
sheath of white matter, as shown in Figure 8. Gray matter contains
the cell bodies of neurons, whereas white matter contains the axons
of neurons. Included in the gray matter are interneurons , which
link neurons to each other.
Spinal Cord Injury
U nlike most other parts of the

body, the spinal cord does
not heal after an injury. Damaged
Stopping Cell Death
Cells continue to die near the
site of a spinal cord injury for
neurons stop conducting nerve several weeks after injury
impulses at the site of injury, per- occurs. Myelin-producing cells
manently paralyzing the legs or, die, leaving neurons in the spinal
in some cases, all four limbs. cord unable to function. Some
Every year, spinal cord scientists think that stopping the
injuries—whether incurred in death of these cells could help
athletics or automobile acci- avoid paralysis. In experiments
dents—leave nearly 15,000 on rats, researchers have found
Americans partially or totally par- that a cell-death inhibitor of peripheral nerves into the
alyzed. In 1995, actor Christo- improves the rats’ ability to use spinal cord. The nerve grafts
pher Reeve, shown in the photo their hind legs after a spinal cord provide tunnels for regrowing
at right, injured his spinal cord injury. Researchers are investi- axons. Rats with such nerve
after falling headfirst from a gating other cell-death inhibitors grafts begin to show signs of
horse. The fall broke vertebrae in that could be used on humans. recovery within 3 weeks. Within
Reeve’s neck, paralyzing him a year, they can support their
from the neck down. Bridging the Gap
own weight. Similar grafts have
A treatment currently available After the spinal cord is injured, not yet been tried on humans.
for people with spinal cord damaged axons begin to regrow.
injuries is an anti-inflammatory However, their growth is inhib-
drug called methylprednisolone. ited by substances in the spinal
If given within 8 hours after the cord. Peripheral nerves lack www.scilinks.org
spinal cord is injured, the drug these substances, so the axons Topic: Spinal Cord
can improve chances of recov- in these nerves can regrow quite Keyword: HX4168
ery. Even with this drug, how- well. To stimulate the growth of
ever, recovery is usually far from axons in the injured spinal cord,
complete. researchers have grafted pieces

Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system connects the brain and the spinal cord
to the rest of the body. In addition to the 31 pairs of spinal nerves, 12
pairs of cranial nerves connect the brain with areas in the head and
neck. The PNS contains two principal divisions—the sensory division
notice that in a spinal reflex,
motor neurons stimulate and the motor division. The sensory division directs sensory informa-
muscles in the same region tion to the central nervous system. The motor division carries out
in which the stimulus that responses to sensory information. The motor division of the PNS con-
caused the reflex originated. sists of two independent systems—the somatic nervous system and
the autonomic nervous system.
Somatic Nervous System

Most motor neurons that stimulate skeletal muscles are under our
conscious control. These neurons are part of the somatic nervous
system. Some activity in the somatic nervous system, such as spinal
reflexes, is involuntary. A spinal reflex is a self-protective motor
response. Spinal reflexes are extremely rapid because they usually
involve the spinal cord but do not involve the brain.
The knee-jerk reflex, shown in Figure 9, is an example of a spinal
reflex. When the ligament below your kneecap is tapped, your lower
leg suddenly kicks forward. Tapping the ligament stimulates a sensory
neuron, shown in red. The sensory neuron sends a nerve impulse to
the spinal cord and excites a motor neuron, shown in green, which
causes the quadriceps to contract. This causes the leg to extend
rapidly. The sensory neuron also stimulates an interneuron, shown in
blue. The interneuron inhibits a motor neuron that would normally
cause the hamstrings to contract, allowing the hamstrings to relax.
Figure 9 Knee-jerk reflex

When the ligament below the patella is tapped, the quadriceps contracts,
the hamstrings relax, and the leg rapidly extends.
Patella
Quadriceps
(kneecap)
Hamstrings
Patellar
ligament
Interneuron
Dorsal Sensory
root neuron
Spinal
cord
Motor
neuron to
Motor
hamstrings
neuron to
quadriceps Ventral root

Autonomic Nervous System
Peripheral motor neurons that regulate smooth muscles do not www.scilinks.org
require our conscious control. These neurons are part of the auto- Topic: Autonomic
nomic nervous system, which regulates heart rate and blood flow Nervous System
by controlling contractions of cardiac muscle in the heart and Keyword: HX4017
smooth muscle lining the walls of blood vessels. It also controls
muscles in the digestive, urinary, respiratory, and reproductive sys-
tems, as well as the secretions of many glands.
Two divisions of the autonomic nervous system—the parasympa-
thetic division and the sympathetic division—maintain stability in the
body by counterbalancing each other’s effects. The parasympathetic
division is most active under normal conditions. It keeps your body
functioning even when you are not active. For example, you continue
to breathe when you fall asleep.
The sympathetic division dominates in times of physical or emo-
tional stress. It controls the “fight-or-flight” response that you
experience during a stressful situation, such as “nervousness” when
taking a pop quiz. The sympathetic division increases blood pres-
sure, heart rate, and breathing rate. It also directs blood flow toward
your heart and skeletal muscles. Effects of the autonomic nervous
system are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 Physiological Effects of the Autonomic Nervous System

Organ Effect of sympathetic division Effect of parasympathetic division
Eyes Pupils dilate Pupils constrict
Heart Heart rate increases Heart rate decreases
Lungs Bronchioles dilate Bronchioles constrict
Intestines Gastric secretions decrease Gastric secretions increase
Blood vessels Blood vessels dilate Little or none
Section 2 Review
Name the two main divisions of the nervous Critical Thinking Comparing Functions
system, and state their general functions. Why is a spinal reflex more rapid than a voluntary
movement?
Compare the functions of the cerebellum and
the brain stem. Standardized Test Prep A sudden stretch of the
quadriceps muscle triggers the knee-jerk reflex,
Distinguish between dorsal roots and ventral which maintains homeostasis by causing the
roots of the spinal cord. A patella to elongate.
Name the division of the autonomic nervous B hamstrings to contract.
system that is more active under normal C quadriceps to elongate.
conditions. D quadriceps to contract.

Section 3 Sensory Systems
Objectives Perception of Stimuli
● List five types of sensory The perception of everything you respond to in the environment,
receptors and the stimuli to such as the horn of a passing car or cold rain on your face, is made
which they respond. possible by sensory systems. Sensory systems are essential to sur-
● Identify sites of sensory vival, and they enable us to experience both pleasurable and painful
processing in the brain. stimuli. Sensory systems help maintain homeostasis by constantly
● Analyze the structure of adjusting body conditions to respond to changes in the environ-
the eye and its role in the ment. This requires the integration of the peripheral nervous system
visual system. and the central nervous system. The sensory division of the PNS col-
lects information about sensory stimuli in and around the body. The
● Describe how the ear
detects sound and helps sensory information is sent to the brain, which processes the infor-
maintain balance. mation and, if necessary, generates a motor response to the stimuli.
How does the nervous system detect sensory stimuli? Specialized
● Compare the senses of
neurons called sensory receptors detect sensory stimuli and then
taste and smell.
convert the stimuli to electrical signals, in the form of nerve impulses,
that can be interpreted by the brain. Although sensory receptors are
Key Terms
located throughout the body, they are most concentrated in the sense
sensory receptor organs—the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and skin. Table 2 lists several
retina types of sensory receptors and some of their locations.
rod
cone
optic nerve Sensory Receptors
cochlea Mechanoreceptors throughout the body respond to physical stimuli—
semicircular canal such as pressure and tension—that cause distortion or bending of
tissue. These stimuli alter the electrical activity of mechanoreceptors.
Many mechanoreceptors are found in the skin, and they are concen-
trated in very sensitive areas, including the face, hands, fingertips,
and neck. Pain receptors, which respond to potentially harmful
stimuli—such as intense heat or cold and tissue damage—are respon-
sible for painful sensations. Pain is a very important sensation
Table 2 Types of Sensory Receptors

www.scilinks.org Receptor type Stimuli Locations
Topic: Sensory Receptors
Keyword: HX4162 Thermoreceptors Temperature change Skin, hypothalamus
All tissues and organs

Pain receptors Tissue damage
except the brain
Movement, pressure,
Mechanoreceptors Skin, ears, muscles
tension
Photoreceptors Light Eyes
Chemoreceptors Chemical Tongue, nose

Figure 10 Processing sites and lobes of the cerebral cortex
Specific areas of the cerebral cortex control different functions of the body.
Top view of brain Side view of brain

(left hemisphere)
Motor function Sensory function
Intellectual
function
Frontal lobe Parietal Occipital
lobe lobe
Frontal
lobe
Vision
Speech Temporal
Parietal lobe lobe
Smell
Occipital lobe Taste

Hearing
Cerebellum
Left Right
hemisphere hemisphere
because it informs you that something is wrong in your body. Many

self-protective responses, such as reflexes, are initiated by pain
receptors. Thermoreceptors, located in the skin and hypothalamus,
detect changes in temperature. Thermoreceptors play an important
role in homeostasis, helping to keep the body temperature within
its normal range.
Sensory receptors are located throughout the body, and sensory
input from these receptors enters the central nervous system in an
organized fashion. Sensory stimuli that originate in the lower body
enter the lower part of the spinal cord. Sensory stimuli that origi-
nate in the upper body enter the upper part of the spinal cord and
the brain.
Processing of Sensory Information

Recall that the cerebral cortex contains a large percentage of the
brain’s neurons. Many of the neurons in the cerebral cortex are
responsible for processing incoming sensory information from the
sense organs. The thalamus relays information from the sense
organs to certain regions of the cerebral cortex. As shown in
Figure 10, deep grooves divide the cerebral hemispheres into four
general areas, or lobes: the occipital (ahk SIP ih tuhl) lobe, the pari-
etal (puh RIE uh tuhl) lobe, the temporal lobe, and the frontal lobe.
Sensory neurons from the different sense organs come together at
certain regions in the cerebral cortex. For example, most visual proc-
essing takes place in the occipital lobe, located at the back of the
head. Similarly, processing of sound is carried out within the
temporal lobe.
SECTION 3 Sensory Systems 957

Eyes
Humans have very good eyesight. Our eyes enable us to see in color
and to distinguish fine details and movement. The structure of the eye
Figure 11 Structure of is shown in Figure 11. Light enters the eye through the pupil. Light
eye. Light enters the eye then passes through the lens, a thick, transparent disk that focuses
through the pupil and is light on the retina. The retina is a lining on the back inner surface of
focused on the retina, which
contains photoreceptors.
the eye that consists of photoreceptors and neurons. The retina con-
tains two types of photoreceptors—rods
and cones—which convert light energy to
Lens electrical signals that can be interpreted
by the brain. Rods respond best to dim
Cornea Optic nerve light. Cones respond best to bright light
and enable color vision. The retina also
contains many other neurons that process
visual information. The axons of some of
these neurons make up the optic nerve .
Pupil The optic nerve exits through the back of
the eye and runs along the base of the
brain to the thalamus. The thalamus then
Retina relays visual information to the occipital
lobe of the cerebral cortex, where the
Iris
information is processed.
Demonstrating Your
Blind Spot
The blind spot in your visual field corresponds to the site
where the optic nerve exits the back of the eye. There are
no photoreceptors at the site where the optic nerve exits.
Use the procedure below to demonstrate your blind spot.
Materials
unlined 3 5 index card, pencil
Retina
Procedure
1. On the index card, draw an X while continuing to stare at 2. Propose why you cannot
about 1 in. from the left side the O until the X disappears see images that fall on the
of the card. Draw an O about from view. site where the optic nerve
the same size 3 in. to the exits the eye.
Analysis
right of the X.
1. Name the two kinds of 3. Critical Thinking
2. Hold your index card in front photoreceptors found in Relating Concepts What
of you at arm’s length. Close the retina. is the relationship between
your right eye and stare at the the structure of the retina and
O with your left eye. Slowly the disappearance of the X on
move the card toward you the index card?

Ears
How do your ears enable you to hear? Your ears convert the energy
in sound waves to electrical signals that can be interpreted by your
brain. Figure 12 shows the structure of the ear. Sound waves enter The word cochlea is from
the ear through the ear canal and strike the tympanic (tim PAN ik) the Greek kochlias, meaning
“snail shell.”
membrane, or eardrum, causing it to vibrate. Behind the eardrum,
three small bones of the middle ear—the hammer, anvil, and
stirrup—transfer the vibrations to a fluid-filled chamber within the
inner ear. This chamber, called the cochlea (KAHK lee uh), is coiled
like a snail’s shell, and it contains mechanoreceptors called hair
cells. Hair cells rest on a membrane that vibrates when waves enter
the cochlea. Waves of different frequencies cause different parts of
the membrane to vibrate and thus stimulate different hair cells.
When hair cells are stimulated, they generate nerve impulses in
the auditory nerve. The impulses travel to the brain stem through the
auditory nerve. The thalamus then relays the information to the
temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex, where the auditory information
is processed.
Keeping Your Balance

The ears not only enable you to hear but also help you maintain equi-
librium. The semicircular canals are fluid-filled chambers in the
inner ear that contain hair cells. Clusters of these hair cells respond
to changes in head position with respect to gravity. When your head
moves, the hair cells are stimulated according to the magnitude and
direction of the fluid’s movement, and they send electrical signals to
the brain. Signals generated by the hair cells enable the brain to
determine the orientation and position of the head.
Outer ear Figure 12 Structure of ear.

Sound waves are transmitted to
the inner ear and are detected
by mechanoreceptors. The
Middle ear Inner ear semicircular canals detect the
position of the head.
Semicircular
canals
Auditory nerve
Cochlea
Ear
canal
Anvil Hammer
Stirrup
Tympanic
membrane
(eardrum)
SECTION 3 Sensory Systems 959

Chemical Senses
Embedded within the surface of the tongue are 2,000–5,000 taste
buds. Most taste buds are located within small projections on the
www.scilinks.org
surface of the tongue. A taste bud, shown in Figure 13, is a cluster
Topic: Chemical Senses
Keyword: HX4041 of 50–100 taste cells. Taste cells are chemoreceptors that detect at
least four basic chemical substances: sugars (sweet), acids (sour),
alkaloids (bitter), and salts (salty). Each taste cell is generally sen-
sitive to all tastes but is most sensitive to only one of them. A taste
bud is stimulated when food molecules dissolved in saliva bind to
taste cells. Taste cells generate electrical signals that can be inter-
preted by the brain.
Chemoreceptors that detect odors, called olfactory (ahl FAK tuh
ree) receptors, are located in the roof of the nasal passage. Chemicals
in the air stimulate olfactory receptors, which generate electrical sig-
nals that can be interpreted by the brain. Your sense of smell affects
your enjoyment of food. When you have a bad cold and your nose is
stuffed up, your food may seem to have little taste.
Figure 13 Location and structure of taste buds

A taste bud is a cluster of taste cells surrounding a taste pore. Taste
Taste pore
cells
Surface of tongue Sensory

neurons
When food molecules dissolve in

saliva, they enter taste pores and bind
Taste buds
to taste cells.
Section 3 Review
List two different types of sensory receptors and Critical Thinking Comparing Structures
the kinds of stimuli to which they respond. Distinguish between taste cells and olfactory
receptors.
Sequence the events that occur when light
enters the eye. Standardized Test Prep A person who had defects
in both cochleas likely would be unable
Describe how sound waves are transmitted to detect
through the ear. A odors. C sounds.
B colors. D tastes.

Drugs and the Section 4
Nervous System
Psychoactive Drugs Objectives
Many different kinds of drugs are available to the public. Adver- ● Identify types of psychoac-
tisements tell you about pain relievers, antacids, cough syrups, and tive drugs, and describe their
other medications that can help you feel better. Drugs can prevent, effects.
treat, or cure many different illnesses. However, drugs, whether ● Describe how drug
legal or illegal, can also be misused or abused. addiction develops.
In the broadest sense, a drug is a chemical that alters body struc- ● Describe effects of com-
tures or biological functions. Drugs that alter the functioning of the monly abused drugs on the
central nervous system are known as psychoactive drugs. Many nervous system.
medications, such as those prescribed by doctors to treat mental
disorders, contain psychoactive drugs. Caffeine, found in coffee and Key Terms
soft drinks, is also a psychoactive drug. Alcohol, marijuana, and
psychoactive drug
cocaine are examples of commonly abused psychoactive drugs. Psy-
addiction
choactive drugs also include many other substances, such as tolerance
inhalants. Many psychoactive drugs produce physiological depen- withdrawal
dence and addiction. Abuse of psychoactive drugs can damage the stimulant
body, and in some cases, can result in death. Table 3 lists several depressant
classes of commonly abused psychoactive drugs.
Table 3 Psychoactive Drugs of Abuse

Drug Examples Psychoactive effects Risks associated with use
Barbiturates (sedatives), Decreased activity of the Drowsiness, depression, brain or nerve

Depressants
tranquilizers, alcohol central nervous system damage, coma, respiratory failure
Cocaine, crack, Increased activity of the Aggressive behavior, paranoia, cardiac

Stimulants
nicotine, amphetamines central nervous system arrest, high blood pressure, brain damage
Nitrous oxide, ether, paint

Disorientation, confusion, Brain damage, kidney and liver
Inhalants thinner, glue, cleaning
memory loss damage, respiratory failure
fluid, aerosols
LSD, PCP, MDMA (ecstasy),

Sensory distortion, anxiety, Depression, paranoia,
Hallucinogens peyote (mescaline),
hallucinations, numbness aggressive behavior
psilocybe mushroom
Short-term memory loss, Lung damage, loss

THC Marijuana, hashish
impaired judgment of motivation
Feeling of well-being, seda-

Heroin, morphine,
Narcotics tion, impaired sensory per- Coma, respiratory failure
codeine, opium
ception, impaired reflexes
SECTION 4 Drugs and the Nervous System 961

Drug Addiction and Neuron Function
Addiction is a physiological response caused by use of a drug that
alters the normal functioning of neurons and synapses. Once a
neuron or synapse has been altered by a drug, it cannot function
normally unless the drug is present. With repeated exposure to a
drug, a person addicted to the drug develops tolerance to the drug.
Tolerance is a characteristic of drug addiction in which increasing
amounts of the drug are needed to achieve the desired sensation.
Withdrawal is a set of emotional and physical symptoms caused by
removal of the drug from the body. The severity of drug addiction is
evident in recovering addicts who experience withdrawal when they
stop taking an addictive drug. Symptoms of withdrawal may include
Figure 14 Coca plant. vomiting, headache, depression, and seizures. Withdrawal from bar-
Cocaine is derived from the bituates, and withdrawal in cases of severe alcohol addiction, can
coca plant, Erythroxylon coca. cause death and should be supervised by a doctor.
A Model of Drug Addiction

Cocaine is a highly addictive stimulant found in the leaves of the
coca plant, Erythroxylon coca, shown in Figure 14. A stimulant is a
drug that generally increases the activity of the central nervous sys-
tem. Despite being illegal, cocaine is still used by many people.
Recall that in synaptic transmission, neurotransmitter molecules
are released from a presynaptic neuron and bind to receptor pro-
teins on a postsynaptic cell. Some neurotransmitter molecules are
Figure 15
B IO Action of Cocaine
gra hic
p Cocaine alters the function of dopamine-producing neurons in the limbic system.
1 Normal synapse 2 Synapse with cocaine

Dopamine is reabsorbed by Cocaine blocks the reabsorption
the presynaptic neuron. of dopamine.
Reuptake Cocaine
Presynaptic receptor molecules
neuron
Dopamine
molecules Synaptic
vesicles
Ion
channel Postsynaptic
membrane
Receptor
protein Presynaptic
Synaptic Postsynaptic membrane
cleft cell

reabsorbed by presynaptic neurons after they have been released
into the synaptic cleft. Cocaine is an example of a drug that interferes
Real Life
with a presynaptic neuron’s ability to reabsorb, or reuptake, neuro- Caffeine is a stimulant
transmitter molecules. Cocaine affects dopamine (DOH pah meen) found in many foods and
neurons in the limbic system, which plays an important role in the beverages.
sensation of pleasure. The mechanism of cocaine action is summa- Chocolate, coffee, tea, and
some soft drinks often
rized in Figure 15.
contain caffeine.
Step At a normal synapse, reuptake receptors move molecules of Calculating
dopamine in the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic Make a list of everything
neuron. you eat and drink (includ-
ing medicines) for
Step Cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine molecules by 24 hours; then use a
interfering with these reuptake receptors. reference table to
determine your
Step As a result, excess dopamine remains in the synaptic cleft, total caffeine
overstimulating the postsynaptic cell. Overstimulation pro- intake.
duces an intense feeling of exhilaration and well-being.
Because the post synaptic cell has been overstimulated, the
number of dopamine receptors will decrease over time.
Step If cocaine is removed from the synaptic cleft, the number
of dopamine molecules returns to normal. This level is now
too low to adequately stimulate the postsynaptic cell
because it has fewer receptor proteins. Addiction occurs
because more cocaine must be taken to maintain adequate
stimulation of the postsynaptic cell.
3 Overstimulated postsynaptic cell 4 Cocaine removed from synapse

The number of receptor proteins on the Dopamine release returns to normal, but the
postsynaptic cell decreases. postsynaptic cell is understimulated.
Presynaptic
neuron
Postsynaptic
cell

Alcohol
Of all the psychoactive drugs, alcohol (ethanol) is one of the most
widely used and abused. Alcohol, found in wine, beer, and liquor, is
a depressant that produces a sense of well-being when taken in
small amounts. A depressant is a drug that generally decreases the
activity of the central nervous system. As more alcohol is con-
sumed, reaction time increases, and coordination, judgment, and
speech become impaired. This produces a state of intoxication
known as being “drunk.” Drunkenness results as the blood-alcohol
concentration (BAC) increases. BAC can be measured by a breath
test, illustrated in Figure 16, that detects the level of alcohol vapors
Figure 16 Breath test.
in the breath. Table 4 shows the effects of alcohol at various con-
Law enforcement officials use centrations in the blood.
a device that detects the level
of alcohol vapors in the breath
to estimate the BAC of drunk- Table 4 Effects of Blood Alcohol Concentration
driving suspects.
BAC* Condition
0.02–0.04 Slight impairment and sedation
0.05–0.06 Slight impairment of coordination; increased reaction time
0.07–0.09 Slurred speech; blurred vision; intoxication
0.10–0.15 Severe intoxication; impaired coordination, vision, and balance
0.15–0.30 Dizziness; confusion; inability to walk; extremely severe intoxication
0.30–0.50 Unconsciousness
0.50–0.60 Coma or death
*in mg of alcohol per mL of blood
Alcohol is absorbed into the blood through the stomach and small
intestine. Alcohol affects neurons throughout the nervous system,
changing the shape of receptor proteins. Such widespread changes
in receptor proteins have various effects on normal brain function-
ing.
Addiction to alcohol, or alcoholism, is the most prevalent drug-
abuse problem in the United States. People who drink excessive
amounts of alcohol over long periods of time develop serious health
problems. For example, many alcoholics do not eat properly when
drinking heavily. This can lead to malnutrition, abnormalities in the
www.scilinks.org circulatory system, and inflammation of the stomach lining. In
Topic: Blood Alcohol
Concentration addition, the liver begins to use alcohol as an energy source. After
Keyword: HX4026 exposure to alcohol over time, the liver accumulates fat deposits. If
drinking of alcohol continues, a potentially fatal liver condition
called cirrhosis (sih ROH sis) may develop. In a cirrhotic liver, cells
are replaced with scar tissue, and liver functioning is impaired.

Nicotine
About 50 million Americans smoke cigarettes despite convincing
evidence that smoking causes mouth cancer, heart disease, lung
cancer, and emphysema. So why do people continue to smoke?
Many smokers say they would like to stop smoking but find the
habit too difficult to overcome. They are addicted to nicotine, a
drug in cigarette smoke.
Effects of Nicotine
Nicotine is the highly addictive stimulant found in the leaves of the
tobacco plant, Nicotiana tabacum, shown in Figure 17. Nicotine is Figure 17 Tobacco plant.
Tobacco leaves are dried and
extremely toxic; a dose of only 60 mg is lethal in humans. Tobacco crushed and are then smoked
leaves are dried or crushed and are then smoked in cigarettes, cig- in cigarettes, cigars, and
ars, and pipes. Tobacco is also chewed and snuffed. pipes. Tobacco is also chewed
Nicotine quickly enters the bloodstream and circulates through the and snuffed.
body. In the brain, nicotine mimics the action of the neurotransmit-
ter acetylcholine. Scientists have extensively studied the behavior of
the brain when exposed to nicotine. Nicotine binds to brain cells at
specific sites usually reserved for acetylcholine. These sites are the
central controls of the brain—mechanisms the brain uses to adjust
levels of many of its activities. Like twisting the dial on a central con-
trol, the binding of nicotine to these sites produces many changes.
After a while, the smoker’s body makes adjustments, and systems
almost return to normal—as long as the smoker keeps smoking. Take
away the nicotine, however, and all those adjustments throw every-
thing out of balance all at once. The only way to keep things “normal”
is to keep smoking. The smoker is addicted.
Effects of Tobacco
Smokers get more than nicotine from cigarette smoke. Inhaled
smoke contains hundreds of toxic and mutagenic chemicals that
pass through the mouth, air passages, and lungs. These chemicals,
also called tars, are produced by burning tobacco. Because tars and Real Life
other chemicals in tobacco smoke are powerful mutagens, smoking
Is smokeless tobacco
causes lung cancer. Almost all cases of lung cancer, a major cause harmful?
of death in the United States, are attributed to smoking. The use of smokeless
In the United States, smoking-related illnesses cause more than tobacco, such as chewing
400,000 deaths each year. Smoking is associated with cancer of the tobacco, causes cancers
mouth and larynx, and smoking may increase the risk of cancer of of the lips, mouth, and
the pancreas and bladder. Smoking is also a major contributor to gums. When chewing
tobacco is placed
often-fatal respiratory disorders, such as emphysema. The tars in
between the cheek and
smoke irritate mucous membranes in the mouth, nose, and throat. gum, nicotine and other
They accumulate in the lungs and paralyze cilia that move debris chemicals are absorbed
from the lungs. Tars also blacken lung tissue and decrease breath- into the bloodstream.
ing capacity. People who are exposed to secondhand smoke are at Finding Information
risk for the same diseases as people who smoke. Women who Find out about mouth
smoke during pregnancy are more likely to have miscarriages or to cancers caused by
tobacco.
give birth to stillborn babies.

Drugs of Abuse
Narcotics are extremely addictive psychoactive drugs that relieve
pain and induce sleep. Some of the most potent narcotics are derived
from the poppy plant, Papaver somniferum, shown in Figure 18. The
sap that oozes from the cut seed pod forms a thick, gummy sub-
stance called opium. Drugs derived from opium, called opiates or
narcotics, include codeine (KOH deen), morphine, and heroin, a more
potent form of morphine. Codeine is widely prescribed by doctors for
pain relief. Morphine is one of the most effective pain-relieving drugs
used today. Heroin addiction and abuse are among the most serious
illegal-drug problems in society.
Recall that pain receptors throughout the body detect painful stim-
uli. As uncomfortable as it may feel, pain plays a very important role
in the body. Pain notifies you that body tissues have been injured or
damaged. Imagine how your body would look and function today if
Figure 18 Opium poppy. you did not have the ability to sense pain. Pain begins as a signal at
Opium is a narcotic derived damaged nerve endings. Nerve impulses generated by pain receptors
from the poppy plant, Papaver
travel to the spinal cord toward the brain. After reaching the spinal
somniferum.
cord, a pain signal is suppressed by a class of neurotransmitters called
enkephalins (ihn KEHF uh lihnz). When enkephalins bind to neurons
in the spinal cord, they prevent pain signals from reaching the brain.
Narcotics mimic the action of enkephalins by binding to the same
receptor proteins in the spinal cord. These receptor proteins are
called opiate receptors because scientists observed opiates binding to
them before enkephalins were ever discovered. Narcotics also affect
the limbic system, producing a feeling of well-being.
Marijuana
In addition to alcohol and tobacco, marijuana, though illegal, is a
widely consumed drug. Marijuana comes from various species of
the hemp plant, Cannabis, shown in Figure 19. Hashish also comes
from the hemp plant. The active ingredient in marijuana and
hashish is commonly known as THC. When marijuana is smoked, it
Figure 19 Hemp. Marijuana may cause disorientation, impaired judgment, short-term memory
is produced from the hemp loss, and general loss of motivation. Scientists continue to research
plant, Cannabis. the effects of THC on the nervous system.
Section 4 Review
Describe how tolerance to a drug develops. Critical Thinking Applying Information
Why is drug addiction considered a
Summarize how cocaine produces addiction. physiological condition?
Distinguish between stimulants and Standardized Test Prep Cocaine interferes with
depressants. Give an example of each. the normal functions of the limbic system by
blocking
Critical Thinking Recognizing
A reuptake of dopamine. C sensory perception.
Relationships What do all psychoactive
drugs have in common? B release of D synaptic
enkephalins. transmission.

ZONE
1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses Section 1
neuron (944)
● Neurons are specialized cells that rapidly transmit dendrite (944)
information as electrical signals throughout the body. axon (944)
● At the resting potential, the inside of a neuron is negatively nerve (944)
membrane potential (945)
charged with respect to the outside of the neuron. resting potential (946)
● An action potential moves rapidly down an axon. action potential (946)
synapse (948)
● Synaptic transmission involves the release of neurotransmitter (948)
neurotransmitters at synapses.
2 Structures of the Nervous System Section 2

central nervous system (950)
● The central nervous system consists of the brain and peripheral nervous system (950)
spinal cord. sensory neuron (950)
● The brain contains three major parts: the cerebrum, the motor neuron (950)
brain (950)
cerebellum, and the brain stem. cerebrum (951)
● The spinal cord links the brain to the peripheral nervous cerebellum (951)
brain stem (951)
system, which branches throughout the body.
thalamus (952)
hypothalamus (952)
3 Sensory Systems spinal cord (952)
reflex (952)
● Sensory receptors detect various sensory stimuli. interneuron (953)
● Photoreceptors in the eyes convert light into electrical
signals that are interpreted by the brain. Section 3
● The ear converts sound into electrical signals that sensory receptor (956)
retina (958)
are interpreted by the brain.
rod (958)
● The semicircular canals monitor the position of cone (958)
the head. optic nerve (958)
cochlea (959)
● Taste and smell are related chemical senses. semicircular canal (959)
4 Drugs and the Nervous System Section 4

● Psychoactive drugs affect the central nervous system. psychoactive drug (961)
addiction (962)
● Drug addiction involves physiological changes in neurons. tolerance (962)
● Alcohol is an addictive depressant that widely affects the withdrawal (962)
stimulant (962)
central nervous system.
depressant (964)
● Nicotine is an addictive stimulant found in tobacco products.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 7. Action potentials travel in only one direc-

tion along a neuron—toward the axon
1. A myelin sheath on the axon of a neuron terminals and away from the cell body.
a. covers the axon completely. What structures of the neuron ensure
b. decreases the rate of impulse that this pattern is always followed?
conduction.
c. increases the rate of impulse 8. List three ways that the binding of a
conduction. neurotransmitter to a receptor protein on a
d. has no effect on impulse postsynaptic cell could cause changes in the
conduction. cell. (Hint: See Chapter 4, Section 2.)
2. When a neuron is at the resting potential, 9. Although neurons in the
a. the inside is positively charged. spinal cord do not grow and regenerate
b. the outside is negatively charged. when they have been injured, scientists have
c. the inside is negatively charged. developed ways to help prevent paralysis.
d. None of the above Describe two of these ways.
3. During an action potential, 10. Concept Mapping Make a concept
a. sodium ions flow into a neuron. map that describes the structures and
b. sodium ions flow out of a neuron. functions of the nervous system. Try to
c. potassium ions flow into a neuron. include the following terms: spinal cord,
d. there is no movement of ions. brain, neuron, nerve, synapse, and
4. In a spinal reflex, the signal travels neurotransmitter.
a. immediately to the brain.
b. to the spinal cord and out to a muscle. Critical Thinking
c. only through sensory neurons. 11. Inferring Relationships People who suffer
d. only through motor neurons. from vertigo feel dizzy and disoriented in
5. Drug addiction is considered a physiological certain situations. What is the relationship
condition because addictive drugs between vertigo and the semicircular
a. can be purchased illegally. canals?
b. must be injected. 12. Recognizing Relationships Suggest a possi-
c. alter the functioning of neurons. ble defect of the retina or of retinal cells that
d. are used in social settings. would cause colorblindness, a condition in
6. The diagram below shows the brain of a which a person cannot distinguish between
fish. How is the cerebrum of the fish brain certain colors.
different from that of a human brain? What
do the large olfactory bulbs of the fish brain
indicate about the relative importance of 13. Summarizing Information Research the
the sense of smell to the fish? causes and symptoms of various disorders
Cerebrum of the nervous system caused by the degen-
eration of neurons. Some disorders include
Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease,
and multiple sclerosis. Find out how these
disorders affect the nervous system. List
the types of drugs or other methods used to
Olfactory bulbs treat these disorders.


correct answer.
Depression affects several million
1 Which of the following is a sensory Americans. Symptoms of depression include
receptor that is stimulated by light? withdrawal, anger, poor communication,
A. cochlea C. interneuron sadness, and indifference to surroundings.
B. cone D. optic nerve Depression may be triggered by the loss of a
friend or relative, a major disappointment
2 If the sodium–potassium pump of a
at work, prescription drugs, prolonged
neuron failed, what effect would this
illness, alcohol or drug withdrawal, or
likely have on the neuron’s function?
hormones. Treatments include counseling,
F. The concentrations of positive and
several types of drugs, and exercise.
negative ions would cause the neuron
to be negative inside. 5 Which structure is likely a target for drugs
G. Voltage-gated potassium channels and that treat depression?
voltage-gated sodium channels would F. cerebellum
no longer function. G. motor neuron
H. The neuron could not conduct another H. neurotransmitter
action potential until the resting I. spinal cord
potential was fully restored.
I. The concentration of sodium ions Interpreting Graphics
would be higher outside the cell and Directions (6): Base your answer to question
that of potassium ions would be higher 6 on the diagram below.
inside. Neuron
3 Which part of the ear contains D
mechanoreceptors?
A. cochlea
B. eardrum
C
C. hammer A
B
D. stirrup

4 During an epileptic seizure, many neurons

in the brain produce large bursts of action
potentials, causing the body to become
rigid and to jerk or convulse. From what
you know about the brain’s control of 6 Which structure increases the speed at
muscles and posture, how might you which the axon conducts action potentials?
explain these symptoms? A. A
B. B
Test C. C
D. D
When using a diagram to answer a question, look in
the image for evidence that supports your potential
answer.

Exploration Lab
Calculating Reaction Times
SKILLS
• Measuring
• Calculating
Cell body
OBJECTIVES
• Determine human
reaction times.
• Design an experiment
that measures changes
in reaction times.
MATERIALS
• meterstick Neuron
Before You Begin 2. Write a hypothesis about an influence on

reaction times. (For example: “People who
When you want to move your hand, your
have eaten breakfast have faster reaction
brain must send a message all the way to the
times than people who have not eaten
muscles in your arms. How long does that
breakfast.”)
take? In this exercise, you will work with a
partner to see how quickly you can react. In
this lab, you will investigate reaction times Procedure
and design an experiment to investigate PART A: Calculating Reaction Times
influences on reaction times.
1. Sit in a chair and have a partner stand
1. Create a Data Table to record reaction facing you while holding a meterstick in a
times. vertical position.
Hand: trial number Subject 1 reaction time (s) Subject 2 reaction time (s)
Left: 1
Left: 2
Left: 3
Left: average
Right: 1
Right: 2
Right: 3
Right: average
970 CHAPTER 41 The Nervous System

2. Hold your thumb about 3 cm from your Analyze and Conclude
fingers near the bottom end of the stick.
1. Summarizing Results What was your
The meterstick should be positioned to
fastest reaction time?
fall between your thumb and fingers.
2. Analyzing Data How does your reac-
3. Tell your partner to let go of the meter-
tion time when using your dominant
stick without warning.
hand compare with your reaction time
4. When your partner releases the meter when using your other hand?
stick, catch the stick by pressing your
3. Drawing Conclusions Why may
thumb and fingers together. Your partner
each hand have a different reaction time?
should be ready to catch the top of the
Why may each person have a different
meterstick if it begins to tip over.
reaction time? Compared to earlier trials,
5. Record the number of centimeters the stick was the reaction time in step 8 faster,
dropped before you caught it. The distance slower or the same? If the time was faster
that the meterstick falls before you catch it or slower hypothesize a reason for
can be used to evaluate your reaction time. the difference.
6. Repeat the procedure several times, and cal- 4. Predicting Patterns Compile the data
culate the average number of centimeters. gathered by each pair in your class. Can
7. Try this procedure with your other hand. you identify any trends in the data? (For
8. Close your eyes and have your partner say example, do males and females have the
“now,” when the stick is released. same average reaction times?)
9. Exchange places with your partner, and 5. Further Inquiry Write a new question
repeat the procedure. about reaction times that could be
explored in another investigation.
PART B: Designing Your Own
Experiment
10. Work with the members of your lab group Do You Know?
to explore one of the hypotheses written in Do research in the library or media center
the Before You Begin section of this lab. to answer these questions:
1. How can athletes improve their
You Choose reaction times?
As you design your experiment, decide the following: 2. What factors can influence how fast a
a. what hypothesis you will explore person reacts to a stimulus?
c. how you will test the hypothesis Use the following Internet resources
d. what the controls will be to explore your own questions about
e. how many trials to perform neurons.
f. what data to record in your data table.

www.scilinks.org
Topic: Neurons
procedure and safety precautions before Keyword: HX4129
12. Set up your group’s experiment and
collect data.
CHAPTER 41 The Nervous System 971

Gail Devers

CHAPTER
42 Hormones and
the Endocrine
System
1. Describe the function and structure of
glycogen. (Chapter 2, Section 3) Hormones
Coordination of Activities
2. Describe the action of enzymes. (Chapter 2,
Endocrine Glands and Tissues
Section 4)
3. Summarize the location and function of
receptors. (Chapter 3, Section 2) Section 2
4. Summarize the role of DNA and mRNA in How Hormones Work
protein synthesis. (Chapter 10, Section 1) Target Cells
5. Describe the role of the sympathetic nervous Receptors
system. (Chapter 41, Section 2) Feedback Mechanisms
The Major Endocrine Glands
Endocrine Control
Reading Activity The Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
The Adrenal Glands
Before you read this chapter, write a short list The Pancreas and Other Organs
of all of the things you know about glands and
hormones. Then write a list of the things that you
want to know about glands and hormones. Save
your lists, and to assess what you have learned,
see how many of your own questions you can
answer after reading this chapter.
Severe weight loss, shaking fits, and loss of vision www.scilinks.org

in one eye were symptoms experienced in 1988 by National Science Teachers Association sciLINKS Internet
American sprinter Gail Devers. She was later resources are located throughout this chapter.
diagnosed with Grave’s disease, a condition in which
excessive amounts of hormones are made by the
thyroid gland. Devers went on to win the gold medal
in the 100 m dash in two Summer Olympics.
CHAPTER 42 Hormones and the Endocrine System 973

Section 1 Hormones
Objectives Coordination of Activities
● Identify four major functions Reacting to fear, growing taller, and developing male or female
of hormones. characteristics are all activities in the body that are partially regu-
● Differentiate between lated by hormones (HAWR mohnz). Hormones are substances
endocrine and exocrine secreted (released) by cells that act to regulate the activity of other
glands. cells in the body.
● Compare the endocrine and You—and the cyclist shown in Figure 1—make hormones that
nervous systems. keep your body functioning properly. The functions of hormones
include the following:
● Distinguish the functions of
endorphins from the functions 1. Regulating growth, development, behavior, and reproduction
of prostaglandins. 2. Coordinating the production, use, and storage of energy
3. Maintaining homeostasis (temperature regulation, metabolism,
Key Terms
excretion, and water and salt balance)
hormone
4. Responding to stimuli from outside the body
endocrine gland
Hormones act as chemical messengers, carrying instructions that
cause cells to change their activities. For example, some hormones
cause the cells of the heart to increase the rate at which the heart is
beating. In the past, it was thought that hormones, once secreted
from a cell, had to be transported through the bloodstream to reach
the cells they were to act on. Today, we know that some hormones
act directly on adjacent cells without traveling through the blood.
Figure 1 Hormones and The instructions a hormone carries are determined by both the
homeostasis. Combining hormone itself and the cell it affects. For example, a hormone may
activities, such as water balance
instruct a cell to make a specific pro-
and temperature regulation,
requires coordination. Such tein or to activate a specific enzyme.
coordination is maintained The same hormone can also instruct
by hormones. a different cell to alter the permeabil-
ity of its cell membrane or even to
release another hormone. Hormones
can instruct muscle cells to relax and
nerve cells to fire action potentials.
Each hormone is very specific
about which types of cells can receive
its instructions. Each hormone acts
like a key that opens a lock on or
inside the cell. A hormone will act
only on cells with the right lock. The
locks, as discussed later in this chap-
ter, are receptors on or inside the cell.
974
Endocrine Glands and Tissues
A gland is an organ whose primary func-
The Endocrine System
tion is to secrete materials into other
regions of the body. Endocrine (EN doh Pineal
Hypothalamus
krihn) glands are ductless organs that gland
secrete hormones directly into either the
Pituitary Thyroid
bloodstream or the fluid around cells gland gland
(extracellular fluid). In addition to endo-
crine glands, several other organs contain Parathyroid gland Thymus
cells that secrete hormones. These organs (behind thyroid) gland
include the brain, stomach, small intestine,
kidney, liver, and heart.
All of the endocrine glands and hormone- Pancreas
Adrenal
secreting tissues collectively make up gland
the endocrine system, shown in Figure 2.
The endocrine system coordinates all of the Ovary
body’s sources of hormones. (females)
Some organs, such as the pancreas, are
both endocrine and exocrine (EHKS oh
krihn) glands. Exocrine glands deliver
substances through ducts (tubelike struc-
Testis
tures). The ducts transport the substances (males)
to specific locations inside and outside
the body. Sweat glands, mucous glands,
salivary glands, and other digestive glands Figure 2 Coordinating
the body’s activities.
are examples of exocrine glands. The exocrine part of the pan-
Endocrine glands are located
creas produces digestive enzymes and delivers them to the small throughout the human body. In
intestine through ducts. The endocrine part of the pancreas addition to the organs shown
secretes two hormones into the bloodstream that regulate blood above, many other organs
glucose levels. secrete hormones.
Hormones and Neurotransmitters

Are Chemical Messengers
As you learned in the previous chapter, the nervous system is also
involved in coordinating the body’s activities. The endocrine system
and nervous system interact in this shared role. However, with
some exceptions, each system acts through different chemical mes-
sengers and in different ways.
The chemical messengers of the nervous system are known as
neurotransmitters, while the chemical messengers of the endocrine
system are called hormones. Some nerve cells, however, are capable
of secreting hormones, and several chemicals serve as both hor-
mones in the endocrine system and neurotransmitters in the nervous
system. For example, epinephrine is both a neurotransmitter and a
hormone. When secreted from a nerve cell, epinephrine conveys
messages to other neurons. When secreted from an endocrine cell in
the adrenal gland, epinephrine acts as a “fight-or-flight” hormone.
SECTION 1 Hormones 975

Another difference between the endocrine and nervous systems is
Real Life that neurotransmitters are fast-acting and usually short-lived
Prostaglandins can messengers. Hormones are usually slower-acting and longer-lived.
cause pain, fever, and The effects of some can last for days, weeks, or even years.
inflammation. Finally, neurotransmitters are released from nerve cells directly
These symptoms, how- to adjacent target cells. Endocrine cells can release hormones
ever, can be treated. Many
nonprescription drugs,
either into the bloodstream, where they travel to the cell they are to
such as aspirin, ibuprofen, act on, or into the extracellular fluid to act on nearby cells.
naproxen sodium, and
ketoprofen, work by Hormonelike Substances
inhibiting prostaglandin
production. The human body has many substances that regulate cellular
Finding Information activities much as hormones do. These substances were not initially
What symptoms can considered hormones because they are not secreted into the blood-
occur with long-term stream. However, most scientists today classify them as hormones.
use of these These substances include a large number of chemicals called neuro-
drugs? peptides, which are secreted by the nervous system, as well as
chemicals called prostaglandins (prahs tuh GLAN dihnz), which are
secreted by most cells.
There are several different groups of neuropeptides. Enkephalins
(ehn KEHF uh lihnz), which were discussed in the previous chapter,
are a group of neuropeptides that inhibit pain messages traveling
toward the brain. Endorphins (ehn DOHR fihnz), which are thought
to regulate emotions, influence pain, and affect reproduction, are
another important group of neuropeptides. Unlike neurotrans-
mitters, enkephalins and endorphins tend to affect many cells near
the nerve cells that release them.
Prostaglandins are modified fatty acids that have a variety of
functions. They tend to accumulate in areas where tissues are dis-
turbed or injured. There are dozens of different prostaglandins, and
they produce a variety of effects. For example, some prostaglandins
cause the constriction of blood vessels. The constricted blood ves-
sels in turn affect blood pressure and body temperature. Other
prostaglandins cause blood vessels to dilate, producing inflamma-
tion. A headache may result when blood vessels swell and their
walls press against nerves in the brain.
Section 1 Review
Describe four ways in which hormones Recognizing Relationships Compare
coordinate the activities of the body. endorphins to neurotransmitters.
Name the type of gland that secretes substances Standardized Test Prep Antidiuretic hormone is
into the bloodstream or extracellular fluid. secreted when the body becomes dehydrated. How
might this hormone help maintain water balance?
Differentiate the actions and chemical A by stimulating an appetite for salt
messengers in the endocrine system from those
B by causing profuse sweating
in the nervous system.
C by promoting water reuptake from urine
D by causing the release of dilute urine
976 CHAPTER 42 Hormones and the Endocrine System

How Hormones Work Section 2
Target Cells Objectives

After hormones are released from the cell in which they are made, ● Relate how hormones act
they bind to and act only on target cells. A target cell is a specific only on specific cells.
cell that a hormone binds to and acts on (carries the message to). ● Summarize how amino-
Imagine what would happen if hormones were not specific. All the acid-based hormones
cells in the body would respond to the hormone, resulting in unco- function.
ordinated activities, such as activation of many enzymes. ● Summarize how steroid
A hormone recognizes a target cell because the target cell has spe- and thyroid hormones
cific receptors. The receptors are located either on the surface of the function.
target cell (on the cell membrane) or inside the cell (in the cytoplasm
● Relate how negative feed-
or nucleus). Recall that a receptor is a protein to which a molecule back is used to regulate
binds. A hormone’s shape matches that of a particular receptor pro- hormone levels.
tein much like a key fits into a lock, as shown in Figure 3. Thus, a
hormone binds only to cells that have a particular receptor protein, Key Terms
ignoring all other cells.
target cell
amino-acid-based
Types of Hormones hormone
Most hormones are classified as either amino-acid-based or steroid steroid hormone
hormones. Amino-acid-based hormones are hormones made of second messenger
amino acids (either a single modified amino acid or a protein com- negative feedback
posed of 3 to 200 amino acids). Most amino-acid-based hormones
are water soluble. Steroid hormones are lipid hormones that the
body makes from cholesterol. Steroid hormones are fat soluble.
Blood vessel
Hormone
Bloodstream
Figure 3 Hormones act

Receptor for on target cells. Hormones
hormone
travel in the blood or in the
fluid around cells to reach
their target cells. The binding
of the hormone with its
receptor signals the target cell
to change its activity.
SECTION 2 How Hormones Work 977

Receptors
When a hormone binds to a specific receptor on a target cell, the
Real Life hormone brings the target cell a message. What happens after the
How Hormones Work hormone binds, however, depends on the type of hormone.
Alfred Gilman and Martin
Rodbell were two of the
first scientists to determine
Amino-Acid-Based Hormones
how one of the amino- Amino-acid-based hormones are not fat soluble, and most bind to
acid-based hormones cell membrane receptors, as shown in Figure 4.
works. They received
the Nobel Prize for
Step When an amino-acid-based hormone binds to a receptor,
medicine in 1994 for the shape of the receptor changes.
their discoveries. Step This change in shape eventually activates a second
messenger, a molecule that passes the message from the
first messenger (the hormone) to the cell. For example, when
glucagon, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, binds to a
receptor, an enzyme is activated that converts ATP to a sec-
ond messenger called cyclic AMP (cAMP).
Step The second messenger then activates or deactivates certain
enzymes in a cascade fashion. That is, one enzyme activates
another enzyme, which activates yet another, and so on. In
the case of glucagon, the second messenger cAMP activates
a series of enzymes that breaks down glycogen into glucose.
Step Eventually the activity of the target cell is changed by the
final enzyme in the cascade—even though the hormone
never enters the cell!
Figure 4
B IO How Amino-Acid-Based Hormones Work

graphic Most amino-acid-based hormones, such as glucagon, bind to cell-membrane
receptors, which activate second messengers that relay the hormone’s message.
Pancreas Glucagon binds to a receptor

1 protein on the cell membrane.
Blood vessel Glucagon
Enzyme
Hormone
The binding activates
2 an enzyme, which
Cell
membrane ATP Cyclic converts ATP to
AMP cyclic AMP.
Receptor
protein for
glucagon Cyclic AMP starts a
Target 3 cascade of enzyme
cell Glycogen activations.
Eventually, glycogen is Glucose
4 broken down into individual Nucleus
Glucose
glucose molecules.

Steroid and Thyroid Hormones
Because steroid and thyroid hormones are fat soluble, they readily
pass through the cell membranes of their target cells. Steroid hor-
mones bind to receptors located in a target cell’s cytoplasm or its
nucleus; thyroid hormones bind to receptors in a target cell’s nucleus.
Cortisol is a steroid hormone made in the adrenal glands and
released in response to stressful situations, such as the one shown
in Figure 5. How steroid hormones such as cortisol work is sum-
marized in Figure 6.
Step The hormone diffuses through the cell membrane and binds
to its receptor. The hormone and receptor form a hormone-
receptor complex in the cytoplasm.
Step The hormone-receptor complex enters the nucleus of the
cell and binds to DNA.
Figure 5 Steroid
Step Depending on the hormone and the target cell, the binding hormones and stress.
either activates or inactivates a gene. That is, either the Stressful situations, such as
gene is transcribed and the resulting mRNA is translated taking an exam, result in the
into protein, or transcription and translation are inhibited. release of the steroid
hormone cortisol.
Step The target cell’s activities are altered. For example, cortisol
stimulates the making of enzymes that break down pro-
teins and fats into glucose.
If the receptor for a steroid or thyroid hormone is located in the
nucleus, the hormone enters the nucleus and binds to the receptor
there. The hormone-receptor complex then binds to and affects the
DNA in the same manner as it does with receptors in the cytoplasm.
Figure 6
B IO How Steroid Hormones Work

g hic
rap The steroid hormone–receptor complex binds to DNA in the nucleus and
activates or inactivates transcription and translation of a gene.
Enzymes are made

4 that alter cell
Blood activities.
Adrenal gland Enzyme
vessel
mRNA
Cortisol
The hormone-receptor Nucleus
2 complex enters the
nucleus and binds
to DNA.
Ribosome
Kidney
Cortisol diffuses
1 through the cell
Cell membrane and
binds to its Cortisol
membrane
receptor. receptor Genes are
protein DNA 3 activated.

Feedback Mechanisms
The human body makes more than 40 hormones, and the body
must regulate the release of the hormones. Nerve impulses alone
The word oxytocin is from can increase or decrease secretion of some hormones. For example,
the Greek oxys, meaning a baby nursing on a mother’s breast stimulates the release of the
“quick,” and tokos, mean-
hormone oxytocin, which in turn stimulates the release of milk
ing “childbirth.”
from the mother’s mammary glands.
Recall that homeostasis is essential in all living things. The
endocrine system plays an important role in homeostasis. Different
hormones moving through the bloodstream affect specific target
tissues, and the amounts of various hormones must be maintained
within a very narrow range.
In many cases the level of a hormone in the blood turns produc-
tion of the hormone off and on through feedback mechanisms. Feed-
back mechanisms detect the amount of hormones in circulation or
the amount of other chemicals produced because of hormone action.
The endocrine system then adjusts the amount of hormones being
made or released.
If high levels of a hormone stimulate the output of even more
hormone, the regulation is called positive feedback. For example,
the hormone that stimulates egg release also regulates the female
hormone estrogen. A rise in estrogen levels, however, will stimulate
the release of more of the regulatory hormone.
In humans, the release of most hormones is regulated through
negative feedback, as shown in Figure 7. In negative feedback, a
change in one direction stimulates the control mechanism to
counteract further change in the same direction. For example, high
levels of a hormone inhibit the production of more hormone,
whereas low levels of a hormone stimulate the production of more
hormone. The liver also plays a role in negative feedback by remov-
ing hormones from the blood and breaking them down. Negative
feedback works like a person trying to maintain a certain speed in a
car by pressing or releasing the gas pedal (accelerator).
Figure 7 Negative
feedback. In negative feed- Negative Feedback
back, a secondary substance
inhibits production of its initial
stimulating substance.
Secondary
Concentration
substance
of hormone
Stimulating
substance
Time

Anabolic Steroids Are Dangerous
M any athletes use anabolic

(protein-building) steroids
and other hormone therapies to
Do Steroids Really Improve
an Athlete’s Performance?
When athletes inject steroids,
increase the size of their muscles they are trying to stimulate the
and improve their performance. production of proteins in the mus-
The unnatural use of steroids cle cells as a way of increasing
disrupts the feedback mecha- muscle mass and strength. In
nisms that regulate hormone large doses, steroids can promote
concentrations in the body. increases in mass, strength, and
Which Steroid Hormones endurance.
cals may develop facial hair,
Are Used? Many Side Effects Are deepening of the voice, and
The steroids used by athletes Associated with the Use male-pattern baldness. Finally,
include synthetic hormones that of Steroids. the virus that causes AIDS can be
mimic the male sex hormone There are many side effects that transmitted if shared needles are
testosterone. Many precursors to accompany steroid use. When used to inject the steroids. The
testosterone (such as andro- steroids are used before the long-term risks to health are often
stenedione) are also used. Tes- skeleton matures completely, greater than any benefits from the
tosterone is secreted during they stop the bones from grow- use of steroids.
puberty, when it stimulates many ing. The body never reaches adult
of the characteristics associated height and may look distorted.
with being a man. For example, Liver cancer and other liver disor- www.scilinks.org
hair grows on the face, the under- ders may also result from steroid Topic: Anabolic Steroids
arms, and the pubic area; the use. Some males who use ana- Keyword: HX4006
voice deepens; and bigger mus- bolic steroids develop enlarged
cles develop in the arms, legs, breasts and shriveled testes.
shoulders, and elsewhere. Females who use these chemi-
Section 2 Review
Name the structures found on or inside cells Standardized Test Prep X and Y are hormones.
that allow hormones to recognize their X stimulates the secretion of Y, which exerts
target cells. negative feedback on the cells that secrete
X. What happens when the blood level of
Relate how an amino-acid-based hormone Y decreases?
changes a cell’s activity. A Less X is secreted.
Relate how a steroid or thyroid hormone B More X is secreted.
changes a cell’s activity. C Secretion of X stops.
D Less Y is secreted.
Analyzing Graphics Use Figure 7 to describe
how hormone levels are regulated by negative
feedback.

Section 3 The Major Endocrine
Glands
Objectives Endocrine Control
● Evaluate the roles of the Feedback mechanisms fine-tune the levels of hormones in circula-
hypothalamus and the tion, but two endocrine glands control the initial release of many
pituitary gland in controlling hormones. The hypothalamus (HIE poh THAL uh muhs) and the
other hormones. pituitary (pi TOO uh tehr ee) gland, shown in Figure 8, together
● Summarize the roles of serve as a major control center for the rest of the endocrine system.
the thyroid and parathyroid
hormones.
The Hypothalamus
● Compare the roles of the The hypothalamus is the area of the brain that coordinates the
hormones secreted in each activities of the nervous and endocrine systems. It controls many
area of the adrenal gland.
body functions, including body temperature, blood pressure, and
● Relate how each of the two emotions. The hypothalamus receives information about external
hormones secreted by the and internal conditions from other brain regions. The hypothala-
pancreas regulates blood mus responds to these signals from the nervous system as well as to
glucose levels.
blood concentrations of circulating hormones. The hypothalamus
● Describe the roles of responds by issuing instructions—in the form of hormones—to the
reproductive hormones pituitary gland.
and of melatonin.
Figure 8 The hypothalamus and pituitary gland

Key Terms
Many hormones are released in a cascade starting
hypothalamus
with the release of hormones from the hypothalamus. Stress
pituitary gland
adrenal gland
epinephrine
norepinephrine
Hypothalamus
insulin Hypothalamus releases corticotropin
glucagon releasing hormone (CRH)
diabetes mellitus
Anterior pituitary gland

Pituitary releases adrenocorticotropic
gland hormone (ACTH)
Adrenal glands
release cortisol
Increased blood
glucose level

The Pituitary Gland
As shown in Figure 8, the pituitary gland is an endocrine gland sus-
pended from the hypothalamus by a short stalk. The pituitary gland
Real Life
secretes many hormones, including some that control endocrine What happens when
glands elsewhere in the body. excess growth hormone
The nerve cells in the hypothalamus make at least six hormones is secreted?
that are released into a special network of blood vessels between the Excess amounts of
growth hormone (GH) can
hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. Some of these hormones are result in a disorder called
“releasing” hormones, which cause the front part of the pituitary gigantism. The tallest
gland, the anterior pituitary, to make and then release a corre- known human, Robert
sponding pituitary hormone. “Inhibiting” hormones signal the Wadlow, who grew to a
anterior pituitary to stop secretion of one of its hormones. height of 2.7 m (8 ft 11 in.),
Certain pituitary hormones travel to a distant endocrine gland and had a pituitary tumor that
secreted excess GH
cause the gland to begin producing its particular hormone. One during childhood.
example of this cascade of events is shown in Figure 8. Other pitu-
itary hormones act directly on organs and tissues that are not
endocrine glands, as summarized in Table 1.
The nerve cells of the hypothalamus also have axons that extend to
the back part of the pituitary gland, the posterior pituitary. The nerve
cells in the hypothalamus make two hormones that are stored in the
posterior pituitary and released when needed: oxytocin (ahks ih TOH
sihn) and antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin). Oxytocin trig-
gers milk ejection during nursing and uterine contractions during
childbirth. ADH causes the kidneys to form more-concentrated
urine, thereby conserving water in the body.
Table 1 Hormones Secreted by the Pituitary Gland

Hormone Target tissue Effects
Adrenocorticotropic hormone Stimulates the release of cortisol and other

Adrenal glands
(ACTH) steroid hormones from the adrenal cortex
Follicle-stimulating hormone Regulates the development of male and

Ovaries and testes
(FSH) female gametes
Stimulates the release of an egg (ovulation)

Luteinizing hormone
Ovaries and testes from an ovary; stimulates secretion of sex
(LH)
hormones from ovaries and testes
Prolactin Mammary glands Stimulates milk production in breasts
Growth hormone Stimulates protein synthesis and bone and

Many tissues
(GH) muscle growth
Thyroid-stimulating hormone Stimulates synthesis and release of the

Thyroid gland
(TSH) thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland
Antidiuretic hormone Stimulates reabsorption of water from the

Kidneys, blood vessels
(ADH) kidney; constricts blood vessels
Stimulates uterine contractions and milk

Oxytocin Mammary glands, uterus
secretion
SECTION 3 The Major Endocrine Glands 983

The Thyroid and
Parathyroid Glands
As shown in Figure 9, the thyroid gland is an endocrine
Thyroid gland shaped like a shield of armor. It is located just below
gland the Adam’s apple in the front of the neck. The name thyroid
comes from the Greek word thyros, which means “shield.”
Regulating Metabolism
and Development
Larynx
Parathyroid The thyroid gland makes and releases thyroid hormones.
glands
Thyroid hormones regulate the body’s metabolic rate and
Thyroid
gland Trachea Trachea promote normal growth of the brain, bones, and muscles
during childhood. Thyroid hormones also affect reproduc-
Figure 9 The thyroid and
parathyroid glands. The
tive functions and maintain mental alertness in adults.
thyroid gland, located in the Thyroid hormones are modified amino acids produced by the
neck, is wrapped around the addition of iodide to the amino acid tyrosine. If iodide salts are
trachea. The parathyroid lacking in the diet, the thyroid gland becomes greatly enlarged. An
glands are located on the enlarged thyroid gland, like the one shown in Figure 10, is called a
back of the thyroid gland. goiter (GOY tuhr). Goiters resulting from iodide deficiency are now
rare in the United States because iodide is added to commercially
available table salt.
The underproduction of thyroid hormones is known as hypothy-
roidism. In childhood hypothyroidism, an underproduction of
thyroid hormones can cause permanently stunted growth, mental
retardation, or both. In adults, hypothyroidism can cause a lack of
energy, dry skin, and weight gain. Overproduction of thyroid hor-
mones, or hyperthyroidism, can cause nervousness, sleep disorders,
an irregular heart rate, and weight loss.
Regulating Calcium Levels

A high level of calcium in the blood stimulates the thyroid gland to
Figure 10 Goiter. Goiters produce a hormone called calcitonin. Calcitonin causes calcium to
result from a lack of iodide in
be deposited in bone tissue rapidly, lowering the blood-calcium
the diet or improper function-
ing of the thyroid gland. level. Calcium is used for different purposes. For
example, calcium ions are required for muscle con-
traction and for the release of certain substances
from cells.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a hormone that is
produced by four parathyroid glands attached to
the back part of the thyroid gland, as shown in
Figure 9. PTH is made and released in response to
a falling level of calcium in the blood. PTH acts in
three ways to raise calcium levels. First, it stimu-
lates bone cells to break down bone tissue and
release calcium into the blood. Second, it causes
the kidneys to reabsorb calcium ions from urine.
Third, PTH leads to activation of vitamin D, which
is necessary for calcium absorption by the intestine.

The Adrenal Glands
The body has two adrenal glands, which are endocrine organs
located above each kidney. Each almond-size adrenal gland is actu- Real Life
ally two glands in one, as seen in Figure 11: an inner core, called the Can women have
adrenal medulla, and an outer shell, called the adrenal cortex. beards?
The adrenal cortex
normally secretes very
Immediate Response to Stress small concentrations of
The adrenal medulla acts as a warning system in times of stress by male sex hormones.
releasing the “fight-or-flight” hormones epinephrine (ehp uh NEHF However, a tumor in the
rihn) and norepinephrine (formerly called adrenaline and nora- adrenal cortex of a woman
drenaline, respectively). The effects of these hormones, which pre- or a deficiency of an
enzyme involved in cortisol
pare the body for action in emergencies, are identical to the effects
synthesis can result in
of the sympathetic nervous system in response to a stressful situa- increased production of
tion, but longer lasting. In stressful situations the fight-or-flight male sex hormones in
hormones increase heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose level, women. High levels of
and blood flow to the heart and lungs. male sex hormones may
cause male secondary sex
characteristics, such as
Longer-Term Response to Stress facial hair, to develop.
The adrenal cortex makes several hormones, including cortisol and
aldosterone. The adrenal cortex hormones provide a slower, more
long-term response to stress than epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Cortisol makes more energy available to the body. For example, cor-
tisol causes the body to increase the level of blood glucose and to
break down proteins for energy. A high level of cortisol, such as
occurs when the body is under stress for a long period of time, sup-
presses the immune system. Artificial derivatives of this hormone,
such as prednisone (PREHD nih sohn), are widely used as anti-
inflammatory drugs.
Aldosterone (al DAHS tuh rohn) helps reabsorb sodium ions
from the fluids removed by the kidneys so that these ions are not
lost in the urine. In contrast, aldosterone stimulates the kidneys to
secrete potassium ions into the urine. When the aldosterone level is
too low, potassium ions in the blood may accumulate to a danger-
ous level. The overall effect of aldosterone to prolonged stress is
that the volume of blood is increased, which raises blood pressure.
Figure 11 The adrenal gland

Each adrenal gland has two parts—the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex—
which secrete different hormones.
Medulla Adrenal
Cortex gland
Kidney

The Pancreas and Other Organs
In addition to those mentioned so far, several other organs and
glands produce hormones. For example, the stomach, small intes-
tine, thymus, kidney, liver, and heart all contain endocrine cells.
Recall that the stomach and small intestine secrete hormones, such
as gastrin, that regulate the release of acids and digestive enzymes.
Regulating Blood Glucose Levels

The pancreas contains clusters of specialized cells, called the islets
(IE litz) of Langerhans (LAHNG uhr hahns), shown in Figure 12. Two
hormones made by the islets interact to control the level of glucose
Figure 12 Islets of in the blood. Insulin is a hormone that lowers blood glucose levels by
Langerhans. Islets of promoting the accumulation of glycogen in the liver. Insulin also
Langerhans are clusters of
stimulates muscle cells to take up glucose and convert it into
cells in the pancreas. The
lighter-stained cells produce glycogen. Glucagon has the opposite effect of insulin—it raises blood
glucagon. The darker-stained glucose levels. Glucagon causes liver cells to release glucose that was
cells produce insulin. stored as glycogen.
8
0
493 2
5
x2 + <
6x -
7 Analyzing Blood Glucose Regulation
Background
Eating simple sugars causes glucose to enter the bloodstream
faster than eating complex carbohydrates or proteins. The rise in
sugar levels triggers the secretion of insulin, which decreases
blood glucose levels.
Different Meals and Blood Glucose Levels Meal #1
Insulin released Glucagon released

Blood glucose level
Meal #1
Meal #2
7 A.M. 8 A.M. 9 A.M. 10 A.M. 11 A.M. 12 P.M.
Eats
Hour
Meal #2
Analysis
1. Identify which meal causes 2. Critical Thinking 3. Critical Thinking
a faster rise in blood Inferring Determine which Applying Hypoglycemic
glucose. meal has complex carbohy- people have low blood glucose
drates and proteins that allow levels. They are often advised
glucose to be released into the to eat six small meals a day
bloodstream more slowly. containing little or no simple
sugars. Why are these individ-
uals given such advice?

Diabetes (die uh BEET eez) mellitus (MEH liet uhs) is a serious
disorder in which cells are unable to obtain glucose from the blood,
resulting in high blood glucose levels. The kidneys excrete the excess
glucose, and water follows, resulting in excessive volumes of urine
information about endo-
and persistent thirst. Because cells cannot take up glucose, they use crine disorders. Across
the body’s supply of fats and proteins for energy. The fat breakdown the top, write the headings
results in acidic products that accumulate in the blood, leading to Endocrine disorder,
low blood pH, coma, and, in extreme cases, death. Hormone involved, and
There are two kinds of diabetes mellitus. About 10 percent of Effects on body. Along the
sides, write each disorder
affected individuals suffer from Type I diabetes, and 90 percent suffer
discussed in Section 2
from Type II diabetes. Type I diabetes is a hereditary autoimmune and then add information
disease. The immune system attacks the islets of Langerhans, caus- to the table.
ing low insulin levels. Type I diabetes usually is treated with daily
injections of insulin. It usually develops before age 20.
People with Type II diabetes may have normal levels of insulin in
their blood. Their fat cells may produce a hormone that blocks
insulin activation of glucose transport. This makes insulin ineffective.
Type II diabetes often develops in people over age 40 due to obesity
and an inactive lifestyle. Type II diabetes is usually treated with diet
and exercise and, sometimes, medication other than insulin.
Hormones and Body Fat
P eople with very little body

fat, including many long-
distance runners and gymnasts,
When injected into young
female mice, leptin causes the
mice to reach sexual maturity risk for osteoporosis after meno-
often have disrupted reproduc- sooner. Mutant female mice that pause. Estrogens, female sex
tive systems. Very thin women cannot make leptin do not pro- hormones, help maintain strong
may stop having menstrual peri- duce eggs and thus are infertile. bones in women. Secretion of
ods, and very thin men may If the mutant mice are injected estrogens decreases during and
have lower testosterone levels. with leptin, they begin to produce after menopause. The bones
During puberty, girls accumu- eggs and can become pregnant. eventually become less dense and
late body fat before their first The more body fat he or she break more easily. After meno-
menstrual period. If they are very has, the more leptin in his or her pause, a woman’s ovaries and
thin, their first period may be blood. Leptin is involved in regu- adrenal cortex secrete small
delayed by a year or more. lating body weight. Scientists are amounts of the “male” hormone
Scientists are searching for unsure how leptin controls human testosterone, which is converted
hormones that tie a person’s reproduction. Cells in the ovaries to estrogen by enzymes.
reproductive state to his or her and hypothalamus have leptin
body-fat content. receptors.
www.scilinks.org
Hormone Made by Fat Cells Female Hormones Topic: Hormones and Body Fat
In 1994, researchers discovered Some women suffer severe bone Keyword: HX4101
that fat cells secrete a hormone loss (osteoporosis). Women with
called leptin that helps control more body fat tend to have
metabolism. stronger bones and are at lower

Regulating Reproduction
The ovaries and the testes, which also produce gametes, secrete hor-
mones that regulate reproduction. The ovaries secrete estrogens and
www.scilinks.org
progesterone, and the testes produce testosterone. These hormones
Topic: Melatonin
Keyword: HX4121 affect the formation of gametes and control sexual behavior and
cycles. They also stimulate the development of secondary sex charac-
teristics, such as breast size, hair growth, and muscle development.
Regulating Daily Rhythms

The pineal (PIHN ee uhl) gland is a pea-sized gland located in the
brain. The pineal gland secretes the hormone melatonin, which is a
modified form of the amino acid tryptophan.
Melatonin seems to be released by the human pineal gland as a
response to darkness. Therefore, the pineal gland is thought to be
involved in establishing daily biorhythms, such as the one shown in
Figure 13. The pineal gland may also play a role in mood disorders
such as seasonal affective disorder (SAD) syndrome and in a vari-
ety of aspects of sexual development.
Figure 13 A daily
biorhythm. The daily variation Daily Body Temperature Variation
in body temperature is an
example of a biorhythm 37.5
thought to be influenced
Body temperature (ºC)
by melatonin. 37.0
36.5
36.0
35.5
Waking Sleep
35.0
6 A.M. 6 P.M. 6 A.M.

Time of day
Section 3 Review
Explain why the hypothalamus and pituitary Critical Thinking Applying A classmate states
gland are considered the major control center of that hormones from the adrenal medulla, but not
the endocrine system. from the adrenal cortex, are secreted in response
to stress. Do you agree? Explain.
Evaluate the consequences of an underproduction
of thyroid hormones during childhood. Standardized Test Prep Cortisol exerts negative
feedback on the hypothalamic cells that release
Compare the effects of glucagon and insulin on CRH. Which of the following results from a rise in
blood glucose levels. the blood level of cortisol?
A Blood glucose levels fall. C Stress levels rise.
Identify the functions of reproductive
hormones. B Less ACTH is released. D More CRH is released.

ZONE
1 Hormones Section 1
hormone (974)
● Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by cells that endocrine gland (975)
act to regulate the activity of other cells. Ductless glands
called endocrine glands make most of the body’s hormones.
● Hormones are usually slower-acting but longer-lasting than
neurotransmitters.
● Similar to hormones, endorphins, enkephalins, and prosta-
glandins act on nearby cells to regulate cellular activities.
2 How Hormones Work Section 2

target cell (977)
● Amino-acid-based hormones bind to cell-membrane recep- amino-acid-based hormone (977)
tors, activating a second messenger. The second messenger steroid hormone (977)
then activates or deactivates enzymes in a cascade fashion. second messenger (978)
negative feedback (980)
● Steroid and thyroid hormones bind to receptors inside the
cell. The hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA in the
nucleus and turns genes either on or off.
● Most hormones are regulated by negative feedback.
3 The Major Endocrine Glands Section 3

hypothalamus (982)
● The hypothalamus and pituitary gland serve as the major pituitary gland (983)
control center for the release of many hormones. adrenal gland (985)
● The thyroid hormones regulate metabolism and development. epinephrine (985)
norepinephrine (985)
Calcitonin and parathyroid hormone regulate blood calcium insulin (986)
levels. glucagon (986)
diabetes mellitus (987)
● The inner medulla of the adrenal glands produces the fight-
or-flight hormones. The outer cortex of the adrenal glands
produces cortisol, aldosterone, and other steroid hormones.
● The pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon, which are
involved in regulating blood glucose levels.
● In diabetes mellitus, an individual’s cells are unable to take
up glucose from the blood. The cause is either an abnormally
low level of insulin or insulin resistance.
● Hormones secreted by the ovaries and testes regulate
reproductive functions.
● Melatonin is thought to regulate daily body rhythms.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 8. Summarize the major side

1. Steroid hormones effects experienced by athletes who use
a. bind to cell-membrane receptors. anabolic steroids.
b. bind to mRNA. 9. If having more body fat
c. eventually form hormone-receptor lowers a woman’s risk of developing
complexes that bind to DNA. osteoporosis, why don’t doctors advise
d. never enter cells. their female patients to gain weight?
2. The ________ interact to control the
secretion of other hormones.
a. pancreas and thyroid gland
map that describes the endocrine system.
b. hypothalamus and pineal gland
Try to include the following terms in your
c. adrenal gland and pancreas
map: hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid
d. hypothalamus and pituitary gland
gland, hormones, adrenal glands,and target
cell.
3. Thyroid hormones
a. slow growth. Critical Thinking
b. inhibit insulin production. 11. Inferring Relationships Describe the
c. promote sperm production. importance of “fit” between a receptor
d. control metabolic activities. protein and a hormone.
4. What adrenal cortex hormone acts, at high 12. Applying Information Before iodide was
levels, to reduce inflammation? added to table salt, goiters were common
a. calcitonin c. prostaglandin among people living in inland regions but
b. aldosterone d. cortisol rare among people living in coastal areas.
5. Insulin leads to Why do you think this was so?
a. higher blood glucose levels. 13. Distinguishing Relevant Information During
b. lower blood glucose levels. a medical examination, a person is found to
c. release of additional insulin. be unable to move glucose, stored as
d. glycogen breakdown. glycogen, from the liver into the blood.
6. Which of the following endocrine glands Further tests show that glucagon levels are
secretes melatonin and is believed to be normal, as is the structure of the hormone.
involved in establishing biorhythms? Why do you think glucagon is unable to
a. pituitary gland c. pineal gland carry out its function in this case?
b. thyroid gland d. adrenal gland Alternative Assessment
7. Summarizing Information Identify the 14. Career Focus Endocrinologist Research
endocrine gland labeled A, and name two endocrinology, and write a report on your
hormones it makes. findings. Your report should include a job
description, training required, kinds of
A employers, growth prospects, and starting
salary.
15. Evaluating Information Interview several
coaches at your school to determine their
attitudes toward steroid testing. Write an
article that discusses your findings and
explains how steroids affect the body.


correct answer.
The pineal gland secretes the hormone
1 What are the chemical messengers of the melatonin, which is a modified form of the
endocrine system? amino acid tryptophan. The daily variation
A. blood cells in body temperature is an example of a
B. carbohydrates biorhythm thought to be influenced by
C. hormones melatonin. Melatonin seems to be released
D. neurons as a response to darkness. Soon after the
melatonin is released, the person goes to
2 Which of the following is true of exocrine
sleep.
glands?
F. function only after puberty 7 What type of disorder might be treated by
G. include the brain and liver using melatonin supplements?
H. release products through ducts A. attention deficit
I. release products into the bloodstream B. bulimia
C. depression
3 How may amino-acid-based hormones use
D. insomnia
cyclic AMP?
A. as a coenzyme Interpreting Graphics
B. as a receptor
C. as a second messenger
D. as a target cell
Glucose Levels in Rats Injected
4 What leads to an increase in hormone with Hormones
levels when hormone levels rise above
normal?
F. feedback inhibition
Blood glucose level
G. negative feedback Group 1

H. neutral feedback
I. positive feedback
Control
Group 2
short response.
5 Analyze the relationship between 0 10 20 30

transcription factors and steroid and Time since injection (m i n u t e s )
thyroid hormones.
6 How are hormones and neurotransmitters 8 The chart shows the effects of hormone
alike and different? injections on blood glucose levels in rats.
Rats in groups 1 and 2 were injected with
saline containing a hormone. Rats in the
Test control group were injected with only
saline. Which hormone was likely con-
When using a graph to answer a question, be sure to
tained in the injection given to rats in
study the graph carefully before choosing a final
group 1?
answer. Some of the answer choices may be based
F. calcitonin H. insulin
on common misinterpretations of graphs.
G. glucagon I. oxytocin

Exploration Lab
The Effect of Epinephrine
on Heart Rate
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Using scientific methods • medicine droppers
• Graphing • Daphnia
• Calculating • Daphnia culture water
• depression slides
OBJECTIVES
• petroleum jelly
• Determine the heart rate
of Daphnia. • coverslips
• Observe the effect of the • compound microscope

hormone epinephrine on • watch or clock with
Daphnia
heart rate in Daphnia. second hand
• Determine the threshold • paper towels
concentration for the • 100 mL beaker
action of epinephrine • 10 mL graduated cylinders
on Daphnia. • epinephrine solutions (0.001%,
0.0001%, 0.00001%, and
0.000001%)
ChemSafety
Before You Begin DATA TABLE

Epinephrine is a hormone released in HR HR HR Average HR Average
Solution (beats/s) (beats/s) (beats/s) (beats/s) HR
response to stress. It increases blood Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 [(A+B+C)/3] (beats/min)
pressure, blood glucose level, and heart (A) (B) (C)
rate (HR). The lowest concentration

that stimulates a response is called the
threshold concentration. In this lab,
you will observe the effect of epinephrine on Procedure
HR using the crustacean Daphnia. Epinephrine
PART A: Observing Heart Rate in
affects the HR of Daphnia and humans in simi- Daphnia
lar ways.
1. Caution: Do not touch your face
1. Write a definition for each boldface term in while handling microorganisms.
the paragraph above. Use a clean medicine dropper to transfer
2. Make a data table similar to the one above. one Daphnia to the well of a clean depres-
3. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a sion slide. Place a dab of petroleum jelly in
question you would like to explore about the well. Add a coverslip. Observe with a
the action of hormones. compound microscope under low power.
992 CHAPTER 42 Hormones and the Endocrine System Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
2. Count the Daphnia’s heartbeats for 10 sec- PART D: Cleanup and Disposal
onds. Divide this number by 10 to find the 9. Dispose of solutions and broken glass
HR in beats/s. Record this number under in the designated waste containers.
Trial 1 in your data table. Turn off the Place treated Daphnia in a “recovery con-
microscope light, and wait 20 seconds. tainer.” Do not pour chemicals down the
Repeat the count for Trials 2 and 3. drain or put lab materials in the trash
3. After calculating the average HR in beats/s, unless your teacher tells you to do so.
calculate the HR in beats/min by using the 10. Clean up your work area and all lab
following formula: HR (in beats/min) = equipment. Return lab equipment to
Average HR (in beats/s) 60 s/min. its proper place. Wash your hands thor-
PART B: Design an Experiment you finish all work.
4. Work with the members of your lab group
to explore one of the questions written for Analyze and Conclude
step 3 of Before You Begin. To explore the 1. Summarizing Results Make a graph of
question, design an experiment that uses your group’s data. Plot “Epinephrine con-
the materials listed for this lab. centration (%)” on the x-axis. Plot “Average
heart rate (beats/min)” on the y-axis.
You Choose 2. Analyzing Data Which solutions
As you design your experiment, decide the following: affected the heart rate of Daphnia?
a. what question you will explore 3. Drawing Conclusions What was the
b. what hypothesis you will test threshold concentration of epinephrine?
c. how many Daphnia to use
4. Predicting Patterns Based on the
d. what your controls will be
information you have and on your data,
e. what concentrations of epinephrine to test
predict how epinephrine concentration
f. how many trials to perform
would affect human heart rates.
g. what data to record in your data table
5. Write a procedure for your experiment. about hormones that could be explored
Make a list of all the safety precautions you with another investigation.
procedure and safety precautions before Do You Know?
you begin the experiment. Do research in the library or media center
PART C: Conduct Your Experiment 1. What is anaphylactic shock?

6. Put on safety goggles, 2. Why is epinephrine used to treat
gloves, and a lab apron. anaphylactic shock?
7. To add a solution to a prepared slide, first Use the following Internet resources to
explore your own questions about hormones.
place a drop of the solution at the edge of
the coverslip. Then place a piece of paper
towel along the opposite edge to draw the
www.scilinks.org
solution under the coverslip. Wait 1 minute Topic: Hormones
for the solution to take effect. Keyword: HX4100
8. Set up your group’s experiment, and
collect data. Caution: Epinephrine is
toxic and is absorbed through the skin.
CHAPTER 42 Hormones and the Endocrine System 993
Show jumper
Human Fetus (6 months)

CHAPTER
43 Reproduction
and
Development
1. Sequence the phases of meiosis.
(Chapter 7, Section 1) Male Reproductive System
The Testes
2. List the stages of animal development in the
zygote. (Chapter 27, Section 1)
3. Describe the functions of sex hormones.
Section 2
(Chapter 42, Section 3) Female Reproductive System
4. Summarize the role of the hypothalamus in the The Ovaries
endocrine system. (Chapter 42, Section 3) The Ovum
Development
Fertilization
Reading Activity Pregnancy
Take a break after reading each section of this Section 4

tion. Reread the figure captions, and for each
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
STDs
chapter review.
www.scilinks.org
At six months, the human fetus is about 35.6 cm
(14 in.) long and has a mass of about 908 g (weighs
about 2 lb). The fetus has some brain wave activity,
and its eyes will open soon.
CHAPTER 43 Reproduction and Development 995

Section 1 Male Reproductive
System
Objectives The Testes
● Describe how sperm are What are the roles of a human male in sexual reproduction? Recall
produced. that sexual reproduction involves the formation of a diploid zygote
● Identify the major
from two haploid sex cells, or gametes, through fertilization. The
structures of the male roles of a male in sexual reproduction are to produce sperm cells—
reproductive system. the male gametes—and to deliver the sperm cells to the female
reproductive system to fertilize an egg cell—the female gamete.
● Relate the structure of a
sperm cell to its functions.
Where are sperm produced? Two egg-shaped testes (TEHS teez),
or testicles, are the gamete-producing organs of the male
● Sequence the path taken reproductive system. The testes are located in the scrotum
by sperm as they leave
(SKROHT uhm), an external skin sac. The testes first form inside
the body.
the abdominal cavity then move down into the scrotum either
Key Terms before or shortly after birth. The normal body temperature of 37°C
(98°F) is too high for sperm to complete development. In the
testes scrotum the temperature is about 3°C lower than it is in the rest of
seminiferous tubules the body, making it an ideal location for sperm production.
epididymis
vas deferens
seminal vesicles Production of Sperm
prostate gland The testes begin to produce sperm during the adolescent stage of
bulbourethral glands development known as puberty (PYOO buhr tee). As shown in
semen Figure 1, each testis contains hundreds of compartments packed
penis
with many tightly coiled tubules, called seminiferous (sehm uh
NIHF uhr uhs) tubules. Sperm cells are produced through meiosis
Figure 1 Testes in the lining of the seminiferous
The testes produce sperm cells. tubules. Thus, human sperm cells
Epididymis contain only 23 chromosomes (the
Seminiferous haploid number) instead of the
tubules
usual 46 chromosomes (the diploid
number) found in other body cells.
Two hormones released by the
anterior pituitary regulate the
functioning of the testes. Luteiniz-
ing hormone (LH) stimulates
secretion of the sex hormone
testosterone. Follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH), along with testos-
terone, stimulates sperm produc-
tion in the seminiferous tubules.
Cells located between the seminif-
Testis erous tubules secrete testosterone.
996 CHAPTER 43 Reproduction and Development

Male Reproductive System
Bladder
Sperm move through each vas
2
deferens and into the urethra.
Seminal
vesicle
Vas deferens
Pubic bone
Prostate gland
Rectum
Sperm leave the body

3
through the urethra, Bulbourethral
which passes through gland
the penis.
Epididymis
Urethra Testis
Sperm are produced in the testes
Penis 1
Scrotum and are stored in each epididymis.
Figure 2 Male reproduc-

Maturation and Storage of Sperm tive system. The arrows
A typical adult male produces several hundred million sperm cells indicate the path taken by
sperm cells from the testes as
each day. After being produced in the seminiferous tubules, the
they exit the body.
sperm travel through a series of long tubes though they are not yet
capable of swimming. Sperm then enter a long coiled tube called
the epididymis (ehp uh DIHD ih mihs), shown in Figure 1. Within
each epididymis, the sperm mature and become capable of moving.
The epididymis is also the site where most of the sperm are
stored. From the epididymis, some sperm move to another long Enzymes
tube, the vas deferens (vas DEHF uh rehnz). Sperm move through Mitochondria
the vas deferens and into the urethra, as shown by the arrows in
Figure 2. Sperm leave the body by passing through the urethra, the
same duct through which urine exits the body. Head
Nucleus
Structure of Mature Sperm Midpiece
As shown in Figure 3, a mature sperm cell consists of a head with
very little cytoplasm, a midpiece, and a long tail. Enzymes at the tip
of the head help the sperm cell penetrate an egg cell during fertil-
ization. The midpiece contains many mitochondria that supply
sperm with the energy needed to propel themselves through the
female reproductive system. The tail of a sperm cell is a
powerful flagellum that whips back and forth, enabling the Tail
sperm cell to move. ATP produced in the mitochondria
power the whiplike movements of the tail. During fertiliza-
tion, only the head of a sperm enters an egg, so a father’s Figure 3 Sperm cell.
mitochondria are not passed to offspring. Sperm cells contain a head,
a midpiece, and a tail.
SECTION 1 Male Reproductive System 997

Semen
As sperm cells move into the urethra, they mix with fluids secreted
by three exocrine glands: the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland,
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Transportation
and the bulbourethral glands. These fluids nourish the sperm and
of Sperm aid their passage through the female reproductive system. The
Keyword: HX4179 seminal vesicles , which lie between the bladder and the rectum,
produce a fluid rich in sugars that sperm use for energy. The prostate
(PRAHS tayt) gland , which is located just below the bladder, secretes
an alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acids in the female reproductive
system. Before semen leaves the body, the bulbourethral (buhl boh
yoo REE thruhl) glands also secrete an alkaline fluid that neutralizes
traces of acidic urine in the urethra. The mixture of these secretions
with sperm is called semen (SEE muhn).
Delivery of Sperm
Blood vessels The urethra passes through the penis , the male organ that deposits
sperm in the female reproductive system during sexual intercourse.
During sexual arousal, blood flow to the penis increases. As shown
in Figure 4, the penis contains three cylinders of spongy tissue.
Small spaces separate the cells of the spongy tissue. Blood collects
within these spaces, causing the penis to become rigid and erect.
Sperm exit the penis through ejaculation (ee jak yoo LAY shun),
the forceful expulsion of semen. During ejaculation, muscles
around each vas deferens contract, moving sperm into the urethra.
Spongy tissue Urethra
Muscles at the base of the penis force semen out of the urethra.
Figure 4 Cross section After the semen is deposited in the female reproductive system,
of penis. The penis contains
three cylinders of spongy
sperm swim until they encounter an egg cell or until they die. If
tissue. When the spaces in sperm are unable to reach an egg, fertilization does not occur. Cov-
these cylinders fill with blood, ering the penis with a thin rubber sheath called a condom helps
the penis becomes erect. prevent fertilization during sexual intercourse. Abstaining from
sexual intercourse is the surest way to prevent fertilization.
About 3.5 mL of semen, containing 300–400 million sperm, is
expelled during ejaculation. Because most sperm die in the female
reproductive system, fertilization usually requires a high sperm
count. Males with fewer than 20 million sperm per mL of semen are
generally considered sterile.
Section 1 Review
Sequence the path that mature sperm take from Describe the functions of the testes.
the testes to the outside of the body.
Inferring Relationships If a male’s left vas
Describe the role of each part of a mature deferens is blocked, how is his sperm count
sperm cell. affected? Explain your answer.
Recognizing Relationships How do secretions Standardized Test PrepA fluid containing sugars
by exocrine glands help the delivery of sperm to that sperm use for energy is secreted by the
the female reproductive system? A seminal vesicles. C vas deferens.
B prostate gland. D epididymis.

Female Reproductive Section 2
System
The Ovaries Objectives
Each month, the female reproductive system prepares for a possi- ● Describe how eggs are
ble pregnancy by producing a mature egg cell—the female gamete. produced.
After sperm have been deposited and fertilization has occurred, the ● Identify the major
role of the male in reproduction is complete. If pregnancy occurs, structures of the female
the female reproductive system will nourish and protect the fertil- reproductive system.
ized egg through nine months of development.
● Analyze the events of the
ovarian and menstrual
Production of Eggs cycles.
Two egg-shaped ovaries, shown in Figure 5, are located within
the abdominal cavity. The ovaries (OH vuh reez) are the gamete- Key Terms
producing organs of the female reproductive system. Females are ovary
born with all of the egg cells they will ever produce. At birth, the ovum
ovaries contain about 2 million immature egg cells that already fallopian tube
have begun the first division of meiosis. Like sperm cells, egg cells uterus
contain 23 chromosomes (the haploid number) because eggs also vagina
are formed through meiosis. ovarian cycle
ovulation
After meiosis begins, egg cells become stalled in prophase of the
follicle
first meiotic division. When a female reaches puberty, the increased corpus luteum
production of sex hormones enables meiosis to resume. However, menstrual cycle
menstruation
Figure 5 Female reproductive organs

The ovaries produce egg cells. The uterus nurtures the fetus during pregnancy.
Fallopian tube
Uterus
Ovary
Cervix
BPE01P C44 000 016b A
SECTION 2 Female Reproductive System 999

Female Reproductive System
Ovary Fallopian
tube
An ovary releases an ovum
1
into a fallopian tube about Uterus
once every month.
Cervix
The ovum moves through Pubic

2 bone
the fallopian tube toward
the uterus.
Bladder
When fertilization occurs,

3 Rectum
the fertilized ovum
develops in the uterus.
Labia Vagina
Urethra
Figure 6 Female
reproductive system. The normally only one immature egg cell matures each month. In the
arrows indicate the path taken lifetime of a female, only 300–400 egg cells will mature. When an
by an ovum from an ovary to egg cell matures, it is called an ovum (OH vuhm).
the uterus.
Structures of the Female Reproductive System
An ovum is released from an ovary about every 28 days. Cilia sweep
the ovum into a fallopian tube. Each fallopian (fuh LOH pee uhn)
tube is a passageway through which an ovum moves from an ovary
toward the uterus. Smooth muscles lining the fallopian tubes con-
tract rhythmically, moving the ovum down the tube and toward the
uterus, as shown by the arrows in Figure 6. An ovum’s journey
through a fallopian tube usually takes three to four days to com-
plete. If the ovum is not fertilized within 24–48 hours, it dies. An
ovum, shown in Figure 7, is many times larger than a sperm cell and
Figure 7 Ovum. can be seen with the unaided eye.
Notice the great difference in
size between the sperm and
The uterus (YOO tuh ruhs) is a hollow, muscular organ about the
the ovum. size of a small fist. If fertilization occurs, development will take
place in the uterus. During sexual intercourse, sperm are
deposited inside the vagina (vuh JIE nuh), a muscular tube
that leads from the outside of the female’s body to the
entrance to the uterus, called the cervix (SUR vihks). A soft
rubber cap called a diaphragm (DIE uh fram) can be used to
cover the cervix and help prevent fertilization by blocking
the passage of sperm into the uterus. A diaphragm is more
effective when used with a sperm-killing chemical, or sper-
micide. During childbirth, a baby passes through the cervix
and leaves the mother’s body through the vagina.

The Ovum
The ovaries prepare and release an ovum in a series of events
collectively called the ovarian cycle . The release of an ovum from
www.scilinks.org
an ovary is called ovulation (ahv yoo LAY shuhn). The ovum is then Topic: Ovarian Cycle
swept into the fallopian tube and begins to move toward the uterus, Keyword: HX4133
awaiting fertilization. Although the duration of the ovarian cycle
varies from female to female, the cycle generally spans about
28 days.
Phases of the Ovarian Cycle

Follicular phase The ovarian cycle has two distinct phases: the
follicular phase (fuh LIK yoo luhr) and the luteal phase. These
phases are regulated by hormones released by the hypothalamus
and the anterior pituitary. The events of the ovarian cycle are sum-
marized in Figure 8. In an ovary, egg cells mature within follicles. A
follicle (FAHL i kuhl) is a cluster of cells that surrounds an
immature egg cell and provides the egg with nutrients. During the
follicular phase of the ovarian cycle, hormones regulate the com-
pletion of an egg cell’s maturation. The follicular phase, which
marks the beginning of the ovarian cycle, begins when the anterior
pituitary releases follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteiniz-
ing hormone (LH) into the bloodstream. FSH causes the follicle to
develop. The follicle produces estrogen, a sex hormone that aids in
the growth of the follicle.
Figure 8 Ovarian cycle

During the ovarian cycle, ovulation occurs about every 28 days.
Fallopian tube Corpus luteum
4. After the ovum is

released, the follicle
breaks down.
Egg cell
1. In an ovary, an egg cell

is enclosed inside a
follicle.
Developing follicle
2. The follicle nourishes the

maturing egg cell.
Ovary
Ovulation
3. At ovulation, the ovum (mature egg) bursts

from the follicle into the fallopian tube.

Ovulation At first the small increase in the level of estrogen pre-
vents further release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary.
This is caused by a negative feedback mechanism. But as the
follicle approaches maturity, it begins to secrete large amounts of
estrogen. The anterior pituitary responds to this high level of estro-
gen by greatly increasing secretion of LH. This increase in LH
secretion is caused by a positive feedback mechanism. This surge of
LH causes the egg cell to complete the first meiotic division, and it
causes the follicle and the ovary to rupture. When the follicle
bursts, ovulation occurs, as shown in Figure 8.
Luteal phase The luteal (LOOT ee uhl) phase of the ovarian cycle
follows the follicular phase, as shown in Figure 9. After ovulation
Figure 9 Ovarian and occurs, LH causes the cells of the ruptured follicle to grow, forming
menstrual cycles. The a corpus luteum. A corpus luteum (KOHR puhs LOOT ee uhm) is a
ovarian cycle is regulated by yellowish mass of follicular cells that functions like an endocrine
hormones produced by the gland. LH causes the corpus luteum to secrete estrogen and prog-
hypothalamus and the pituitary esterone, another sex hormone. Estrogen and progesterone inhibit
gland. The menstrual cycle is
the release of FSH and LH. This prevents the development of new
regulated by hormones pro-
duced by the follicle and the follicles during the luteal phase.
corpus luteum.
Preparation for Pregnancy
Ovarian and Menstrual Cycles Progesterone signals the body to prepare
for fertilization. If fertilization occurs, the
corpus luteum continues to produce proges-
Luteinizing Follicle-stimulating terone for several weeks. If fertilization does
hormone (LH) hormone (FSH)
not occur, production of progesterone slows
Estrogen Progesterone
and eventually stops, marking the end of the
ovarian cycle. Prescription drugs containing
Follicular phase Luteal phase
relatively large doses of synthetic estrogen
and progesterone-like hormones have been
concentration
designed to disrupt the ovarian cycle and

Hormone
prevent ovulation.
Menstrual cycle While changes occur in the
ovaries during the ovarian cycle, changes
also occur in the uterus, as shown in Figure 9.
The series of changes that prepare the uterus
for a possible pregnancy each month is
Ovarian
cycle
called the menstrual (MEN struhl) cycle .

The menstrual cycle lasts about 28 days.
Developing follicle Ovulation Corpus luteum The menstrual cycle is influenced by the
changing levels of estrogen and proges-
terone during the ovarian cycle. Prior to
Menstrual
ovulation, increasing levels of estrogen

cycle
cause the lining of the uterus to thicken.

After ovulation, high levels of both estrogen
and progesterone cause further develop-
0 7 14 21 28 ment and maintenance of the uterine lin-
Menstruation Days of cycle ing. If pregnancy does not occur, the levels
of estrogen and progesterone decrease. This

decrease causes the lining of the uterus to shed, marking the end of
the menstrual cycle. The end of the menstrual cycle coincides with
Real Life
the end of the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle. Many women have
cramps during their
menstrual periods.
Menstruation The release of a
When the lining of the uterus is shed, blood vessels break and prostaglandin stimulates
bleeding results. A mixture of blood and discarded tissue then contractions of muscles
leaves the body through the vagina. This process, called in the wall of the uterus,
menstruation (men STRAY shuhn), usually occurs about 14 days which causes cramps in
after ovulation. At the end of the ovarian and menstrual cycles, the uterus.
estrogen and progesterone levels are low. Negative feedback of Finding Information
Research ways that
estrogen and progesterone thus causes the pituitary to again begin
menstrual cramps can
to produce FSH and LH, starting the cycles again. be treated.
Women eventually stop menstruation, usually between the ages
of 45 and 55. After this event, called menopause, a woman no longer
ovulates and thus moves out of the childbearing phase of her life.
During menopause, many women experience symptoms, such as
hot flashes, caused by a decrease in estrogen production. Estrogen,
which can be taken to relieve symptoms of menopause, is a widely
used prescription drug in the United States.
Analyzing Hormone Secretions

Background
The ovarian and menstrual cycles are regulated by
0100010110
011101010 hormones secreted by the hypothalamus, the pituitary
0010010001001 gland, and the ovaries. Feedback mechanisms play a
1100100100010
0000101001001 major role in these cycles. Use Figure 9 and the explana-
1101010100100
0101010010010 tion in the text to answer the following questions.
Ovulation
Analysis
1. Identify the hormones that 3. Critical Thinking 4. Critical Thinking
are secreted in large amounts Analyzing Concepts What Analyzing Concepts What
prior to ovulation. type of feedback mechanism type of feedback mechanism
causes a decrease in the causes the surge of LH
2. Describe the effect of estro-
secretion of LH and FSH secretion during the follicular
gen production on the secre-
during the luteal phase? phase?
tion of LH.
Section 2 Review
Describe the functions of ovarian follicles. Relating Concepts How could the maturation
of an egg cell be halted in the ovary?
Compare the regulatory roles of LH
and FSH. Standardized Test Prep When do the egg cells of
a human female begin meiosis?
Recognizing Relationships What causes the A before she is born C during ovulation
lining of the uterus to thicken and then to be
B at the start of puberty D during menstruation
shed during the menstrual cycle?

Section 3 Development
Objectives Fertilization
● Sequence the events of If sperm are present in the female reproductive system within a few
fertilization, cleavage, and days after ovulation, fertilization may occur. To fertilize an ovum, a
implantation. sperm cell must swim to a fallopian tube, where fertilization usu-
● Summarize the three ally occurs. During fertilization, a sperm cell penetrates an ovum by
trimesters of pregnancy. releasing the enzymes at the tip of its head. These enzymes break
down the jellylike outer layers of the ovum. The head of the sperm
● Describe the effects of drug
use on development.
enters the ovum, and the nuclei of the ovum and sperm fuse
together. This produces a diploid cell called a zygote.
Key Terms
cleavage
Cleavage and Implantation
blastocyst In the first week after fertilization, the zygote undergoes a series
implantation of internal divisions known as cleavage , as shown in Figure 10.
gestation Cleavage produces many smaller cells—first two cells, then four,
pregnancy then eight, and so on—within the zygote. Cleavage continues as the
embryo zygote moves through the fallopian tube toward the uterus. By the
placenta time it reaches the uterus, the zygote is a hollow ball of cells called
fetus
a blastocyst (BLAS toh sist). About six days after fertilization, the
blastocyst burrows into the lining of the uterus in an event called
implantation . There it will undergo development, eventually form-
ing a living human.
Figure 10 Early zygote development

Fertilization, cleavage, and implantation occur after ovulation.
2-cell stage
4-cell stage
Sperm
8-cell stage
Fertilization
Implantation
Cleavage
Fallopian
tube
Blastocyst
Ovary
Corpus
luteum Uterus
Ovum Developing
follicle

Pregnancy
Development begins with a single diploid cell from which billions of
other cells arise. The uterus provides protection and nourishment
during development. Human development takes about 9 months—
a period known as gestation (jes TAY shuhn), or pregnancy. The
9 months of pregnancy are often divided into three trimesters, or
3-month periods. For the first 8 weeks of pregnancy, the developing
human is called an embryo (EHM bree oh).
First Trimester
Supportive membranes The most crucial events of development
occur very early in the first trimester. In the second week after fer-
tilization—shortly after implantation—the embryo grows rapidly.
Membranes that will protect and nourish it also develop. One of
these membranes, the amnion (AM nee ahn), encloses and protects
the embryo. Another membrane, the chorion (KOHR ee ahn), inter-
acts with the uterus to form the placenta.
The placenta (plah SEHN tah) is the structure through which the
mother nourishes the embryo. As shown in Figure 11, the mother’s
blood normally never mixes with the blood of the embryo. Instead,
nutrients in the mother’s blood diffuse through the placenta and are
carried to the embryo through blood vessels in the umbilical (uhm
BIL i kuhl) cord.
The waste products of the embryo also pass through the placenta
into the mother’s blood. Most other substances, including drugs
and pathogens, can also diffuse through the placenta. Thus, if the
mother ingests any harmful substances, the embryo is also affected.
For example, alcohol use by pregnant women, especially during
early pregnancy, is a leading cause of birth defects. Fetal alcohol
Figure 11 Placenta
The developing human is nourished through the placenta.
Placenta FetalC44 000 010a,
artery Fetalbvein
A
Amnion
Maternal
artery
Maternal
vein
Umbilical
arteries
Uterus Umbilical cord
Umbilical
Chorion vein
Umbilical Fetal portion Maternal Uterine
cord of placenta portion of lining
placenta
SECTION 3 Development 1005

syndrome is a collection of birth defects in which a baby may have
a deformed face and often severe mental, behavioral, and physical
retardation. Women should abstain from alcohol and avoid all
unnecessary drugs throughout pregnancy.
Development of embryo As the placenta forms, the inner cells of
the blastocyst form the three primary tissue layers—endoderm,
mesoderm, and ectoderm. By the end of the third week, blood ves-
sels and the gut begin to develop, and the embryo is about 2 mm
(0.08 in.) long. In the fourth week, the arms and legs also begin to
form, and the embryo more than doubles in length to about 5 mm
(0.2 in.). By the end of the fourth week, all of the major organs
begin to form, and the heart begins to beat.
During the second month, the final stage in embryonic develop-
ment takes place. The arms and legs take shape. Within the body
cavity, the major internal organs, including the liver and pancreas,
are evident. By the end of the second month, the embryo is about
22 mm (0.9 in.) long and weighs about 1 g (0.036 oz).
Development of fetus From the eighth week of pregnancy until
childbirth, the developing human is called a fetus (FEET uhs). By
the end of the first trimester, the sex of the fetus can be distinguished.
A fetus has recognizable body features, and its organ systems have
begun to form, as shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12 Development of fetus

A fetus has recognizable body characteristics.
8 weeks 21 weeks
12 weeks 8 months
8 weeks: Major organ systems

have begun to form. Limbs
are forming.
12 weeks: Skin and
nails form. Internal
organs develop.
21 weeks: Hair forms on
body and head. Facial
features are apparent.
8 months: Subcutaneous
tissue is forming. Fetal devel-
opment nears completion.

Second and Third Trimesters
During the second and third trimesters, the fetus Figure 13 Childbirth
grows rapidly as its organs become functional. By During childbirth, the fetus exits the mother’s body
the end of the third trimester, the fetus is able through the vagina.
to exist outside the mother’s body. After about Umbilical cord
9 months of development, the fetus leaves the Placenta
mother’s body in a process called labor, which usu- Uterus
ally lasts several hours. During labor, the walls of
the uterus contract, expelling the fetus from the
uterus, as shown in Figure 13. The fetus leaves the
mother’s body through the vagina. The placenta
and the umbilical cord are expelled after the baby
is born. After birth, development is far from
complete. Physical growth and neurological devel-
opment continue for years after birth.
Vagina
Ultrasound Imaging
S ince the 1960s, several meth-

ods have been developed for
looking inside the body without
size of the embryo or fetus can
indicate its age, while other signs
indicate its health. For example,
surgery. One such method is heart motions can usually be
ultrasound imaging. To make an seen by 7 weeks. In addition,
ultrasound image, a physician many fetal abnormalities can be
holds a small probe against a diagnosed using ultrasound.
patient’s skin. The probe emits Ultrasound image of fetus
Advantages of
high-frequency sound waves,
Ultrasound
which produce echoes when they
reflect off structures in the The biggest advantage of ultra-
patient’s body. The probe detects sound imaging is its safety. Unlike www.scilinks.org
the echoes, which are converted X rays, ultrasound does not Topic: Ultrasound
to an image on a video screen. involve ionizing radiation, which Keyword: HX4180
can cause mutations. Ultrasound
Medical Uses of Ultrasound imaging has no known harmful
Ultrasound measurements of the effects.
Section 3 Review
Summarize the events in development that occur Predicting Outcomes What might happen
in the embryo’s first month. if more than one egg were released from the
ovaries prior to fertilization?
Describe the function of the placenta.
Standardized Test Prep Following fertilization,
Describe fetal alcohol syndrome. cleavage begins while the zygote is in
A an ovary. C the placenta.
Relating Concepts Why are some drugs harm-
ful when they are taken during pregnancy? B the uterus. D a fallopian tube.
SECTION 3 Development 1007

Section 4 Sexually Transmitted
Diseases
Objectives STDs
● Identify the causes and Recall that disease-causing pathogens are transmitted in many
symptoms of several ways. Pathogens present in body fluids, such as semen, can be
bacterial STDs. passed from one person to another through sexual contact. Dis-
● Identify the causes and eases spread by sexual contact are called sexually transmitted dis-
symptoms of some eases, or STDs. Both viruses and bacteria can cause STDs. Table 1
viral STDs. lists several types of STDs. Abstinence is the only sure way to pro-
● Compare the treatment
tect yourself from contracting an STD.
and cure rates of viral
STDs with those of bacterial Bacterial STDs
STDs. Most STDs that are caused by bacteria can be successfully treated and
cured with antibiotics. Unfortunately, the early symptoms of most
Key Terms
bacterial STDs are very mild and often are not detected. Early detec-
gonorrhea tion and treatment are necessary to prevent serious consequences
syphilis that can result from infection. For example, untreated bacterial STDs
chlamydia can cause sterility in both men and women. Three major bacterial
pelvic inflammatory STDs are gonorrhea, syphilis, and chlamydia.
disease
Gonorrhea (gahn uh REE uh) is a bacterial STD that causes
genital herpes
painful urination and a discharge of pus from the penis in males. In
females, gonorrhea sometimes causes a vaginal discharge but more
Table 1 Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Disease Symptoms Pathogen
Immune-system failure and susceptibility

AIDS to opportunistic infections
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Painful urination and penile discharge in males;

Chlamydia vaginal discharge and abdominal pain in females
Chlamydia trachomatis (bacterium)
Painful blisters on genital region, thighs,

Genital herpes or buttocks and flulike symptoms
Herpes simplex virus (HSV)
Genital warts Warts on genital or anal region Human papilloma virus (HPV)
Painful urination and penile discharge in males;

Gonorrhea vaginal discharge and abdominal pain in females
Neisseria gonorrhoeae (bacterium)
Hepatitis B Flulike symptoms and yellowing of skin Hepatitis B virus
Chancre on penis in males; chancre in vagina

Syphilis or on cervix in females; fever and rash
Treponema pallidum (bacterium)

often has no symptoms. In males, untreated gonorrhea can spread
to the vas deferens, epididymis, or testes. In females, it can spread
to the fallopian tubes and cause pain and scarring that may lead to
infertility. Some strains of gonorrhea are resistant to commonly
used antibiotics, such as penicillin.
Syphilis (SIHF uh lihs) is a serious bacterial STD that usually
begins with the appearance of a small, painless ulcer called a chancre
(SHAHN kuhr) 2–3 weeks after infection. In males, the chancre
usually appears on the penis. In females, the chancre may form
inside the vagina or on the cervix. If syphilis is not treated, it may
cause fever, swollen lymph glands, or a rash like the one shown in
Figure 14 a few weeks after infection. These symptoms disappear
without treatment. Years later, however, syphilis may cause destruc-
Figure 14 Syphilis.
tive lesions on the nervous system, blood vessels, bones, and skin. A rash such as this one is a
A pregnant woman infected with syphilis can also transmit the dis- symptom of the second stage
ease to the fetus. As a result, the fetus may be stillborn or suffer of syphilis. Even at this stage,
serious damage to organ systems. syphilis can be cured by
Chlamydia (kluh MIHD ee ah) is the most common bacterial STD treatment with antibiotics.
in the United States. The symptoms of chlamydia are similar to
those of a mild case of gonorrhea: painful urination in males and
vaginal discharge in females. Like gonorrhea, chlamydia often is
not detected. Chlamydia, even more than gonorrhea, is likely to
cause scar tissue in infected fallopian tubes, leading to infertility, or
the inability to become pregnant.
Pelvic inflammatory disease One of the most common causes of
infertility in women is pelvic inflammatory disease , or PID . PID is
a severe inflammation of the uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes, or
abdominal cavity that results from a bacterial STD that has gone
untreated. Figure 15 shows the damage that PID can cause in the
fallopian tubes. Most cases of PID are the result of gonorrhea or
chlamydia infections.
Figure 15 Pelvic inflammatory disease

Most cases of PID result from gonorrhea or chlamydia infections.
A normal fallopian tube has a highly folded lining and many In a fallopian tube scarred by PID, many of these spaces have
spaces through which gametes can pass. become blocked with tissue.
SECTION 4 Sexually Transmitted Diseases 1009

Viral STDs
Because viruses are not affected by antibiotics, STDs that are
caused by viruses cannot be treated and cured with antibiotics.
AIDS and genital herpes are two common viral diseases that are
transmitted through sexual contact. Other common viral STDs
include genital warts and hepatitis B.
AIDS is a fatal disease caused by the human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV). Transmission through sexual contact is the most com-
mon way that people become exposed to HIV. HIV destroys the
immune system of infected individuals by attacking white blood
cells. People with AIDS generally die from opportunistic infections
that persist only in people with weakened immune systems.
The number of HIV infections among teenagers and young adults
has increased dramatically over the last decade. AIDS is now the
Figure 16 Counseling. leading killer of African-American men between the ages of 25 and
Counseling is available to 44. More than 460,000 people in the United States have already died
people with HIV. from AIDS. The number of young adults in the United States with
AIDS has increased drastically over the last 15 years. While the num-
ber of new AIDS cases reported has decreased each year since 1993
due to improved drug treatments, new HIV infections have not
decreased, and are most frequent among young adults—like the
young woman shown in Figure 16. Researchers are trying to develop
new treatments for AIDS.
Genital herpes is caused by herpes simplex virus (HSV). About
70 percent of genital herpes infections are caused by HSV-2. The
rest are caused by HSV-1, which more commonly causes cold sores,
or fever blisters, around and inside the mouth.
Symptoms of genital herpes include periodic outbreaks of
painful blisters in the genital region, as shown in Figure 17, and flu-
like aches and fever. Antiviral drugs can temporarily eliminate the
blisters caused by genital herpes, but they cannot eliminate HSV
from the body. Although genital herpes is not life threatening, it can
have serious consequences. Women with genital herpes have a
greater risk of developing cervical cancer. Like HIV, herpes simplex
Figure 17 Genital
herpes. Blisters caused by
virus can be passed from mother to fetus during pregnancy or
genital herpes may appear on birth. Infants infected with HSV may suffer severe damage to their
or near the genitalia. nervous system or even die as a result of the infection.
Section 4 Review
Name three common STDs caused by List three symptoms of genital herpes.
bacteria. Why is early detection of these
diseases important? Applying Information How can you best
protect yourself from contracting a sexually
Describe how HIV weakens the immune system transmitted disease?
of an infected individual.
Standardized Test Prep A sexually transmitted
Recognizing Differences What is the main dif- disease that can be treated with antibiotics is
ference between the treatment of viral STDs and A genital herpes. C hepatitis B.
the treatment of bacterial STDs? B syphilis. D AIDS.

ZONE
1 Male Reproductive System Section 1
testes (996)
● Sperm cells are produced by meiosis in the testes. seminiferous tubules (996)
● Sperm mature and are stored in each epididymis. epididymis (997)
vas deferens (997)
● A mature sperm cell consists of a head, a midpiece, and a seminal vesicles (998)
long, powerful tail. prostate gland (998)
bulbourethral glands (998)
● Sperm move through the epididymis and the vas deferens
semen (998)
and exit the body through the urethra. penis (998)
2 Female Reproductive System

Section 2
● Egg cells are produced by meiosis in the ovaries.
ovary (999)
● An egg cell matures in a 28-day ovarian cycle. ovum (1000)
fallopian tube (1000)
● The menstrual cycle prepares the uterus for pregnancy. uterus (1000)
● The menstrual and ovarian cycles are regulated by hormones. vagina (1000)
ovarian cycle (1001)
ovulation (1001)
3 Development follicle (1001)
corpus luteum (1002)
● After fertilization, cleavage and implantation occur.
menstrual cycle (1002)
● The human gestation period is about 9 months. menstruation (1003)
● The most crucial events of development occur during the
first trimester of pregnancy.
Section 3
● The mother nourishes the fetus through the placenta.
cleavage (1004)
● Primary tissue layers develop into organs and tissues. blastocyst (1004)
implantation (1004)
● The fetus leaves the mother’s body during labor.
gestation (1005)
pregnancy (1005)
4 Sexually Transmitted Diseases embryo (1005)
placenta (1005)
● Many STDs are caused by bacteria and viruses. fetus (1006)
● Syphilis is a severe bacterial STD that can have destructive
effects on the nervous system, bones, and skin if untreated.
Section 4
● Gonorrhea and chlamydia are common bacterial STDs that gonorrhea (1008)
can scar the fallopian tubes and lead to infertility. syphilis (1009)
● AIDS is a viral STD in which HIV destroys immune-system chlamydia (1009)
pelvic inflammatory disease (1009)
cells, leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections. genital herpes (1010)
● Genital herpes is a viral STD that causes blistering.

ZONE
Understanding Key Ideas 7. Recognizing Patterns Describe the role of

feedback mechanisms in the maturation of
1. The correct pathway of sperm is an egg cell during the ovarian cycle of an
from the adult female.
a. testes to vas deferens to epididymis.
b. epididymis to urethra to vas deferens. 8. How do birth control pills, which contain
c. testes to epididymis to vas deferens. synthetic estrogen and progesterone-like
d. urethra to vas deferens to testes. hormones, prevent pregnancy?
2. Which of the following is not a function of 9. Describe two different
the female reproductive system? medical uses for ultrasound imaging. What
a. production of gametes can be learned about a fetus by using this
b. nourishment of the fetus technology? Find out other ways ultra-
c. maturation of eggs sound imaging is used in medicine.
d. secretion of FSH
3. Which of the following sexually trans- map that describes the ovarian and men-
mitted diseases cannot be treated with strual cycles. Include the following terms in
antibiotics? your map: ovary, fallopian tube, uterus,
a. genital herpes c. gonorrhea ovarian cycle, follicle, ovulation, corpus
b. syphilis d. chlamydia luteum, and menstrual cycle. Include addi-
4. Which of the following is not true for tional terms in your map as needed.
human development?
a. Alcohol and drugs taken during preg- Critical Thinking
nancy may harm the embryo or fetus. 11. Making Inferences A man interested
b. Crucial events occur during the first in fathering children wants to know his
trimester of pregnancy. sperm count. He finds out that he has a
c. Drugs and alcohol taken during preg- sperm count of fewer than 60 million
nancy cannot cause birth defects. sperm in a 3.5 mL sample of semen.
d. Normal development may be affected by If you were his physician, what would
viral diseases. you tell him about the results of
5. A symptom associated with the earliest the test?
stage of syphilis is 12. Predicting Outcomes What do you think
a. painful urination. would happen if more than one sperm were
b. blisters in the genital area. able to fertilize an egg?
c. fever blisters and cold sores.
d. a painless chancre. 13. Inferring Relationships Why should
a pregnant woman eat many healthy foods?
6. The diagram below shows a mature human
sperm cell. Explain the roles of the struc-
tures labeled A, B, and C in the sperm’s Alternative Assessment
ability to fertilize an egg. 14. Interpreting Information Research some
causes of and treatments for infertility for
A both men and women. What are the bene-
B fits and shortcomings of each type of treat-
C
ment? Summarize your findings in a
written report.


correct answer.
The first in vitro fertilization baby, Louise
1 What structure is a tube in which sperm Brown, was born in England in July 1978.
mature? During an in vitro fertilization procedure,
A. epididymis an egg is taken from the female, sperm is
B. seminiferous tubules taken from the male, and fertilization occurs
C. urethra externally. The zygote is released into the
D. vas deferens woman’s uterus two to six days later so that
implantation can proceed.
2 Which of the following is true of the
follicular phase of the ovarian cycle? 7 Where does the fertilized egg finally
F. stops estrogen production implant once it is released into the
G. ends when ovulation occurs woman’s uterus?
H. starts when fertilization occurs F. in the ovaries
I. occurs when LH levels drop to zero G. in the corpus luteum
H. in the fallopian tubes
3 How are semen and sperm related?
I. in the lining of the uterus
A. Both are stored in the bladder.
B. Sperm and semen are both gametes. Interpreting Graphics
C. Semen is made up of fluids and sperm.
D. Both are produced in the prostate gland.
4 When does an embryo develop endoderm, Hormone Concentrations During the
mesoderm, and ectoderm? Ovarian Cycle
F. during cleavage
G. during fertilization
LH FSH Estrogen Progesterone
H. during gastrulation
Hormone concentration
I. during implantation
5 Where does fertilization usually take place?

A. cervix C. fallopian tubes
B. epididymis D. uterus

6 In the 1960s, many women who took a 0 7 14 21 28

tranquilizer called thalidomide early in Days of ovarian cycle
pregnancy gave birth to babies with seri-
ous limb defects. Other women who took
the drug later in pregnancy gave birth to 8 Approximately when during the ovarian
normal babies. What does this tell you cycle does ovulation occur?
about the pattern of fetal development? A. day 7
B. day 14
Test C. day 21
When analyzing a graph, pay attention to its title. The D. day 28
title should tell you what is plotted on the graph and
provide some context for the data.

Skills Practice Lab
Observing Embryonic Development
SKILLS MATERIALS
• Observing • prepared slides of
• Comparing and sea star development,
contrasting including
• Making drawings • unfertilized egg 2-cell stage 4-cell stage
• Drawing conclusions • zygote
• 2-cell stage
OBJECTIVES
• 4-cell stage
• Identify the stages • 8-cell stage
of early animal
development. • 16-cell stage
• Describe the changes • 32-cell stage

that occur during • 64-cell stage 8-cell stage 64-cell stage
early development. • blastula

• Compare the stages • early gastrula
of human embryonic • middle gastrula
development with • late gastrula
those of echinoderm
embryonic
• compound light
microscope
development.
• paper and pencil
Blastocyst
ChemSafety
CAUTION: Always CAUTION: Glassware glass or spills with broken
wear safety gog- is fragile. Notify the glass unless the teacher tells
gles and a lab apron to protect teacher of broken glass or you to do so.
your eyes and clothing. cuts. Do not clean up broken
Before You Begin layers: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.

During this process, the developing organism
Most members of the animal kingdom begin is called a gastrula.
life as a single cell—the fertilized egg, or
zygote. The early stages of development are
in the preceding paragraph.
quite similar in different species. Cleavage
follows fertilization. During cleavage, the 2. Based on the objectives for this lab, write a
zygote divides many times without growing. question you would like to explore about
The new cells migrate and form a hollow ball embryonic development.
of cells called a blastula . The cells then begin
to organize into the three primary germ
Procedure 3. Drawing Conclusions From your obser-
vations of changes in cellular organization,
1. Obtain a set of prepared slides that show
why do you think the blastocoel (the space
star eggs at different stages of development.
in the center of the hollow sphere of cells
Choose slides labeled unfertilized egg,
of a blastula) is important during embry-
zygote, 2-cell stage, 4-cell stage, 8-cell stage,
onic development?
16-cell stage, 32-cell stage, 64-cell stage,
blastula, early gastrula, middle gastrula, 4. Predicting Patterns How are the
late gastrula, and young sea star larva. symmetries of a sea star embryo and a
(Note: Blastula is the general term for the sea star larva different from the symmetry
embryonic stage that results from cleavage. of an adult sea star? Would you expect to
In mammals, a blastocyst is a modified see a similar change in human develop-
form of the blastula.) ment? What must happen to the sea
star gastrula before it becomes a mature
2. Examine each slide using a compound light
sea star?
microscope. Using the microscope’s low-
power objective first, focus on one good 5. Further Inquiry How do your drawings
example of the developmental stage listed of sea star embryonic development com-
on the slide’s label. Then switch to the pare with those of human embryonic devel-
high-power objective, and focus on the opment? Based on your observations, in
image with the fine adjustment. what ways do you think sea star embryos
could be used to study early human
3. In your lab report, draw a diagram of each
development?
developmental stage that you examine (in
chronological order). Label each diagram
with the name of the stage it represents
and the magnification used. Record your
observations as soon as they are made. Do
not redraw your diagrams. Draw only what
you see; lab drawings do not need to be
artistic or elaborate. They should be well
organized and include specific details.
Do You Know?
4. Compare your diagrams with the diagrams
of human embryonic stages shown at left. Do research in the library or media center
5. Clean up your materials and
wash your hands before 1. How do identical twins develop?
leaving the lab. 2. How do fraternal twins develop?
3. What is in vitro fertilization?
Analyze and Conclude Use the following Internet resources

1. Summarizing Results Compare the embryonic development and cloning.
size of the sea star zygote with that of the
blastula. At what stage does the embryo
become larger than the zygote?
2. Analyzing Data What is the earliest stage www.scilinks.org
in which all of the cells in the embryo no Topic: Cloning
Keyword: HX4047
longer look exactly alike? How do cell
shape and size change during successive
stages of development?
CHAPTER 43 Reproduction and Development 1015

Reading and Becoming an Active Reader
Study Skills
What Is an Active Reader?

Active reading means thinking and interacting with
the text before, during, and after reading it. You
might be wondering, “Isn’t everyone thinking while
they are reading?” Not necessarily. Many students
read without consciously directing their thinking.
Active readers are different—they have developed
habits of thinking to use before, during, and after
they read. They use these habits to successfully
reach their goal: to understand what they’re reading
about and remember it well enough to be able to
pass the test.
Before You Read

Active readers begin by getting familiar with the Get to Know the Neighborhood
reading assignment. This is called previewing. The Now you’re ready to begin the first section. Start by
word preview means “to look before.” Looking over recognizing the elements that are there to help you:
the chapter before you read helps you predict what
you will be learning. It can also help you recall what • Objectives tell you
what you should be ves
you already know about a subject—this can help Objecti gy
able to do after read- w of ener
ze the flo
you learn more material and remember it longer. ● Analy living systems.
ing the section. Read through ism
e metabol
pare th of
the objectives before ● om
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Scan the Horizon of auto tr op
hs .
you read the section. hetero trop
P in
role of AT
An active reader will turn to the first page of a • Key Terms are the les- ● Desc
ribe the
m .
chapter, ask questions, and use the information on metabolis
son’s key vocabulary energy is
D e sc ribe how
● ATP.
the page to find answers. Here are some questions words listed in order of released
from
to ask. appearance. They rms

Key Te
1. What do I know? Questions at the beginning appear in bold black photos
ynthes
is
print, highlighted in ph
of each chapter in the Quick Review prompt you autotro
oph
heterotr spiration
to remember vital information from previous yellow, within cellula
r re
chapters. the lesson.

2. The Reading Activity will help you more fully
Find Your Way
engage the text. Many Reading Activities encour-
age you to survey your own knowledge of the As you look over the chapter, you will notice text
chapter’s topic. All Reading Activities will help headings in bold red print and text subheadings in
you become more aware of the information that bold blue print. Each red heading is a main idea for
will be presented in the chapter. the lesson. Red headings are always located at the
top of a page, making it easy for you to scan the
3. What’s here? If you’re in an unfamiliar city,
chapter and find the main ideas. Smaller, blue
you might use a road map to find your way
headings are words or phrases. These subheadings
around. In this textbook, the section titled
identify important topics that are covered under
Looking Ahead is your map, preparing you for
each red heading. As you read, notice that bold blue
what’s coming up. Take time to really look at
print is used for references to nearby photos, illus-
the organization of the chapter. This organiza-
trations, and tables (ex. Figure 1, Table 2).
tion tells you the focus and the purpose of the
chapter.
1016 READING AND STUDY SKILLS: Becoming an Active Reader

As You Read After You Read
As they read, active readers remain self-aware. When finished reading, active readers take a few
They ask themselves questions about how well moments to assess their overall level of under-
they understand what they are reading. As you standing. Ask yourself:
read the lesson, try asking yourself questions.
• What can I say about each illustration or figure?
Monitor your understanding. • Did I learn what I expected to learn?
• What did I just learn from that paragraph? • What do I know about each lesson title,
• Do I need to read this paragraph again? Objective, heading, subheading, figure, or Key
• What can I say about that illustration? Term in the text?
• Can I respond to the Objectives now? • What can I tell others about what I know?
Express what you know.
• What can I say about what I just learned? Check Your Comprehension
Ask more questions. At the end of each section, Section Review ques-
• What is it that I want to know now? tions will let you see how much you have learned.
• How does this affect my life? Each Section Review question measures how well
Study Tips along the way will give you tips for you mastered an Objective at the beginning of the
improvement. Look for the following types of section. If you cannot answer a Section Review
Study Tips as you read. question, go back to the section of text that covers
the Objective and re-read the information on
Reading Effectively strategies for finding meaning,
that page.
understanding content, and identifying
main ideas
Are You Ready for the Test?
Organizing Information tips on how to organize
what you’re learning When you have finished reading the chapter, turn
Comparing and Contrasting recognizing similarities to the Study Zone page at the end of the chapter to
and differences review the Key Concepts (main ideas) and the Key
Terms. If you understand the Key Concepts and
Reviewing Information how to review—and remem-
Key Terms, then you may answer the questions in
ber—what you’re reading
the Performance Zone to see how well you’ve
Interpreting Graphics suggestions for understanding
learned the material.
graphs and illustrations
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READING AND STUDY SKILLS: Becoming an Active Reader 1017

Reading and Concept Mapping
Study Skills
What’s the Best Way to Study?

Although there are many ways to study, concept the concepts. Notice that one linking word can be
mapping may help you understand ideas by show- used to link several concepts. You can also use
ing you their connections to other ideas. A concept arrows to help link concepts more clearly.
map not only identifies the major concepts from a
chapter or your class notes but also shows the rela- Organizing Concepts
tionships between the concepts, much as a road Some concepts are more general and include other
map illustrates how highways and other roads are concepts. These general concepts will be the main
linked to cities. ideas in your map. Determine the main idea for the
following list of concepts:
Identifying Concepts
• Tokyo • New York
Suppose you have just finished reading a • Mexico City • Bombay
section of a chapter and you would like to make • Seoul
a concept map as a study aid. How do you begin?
First you need to identify the concepts in that sec- They are cities, of course. Now determine the main
tion. For instance, examine the following words: idea for the following list:
• pool • playing • car • bicycle

• grass • biking • bus • truck
• tree • raining • train
• water • thinking Each of these concepts is an example of a vehicle.
• sky
In a concept map, the main concept should go at
All of these words are concepts, which usually form the top. The more specific concepts and examples
a picture in your mind. Now read the following should go below. Capitalize the first letter of the
series of words: main concept. Write the other concepts using all
• the • was lowercase letters. For example, in the concept map
• to • be shown in Figure A, the main concept is “Biology.”
• has • with The more specific concepts listed below it in the
• when • can map, such as “taxonomy,” describe biology. Study
this concept map before you try one yourself. Then
Are they concepts? No. They do not form a picture
read the following paragraph and make a list of any
in your mind. They are linking words. Linking words
important words you think should be defined.
play an important role in concept mapping; you use
What is life? What is the difference between
them to connect concepts in your map. See if you
living and nonliving things? If you were in a wilder-
can identify the concepts and linking words in the
ness area, it would be easy for you to pick out the
concept map shown in Figure A on the facing page.
living and nonliving things. The animals and plants
As you can see, the concepts are listed in boxes,
are the living organisms. Organisms are made of
and the linking words and lines are used to connect
substances organized into living systems. The
rocks, air, water, and soil you see are nonliving.
They contribute substances to the living organisms.
Organizing Information Connecting Ideas

You can use concept Two general ideas prevail in the preceding para-
maps as a study guide to graph: living and nonliving. You could make two
help you organize and separate concept maps, the main concept of one
review information. being “Living” and the other being “Nonliving,”
1018 READING AND STUDY SKILLS: Concept Mapping

Figure A Biology
is made of
is the
bio- -logy meaning study of life processes
meaning divided into
life many parts
such as
taxonomy ecology physiology ethology etc.
which classifies the study of the study of the study of
organisms environment functions animal behavior
in relation to their within
or you could make one map and use “Natural things” is the main idea. Then “living” and “non-
things” as the main concept. Natural things can be living” are placed under “Natural things” on the
living or nonliving. Therefore, the concepts “living” same row or level.
and “nonliving” are parts of the main concept Now continue to lay out all the other concepts
“Natural things” and should be placed below it in under the subconcepts in the first row or level until
the map. you have used them all. You can rearrange your
You have learned that living things are organ- pieces of paper any time, so keep pushing them
isms and that they are made of substances that are around as if they were pieces of a jigsaw puzzle
organized into living systems. Living things are dif- until you have arranged them the way you think
ferent from but related to nonliving things. So you they belong.
should make the connection between living and
nonliving things near the top of the concept map. Linking Concepts
The rest of the map should relate living and nonliv- Now make the connections between the concepts.
ing things. Nonliving things contribute substances Use lines to connect the concepts, and write link-
that are used by living systems. ing words on the lines to show or tell why they are
connected. Use linking words for all the lines con-
Listing Concepts necting all the concepts. Glue or tape down your
The next step is to put the concepts in order from concept papers if you want to make the map per-
the most general to the most specific. You can do manent, or use a separate piece of paper to draw a
this by writing the concepts on pieces of paper. sketch showing the way you have arranged the
Some concepts will share the same rank and be concepts.
equally specific. Remember that the examples are Now you have the completed concept map shown
the most specific and will be at the bottom of in Figure B on the following page. If you had a
the map. choice between reading the paragraph or looking at
Now begin to rearrange the concepts you have this map, you would probably agree that the map
written on the pieces of paper. Start with the most shows the concepts more clearly. This map gives you
general; get the main idea. Then, if there are two the main idea more quickly, and it is easier to under-
or more concepts that are equally specific, place stand all the ideas because their relationships to
them on the same level. For example, “Natural other ideas are shown.
READING AND STUDY SKILLS: Concept Mapping 1019

Reading and Concept Mapping continued
Study Skills
Features of Good Concept Maps

Remember, practice is the key to good concept As you practice making concept maps, your
mapping. You will get better as you go along. Here teacher will examine your linking words more
are some things to remember: closely. Because the linking words and the lines
between concept boxes relate concepts, your link-
• A concept map does not have to be symmetrical.
ing words will tell you if you really understand
It can have more concepts on one side than on
how concepts are connected.
the other.
A concept map should always have the following
• There are no “perfect” concept maps, only maps
characteristics:
that come closer to the meanings of the concepts.
As the mapmaker, you must make your map work • It is two dimensional—not just a list of concepts
for you. connected by lines.
• Do not put more than three words in a concept • It shows concepts in order of importance.
box. • It contains many branches with no more than
• Do not have more than four concept boxes in a four concept boxes in a row and no more than
row without branching out. three words in each concept box.
• Connect every pair of concepts with linking • It contains only concepts in the boxes and only
words. Use as few linking words as possible. linking words on the lines.
If the relationships you have made between any
two concepts are wrong, your teacher will help you
Evaluating Your Skills
sort out your misconception. Even if your relation- For the first map you make on your own, think
ships are absolutely correct, maps made by your about something you know very well. Do you play
classmates may be different. These maps could be a team sport or an individual sport? Do you have
equally correct, even though they may look nothing a hobby? Do you enjoy a particular kind of music?
like yours. Everyone thinks a little bit differently, Whatever topic you choose, use it as the main con-
and as a result, other people may see different rela- cept for your concept map. This will be more fun
tionships between certain concepts. and easier because you know this topic so well.
Figure B Natural things
can be can be
living nonliving
which are such as
organisms
air water rocks soil
such as
plants animals which all contribute
which are made of
substances
organized into
living things
1020 READING AND STUDY SKILLS: Concept Mapping

Reading and
Study Skills Analyzing Word Parts
Determining the Meanings of Words

The challenge of understanding a new word can Table 1 Word Parts
often be simplified by carefully examining the
Prefix Root Suffix
word. Many words can be divided into three parts:
a prefix, root, and suffix. The prefix consists of one hypo- derm -ic
or more syllables placed in front of a root. The root pachyderm
is the main part of the word. The suffix consists of derm -atology
one or more syllables at the end of a root. Prefixes derm -atologist
and suffixes modify or add to the meaning of the
derm -atitis
root. A knowledge of common prefixes, roots, and
suffixes can give you clues to the meaning of unfa-
miliar words and can help make learning new Use Table 1 to form five words using the root
words easier. For example, each of the word parts derm. Then use the list of word parts and their
in Table 1 can be combined with the root derm to definitions to write what you think is each word’s
form a word. meaning. An example is shown below.
Table 2 lists word prefixes and suffixes com- Example: Dermatologist
monly used in biology. Each word part is followed derm (root): skin
by its usual meaning, an example of a word in -logy (suffix): the study of
which it is used, and a definition of that word. -ist (suffix): someone who practices or
Examine the definition and the example. Decide deals with something
whether each word part in the first column is a dermatologist: someone who studies or
prefix or suffix, depending on how the word part deals with skin
is used in the example.
Table 2 Word Prefixes and Suffixes

Prefix
Definition Example
or suffix
a- not, without asymmetrical: not symmetrical
ab- away, apart abduct: move away from the middle
-able able viable: able to live
ad- to, toward adduct: move toward the middle
amphi- both amphibian: type of vertebrate that lives both on land and in water
ante- before anterior: front of an organism
anti- against antibiotic: substance, such as penicillin, capable of killing bacteria
arche- ancient Archaeopteryx: a fossilized bird
arthro- joint arthropod: jointed-limbed organism belonging to the phylum Arthropoda
auto- self, same autotrophic: able to make its own food
bi- two bivalve: mollusk with two shells
bio- life biology: the study of life
blast- embryo blastula: hollow ball stage in the development of an embryo
carcin- cancer carcinogenic: cancer-causing
cereb- brain cerebrum: part of the vertebrate brain
chloro- green chlorophyll: green pigment in plants needed for photosynthesis

READING AND STUDY SKILLS: Analyzing Word Parts 1021
Reading and Analyzing Word Parts continued
Study Skills

Prefix
Definition Example
or suffix
chromo- color chromosome: structure found in eukaryotic cells that contains DNA
chondro- cartilage Chondrichthyes: cartilaginous fish
circ- around circulatory: system for moving fluids through the body
-cide kill insecticide: a substance that kills insects
conjoined twins: identical twins physically joined by a shared portion
co-, con- with, together
of anatomy at birth
-cycle circle pericycle: layer of plant cells
cyt- cell cytology: the study of cells
de- remove dehydration: removal of water
derm- skin dermatology: study of the skin
di- two diploid: full set of chromosomes
dia- through dialysis: separating molecules by passing them through a membrane
ecol- dwelling, house ecology: the study of living things and their environments
ecto- outer, outside ectoderm: outer germ layer of developing embryo
-ectomy removal appendectomy: removal of the appendix
endo- inner, inside endoplasm: cytoplasm within the cell membrane
epi- upon, over epiphyte: plant growing upon another plant
ex-, exo- outside of exobiology: the search for life elsewhere in the universe
gastro- stomach gastropod: type of mollusk
-gen type genotype: genes in an organism
climatogram: depicting the annual precipitation and
-gram write or record
temperature for an area
hemi- half hemisphere: half of a sphere
hetero- different heterozygous: different alleles inherited from parents
hist- tissue histology: the study of tissues
homeo- the same homeostasis: maintain a constant condition
hydro- water hydroponics: growing plants in water instead of soil
hyper- above, over hypertension: blood pressure higher than normal
hypo- below, under hypothalamus: part of the brain located below the thalamus
-ic of or pertaining to hypodermic: pertaining to under the skin
inter- between, among interbreed: breed within a family or strain
intra- within intracellular: inside a cell
iso- equal isogenic: having an identical set of genes
someone who
-ist practices or deals biologist: someone who studies life
with something
-logy study of biology: the study of life
macro- large macromolecule: large molecule, such as DNA or proteins
1022 READING AND STUDY SKILLS: Analyzing Word Parts

Prefix
Definition Example
or suffix
mal- bad malnourishment: poor nutrition
megaspore: larger of two types of spores produced by some ferns and
mega- large
flowering plants
mesoglea: jellylike material found between outer and inner layers
meso- in the middle
of coelenterates
meta- change metamorphosis: change in form
micro- small microscopic: too small to be seen with unaided eye
mono- one, single monoploid: one set of alleles
morph- form morphology: study of the form of organisms
neo- new neonatal: newborn
nephr- kidney nephron: functional unit of the kidneys
neur- neuron neurotransmitter: chemical released by a neuron
oo- egg oogenesis: gamete formation in female diploid organisms
org- living organism: living thing
-oma swelling carcinoma: cancerous tumor
orth- straight orthodontics: the practice of straightening teeth
pachy- thick pachyderm: thick-skinned animal, such as an elephant
para- near, on parasite: organism that lives on and gets nutrients from another organism
path- disease pathogen: disease-causing agent
peri- around pericardium: membrane around the heart
photo- light phototropism: bending of plants toward light
phyto- plants phytoplankton: plankton that consists of plants
polypeptide: sequence of many amino acids joined together to form
poly- many
a protein
pseudopod: false foot that projects from the main part of an
-pod foot
amoeboid cell
pre- before prediction: a forecast of events before they take place
instrument used
-scope microscope: instrument used to see very small objects
to see something
semi- partially semipermeable: allowing some particles to move through
-some body chromosome: structure found in eukaryotic cells that contains DNA
sub- under substrate: molecule on which an enzyme acts
super-, supra- above superficial: on or near the surface of a tissue or organ
syn- with synapse: junction of a neuron with another cell
-tomy to cut appendectomy: operation in which the appendix is removed
transformation: the transfer of genetic material from one organism
trans- across
to another
ur- referring to urine urology: study of the urinary tract
visc- organ viscera: internal organs of the body
READING AND STUDY SKILLS: Analyzing Word Parts 1023

Laboratory
Skills Safe Laboratory Practices
It is your responsibility to protect yourself and

other students by conducting yourself in a
safe manner while in the laboratory. You can
avoid accidents in the laboratory by following
directions, handling materials carefully, and
taking your work seriously. Read the following
general safety guidelines below before
attempting to do work in the laboratory. Make
sure you understand all safety guidelines
before entering the laboratory. If necessary,
ask your teacher for clarification of laboratory
rules and procedures.
General Guidelines for Laboratory Safety

• Only perform experiments specifically assigned • No contact lenses are allowed in the lab. Even if
by your teacher. Do not attempt any laboratory you are wearing safety goggles, chemicals could
procedure without your teacher’s direction, and get between contact lenses and your eyes and
do not work alone in the laboratory. cause irreparable eye damage. If your doctor
requires that you wear contact lenses instead
• Familiarize yourself with the investigation and all
of glasses, then you should wear eye-cup safety
safety precautions before entering the lab. Be
goggles—similar to goggles worn for underwater
aware of the potential hazards of the required
swimming—in the lab. Ask your doctor or your
materials and procedures. Before you begin, ask
teacher how to use eye-cup safety goggles to pro-
your teacher to explain any parts of an investiga-
tect your eyes.
tion that you do not understand.
• Know the location of all safety and emergency
• Before beginning work, tie back long hair, roll
equipment used in the laboratory. Ask your
up loose sleeves, and put on any required per-
teacher where the nearest eyewash stations,
sonal protective equipment as directed by your
safety blankets, safety shower, fire extinguisher,
teacher. Avoid or confine loose clothing that
first-aid kit, and chemical spill kit are located.
could knock things over, catch on fire, or absorb
chemical solutions. Nylon and polyester fabrics • Immediately report any accident, incident, or
burn and melt more readily than does cotton. hazard—no matter how trivial—to your teacher.
Do not wear open-toed shoes, sandals, or canvas Any incident involving bleeding, burns, fainting,
shoes in the laboratory. chemical exposure, or ingestion should also be
reported immediately to the school nurse or to
• Always wear a lab apron and safety goggles.
a physician.
Wear this equipment even if you are not working
on an experiment. Laboratories contain chemi- • In case of fire, alert your teacher and leave the
cals that can damage your clothing, skin, and lab. Standard fire-safety procedures should be
eyes. If your safety goggles cloud up or are followed.
uncomfortable, ask your teacher for help.
• Do not have or consume food or drink in the lab.
Lengthening the strap slightly, washing the
Do not store or eat food in the laboratory.
goggles with soap and warm water, or using
an anti-fog spray may help the problem.
1024 LABORATORY SKILLS: Safe Laboratory Practices

• Do not fool around in the lab. Take your lab work • Clean your work area at the conclusion of each
seriously and behave appropriately in the labora- lab period as directed by your teacher. Broken
tory. Be aware of your classmates’ safety as well glass, chemicals, and other laboratory waste
as your own at all times. products should be disposed of in separate spe-
cial containers. Dispose of waste materials as
• Do not apply cosmetics in the lab. Some
directed by your teacher.
hair-care products and nail polish are highly
flammable. • Wash your hands with soap and hot water after
each lab period. Wash your hands at the conclu-
• Keep your work area neat and uncluttered. Have
sion of each lab period and before leaving the
only books and other materials that are needed to
laboratory to avoid contamination.
conduct the experiment in the laboratory.
Key to Safety Symbols and Their Precautions

Before you begin working in the laboratory, • Do not look directly at the sun through any
familiarize yourself with the following safety sym- optical device or lens system, and do not reflect
bols, which are used throughout this textbook, direct sunlight to illuminate a microscope. Such
and guidelines that you should follow when you actions concentrate light rays to an intensity that
see these symbols. can severely burn your retinas, possibly causing
blindness.
Eye Safety
Hand Safety
• Wear approved safety goggles as directed.
Safety goggles should always be worn in the lab- • Do not cut objects while holding them in your
oratory, especially when you are working with hand. Dissect specimens in a dissecting tray.
a chemical or solution, a heat source, or a • Wear protective gloves when working with an
mechanical device. open flame, chemicals, solutions, or wild or
• In case of eye contact, do the following: Go to unknown plants.
an eyewash station immediately and flush your
eyes (including under the eyelids) with running Safety with Gases
water for at least 15 minutes. Hold your eyelids
open with your thumb and fingers, and roll your
• Do not inhale any gas or vapor unless directed to
eyeball around. While doing this, have another
do so by your teacher. Never inhale pure gases.
student notify your teacher.
• Handle materials that emit vapors or gases in a
• Do not wear contact lenses in the lab.
well-ventilated area. This work should be done
Chemicals can be drawn up under a contact lens
in an approved chemical fume hood.
and into the eye. If you must wear contacts pre-
scribed by a physician, tell your teacher. You
must also wear approved eye-cup safety goggles Sharp-Object Safety
to help protect your eyes.
• Use extreme care when handling all sharp and
pointed instruments, such as scalpels, sharp
probes, and knives.
• Do not use double-edged razor blades in the
laboratory.
• Do not cut objects while holding them in your
hand. Cut objects on a suitable work surface.
Always cut in a direction away from your body.
LABORATORY SKILLS: Safe Laboratory Practices 1025

Laboratory Safe Laboratory Practices continued
Skills
Hygienic Care
• Keep your hands away from your face and

mouth while working in the lab.
• Wash your hands thoroughly before leaving
the laboratory.
• Remove contaminated clothing immediately. If
you spill caustic substances on your skin or cloth-
ing, use the safety shower or a faucet to rinse.
Remove affected clothing while under the shower,
and call to your teacher. (It may be temporarily
embarrassing to remove clothing in front of your
Animal Care and Safety classmates, but failure to rinse a chemical off
your skin could result in permanent damage.)
• Do not approach or touch any wild animals. • Launder contaminated clothing separately.
When working outdoors, be aware of poisonous
or dangerous animals in the area. • Use the proper technique demonstrated by your
teacher when handling bacteria or other micro-
• Always get your teacher’s permission before organisms. Treat all microorganisms as if they
bringing any animal (including pets) into the are pathogens. Do not open Petri dishes to
school building. observe or count bacterial colonies.
• Handle animals only as directed by your teacher. • Return all stock and experimental cultures to
Mishandling or abusing any animal will not your teacher for proper disposal.
be tolerated.
Glassware Safety
Heating Safety
• Inspect glassware before use; do not use
• Be aware of any source of flames, sparks, or chipped or cracked glassware. Use heat-resistant
heat (open flames, electric heating coils, hot glassware for heating materials or storing hot
plates, etc.) before working with flammable liquids.
liquids or gases.
• Do not attempt to insert glass tubing into a rub-
• When heating chemicals or solutions in a test ber stopper without specific instruction from
tube, do not point the test tube toward anyone. your teacher.
• Avoid using open flames. If possible, work only • Immediately notify your teacher if a piece of
with hot plates that have an “On-Off” switch glassware breaks. Do not attempt to clean up
and an indicator light. Do not leave hot plates broken glass.
unattended. Do not use alcohol lamps. Turn
off hot plates and open flames when they are
not being used. Proper Waste Disposal
• Know the location of laboratory fire extinguish-
• Clean and sanitize all work surfaces and per-
ers and fire-safety blankets.
sonal protective equipment after each lab period
• Use tongs or appropriate insulated holders as directed by your teacher.
when handling heated objects. Heated objects
• Dispose of all sharp objects (such as broken
often do not appear to be hot. Do not pick up an
glass) and other contaminated materials (biolog-
object with your hand if it could be warm.
ical or chemical) in special containers as
• Keep flammable substances away from heat, directed by your teacher.
flames, and other ignition sources.
1026 LABORATORY SKILLS: Safe Laboratory Practices

Electrical Safety Plant Safety
• Do not use equipment with frayed electrical • Do not ingest any plant part used in the labora-
cords or loose plugs. tory (especially commercially sold seeds). Do
not touch any sap or plant juice directly. Always
• Fasten electrical cords to work surfaces using
wear gloves.
tape. This will prevent tripping and will ensure
that equipment cannot fall off the table. • Wear disposable polyethylene gloves when han-
dling any wild plant.
• Do not use electrical equipment near water or
with wet hands or clothing. • Wash hands thoroughly after handling any plant
or plant part (particularly seeds). Avoid touching
• Hold the rubber cord when you plug in or unplug
your face and eyes.
equipment. Do not touch the metal prongs of the
plug, and do not unplug equipment by pulling on • Do not inhale or expose yourself to the smoke of
the cord. any burning plant. Smoke contains irritants that
can cause inflammation in the throat and lungs.
Clothing Protection • Do not pick wildflowers or other plants unless
directed by your teacher.
• Wear an apron or laboratory coat at all times in
the laboratory to prevent chemicals or chemical
solutions from contacting skin or clothes.
Chemical Safety
• Always wear safety goggles, gloves, and a lab • Always handle chemicals or chemical solutions
apron or coat when working with any chemical or with care. Check the labels on bottles, and
chemical solution to protect your eyes and skin. observe safety procedures. Do not return unused
chemicals or solutions to their original contain-
• Do not taste, touch, or smell any chemicals or
ers. Return unused reagent bottles or containers
bring them close to your eyes, unless specifically
to your teacher.
instructed by your teacher. If you are directed by
your teacher to note the odor of a substance, do • Do not mix any chemicals unless specifically
so by waving the fumes toward you with your instructed by your teacher. Otherwise harmless
hand. Do not pipette any chemicals by mouth; use chemicals can be poisonous or explosive if
a suction bulb as directed by your teacher. combined.
• Know the location of the emergency lab shower • Do not pour water into a strong acid or base.
and eyewash and how to use them. If you get a The mixture can produce heat and splatter.
chemical on your skin or clothing, wash it off at
• Report any spill immediately to your teacher.
the sink while calling to your teacher.
Spills should be cleaned up promptly as directed
by your teacher.
ChemSafety
LABORATORY SKILLS: Safe Laboratory Practices 1027

Laboratory Using a Compound Light
Skills Microscope
Parts of the Compound Light Microscope

• The eyepiece magnifies the image, usually 10. • The fine adjustment moves the stage slightly to
bring the image into sharp focus.
• The low-power objective further magnifies the
image, up to 4. • The stage supports a slide that contains the
viewed specimen.
• The high-power objectives further magnify the
image, from 10 to 43. • The stage clips secure the slide in position for
viewing.
• The nosepiece holds the objectives and can be
turned to change from one objective to another. • The diaphragm (not labeled), located under the
stage, controls the amount of light allowed to
• The body tube maintains the correct distance
pass through the object being viewed.
between the eyepiece and the objectives. This
is usually about 25 cm (10 in.), the normal • The light source provides light for viewing the
distance for reading and viewing objects with image. It can be either a light reflected with a
the unaided eye. mirror or an incandescent light from a small
lamp. Never use reflected direct sunlight as a
• The coarse adjustment moves the stage up and
light source.
down in large increments to allow gross position-
ing and focusing of the objective lens. • The arm supports the body tube.
• The base supports the microscope.
Body tube
Eyepiece
Nosepiece
Arm
High-power
objective
Low-power
objective
Stage
Coarse Stage clip

adjustment
Fine
adjustment Light source
Base
1028 LABORATORY SKILLS: Using a Compound Light Microscope

Proper Handling and Use of the Compound Light Microscope
1. Carry the microscope to your lab table using 7. Now look at the stage at eye level. Slowly
both hands, one supporting the base and the turn the coarse adjustment to raise the stage
other holding the arm of the microscope. Hold until the objective almost touches the slide.
the microscope close to your body. Do not allow the objective to touch the slide.
2. Place the microscope on the lab table at least 8. While looking through the eyepiece, turn the
5 cm (2 in.) from the edge of the table. coarse adjustment to lower the stage until the
3. Check to see what type of light source the image is in focus. Never focus objectives down-
microscope has. If the microscope has a lamp, ward. Use the fine adjustment to achieve a
plug it in, making sure that the cord is out of sharply focused image. Keep both eyes open
the way. If the microscope has a mirror, adjust while viewing a slide.
it to reflect light through the hole in the stage. 9. Make sure that the image is exactly in the cen-
ter of your field of vision. Then switch to the
CAUTION: If your microscope has a mirror, do high-power objective. Focus the image with the
not use direct sunlight as a light source. Using fine adjustment. Never use the coarse adjust-
direct sunlight can damage your eyes. ment at high power.
4. Adjust the revolving nosepiece so that the low- 10. When you are finished using the microscope,
power objective is aligned with the body tube. remove the slide. Clean the eyepiece and
5. Place a prepared slide over the hole in the stage, objectives with lens paper, and return the
and secure the slide with the stage clips. microscope to its storage area.
6. Look through the eyepiece, and move the
diaphragm to adjust the amount of light that
passes through the specimen.
Procedure for Making a Wet Mount

1. Use lens paper to clean a glass slide and coverslip. 7. As the water evaporates from the slide,
add another drop of water by placing the
CAUTION: Glass slides and coverslips break tip of the medicine dropper next to the edge
easily. Handle them carefully. Notify your of the coverslip, just as you would if adding
teacher if you break a slide or coverslip. stains or solutions to a wet mount. If you
2. Place the specimen that you wish to observe in have added too much water, remove the
the center of the slide. excess by using the corner of a paper towel
as a blotter. Do not lift the coverslip to
3. Using a medicine dropper, place one drop of
add or remove water.
water on the specimen.
4. Position the coverslip so that it is at the edge of
the drop of water and at a 45° angle to the slide.
Make sure that the water runs along the edge of
the coverslip.
5. Lower the coverslip slowly to avoid trapping
air bubbles.
6. If a stain or solution will be added to a wet
mount, place a drop of the staining solution on
the microscope slide along one side of the cover-
slip. Place a small piece of paper towel on the
opposite side of the coverslip.
LABORATORY SKILLS: Using a Compound Light Microscope 1029

Laboratory Determining Mass
Skills and Temperature
Reading a Balance
A single-pan balance, such as the one shown at
right, has one pan and three or four beams. The 0–500 g
scale of measure for each beam depends on the 0–100 g
model of the balance. When an object is placed on 0–10 g
the pan, the riders are moved along the beams until
the mass on the beams equals the mass of the
object in the pan.
Measuring Mass
When determining the mass of a chemical or pow-
der, use weighing or filter paper. Determine the
mass of the paper, and subtract that mass from the
total mass. Use the following procedure for deter- 2. Place the object on the pan.
mining the mass of objects: 3. Move the largest rider along the beam to the
1. Make sure the balance is on a level surface and right until it is at the last notch that does not
the pan is allowed to move freely. Position all move the pointer below the zero point in the
the riders at zero. If the pointer does not come middle of the scale.
to rest in the middle of the scale, calibrate the 4. Follow the same procedure with the next rider.
balance using the adjustment knob (usually
5. Move the smallest rider until the pointer rests at
located under and to the left of the pan).
zero in the middle of the scale.
CAUTION: Never place a hot object or 6. Add up the readings on all the beams to deter-
chemical directly on a balance pan. mine the mass of the object.
Practice Exercises
1. Determine the mass of each of the following b. 0 100 200g
items using a single-pan balance: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 g
a. an empty 250 mL beaker 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 g
b. 250 mL beaker filled with 100 mL of water 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0g
c. 250 mL beaker filled with 100 mL of

vegetable oil
d. a house key
e. a small book
f. a paper clip or small safety pin
2. Determine the mass of each object represented
by the balance readings shown. c.
a. 0 100 200g
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0 100 80 90 100 g
200g
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 g
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 g
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
9 10 g 1.0g
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0g
1030 LABORATORY SKILLS: Determining Mass and Temperature

Reading a Thermometer
Many laboratory thermometers 2. Gently rotate the thermometer in the clip. Watch
are the bulb-type shown below. the rising colored liquid in the capillary tube.
The sensing bulb of the ther- When the liquid in the capillary tube stops ris-
mometer is filled with a colored ing, note the whole-degree increment nearest the
liquid (alcohol) that expands top of the liquid column. If your thermometer is
when heated. When the liquid 10 marked in tenths of a degree, count the incre-
expands, it moves up the stem of ºC ments up or down from the nearest whole
the thermometer through the 100C 100 degree to obtain your reading. For example, if
capillary tube. Thermometers the top of the colored liquid column is closest to
usually measure temperature in 90 the 51°C mark but somewhat above it, as shown
degrees Celsius (°C). A below, what is the accurate temperature read-
80 ing? Because the top of the column about one-
Measuring Temperature B half of a degree above the 51°C mark, the
70 temperature is 51.5°C. Add one-half of a degree
Use the following procedure C
when measuring the temperature to 51°C to obtain your reading.
60
of a substance.
1. Carefully lower the bulb of 50
the thermometer into the sub-
stance. The stem of the ther- 40 D
mometer may rest against the
side of the container, but the
bulb should never rest on the
30
60
bottom where heat is being 20
applied. If the thermometer
has an adjustable clip for the 10
E
side of the container, the ther-
mometer can be suspended in 0C 0
50
the liquid.
10
F
CAUTION: Do not hold a ther-
mometer in your hand while
measuring the temperature
20
40
of a heated substance.
Practice Exercises
Use the thermometer shown above to answer the 4. SKILL Interpreting Variables What would be the
following questions: temperature reading if the top of the column
1. Identify the scale used for this thermometer. were resting at each of the following points?
2. Determine whether this thermometer is marked a. A d. D
only in whole degrees or in tenths of degrees. b. B e. E
c. C f. F
3. Estimate the temperature reading on this
thermometer.
LABORATORY SKILLS: Determining Mass and Temperature 1031

Math and Problem-
Solving Skills SI Measurement
SI Units
Scientists throughout the world use the metric sys- Table 1 SI Prefixes
tem. The official name of the metric system is the
Prefix Symbol Factor of base unit
Système International d’Unités, or the International
System of Measurements. It is usually referred to giga- G 1,000,000,000
simply as SI. Most measurements in this book are mega- M 1,000,000
expressed in metric units. You will always use met- kilo- k 1,000
ric units when you take measurements in the lab. hecto- h 100
deka- da 10
SI Prefixes
deci- d 0.1
SI is a decimal system; that is, all relationships
between SI units are based on powers of 10. Most centi- c 0.01
units have a prefix that indicates the relationship of milli- m 0.001
that unit to a base unit. For example, the SI base micro- µ 0.000001
unit for length is the meter. A meter equals 100 cen- nano- n 0.000000001
timeters (cm), or 1,000 millimeters (mm). A meter
pico- p 0.000000000001
also equals 0.001 kilometer (km). Table 1 summa-
rizes the prefixes used in SI units.
If you need to convert 15.5 centimeters to meters,
Conversion Factors you could do either of the following:
Conversion between SI units requires a conversion
15.5 cm 1 m 0.155 m
factor. For example, to convert from meters to cen- 100 cm
timeters, you need to know the relationship
or
between meters and centimeters.
1 cm 0.01 m or 1 m 100 cm 15.5 cm 0.01 m 0.155 m
1 cm
Sizes of Objects
A red blood cell is about 5 times A Lincoln penny is about 2,000 A human is about 100 times
longer than a bacterial cell. times longer than a red blood cell. longer than a Lincoln penny.
2 µm 10 µm 2 cm 20 cm 2m
Bacterium Blood cell Penny Hand Human

m
ll
ce
an
iu
nd
nn
er
m
d
Ha
oo
ct
Pe
Hu
Sizes of objects
Ba
Bl
0.1 nm 1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 µm 10 µm 100 µm 1 mm 1 cm 10 cm 1m 10 m
1032 MATH AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS: SI Measurement

Base Units Derived Units
In this book, you will see three fundamental quan- Other important quantities, such as area (m2) and
tities represented by base units in SI: mass, length, liquid volume (m3), are expressed in derived units.
and time. The base units of these quantities are the A derived unit is a combination of one or more
kilogram (kg), the meter (m), and the second (s). base units. Like base units, derived units can be
These quantities, their abbreviations, and their expressed using SI prefixes. These quantities are
equivalent measurements are listed in Table 2. listed in Table 3.
Table 2 Conversions for SI Base Units Table 3 Conversions for SI Derived Units
Mass: unit = kilogram (kg) Area: unit square meter (m2)
1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000 g 1 square kilometer (km2) 100 ha
1 gram (g) = 0.001 kg 1 hectare (ha) 10,000 m2
1 milligram (mg) = 0.001 g 1 square meter (m2) 10,000 cm2
1 microgram (g) = 0.000001 g 1 square centimeter (cm2) 100 mm2
Length: unit = meter (m) Liquid volume: unit = cubic meter (m3)
1 kilometer (km) = 1,000 m 1 cubic meter (m3) 1 kL
1 meter (m) = 100 cm 1 kiloliter (kL) 1,000 L
1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 m 1 liter (L) 1,000 mL
1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 m 1 milliliter (mL) 0.001 L
1 micrometer (m) = 0.000001 m 1 cubic centimeter (cm3) 1 mL
Time: unit = second (s) Mass density: unit kilograms per cubic
1 minute (min) = 60 s meter (kg/m3)
1 hour (h) = 3,600 s = 60 min Temperature: unit degrees Celsius (ºC)
1 day (d) = 24 h Velocity: unit meters per second (m/s)
Temperature
In SI, the Celsius scale is used to express tempera- and degrees Fahrenheit (TF):
ture. In the Celsius scale, 0°C (32°F) is the freezing 9
point of water, and 100°C (212°F) is the boiling TF T 32
5 C
point of water. You can use the temperature scale
For example, to convert 0°C to degrees Fahrenheit,
shown below to convert between the Celsius scale
do the following:
and the Fahrenheit scale, which is commonly used
in the United States. You can also use the following 9
TF (0°C) 32°F 0 32°F 32°F
equation to convert between degrees Celsius (TC) 5
°F (Fahrenheit)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
–20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

°C (Celsius) ▲ ▲
Freezing point of water Boiling point of water
MATH AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS: SI Measurement 1033

Math and Problem-
Solving Skills Graphing
Line Graphs
Line graphs, such as the one shown at
Salt Intake and Blood Pressure
right, are most often used to compare
or relate one or more sets of data that 170
show continuous change. In the graph
160
Systolic pressure (mm Hg)

shown at right, both “Daily salt intake”
and the “Systolic pressure” are the 150
variables, or sets of data that are
being compared. 140
In graphs, values are assigned to 130
the independent variable. In this case,
“Daily salt intake” is the independent 120
variable. “Systolic pressure” is called 110
the dependent variable because blood
pressure is affected by salt intake,
0
according to the graph. Each set of 10 20 30
data—the independent and dependent
Daily salt intake (g)
variables—is called a data pair.
Another way to think about inde-
pendent and dependent variables is to
think about the amount of sleep you get. You know draw the horizontal and vertical axes of your
that how alert or tired you feel often depends on graph. Be sure to label each axis, including units
the number of hours of sleep that you had the where appropriate. Refer to your data table to
night before. The amount of sleep is the indepen- determine the scale and interval of each axis. Make
dent variable; your alertness is the dependent vari- sure that the scale and interval of each axis are
able. Studying biology, you will see many examples consistent. Plot each data pair on the graph. Then
of dependent and independent variables repre- connect the plotted data points to make a line, or
sented in graphs. curve. Finally, give the graph a title that clearly
When you are making a line graph using data indicates the relationship between the data shown
pairs, first organize data pairs into a table. Then by the graph.
Characteristics of Line Graphs

Important characteristics of line graphs include the • Reasonable starting points are used for
following: each axis.
• The data pairs are plotted as accurately
• The independent variable is graphed on the
as possible.
horizontal (x) axis.
• The title of the graph accurately reflects the
• The dependent variable is graphed on the
data presented.
vertical (y) axis.
• If more than one set of data is presented on a
• Both axes are labeled.
graph, a key must accompany the graph.
• An appropriate scale and interval are used on
• The graph is easy to understand and interpret.
each axis. The same scale and interval must be
used for the total length of the axis.
1034 MATH AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS: Graphing

Bar Graphs
Sometimes it is not appropriate to use
a line graph to represent data. A bar
Color Variations in Moths
graph, such as the one shown at right,
Percentage of moths recovered

is appropriate for data that are not 50
Light moth
continuous. A bar graph is a good
indicator of trends if the data are Dark moth
40
taken over a sufficiently long period
of time. For example, studying color 30
variations in moths requires that data
be collected over a long period of
20
time. Even after years of study, predic-
tions can still be difficult to make
with certainty. Notice that a bar graph 10
is also useful in comparing multiple
sets of data, such as those for the light 0
and dark moths found in the woods Birmingham Dorset
wood wood
near Birmingham and Dorset.
Characteristics of Bar Graphs

Important characteristics of bar graphs include • The axes are labeled.
the following: • Data are accurately plotted.
• An appropriate scale is used on each axis. • The title of the graph accurately reflects the
data presented.
• Reasonable starting points are used for
each axis. • The graph is easy to understand and interpret.
• A key accompanies the graph.
Using Graphs to Make Predictions

Graphs show trends in data that may not be obvi- Linking information between two sets of data pairs
ous from a data chart or table. Examine the graph in this way is called interpolation. Interpolation will
of salt intake and blood pressure on the facing help you identify relationships between sets of data
page. Do you notice any trends? Do you think you in data pairs.
can conclude that salt intake affects blood pres-
sure? The process of going beyond the data points
in a graph to determine a relationship between the Interpreting Graphics
data is called extrapolation. The further we extrap- When reading graphs,
olate, the less certain we can be of our predictions. identify the dependent and
We can also use graphs to link information independent variables. Then
quickly between two sets of data pairs. For exam- see if you can determine a
ple, we can read the graph to determine that when relationship between the
the subject takes in 10 g of salt daily, the subject’s two variables by
systolic blood pressure is about 120 mm Hg. interpolation.
MATH AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS: Graphing 1035

Classification in
KingdomsClassification
and Domains continued
Eukarya
Animals
Archaea
Bacteria
Fungi
Plants
Protists
Three-Domain System
The classification system used in this book is Protista). The phylogenetic tree below shows
based on both the commonly recognized six- the division of organisms into six kingdoms.
kingdom system and the newer, three-domain
system. A kingdom is a group of related phyla,
and a domain is a group of related kingdoms.
In the three-domain system illustrated above,
all living things are grouped into three dis-
tinct domains based on similarities in their Animalia Plantae Fungi
nucleic acid sequences. Two of the three
domains consist of prokaryotes and one con-
sists of eukaryotes.
The domain Bacteria is thought to be the
oldest of the three domains. The domain Bacte-
ria consists of the single kingdom Eubacteria—
prokaryotic microbes commonly called bacteria.
Protista
A second prokaryotic domain is Archaea.
Archaea is composed of the single kingdom
Archaebacteria—prokaryotic microbes called
archaebacteria. Although both are prokaryotic
microbes, archaebacteria and bacteria differ
greatly. Eubacteria
The third domain, Eukarya , is composed of
all of the eukaryotic organisms. In the four Archaebacteria
kingdoms within the domain Eukarya are
found the animals, plants, fungi, and protists
(the kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, and Six-Kingdom System
1036 Classification
The information on the following pages is orga-
nized according to kingdoms. Not every phylum Animalia Plantae Fungi
or group in each kingdom is discussed, however,
and the classification of some groups is contro-
versial. For example, biologists do not agree Protista
how the kingdoms Eubacteria, Archaebacteria,
Eubacteria
and Protista should be divided into phyla.
In this book, these kingdoms are divided into
Archaebacteria
convenient and commonly recognized groups.
Biologists also disagree about the number of
species in various groups. Unless stated other-
This phylogenetic tree shows
wise, the numbers given represent approximate how organisms are divided
numbers of living, named species. into six kingdoms.
Kingdom Eubacteria
More than 4,000 species
Enterobacteria
Typically unicellular; prokaryotic; without
Typically rigid, rod-shaped, heterotrophic bacteria;
membrane-bound organelles; nutrition mainly
can be aerobic or anaerobic; have flagella; responsible
heterotrophic (by absorption), but some are
for many serious diseases of plants and humans.
photosynthetic or chemosynthetic; reproduction
Examples: Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium
usually by fission or budding.
Pseudomonads
Animalia Plantae Fungi Straight or curved rods with flagella at one end; strict
aerobes; common in soil; many are plant pathogens.
Example: Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Protista Spirochaetes
Long, spiral cells; flagella originating at each end;
Eubacteria responsible for several serious diseases.
Examples: Treponema pallidum, Borrelia burgdorferi
Archaebacteria Actinomycetes
Filamentous bacteria that are often mistaken for
fungi; spore-producing; sources of antibiotics includ-
ing streptomycin, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol;
Escherichia coli cause diseases including dental plaque, leprosy, and
tuberculosis.
Cyanobacteria Example: Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Photosynthetic; surrounded by a pigmented covering;
common on land and in the ocean; probably ancestors
of chloroplasts in some protists.
Examples: Anabaena, Oscillatoria, Spirulina
Chemoautotrophs
Ancient bacteria that can grow without sunlight or
other organisms; derive energy from reduced gases—
ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4), hydrogen sulfide
(H2S); play critical roles in Earth’s nitrogen cycles;
includes nitrobacteria and sulfur bacteria.
Examples: Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter Streptococcus
Classification 1037
Classification continued
Rickettsias Kingdom Protista

Parasitic bacteria found within the cells of vertebrates
and arthropods; cause serious diseases. About 43,000 species
Example: Rickettsia rickettsii Includes eukaryotes that are not plants, fungi, or ani-
mals; the most structurally diverse kingdom; both uni-
Gliding and budding bacteria
cellular and multicellular; membrane-bound nucleus;
Rod-shaped cells; secrete slimy polysaccharides; often
nearly all have chromosomes, mitochondria, and
aggregate into gliding masses; live mainly in soil.
internal compartments; many have chloroplasts; most
Example: Myxobacteria
have cell walls; reproduce sexually and asexually;
aquatic or parasitic; many live in soil.
Kingdom Archaebacteria
Animalia Plantae Fungi
Fewer than 100 described species
Includes anaerobic and aerobic bacteria adapted
to extreme environments; prokaryotic; differ from
eubacteria in structure of cell wall and cell membrane; Protista
similarities to eukaryotes suggest that archaebacteria
Eubacteria
are more closely related to eukaryotes than to eubacte-
ria; asexual reproduction only. There is evidence they
also exist freely in oceans and soil but have not yet Archaebacteria
been cultured in labs.
Diatoms
Phylum Rhizopoda
Protista About 300 species
Unicellular and heterotrophic; amorphously shaped
Eubacteria
cells that move using cytoplasmic extensions called
pseudopods; includes amoebas.
Archaebacteria
Phylum Foraminifera
About 300 species
Unicellular and heterotrophic; marine; have shells of
organic material with pores through which many
Acidianus brierleyi cytoplasmic threads project; includes forams.
Methanogens Example: Heterostegina depressa
Anaerobic methane producers; most species use car-
bon dioxide as a carbon source; inhabit soil, swamps,
Phylum Chlorophyta
About 7,000 species
and the digestive tracts of animals, particularly graz-
Unicellular, colonial, and multicellular; photosyn-
ing mammals such as cattle; produce nearly 2 trillion
thetic; contain chlorophylls a and b; contain chloro-
kilograms (2 billion tons) of methane gas annually.
plasts similar to those of plants; scientists think plants
Example: Methanobrevibacter ruminatium
descended from this group; includes green algae.
Thermoacidophiles Examples: Chlamydomonas, Chorella, Oedogonium,
Inhabit hot, acidic environments; can tolerate high Spirogyra, Ulva, Volvox
temperatures; require sulfur; mostly anaerobic.
Example: Sulfolobus solfataricus
Phylum Rhodophyta
About 4,000 species
Extreme halophiles Almost all are multicellular; photosynthetic; most are
Inhabit environments with very high salt content marine; contain chlorophyll a and phycobilins; chloro-
(salinity 15 to 20 percent), including the Dead Sea and plasts probably evolved from symbiotic cyanobacteria;
the Great Salt Lake; many aerobic; gram-negative. includes red algae.
Example: Halobacteroides holobius Example: Porphyra
1038 Classification
Phylum Phaeophyta Phylum Myxomycota
About 1,500 species About 500 species
Multicellular and photosynthetic; nearly all are marine; Heterotrophic; individuals stream along as a multi-
contain chlorophylls a and c and fucoxanthin, which is nucleate mass of cytoplasm; can give rise to spores
the source of their brownish color; includes brown that start a new individual in a more favorable envi-
algae. ronment; includes plasmodial slime molds.
Examples: Fucus, Laminaria, Postelsia, Sargassum Example: Physarum
Phylum Bacillariophyta Phylum Oomycota
More than 11,500 species About 580 species
Unicellular and photosynthetic; secrete a unique shell Heterotrophic; unicellular parasites or decomposers;
made of opaline silica that resembles a box with a lid; cell walls composed of cellulose, not chitin as in fungi;
chloroplasts resemble those of brown algae; contain includes water molds, white rusts, and downy mildews.
chlorophylls a and c and fucoxanthin; includes diatoms. Example: Phytophthora
Phylum Dinoflagellata Phylum Apicomplexa
More than 2,100 species About 3,900 species
Unicellular; heterotrophic and autotrophic species; Unicellular; heterotrophic; nonmotile; spore-forming
mostly marine; body enclosed within two cellulose parasites of animals; have complex life cycles; asexual
plates; contain chlorophylls a and c and carotenoids; and sexual reproduction; includes sporozoans.
includes dinoflagellates. Examples: Plasmodium, Toxoplasma
Examples: Gonyaulax, Noctiluca
Phylum Euglenophyta Kingdom Fungi
About 1,000 species
Unicellular; both photosynthetic and heterotrophic About 77,000 species
species; asexual; most live in fresh water; chloroplasts Eukaryotic, terrestrial heterotrophs with nutrition by
are similar to those of green algae and are thought to absorption; all but yeasts are multicellular; body is
have evolved from the same symbiotic bacteria; typically composed of filaments (called hyphae)
includes euglenoids. and is multinucleate, with incomplete divisions
Example: Euglena (called septae) between cells; cell walls made of chitin;
about 17,000 species (known as deuteromycetes)
Phylum Kinetoplastida
without a sexual stage.
About 3,000 species
Mostly unicellular; heterotrophic; all have at least one
flagellum; includes zoomastigotes. Animalia Plantae Fungi
Examples: Giardia, Leishmania, Trypanosoma
Phylum Ciliophora
About 8,000 species Protista
Very complex single cells; heterotrophic; have rows of
Eubacteria
cilia and two types of cell nuclei; includes ciliates.
Examples: Didinium, Paramecium, Stentor, Vorticella
Archaebacteria
Phylum Acrasiomycota
About 70 species
Heterotrophic; amoeba-shaped cells that aggregate
into a moving mass called a slug when they are
Scarlet mushroom
deprived of food; cells within the slug retain their
membranes and do not fuse; a slug produces spores Phylum Zygomycota
that form new amoebas elsewhere; includes cellular About 665 species
slime molds. Usually lack septae; fusion of hyphae leads to forma-
Example: Dictyostelium tion of zygote, which divides by meiosis when it germi-
nates; terrestrial or parasitic; includes bread molds.
Examples: Pilobolus, Rhizopus
Classification 1039
Phylum Ascomycota Kingdom Plantae

About 30,000 species
Hyphae usually have perforated septae; fusion of About 280,000 species
hyphae leads to formation of densely interwoven Multicellular; eukaryotic; mostly autotrophic; mostly
mass that contains characteristic microscopic repro- terrestrial organisms containing tissues and organs;
ductive structures called asci (singular, ascus); many cell walls with cellulose; contain chlorophylls a and b
fungi formally grouped as Fungi Imperfecti are now in plastids; life cycle is alternation of generations.
grouped here; terrestrial, marine, and freshwater
species; includes brewer’s and baker’s yeasts, molds,
morels, and truffles. Animalia Plantae Fungi
Examples: Neurospora, Saccharomyces
Phylum Basidiomycota
Protista
Hyphae usually have incomplete septae; reproduction Eubacteria
is typically sexual; fusion of hyphae leads to the for-
mation of densely interwoven reproductive structure
Archaebacteria
(mushroom) with characteristic microscopic struc-
tures called basidia (singular, basidium); includes
mushrooms, toadstools, shelf fungi, rusts, and smuts.
Moss
Fungal Associations Phylum Bryophyta
About 20,000 species About 10,000 species
Fungi form symbiotic associations with plants, green Nonvascular plants; gametophytes are larger than
algae, and cyanobacteria. sporophytes; sporophytes grow on gametophytes;
have simple conducting tissue; lack roots, stems, and
leaves; includes mosses.
Example: Sphagnum
Phylum Hepatophyta
About 6,000 species
Nonvascular plants; gametophytes are larger than
sporophytes; sporophytes grow on gametophytes; lack
stomata, roots, stems, and leaves; includes liverworts.
Example: Marchantia
Lichen
Phylum Anthocerophyta
Lichens About 100 species
About 15,000 species Nonvascular plants; gametophytes are larger than
Mutualistic relationships between fungi (almost sporophytes; sporophytes grow on gametophytes;
always ascomycetes) and cyanobacteria, green algae, sporophytes have stomata; lack roots, stems, and
or both; the photosynthetic partners actually live leaves; includes hornworts.
among the hyphae of the fungus; the fungus derives Example: Anthoceros
energy from its photosynthetic partners.
Phylum Pterophyta
Mycorrhizae About 11,000 species
About 5,000 species Seedless vascular plants; sporophytes are larger than
Mutualistic relationships between fungi and the roots gametophytes; sporophytes have roots, stems, and
of plants; 80 percent of all plants have mycorrhizae leaves that produce spores on their lower surfaces;
associated with their roots; the plant provides sugars gametophytes are small, flat, and independent;
to the fungi; in return, the fungi serve as accessory includes ferns.
roots, greatly increasing the surface area available for Example: Salvinia
the absorption of nutrients.
1040 Classification
Phylum Lycophyta Phylum Gnetophyta
About 1,000 species About 70 species
Seedless vascular plants; sporophytes are larger than Gymnosperms, seed plants that produce naked seeds;
gametophytes; sporophytes produce spores in cones, sporophytes are shrubs or vines with some angio-
resemble moss gametophytes, and have roots, stems, sperm characteristics; male and female gametophytes
and leaves; gametophytes are small, flat, and indepen- are microscopic and develop from spores produced
dent; includes club mosses. within cones on sporophytes; includes gnetophytes.
Examples: Lycopodium, Selaginella Examples: Ephedra, Welwitschia
Phylum Sphenophyta Phylum Anthophyta
15 species About 250,000 species
Seedless vascular plants; sporophytes are larger than Angiosperms, seed plants that produce seeds within
gametophytes; sporophytes produce spores in cones a fruit; sporophytes are trees, shrubs, herbs, or vines
and have roots, leaves, and jointed stems; gameto- that produce flowers; male and female gametophytes
phytes are small, flat, and independent; includes are microscopic and develop from spores produced
horsetails. within the reproductive structures of a flower;
Example: Equisetum includes flowering plants.
Examples: Aster, Prunus, Quercus, Zea
Phylum Psilotophyta
Several species Class Monocotyledones
Seedless vascular plants; sporophytes are larger than About 70,000 species
gametophytes; sporophytes produce spores in sporan- Embryos have one cotyledon; flower parts in multi-
gia at tips of stems and have roots and stems but no ples of three; leaf veins parallel; vascular bundles
leaves; gametophytes are small, flat, and independent; scattered through stem tissue; includes grasses,
includes whisk ferns. sedges, lilies, irises, palms, and orchids.
Example: Psilotum Class Dicotyledones
Phylum Coniferophyta About 180,000 species
About 550 species Embryos have two cotyledons; flower parts in mul-
Gymnosperms, seed plants that produce naked seeds; tiples of two, four, or five; leaves with netlike veins;
sporophytes are mostly evergreen trees or shrubs with vascular bundles in stems are arranged in rings;
needlelike or scalelike leaves; male and female game- includes daisies, roses, maples, and elms.
tophytes are microscopic and develop from spores
produced within cones on sporophytes; includes
pines, spruces, firs, larches, and yews.
Examples: Pinus, Taxus
Phylum Cycadophyta
About 100 species
Gymnosperms, seed plants that produce naked seeds;
sporophytes are evergreen trees and shrubs with
palmlike leaves; male and female gametophytes are
microscopic and develop from spores produced
within cones on separate sporophytes; includes
cycads.
Example: Cycas
Phylum Ginkgophyta
1 species
Gymnosperm, seed plant that produces naked seeds;
sporophyte is a deciduous tree with fan-shaped leaves
and fleshy seeds; male and female gametophytes are
microscopic and develop from spores produced by Rose
separate sporophytes; includes Ginkgo biloba.
Classification 1041
Kingdom Animalia Phylum Ctenophora

About 100 species
More than 1 million species Radially symmetrical; transparent, gelatinous bodies
Multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms; resembling jellyfish; marine; includes comb jellies.
nutrition mainly by ingestion; most have specialized
tissues, and many have complex organs and organ sys-
Phylum Platyhelminthes
tems; no cell walls or chloroplasts; sexual reproduc-
Bilaterally symmetrical acoelomates; body flat and
tion predominates; both aquatic and terrestrial forms.
ribbonlike, without true segments; organs present;
three germ layers; includes flatworms.
Class Turbellaria
Mostly free-living aquatic or terrestrial forms;
Protista includes planarians.
Example: Dugesia
Eubacteria
Class Cestoda
About 1,500 species
Archaebacteria
Specialized internal parasites; no digestive system;
body sections called proglottids; hooked scolex for
attaching to host; includes tapeworms.
Example: Taenia saginata
Class Trematoda
Prairie dog
About 6,000 species
Phylum Porifera Internal parasites, with mouth at anterior end;
About 9,000 species often have complex life cycle with alternation
Asymmetrical; lack tissues and organs; body wall con- of hosts; cause disease in humans and other
sists of two cell layers, penetrated by numerous pores; animals; includes flukes.
internal cavity is lined with unique food-filtering cells Examples: Schistosoma, Chlonorchis sinensis
called choanocytes; sexual and asexual reproduction;
mostly marine; includes sponges. Phylum Nematoda
Phylum Cnidaria Tiny, parasitic, unsegmented worms; long, slender
About 10,000 species body; pseudocoelomates; includes roundworms.
Radially symmetrical; most have distinct tissues; Examples: Ascaris, Trichinella spiralis, Necator,
baglike body of two cell layers; gelatinous; marine Toxocara canis, Toxocara cati
and freshwater species.
Class Hydrozoa
Phylum Mollusca
About 2,700 species
Soft-bodied animals with a true coelom; three-part
Most have both polyp and medusa stages in
body consisting of foot, visceral mass, and mantle;
life cycle; includes hydras.
protostomes; most have a unique rasping tongue
Examples: Hydra, Obelia, Physalia
(radula); terrestrial, freshwater, and marine.
Class Scyphozoa
About 200 species
Exclusively marine; medusa stage
dominant; includes jellyfish.
Example: Aurelia
Class Anthozoa
About 6,200 species
Marine; solitary or colonial; medusa stage absent;
includes sea anemones, corals, and sea fans.
Cuttlefish
1042 Classification
Class Polyplacophora Class Arachnida
About 600 species About 57,000 species
Elongated body and reduced head; similar to Terrestrial; use book lungs and tracheae for respira-
ancestral mollusk form; includes chitons. tion; four pairs of legs; includes spiders, scorpions,
Class Gastropoda ticks, and mites.
About 80,000 species Class Merostomata
Visceral mass twisted during development; head, 5 species
distinct eyes, and tentacles usually present; includes Cephalothorax covered by protective “shell”; sharp
gastropods, such as snails, slugs, and whelks. spike on tail; includes horseshoe crabs.
Class Bivalvia Class Pycnogonida
10,000 species About 1,000 species
Two shells connected by a hinge; no radula; large, Small marine predators or parasites; usually four
wedge-shaped foot; includes bivalves, such as oys- pairs of legs; includes sea spiders.
ters, clams, and scallops.
Subphylum Crustacea
Class Cephalopoda About 35,000 species
More than 600 species
Two pairs of antennae, mandibles,
Foot modified into tentacles; includes cephlapods,
and appendages with two branches;
such as squids, octopuses, nautilus, and cuttlefish.
predominantly aquatic.
Phylum Annelida Class Malacostraca
About 12,000 species Crab
Serially segmented worms; bilaterally symmetrical; Typically five pairs of legs; two pairs of antennae;
protostomes. most are aquatic; includes crayfish, lobsters, crabs,
Class Polychaeta shrimp, sow bugs, and krill.
About 8,000 species
Fleshy outgrowths called parapodia extend from Subphylum Uniramia
segments; many bristles (setae); marine; includes Antennae, mandibles, and unbranched appendages.
feather dusters. Class Insecta
Example: Nereis About 750,000 species
Class Oligochaeta Head, thorax, and abdomen; three pairs of legs, all
About 3,100 species attached to thorax; usually two pairs of wings.
Head not well developed; no parapodia; few Order Coleoptera: includes beetles,
setae; terrestrial and freshwater forms; includes ladybugs, and weevils.
earthworms. Order Diptera: includes flies,
Class Hirudinea mosquitoes, gnats, and midges.
About 600 species Order Lepidoptera: includes but-
Body flattened; no parapodia; usually suckers at terflies and moths.
both ends; many are external parasites; includes Order Hymenoptera: includes bees,
leeches. ants, wasps, hornets, and ichneumon fly. Beetle
Order Hemiptera: includes water striders,
Phylum Arthropoda water boatmen, back swimmers, bedbugs, squash
About 1 million species bugs, stink bugs, and assassin bugs.
Segmented bodies with paired, jointed appendages; Order Homoptera: includes cicadas, aphids, leaf
bilaterally symmetrical; chitinous exoskeleton; proto- hoppers, and scale insects.
stomes; aerial, terrestrial, and aquatic forms. Order Orthoptera: includes grasshoppers,
cockroaches, walking sticks, praying mantises,
Subphylum Chelicerata and crickets.
Distinguished by absence of antennae and presence of
Order Odonata: includes dragonflies and damsel
chelicerae; all appendages unbranched; four pairs of
flies.
walking legs; two body regions (cephalothorax and
Order Neuroptera: includes ant lions and
abdomen); predominantly terrestrial.
lacewings.
Classification 1043
Order Thysanura: includes silverfish, bristletails, Subphylum Urochordata

and firebrats. About 1,250 species
Order Anoplura: includes sucking lice. Saclike covering, or tunic, in adults; larvae are free-
Order Isoptera: includes termites. swimming and have nerve cord and notochord;
Order Ephemeroptera: includes mayflies. marine; includes tunicates.
Order Siphonaptera: includes fleas.
Order Dermaptera: includes earwigs. Subphylum Cephalochordata
23 species
Class Chilopoda Small and fishlike with a permanent notochord; filter
About 2,500 species feeders; includes lancelets.
Body flattened and consisting of 15–170 or more
segments; one pair of legs attached to each Subphylum Vertebrata
segment; includes centipedes. About 40,000 species
Most of the notochord is replaced by a spinal column
Class Diplopoda
composed of vertebrae that protect the dorsal nerve
cord; recognizable head containing a brain.
Elongated body of 15–200 segments; two pairs of
legs per segment; herbivorous; includes millipedes. Jawless fishes
63 species
Phylum Echinodermata Freshwater or marine eel-like fishes without
About 6,000 species true jaws, scales, or paired fins; cartilaginous
Deuterostomes; adults radially symmetrical with five- skeleton; includes lampreys and hagfish.
part body plan; most forms have water vascular
system with tube feet for locomotion; marine. Cartilaginous fishes
About 850 species
Class Asteroidea Fishes with jaws and paired fins; gills present;
About 1,500 species no swim bladder; cartilaginous skeleton; includes
Body usually with five arms sharks, rays, and skates.
and double rows of tube feet
on each arm; mouth directed Bony fishes
downward; includes sea stars. About 18,000 species
Freshwater and marine fishes with gills attached to
Class Ophiuroidea Sea star gill arch; jaws and paired fins; bony skeleton; most
About 2,000 species have swim bladder; includes rayfins, such as tuna,
Usually with five slender, delicate arms or rays; sea horse, trout, perch, sturgeon, and angelfish; and
includes brittle stars and basket star. lobefins, such as coelacanth and lungfish.
Class Crinoidea Class Amphibia
About 600 species About 4,200 species
Mouth faces upward and is surrounded by many Freshwater or terrestrial; gills present at some
arms; includes sea lilies and feather stars. stage; skin often slimy and lacking scales; eggs typi-
Class Echinoidea cally laid in water and fertilized externally.
About 900 species Order Anura: includes frogs and toads.
Body spherical, oval, or disk-shaped; arms lacking Order Urodela: includes salamanders and newts.
but five-part body plan still apparent; includes sea Order Apoda: includes caecilians.
urchins and sand dollars.
Class Reptilia
Class Holothuroidea About 7,000 species
About 1,500 species Terrestrial or semiaquatic vertebrates; breathe
Elongated, thickened body with tentacles around using lungs at all stages; body covered by scales;
the mouth; includes sea cucumbers. most species lay amniotic eggs covered with a pro-
Phylum Chordata tective shell; fertilization internal.
About 42,500 species Order Squamata: includes lizards and snakes.
Bilaterally symmetrical; deuterostomes; coelom Order Chelonia: includes turtles and tortoises.
present; have notochord, dorsal nerve cord,
pharyngeal slits, and tail; aquatic and terrestrial.
1044 Classification
Order Crocodilia: includes alligators, crocodiles, Order Rodentia: includes
gavials, and caimans. squirrels, woodchucks, mice,
Order Rhynchocephalia: includes tuataras. rats, muskrats, and beavers.
Order Chiroptera: includes Bat
Class Aves
About 9,000 species bats.
Body covered with feathers; forelimbs modified Order Insectivora: includes moles and shrews.
into wings; four-chambered heart; endothermic; lay Order Marsupialia: includes opossums, kanga-
shelled, amniotic eggs. roos, koalas, and wallabies.
Order Passeriformes: includes robins, blue- Order Carnivora: includes bears, weasels, mink,
birds, sparrows, warblers, and thrushes. otters, skunks, lions, tigers, and wolves.
Order Apodiformes: includes swifts and hum- Order Primates: includes monkeys, lemurs, gib-
mingbirds. bons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and
Order Piciformes: includes woodpeckers, sap- humans.
suckers, flickers, and toucans. Order Artiodactyla: includes hippopotamuses,
Order Psittaciformes: includes parrots, para- camels, llamas, deer, giraffes, cattle, sheep, and
keets, macaws, and cockatoos. goats.
Order Charadriiformes: Order Cetacea: includes whales, porpoises, and
includes snipes, sand- dolphins.
pipers, plovers, gulls, terns, auks, Order Lagomorpha: includes rabbits, hares, and
puffins, and ibises. pikas.
Tern Order Pinnipedia: includes seals, sea lions, and
Order Columbiformes: includes
pigeons and doves. walruses.
Order Falconiformes: includes hawks, falcons, Order Edentata: includes armadillos, sloths, and
eagles, kites, and vultures. anteaters.
Order Gaviiformes: includes loons. Order Macroscelidea: includes elephant shrews.
Order Gruiformes: includes cranes, coots, Order Perissodactyla: includes tapirs, rhinocer-
gallinules, and rails. oses, horses, and zebras.
Order Anseriformes: includes ducks, geese, and Order Scandentia: includes tree shrews.
swans. Order Hyracoidea: includes hyraxes.
Order Strigiformes: includes owls. Order Pholidota: includes pangolins.
Order Ciconiiformes: includes herons, bitterns, Order Sirenia: includes sea cows, dugongs, and
egrets, storks, spoonbills, and ibises. manatees.
Order Pelecaniformes: includes pelicans, cor- Order Monotremata: includes duckbill platypus
morants, and gannets. and spiny anteaters.
Order Galliformes: includes pheasants, turkeys, Order Dermoptera: includes flying lemurs.
quails, partridges, and grouse. Order Proboscidea: includes elephants.
Order Procellariiformes: includes albatrosses Order Tubulidentata: includes aardvark.
and petrels.
Order Cuculiformes: includes cuckoos and
roadrunners.
Order Caprimulgiformes: includes goatsuckers, Polar bear
whippoorwills, and nighthawks.
Order Coraciiformes: includes kingfishers.
Order Sphenisciformes: includes penguins.
Order Struthioniformes: includes ostriches.
Order Apterygiformes: includes kiwis.
Class Mammalia
About 4,400 species
Hair on at least part of body; young nourished with
milk secreted by mammary glands; endothermic;
breathe with lungs.
Classification 1045
Periodic Table
1
H
Hydrogen Key:
1.007 94
Atomic number 6
Group 1 Group 2
3 4
Symbol
C
2
Li Be Name Carbon
Lithium
6.941
Beryllium
9.012 182
Average atomic mass 12.0107
11 12
3
Na Mg
Sodium Magnesium
22.989 770 24.3050
Period
Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt
39.0983 40.078 44.955 910 47.867 50.9415 51.9961 54.938 049 55.845 58.933 200
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium
85.4678 87.62 88.905 85 91.224 92.906 38 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.905 50
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium
132.905 43 137.327 138.9055 178.49 180.9479 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium
(223) (226) (227) (261) (262) (266) (264) (277) (268)
* The systematic names and symbols

for elements greater than 110 will
be used until the approval of trivial
names by IUPAC.
58 59 60 61 62
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium
140.116 140.907 65 144.24 (145) 150.36
90 91 92 93 94
Topic: Periodic Table
Go To: go.hrw.com Th Pa U Np Pu
Keyword: HOLT PERIODIC Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium
232.0381 231.035 88 238.028 91 (237) (244)
Visit the HRW Web site for updates
on the periodic table.
1046 Periodic Table

Hydrogen
Semiconductors
(also known as metalloids) Group 18
2
Metals
Alkali metals
He
Helium
Alkaline-earth metals 4.002 602
Transition metals Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17
Other metals 5 6 7 8 9 10
Nonmetals B C N O F Ne
Halogens Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
10.811 12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.998 4032 20.1797
Noble gases
Other nonmetals
13 14 15 16 17 18
Al Si P S Cl Ar
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
26.981 538 28.0855 30.973 761 32.065 35.453 39.948
Group 10 Group 11 Group 12
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
58.6934 63.546 65.409 69.723 72.64 74.921 60 78.96 79.904 83.798
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 47 131.293
78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
195.078 196.966 55 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.980 38 (209) (210) (222)
110 111 112 113 114 115

Ds Uuu* Uub* Uut* Uuq* Uup*
Darmstadtium Unununium Ununbium Ununtrium Ununquadium Ununpentium
(281) (272) (285) (284) (289) (288)
A team at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories reported the discovery of elements 116 and 118 in June 1999.
The same team retracted the discovery in July 2001. The discovery of elements 113, 114, and 115 has been reported but not confirmed.
63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
151.964 157.25 158.925 34 162.500 164.930 32 167.259 168.934 21 173.04 174.967
95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
(243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
The atomic masses listed in this table reflect the precision of current measurements. (Values listed in
parentheses are the mass numbers of those radioactive elements’ most stable or most common isotopes.)
Periodic Table 1047

Forensics Lesson
An Introduction to Forensic Science
A police takes a plaster cast of a tire track

from the mud of a crime scene. A botanist
uses a microscope to identify the source of
pollen from the clothing of a crime suspect. A
rescue worker sifts through debris after a fire,
looking for the bodies of victims. In each of
these cases, a small amount of evidence will be
used to piece together a story or an identity.
Background
When most people think about forensic sci-
Figure 1 Document examination
ence, they recall crime dramas from televi-
sion, in which a crime scene investigator
seizes the smallest bits of evidence and ties Areas of Specialization
them together to reconstruct the crime, in Forensics
enabling the identification of even the most Document Examination
cunning criminal. Document examiners attempt to determine
Many of the scientists who work in foren- the authenticity of documents. Such determi-
sics are involved in law enforcement. But nations, such as the one shown in Figure 1,
there’s much more to forensics than that. focus on handwriting or the machine (such
Basically, forensics is the making of knowl- as a typewriter, copier, or fax) used to pro-
edge and information available in a public duce the document, the inks used, and the
forum, such as a court of law. A forensic sci- material on which it is written.
entist is a person who applies scientific Researchers, are now looking at ways to
knowledge and techniques to the investiga- analyze the language patterns in a document,
tion of evidence for the purpose of identifica- including particular words, sentence con-
tion of a person or to establish a sequence of struction, and verb tenses, in order to help
events that took place in the past. identify the author of the document.
For example, the evidence associated with a
crime may be samples of hair, fibers, paint, Latent Fingerprints Research
glass, soil, blood, or plant material. Forensics Fingerprints at a crime scene, such as the one
scientists from different areas of specialization shown in Figure 2, are vital to many forensic
analyze evidence using a variety of different investigations. The old method of dusting for
techniques, depending on the type of evidence. fingerprints is very time consuming, however,
You are familiar with some forensic tech- and investigators may miss prints.
niques. For example, fingerprint analysis and New methods are being developed that
blood typing have been in use for many years. allow an entire room, or even an entire
The use of DNA to identify a person is now house, to be scanned for fingerprints in a
commonplace in the courtroom. Other foren- matter of hours. One method uses fumes,
sic areas of specialization may be less familiar. produced when dried cyanoacrylate glue is
1048 Forensics Labs

Forensic Dentistry
If a dead body has been badly burned or is
decomposed, identification of the remains
may be very difficult. In such cases, the only
part of the body left intact may be the jaws
and teeth. A forensic dentist can identify
human remains based on the dental records,
if they exist, of possible victims. The forensic
dentist may perform a dental exam during an
autopsy, which may include X rays and
charts of the teeth and the skull.
In other cases, the forensic dentist may
Figure 2 Fingerprint analysis
examine human bite marks on a victim for
comparison with the tooth patterns of a sus-
burned, to make latent, or hidden, finger- pect. The examination of dental injuries is
prints visible. another task that may be required of the
forensic dentist.
Trace Evidence Examination
Glass fragments, paint chips, and gunpowder Firearms Analysis
residue are examples of trace evidence— A gun leaves a set of scratches as unique as a
physical evidence recovered from a crime fingerprint on each bullet fired from the gun.
scene or from the body of a victim or a sus- Because these scratches are unique to each
pect. Analyzing very small samples, such as gun, it is possible to match a particular gun
the one shown in Figure 3, usually involves to a fired bullet or to tell if two bullets were
both physical and chemical tests, and may fired from the same gun. A firearms analyst,
destroy the sample. New research is under- such as the one shown in Figure 4, compares
way to find ways to analyze very small sam- scratch patterns in an attempt to match the
ples. Some methods being investigated are bullet to a particular gun. Automated analy-
sophisticated types of chromatography, laser sis using a computer database is the goal of
scanning, fluorescent imaging, and use of research in this area. The scratch pattern
plasma devices. A trace evidence researcher, from a bullet would be scanned into a com-
needs to have a broad background in chem- puter for comparison with the database of
istry, physics, and materials science. known weapons.
Figure 3 Trace evidence analysis Figure 4 Firearms analysis
Forensics Labs 1049

Hot Topic: Forensic mtDNA
Analysis
One of the newest areas of forensic science
involves the analysis of mitochondrial DNA
(mtDNA), a type of DNA that is not found in
the nuclei of cells. Rather, mtDNA occurs in
mitochondria, small structures about the size
of a bacterium that are found in the cell
material surrounding the nucleus.
Mitochondria, such as the ones shown in
Figure 5, exist in large numbers in every cell, Figure 6 The Russian royal family
numbering from several to a thousand or
more. Mitochondria have their own DNA, Forensic Genealogy
and each mitochondrion contains several Forensic investigators can use mtDNA analy-
identical copies of it. A person’s mitochon- sis to aid in the identification of human
dria and thus their mitochondrial DNA are remains. A person may be identified if their
always inherited from the mother, whereas mtDNA can be compared to that from
nuclear DNA is inherited from both parents. another person descended along maternal
One advantage of using mtDNA for foren- lines. One such investigation used the
sic analysis comes from the number of mito- mtDNA obtained from the female human
chondria in each cell. This abundance allows remains in a grave in Russia thought to be
a very small sample to provide a large that of the last Russian czar, his wife, the
mtDNA sample. Another advantage is that czarina, and one of their daughters, shown in
Figure 6. The mtDNA from Prince Phillip of
mtDNA exists in all types of cells and there-
the British royal family was used for the
fore any type of body tissue can be used,
comparison because Prince Phillip is a direct
including bone.
descendant of the czarina’s mother.
One disadvantage is that, although the
The mtDNA samples matched and thus the
total size of mtDNA is small compared to
members of the Russian royal family were
nuclear DNA, an entire mitochondrion must
identified more than seventy years after they
be analyzed. This must be done because the
were killed during the Russian revolution. A
number of variations in mtDNA is not large
related analysis proved that a woman claim-
and the variations are very subtle.
ing to be the missing princess Anastasia,
another daughter of the czar, was not related.
Topic Questions
1. Describe in one sentence what a forensic
scientist does.
2. What new method is being developed for
determining the author of a document?
3. How can a firearms analyst tell what gun
a certain bullet was fired from?
4. Where is mtDNA found, and how does it
Mitochondria
differ from the DNA in the nucleus?
Figure 5 Mitochondria
1050 Forensics Labs

Forensics Lesson
Identification
Biological evidence is highly prized because How Identification by Blood Type

it is not subject to the same sources of error Works
as other types of evidence about identity. Identification of blood type is very simple
Eyewitnesses often get confused or make because red cells clump together when incom-
mistakes. Other types of physical evidence patible blood types are mixed. This clumping,
may show how the crime was committed, called agglutination, is shown in Figure 1.
but may not offer much information about Serum is the watery component of blood. The
who committed it. serum of type-A blood contains antibodies
Analysis of blood or DNA evidence, on the against the antigens of the cells in type-B
other hand, can give investigators very spe- blood. These antibodies, called agglutinins,
cific information that can positively identify, attack the type-B red cells and cause them to
or eliminate, a suspect as having been at the clump together. Conversely, the serum from
scene of the crime. Biological evidence such type-B blood contains antibodies that cause
as this has its limitations, too. Contamination type-A red cells to clump. So, if A-serum is
of samples can easily invalidate results, and added to a blood sample and clumping
laboratory specialists must be very careful in occurs, the sample contains B antigens.
their analysis, as the samples they study are However, because the sample could be type-B
often very small. But since blood and DNA or type-AB, a test with B-serum is needed. If a
analysis methods were first developed, they second sample of the same blood forms
have been important tools of identification clumps when combined with B-serum, A anti-
gens are also present, and the blood is type-
for forensic scientists.
AB. The red blood cells in type-O blood
(which carry neither A nor B antigens) will
Blood Typing not form clumps when serum from type-A
Human blood can be one of four types—A, B, blood, -B, or -AB blood is added. Type O
AB, or O—depending on which kinds of mole- blood or serum (which contains antibodies to
cules, called antigens, are attached to the outer both A and B antigens) will, however, cause
clumping of red blood cells in type-A, -B, or
cell membrane of the red blood cells. These
-AB whole blood.
blood antigen molecules come in two forms: A
antigens and B antigens.
A person’s blood is type A if only A antigens
are present on the red blood cells. The blood
is type B if it has only B antigens. If both
kinds of antigens are present, the blood type
is AB. If neither kind of antigen is present,
the blood is type O.
Determining a person’s blood type is impor-
tant not only for identification, but also to
ensure that the person receives the correct
blood type if a blood transfusion is needed.
Giving a person the wrong blood type in Figure 1 Normal blood cells (left); agglutinated
transfusion can be fatal. blood cells (right)
Forensics Labs 1051

DNA Fingerprinting Restriction fragments
With the exception of identical twins, no two I II III
people have the same DNA sequence. Scientists

estimate that the genes of a human consist of
over three billion nucleotide pairs (also called
“base pairs”). Each nucleotide is made up of a
phosphate group bonded to a deoxyribose
sugar molecule, which is bonded to one of
only four nitrogenous bases—adenine, gua- I II III
nine, cytosine, and thymine. A person’s entire

genetic code consists of a very long sequence
of these base pairs in a certain arrangement,
Figure 2 DNA-restriction enzyme mixtures (left); restriction
which varies from person to person. fragments in gel (right)
Given the extreme length of a DNA mole-
cule, you may think that comparing DNA DNA from a different person will produce a
from one person to DNA of another person is different DNA fingerprint. This is because
very difficult. In fact, the process is fairly some of the restriction fragments of the sec-
simple. Scientists have discovered certain ond person’s DNA differ in size from those of
enzymes in bacteria, called restriction the first person’s DNA. An unknown DNA
enzymes, that digest—that is, break—DNA sample can be matched with a known sample
chains in specific places. A specific restric- of a person’s DNA to an accuracy of 1 in 10
tion enzyme digests a DNA strand only billion people. Due to its accuracy, DNA fin-
where certain nucleotide sequences occur. gerprinting is often used to determine iden-
These nucleotide sequences are found in all tity in criminal cases and to establish
human DNA, but their placement along the hereditary relationships, such as paternity.
strand varies from person to person.
How Identification by DNA Works Topic Questions

When a restriction enzyme is added to a
DNA sample, the products will be DNA frag- 1. Explain why the blood cells of type B
ments of various sizes, depending on where blood clump together when it is mixed
the target sequence of nucleotides occurred. with type A blood.
These fragments—called restriction 2. A student carrying out blood typing finds
fragments—can be separated according to that the blood sample forms clumps when
size by a process called electrophoresis, shown type A serum is added. The sample forms
in Figure 2. During electrophoresis, DNA no clumps when type B serum is added.
fragments migrate through a gel toward an What is the type of the blood sample?
electrode at various speeds according to their 3. How does DNA determine most of the
electrical charges (which are, in turn, deter- unique characteristics of a single person?
mined by the size of the fragments). The Can a person have characteristics that are
result is a pattern, called a DNA fingerprint, not determined by DNA? Explain and
which is unique to one person’s DNA. You give two examples.
can see in Figure 2 that the patterns for 4. What characteristics of DNA fragments
samples II and III match, while the pattern determine their separation during elec-
for sample I is different. trophoresis?
1052 Forensics Labs

Forensics Skills Lab
Blood Typing
SKILLS
MATERIALS
• Experimenting
• Measuring • blood samples, of
unknown type from
• Predicting
four subjects, simulated
• Organizing and Analyzing
• serum, anti-A, simu-
Data
lated (blood-typing)
OBJECTIVES • serum, anti-B, simu-
lated (blood-typing)
• Determine the ABO and Rh
blood types of unknown simu- • serum, anti-Rh, simu-
lated blood samples. lated (blood-typing)
• blood typing trays (4)
• toothpicks (12)
• wax pencil
ChemSafety
Background
Blood is one of the most common kinds of is said to be type A. If clumping occurs in the
physical evidence at a crime scene where test blood only when it is exposed to anti-B
someone was injured. One of the first things serum, the blood contains the B antigen and
a lab technician in a forensics lab must learn is said to be type B. If agglutination occurs
is how to determine ABO blood type from a with anti-A and separately, anti-B sera, the
blood sample. In this lab, you will determine blood is type AB, which has both A and B
the blood type of samples of simulated antigens. If no agglutination occurs with
human blood from four different people. either serum type, the blood type is O. This
Blood typing is performed using antiserum, information is summarized in Table 1.
blood serum that contains specific antibodies. Another type of marker protein on the sur-
For ABO blood typing, antibodies against the face of red blood cells is the Rh factor, so
A and B antigens are used. These antibodies named because it was originally identified in
are called anti-A and anti-B agglutinins. If rhesus monkeys. People whose blood con-
clumping—called agglutination—occurs in the tains the Rh factor are said to be Rh positive
test blood only when it is exposed to anti-A (Rh+). People whose blood does not contain
serum, the blood contains the A antigen and the Rh factor are Rh negative (Rh–).
Forensics Labs 1053

TABLE 1: Agglutination Reaction of ABO Blood-typing Sera
Agglutination reaction of red blood cells below
Blood Serum with blood serum in “Blood Type” column
Type antibodies
A B AB O
A Anti-B – + + –
B Anti-A + – + –
AB None – – – –
O Anti-A + + + –
Anti-B
A person with Rh– blood has no antibodies 2. CAUTION: Use ONLY the simulated
to Rh+ blood unless the person was exposed blood provided by your teacher. Do not
to Rh+ blood at an earlier age. No agglutina- use real blood. Place 3 to 4 drops of Mr.
tion occurs the first time an Rh– person Thomas’s simulated blood in each of the
receives a blood transfusion from an Rh+ A, B, and Rh wells of Tray 1 as shown in
person. Agglutination can occur, however, the Figure 1.
second time the Rh– person receives Rh+ 3. Place 3 to 4 drops of Ms. Chen’s simu-
blood. In addition to testing for ABO blood lated blood in each of the A, B, and Rh
type, it is also important to test blood for wells of Tray 2.
transfusion for its Rh factor. 4. Place 3 to 4 drops of Mr. Juarez’s simu-
lated blood in each of the A, B, and Rh
Procedure wells of Tray 3.
1. Put on safety goggles and a 5. Place 3 to 4 drops of Ms. Brown’s simu-
lab apron. With a wax pencil, lated blood in each of the A, B, and Rh
label each of four blood-typing trays as wells of Tray 4.
follows: 6. Add 3 to 4 drops of the simulated anti-A
Tray 1—Mr. Thomas, Tray 2—Ms. Chen, serum to each A well on the four trays.
Tray 3—Mr. Juarez, Tray 4—Ms. Brown. 7. Add 3 to 4 drops of the simulated anti-B
serum to each B well on the four trays.
8. Add 3 to 4 drops of the simulated anti-Rh
serum to each Rh well on the four trays.
9. Use separate toothpicks to stir each sam-
ple of serum and blood. Record your
observations in your lab report in a table
like Data Table A. Indicate an agglutina-
tion reaction with a + and no reaction
with a –. Also record your observations of
each test. Note: A positive test is indicated
by obvious clumping of the red blood cells.
Rh+ blood samples will undergo an aggluti-
nation reaction when exposed to anti-Rh
Figure 1 Blood-typing tray serum.
1054 Forensics Labs

DATA TABLE A
Agglutination reaction of blood samples with blood serum
Anti-A serum Anti-B serum Anti-Rh Serum Blood type Observations
Tray 1:
Mr. Thomas
Tray 2:
Ms. Chen
Tray 3:
Mr. Juarez
Tray 4:
Ms. Brown
PART D: Cleanup and Disposal 6. Inferring Conclusions A person with

9. Dispose of paper and broken glass what blood type would be considered a
in the designated waste containers. universal recipient? Explain your answer.
Do not put lab materials in the trash
unless your teacher tells you to do so. Extension
10. Clean up your work area and all lab 1. Further Inquiry
equipment. Return lab equipment The first baby with Rh+ blood born to a
to its proper place. Wash your hands woman with Rh– blood usually has no
thoroughly before you leave the lab. health problems. The second Rh+ child,
however, can be seriously threatened
Analyze and Conclude before birth if the mother produces anti-
bodies against the Rh antigens of her
1. Applying Concepts What factors deter-
baby. Find out why this happens and
mine the ABO blood types?
what treatment is given to babies in this
2. Applying Concepts What is the differ- situation to save their lives.
ence between an antigen and agglutinin?
2. Further Inquiry
3. Applying Concepts If Ms. Brown were Find out what an emergency medical
serving as a blood donor, what ABO technician gives to a patient when the
blood type(s) could receive her blood technician administers an emergency
safely? transfusion in the field. Why do techni-
4. Applying Concepts Which person cians use this substance instead of blood
among the four represented by the simu- for transfusing their patients?
lated blood samples can receive donated
blood from Ms. Chen? Explain your
answer.
5. Inferring Conclusions People with
type O blood who are also Rh– are com-
monly called universal donors. Explain
why.
Forensics Labs 1055
Forensics Lab
DNA Fingerprinting
SKILLS
• Collecting data • microcentrifuge tubes (6)
• Identifying patterns • microcentrifuge tube
• Inferring rack/float
• Interpreting • micropipet, 10 or 20 µL
• Analyzing data • micropipet tips (30)
• Predicting • DNA samples (5)
• Pvu II restriction
OBJECTIVES enzyme
• Perform a restriction diges- • Pvu II reaction buffer,
tion of DNA samples. 10⫻
• Evaluate the results of simu- • water bath, 37º C
lated DNA fingerprints.
• loading dye
• Identify a hypothetical bur-
• water bath, 65º C • TBE running buffer, 1⫻,
glar by analyzing simulated
• agarose gel on gel tray 350 mL
DNA fingerprints.
(0.8 percent) • gel staining tray
MATERIALS • electrophoresis system, • DNA stain
• safety goggles battery powered • Lambda DNA/Hind III
• lab apron • beaker, 500 mL marker
• gloves • graduated cylinder, • resealable plastic bag
250 mL
ChemSafety
Background In this lab, you will perform some of the

experimental procedures involved in DNA
The police are investigating the burglary of a
fingerprinting and use your results to iden-
residence. As the police arrived, the masked
tify the burglar.
burglar smashed a glass door with a chair
and quickly escaped. Police found small bits
of bloodstained fabric on some of the pieces Procedure
of the glass door. Four suspects have been PART A: Restriction Enzyme
brought in, and DNA samples have been col- Digestion of DNA
lected from each. The police lab thus has the In the first step of DNA fingerprinting,
DNA from the blood samples found at the samples of known and unknown origin are
crime scene and DNA samples taken from obtained and then digested, or cut into small
each of the four suspects.
1056 Forensics Labs

fragments, by a restriction enzyme. In this PART B: Gel Electrophoresis of DNA
case, the samples would include DNA from Samples
the blood sample found at the scene (the The next step of DNA fingerprinting is to
burgler’s DNA) and DNA from each of the separate the restriction fragments by gel elec-
suspects. trophoresis. In gel electrophoresis, the
1. Put on safety goggles and a digested DNA samples are loaded into wells
lab apron. on a jellylike slab called a gel. The gel is then
2. Obtain five microcentrifuge tubes. exposed to an electrical current. DNA has a
3. Label tubes as follows: Crime Scene, negative electrical charge, so the restriction
Suspect #1, Suspect #2, Suspect #3, fragments are attracted to the positive pole
Suspect #4. when an electric current is applied. Smaller
fragments travel farther and faster through
4. Set the micropipet to 2 µL and place a
the gel than do longer ones. Recall that
clean tip on the pipet.
restriction fragments harvested from one
5. Add 2 µL of Pvu II 10⫻ reaction buffer to person’s DNA differ somewhat from the
each tube. Note: It may be helpful to place restriction fragments of another person. So
the pipet tip against the side of the micro- the pattern made by restriction fragments
centrifuge tube when dispensing small migrating through the gel also differs from
volumes. person to person. A special dye, called a load-
6. Set the micropipet to 10 µL. ing dye, is added to the DNA samples for two
7. Using a fresh pipet tip for each sample, reasons. The loading dye is heavy, which
add 10 µL of each DNA sample to the helps the samples to stay in the wells. The
appropriate tube. loading dye also runs slightly faster than the
DNA samples and indicates when the gel has
8. Set the micropipet to 2 µL.
finished running.
9. Add 2 µL of Pvu II restriction enzyme to
15. Place the tray with the gel on the lab
each tube. Again, be sure to use a fresh
bench.
micropipet tip for each sample.
16. Set the pipet to 10 µL and place a new tip
10. Close each tube and snap the tubes in a
on the end of your micropipet.
downward motion with your wrist to
force all of the reagents to the bottom of 17. Open the microtube containing the DNA
the tubes. marker and use the pipet to load 10 µL of
the marker DNA into the well in Lane 1
11. Incubate all five tubes at 37° C for 45–60
of an agarose gel. To do this, place both
minutes.
elbows on the lab table, lean over the gel,
12. Add 2 µL of loading dye to each tube. and slowly lower the micropipet tip into
13. Incubate all five tubes for 5 minutes at the opening of the well before depressing
65° C to stop the restriction enzyme activ- the plunger. Note: Do not jab the
ity. micropipet tip through the bottom of the
14. Place the samples in the freezer if you well.
will not be using them immediately. Make 18. Set the pipet to 15 µL and place a new tip
sure all samples for your group are stored on the end of your micropipet.
together and labeled with your group 19. Open the microtube containing the crime
name. scene sample and use the pipet to load
15 µL of the sample into the well in Lane
2 of an agarose gel.
Forensics Labs 1057

20. Using a new micropipet tip for each tube, 25. Connect five 9 V alkaline batteries
repeat step 19 for each of the remaining as instructed by your teacher. CAU-
samples. Place each sample in a well as TION: Do not touch both ends of the
follows: patch cords or both terminals on the
Lane 1: DNA marker battery pack at the same time.
Lane 2: Crime scene DNA 26. Connect the red (positive) patch cord to
Lane 3: Suspect #1 DNA the red terminal on the chamber and the
red terminal on the battery pack. Follow
Lane 4: Suspect #2 DNA
the same procedure with the black (nega-
Lane 5: Suspect #3 DNA tive) patch cord and the black terminals.
Lane 6: Suspect #4 DNA 27. Observe the migration of the loading dye
21. Follow your teacher’s instructions to care- along the gel toward the red (positive)
fully place the agarose gel (still in a gel- electrode.
casting tray) in the chamber of an 28. Disconnect the battery pack when the
electrophoresis apparatus, such as the loading dye band has run halfway off the
one shown in Figure 1, so that the wells end of the gel. Note: If gels have been run
are closest to the negative electrode. overnight, this step will take place on the
22. Pour approximately 350 mL of 1⫻ TBE following day.
running buffer into a beaker. 29. Remove the cover from the electrophore-
23. Gently and slowly pour the running sis chamber.
buffer from the beaker into one side of 30. Carefully lift the gel tray (containing the
the electrophoresis chamber until the gel gel) from the chamber onto a piece of
is completely covered (approximately 1 to paper towel. Notch one side of the gel so
2 mm above the top surface of the gel). that you can identify the lanes.
Note: Pouring too fast will rinse your DNA Note: Agarose gels are very fragile, so use
sample out of the wells. Be careful not to extreme care when handling the gel.
overfill the chamber with buffer.
31. Use a metric ruler to measure the dis-
24. Place the cover on the electrophoresis tance of the dye bands in Lane 6 (in mm)
chamber. Wipe off any spills around the from each of the six sample wells. Note:
electrophoretic apparatus before doing Be sure to measure from the center of the
the next step. well to the center of the band.
32. Place the gel in a resealable bag and add
1–2 mL of 1⫻ TBE buffer and refrigerate
the gel until the next lab period. If there
is enough time (at least 45 minutes) left
in the class period, proceed to step 33.
PART C: Staining the Gel

After the DNA fragments have been sepa-
rated, the gel can be stained to visualize the
banding pattern of each DNA fingerprint.
33. Gently place the gel in the staining tray.
Figure 1 Electrophoresis set-up
1058 Forensics Labs

34. Put on safety goggles and a PART D: Cleanup and Disposal
lab apron. Pour approximately 41. Dispose of paper and broken glass
100 mL of warm dilute stain into the in the designated waste containers.
staining tray so that it covers the gel. Do not put lab materials in the trash
35. Cover the tray and let the gel stain for unless your teacher tells you to do so.
approximately 30 minutes. 42. Clean up your work area and all lab
36. Carefully decant the used stain. Note: Make equipment. Return lab equipment
sure the gel remains flat and does not move to its proper place. Wash your hands
up against the corner. Decant the stain thoroughly before you leave the lab.
directly to a sink drain and flush with water.
37. Add distilled water or tap water to the Analyze and Conclude
staining tray. Do not pour water directly
1. Explaining Events Where are the
onto the gel.
smallest DNA fragments located on the
38. Allow the gel to de-stain either overnight gel? the largest? Explain why.
or for 20 minutes. To de-stain in 20 min-
2. Explaining Events Why was loading
utes, gently rock the tray, and change the
dye added to each sample prior to load-
water several times. Overnight de-stain-
ing the samples on the gel.
ing does not require a change of water.
3. Examining Data Are any of the DNA
39. View the gel against a white sheet of
fingerprints identical? If so, which ones?
paper. Sketch the bands you see on the
blank gel, which will look similar to the 4. Drawing Conclusions Based on your
image in Figure 2. results, which suspect appears to be the
burglar? Explain your answer.
40. Store the gel in a resealable plastic bag
with 1–2 mL of TBE buffer. 5. Interpreting Information Explain why
each suspect has a different banding pat-
tern (or DNA fingerprint).
6. Making Predictions What do you think
would happen if you placed your gel in
the electrophoresis chamber with the
wells containing DNA next to the red
electrode instead of the black electrode?
7. Making Inferences From what types of
crime scene evidence (other than blood)
might police obtain DNA?
Extension
1. Research and Communications
Research another way that DNA finger-
printing is used in society and present
your results to your classmates in a short
oral report.
2. Research and Communications
Research the procedures involved in col-
Figure 2 DNA fingerprint lecting evidence at a crime scene.
Forensics Labs 1059

Forensics Lesson
Chromatography
Green paint has been thrown all over several

walls of a local business. The police have sev- –
eral suspects and have found some green
paint at each of the suspect’s homes. How
can they determine if any of the suspect sam- O
ples match the paint thrown on the walls?
H H
+ +
Background
Chromatography is a technique used to sepa-
rate a mixture of different substances. It was Figure 1 Water molecule (left); attraction between polar
molecules (right)
originally developed in 1903 by a Russian
botanist, Mikhail Tswett, who used this substances—even different polar sub-
approach to separate colored plant pigments. stances—have strong attraction to each other.
Chromatography means “to write with colors” On the other hand, nonpolar substances,
and comes from the Greek words chroma, such as oils, have a much stronger attraction
color, and graphein, to write. for each other than for polar substances.
There are several types of chromatography,
each one depending on the nature of the sub- How Chromatography Works
stance in a mixture. In most types of chro-
All kinds of chromatography involve two sys-
matography, polarity is the basic principle at
tems, or phases, in contact with each other.
work. A polar molecule has an uneven distri-
The mobile phase is a solvent that dissolves
bution of electric charge. Water is the most
some or all of the substances to be separated
familiar example of a polar substance. Its
in the mixture. The stationary phase on which
uneven distribution of charge means that one
the mixture is placed is often some type of
side of a water molecule strongly attracts the
solid material such as chromatography paper
opposite side of the water molecule next to
or a thin layer of a gel coated onto a glass or
it, as shown in Figure 1. This attraction
plastic plate. Table 1, shows some examples of
between opposite charges means that polar
different kinds of chromatography.
TABLE 1: SOME TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY

Category Mobile phase Stationary phase Separating principle
some solvent; can be polarity of mixture

Paper chromatography paper components relative
water, methanol, etc.
to mobile phase
some solvent; can be polarity of mixture

Thin-layer chromatography silica gel plate components relative
water, methanol, etc.
to mobile phase
polarity of mixture
some solvent; can powdered adsorbent packed
Column chromatography components relative
water, methanol, etc. in a glass column
to mobile phase
1060 Forensics Labs

As the mobile phase moves through or Polar solvents, such as water, methanol,
across the stationary phase, the stationary and acetic acid, tend to work best with sub-
phase separates the components of the mix- stances that are also polar, such as water-
ture. The result of the process is called a chro- based inks and dyes. A less polar solvent
matogram, shown in Figure 2, so named for such as petroleum ether, cyclohexane, or
the colored bands produced when the separa- methylene chloride will tend to work best
tion involves a mixture of colored substances. with nonpolar or weakly polar substances,
A paper chromatogram is produced by such as oil-based inks and dyes.
dabbing a sample of the mixture to be sepa- In addition, large molecules tend to move
rated near one end of a piece of chromatog- more slowly than small molecules because
raphy paper (the stationary phase). Another the large molecules cannot easily pass
part of the chromatography paper is then through the stationary phase material. The
wetted with the solvent. While the paper is in result of the differences in attraction and size
contact with the solvent, the solvent is cause the various substances to separate into
wicked through the paper by capillary action. distinct areas on the paper. The paper is then
The substances that make up the sample removed from the solvent and allowed to dry,
mixture are dissolved by the solvent and producing a permanent record that can be
move along the paper with the solvent. As analyzed or processed further.
the solvent moves through the paper, the
molecules of the various dissolved substances How to Use Chromatography
are attracted to both the solvent and the
Chromatography is often used as a tool for
paper. The strengths of these attractions are
comparing the makeup of two or more mix-
determined by how polar the substance is.
tures. If the chromatogram is the same for
Because these attractions are different for
each mixture, then the mixtures are probably
each substance in a mixture, each substance
the same. If the chromatograms are differ-
moves through the paper at a different rate.
ent, then the mixtures are probably different.
The substances with a greater attraction to
Often, different samples to be tested are
the solvent move faster and farther along the
placed on the same piece of chromatography
paper. Those with a greater attraction to the
paper. This way, the conditions that create
paper move more slowly, and consequently
the chromatogram are the same for all the
not as far as other substances.
mixtures.
Topic Questions
1. In chromatography, what are the func-
tions of the mobile and stationary phases?
2. Red dye can be made from a mixture of
yellow dye and magenta (a purplish blue)
dye. How could you determine if a partic-
ular red dye is made from a single dye or
from a mixture of yellow and magenta
dyes?
3. Two mixtures are compared using chro-
matography. Why is it desirable to place
Figure 2 Chromatogram of pigments in a species
of algae
samples of both mixtures on the same
paper when making the chromatogram?
Forensics Labs 1061

Forensics Lab
The Counterfeit Drugs
SKILLS
MATERIALS
• Experimenting
• Inferring • distilled water
• Interpreting • pigment solutions to be
tested
• Communicating
• strips of chromatogra-
OBJECTIVE phy paper (2)
• Determine by strip paper • tape
chromatography if a suspect • beakers, small (2)
dye contains a particular • eyedropper
pigment.
• paper clips, small
• pencil
• scissors
ChemSafety
Background a difference between the genuine and the

counterfeit pills. While the pills appear to be
A small pharmaceutical company has been
identical, the pigments used in the brown
accused of illegally manufacturing and
color coating of the pills differ. The brown
exporting a counterfeit version of a popular
coating used in the counterfeit pills contains
blood pressure medication. The Food and
a mixture of water-soluble blue and orange
Drug Administration (FDA) suspects that the
pigments. The coating used in the genuine
company manufactures a generic version of
version contains a homogeneous brown dye,
the patented drug and labels it identically to
also water-soluble. In this lab, you will use
the real drug.
chromatography to test a sample of brown
The FDA, along with the Drug pigment to determine if the pill it came from
Enforcement Administration (DEA), has con- is genuine or counterfeit.
fiscated a sample of the drug as it was being
loaded onto a ship. Officials need to deter-
mine whether or not their sample is the
Procedure
brand-name drug or the identical-looking, PART A: Performing Chromatographic
counterfeit version of the medication. Analysis
While the active chemical compound of 1. Put on safety goggles and a
the brand name drug and the counterfeit lab apron. Cut a length of
drug is the same, officials know that there is chromatography paper equal to the depth
1062 Forensics Labs

of the beaker you are using. You may 5. To conduct a chromatographic run, set
check to make sure the length is correct up the beaker, paper, pencil, and water as
by taping the top of the paper to a pencil shown in Figure 1. Allow the water to
and lowering the paper into the beaker, move up the paper by capillary action
allowing the pencil to rest across the top and separate the pigments in the dye.
of the beaker. This process may take several minutes, so
2. Once the paper is cut to the correct plan accordingly.
length, remove it from the beaker. Clip a 6. When the water migrates to within a few
paper clip to the bottom of the paper to millimeters from the top of the paper,
keep the paper hanging straight down stop the run by removing the pencil and
while it is in the beaker. (Keep the pencil attached paper from the beaker. Empty
attached to the top of the paper.) Using the water from the beaker, place the pen-
an eyedropper, dab some of the suspect cil back across the top of the beaker, and
dye onto the chromatography paper allow the chromatogram to dry
about 2 cm above where the water level overnight.
will be in the bottom of the beaker. PART B: Cleanup and Disposal
3. Allow the dye to dry for a few minutes, 7. Dispose of paper and broken glass
and then repeat this spotting process sev- in the designated waste containers.
eral times (at the same place on the paper Do not put lab materials in the trash
each time) to build up a concentration of unless your teacher tells you to do so.
pigment that will yield good results.
4. Now pour distilled water into the beaker equipment. Return lab equipment
to a depth of about 2 cm. It is important to its proper place. Wash your hands
to have the test spot be 2 cm above the thoroughly before you leave the lab.
water level, and not immersed. Make sure
that the dye to be tested does not come
into contact with the water. Refer to
Figure 1 which shows the correct rela- 1. Explaining Events Why do the pig-
tionship between the dye spot and the ments of a dye separate out on the chro-
water level. matography paper?
2. Analyzing Methods Why is it impor-
tant that tests in cases like this one be
carried out such that the analysts do not
know what products they are testing?
3. Drawing Conclusions Is the sample
you tested from the genuine drug or the
counterfeit drug? How can you tell?
Extension
1. Research Research and report on sci-
ence-related careers in the FDA or DEA.
Figure 1 Paper chromatography setup
Forensics Labs 1063

Forensics Lab
The Questionable Autograph
SKILLS
• Experimenting • teasing needle or pushpin
• Inferring • single-hole puncher
• Interpreting • suspect autographs, and
• Communicating ink samples from an
authentic pen
OBJECTIVES • spot plates (4)
• Determine by examination of • dropper bottles of dis-
pigments through thin layer tilled water and methanol
chromatography if an auto-
graph was written with a
• open-ended capillary
tubes (2)
particular type of pen.
• ruler
MATERIALS • graduated cylinder, 10 mL
• thin layer chromatography • 2-oz. glass bottles with
plates (2) caps (2)
ChemSafety
CAUTION: Always the hood or a well-ventilated station and how to use them. CAUTION: Glassware is
wear safety gog- area, as directed by the teacher. If you get a chemical on your fragile. Notify the teacher
gles and a lab apron to protect Keep methanol away from heat skin or clothing, wash it off at of broken glass or cuts. Do not
your eyes and clothing. and flames, as it is flammable. the sink while calling to the clean up broken glass or spills
teacher. Notify the teacher of a with broken glass unless the
CAUTION: Methanol is CAUTION: Do not touch
spill. Spills should be cleaned teacher tells you to do so.
poisonous. Wear protec- or taste any chemicals.
up promptly, according to your
tive gloves. Avoid prolonged Know the location of the emer-
teacher’s directions.
exposure to vapors and use in gency shower and eyewash
Background
The United States Postal Service has been way. Postal inspectors need to determine
called on to investigate a report of mail whether or not the autograph was signed
fraud. Through an online auction, a sports with the right kind of pen.
fan has purchased a ticket stub autographed In this lab, you will use thin layer chro-
by his favorite ballplayer. Among the matography (TLC) to compare the ink from
ballplayer’s many commercial endorsements the signed ticket stub with ink from the type
is one for a certain brand of pen—he agreed of pen the athlete would have used.
to use only that brand of pen to sign auto- Because some inks are water soluble while
graphs. The suspicious sports fan thinks the others dissolve in methanol, you will need to
signature on the ticket stub looks like it was conduct four thin layer chromatography
made using an ordinary ballpoint pen. (TLC) runs: two (one for the suspect ink and
The online auction company is about to one for the authentic ink) using water as the
ban the seller because of other complaints, solvent and another two of the same samples
and an investigation of mail fraud is under- using methanol as the solvent.
1064 Forensics Labs

Procedure times to build up a concentration of pig-
ment that will yield good results. Use a
different capillary tube for each of the
PART A: Performing Thin Layer two ink samples.
Chromatography
6. Pour water to a depth of 1 cm in one of
1. Put on safety goggles,
the beakers. Pour methanol to a depth of
protective gloves, and a
1 cm in the other beaker. It is important
lab apron. Score two TLC plates, such as
that the test spots are 1 cm above the sol-
the one shown in Figure 1, in half length-
vent level and not immersed or even
wise by scratching a line in the TLC gel
touching the solvent initially.
coating with the teasing needle or push-
pin, to allow two runs per plate. 7. Place the TLC plates, as upright as possi-
ble, into the beakers. The solvents will
2. To extract ink from an autograph, use a
move up the plates and separate the pig-
hole punch to punch about 25 holes in
ments in the ink. Observe the process
areas containing ink. Place half of these
carefully, as it may take just a few min-
small disks into a spot plate well and
utes, or up to 30 minutes, for the solvent
then add a few drops of water to dissolve
to move to the top of the plate. When the
and remove the ink from the paper.
solvent level has risen to within 1 cm of
3. Place the rest of the paper disks the top of the plate, remove the plate
containing autograph ink into from the bottle. Allow the TLC plates to
another spot plate well, and add a few dry overnight before examining them.
drops of methanol to dissolve and remove
the ink from the paper. CAUTION:
Methanol is poisonous and flammable.
8. Dispose of paper and broken glass
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 with ink samples
in the designated waste containers.
from the authentic pen.
Do not put lab materials in the trash
5. You will use one of the TLC plates to run unless your teacher tells you to do so.
the suspect and authentic inks side by
side with water as the solvent, and the
equipment. Return lab equipment
other TLC plate to run the suspect and
authentic inks side by side with methanol
thoroughly before you leave the lab.
as the solvent. Use a capillary tube to
spot some of the extracted ink onto the
TLC plates about 2 cm from one end. Analyze and Conclude
Allow the initial spot to dry, then repeat 1. Are the pigments contained in the suspect
the process over the same location a few and authentic inks similar?
2. If the two inks tested are identical, does
this prove with certainty that the auto-
graph is authentic?
3. What factors could affect the accuracy of
your results? How could your procedure
have been improved in order to control
for these factors?
4. What additional tests could be conducted
in order to make the results of the case
Figure 1 Thin-layer chromatography plate more certain?
Forensics Labs 1065

Forensics Lesson
Determination of Density
You find a shard of glass and wonder if it is

from a window or eyeglasses. A large, old
necklace may be made of gold or of a metal
far less valuable. One of the easiest to ana-
lyze properties of an object is its density,
which may be a clue to its identity or source.
Background Figure 1 Object displacing its own volume of a fluid
Density is the ratio of the mass of an object

to its volume. This ratio can be expressed as
an equation, as shown below. Archimedes’ Principle
Archimedes, a Greek who lived in the third
density = mass/volume century BCE, discovered an important fact
also written d = m/V about buoyant force, the upward force exerted
on an object by the fluid in which it is
An object has a density characteristic of the
immersed. Archimedes’ principle states that
material of which it is made. At standard
for an object in a fluid, a buoyant force is
temperature and pressure, for example, the
exerted by the fluid on the object that is equal
density of water is 1.0. When a solid object is
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
placed in fluid, the difference between its
object. Archimedes’ principle can be stated in
density and the fluid’s density determines
a very simple equation, shown below.
whether the object will sink or float.
• If the density of the object is greater than buoyant force = weight of displaced fluid
the density of the fluid, the object will sink.
The volume of fluid displaced will be the Because of buoyant force, a submerged
same as the volume of the object, as shown object will have an apparent weight that is
in Figure 1. (The fluid displaced by the less than its weight in air. (You experience
brick in Figure 1 is shown as overflow in buoyant force in a swimming pool and even
the smaller beaker. This overflow fluid vol- in a bathtub.)
ume is equal to the volume of the brick.)
A floating object, on the other hand,
• If the density of the object is the same as the appears to be weightless. This is because a
density of the fluid, the object will neither
floating object is less dense than the fluid, so
sink nor float: it will remain suspended in
only part of its volume displaces the fluid,
the fluid. The volume of fluid displaced will
be equal to the volume of the object. and the weight of the displaced fluid is the
same as the weight of the entire object.
• If the density of the object is less than the
density of the fluid, the object will float. The Archimedes’ principle can be used to
volume of fluid displaced will have a weight determine the density of an object sub-
equal to the weight of the object. merged in a fluid.
1066 Forensics Labs

First, multiply the density of each fluid by
the number of drops that were present. To
compute the final density of the mixture, add
the two weighted densities together and
divide that by the total number of drops of
fluid in the mixture.
For example, say you have glass sample
that is suspended in a mixture. To make the
mixture, you had added 30 drops of a fluid
Figure 2 Weight of crown in air (left) and in with a density of 2.50 g/mL, plus 5 drops of
water (right)
water, which has a density of about 0.998
g/mL. First, you weight the density of each
Density Determination of an fluid by multiplying it by the number of
Irregularly-Shaped Object drops in your solution, and add these values
The density of a relatively large but irregu- together:
larly shaped object, such as the crown shown
(30 drops ⫻ 2.50 g/mL)
in Figure 2, is most easily determined by
+(5 drops ⫻ 0.998 g/mL)
using Archimedes’ principle. In this method,
= 80.0 drops • g/mL
the weight of an object is compared to its
apparent weight when it is submerged in a To compute the density of the fluid mix-
fluid. ture, divide this weighted total by the total
number of drops:
Density Determination of a Very
density = 80.0 drops • g/mL = 2.29 g/mL
Small Object 35 drops
To determine the density of very small objects
such as a tiny piece of glass or plastic, it is Because 2.29 g/mL is the final density of
often more convenient and accurate to place the mixture when the glass sample was sus-
the object in a fluid of known density to deter- pended, we know 2.29 g/mL is also the den-
mine whether the object sinks or floats. The sity of the glass sample.
density of the fluid can then be adjusted by
adding a second fluid that mixes with the first Topic Questions
fluid but has a different density. The second
1. What is the mathematical definition of
fluid is added, dropwise, until the object being
density?
tested is suspended—neither floating nor sink-
ing. At this point, the density of the fluid and 2. State Archimedes’ principle.
the density of the object are the same. 3. An object placed in a fluid sinks and dis-
Accurate results require careful recording places fluid. What is the relationship
of the number of drops of fluid added. between the volume of fluid displaced
Knowing the exact number of drops of each and the volume of the object?
fluid added, and the density of each fluid, 4. If an object is submerged in a fluid, how
you can calculate the final volume of the is the weight of the object affected? Why?
mixtures using weighted averages. For this, a 5. Suppose that to determine the density of
“weight” is given to the density of each fluid an object, you use the weighted-differ-
based on how much of each was present in ence technique. What information is nec-
the mixture at the point where it achieved essary for the determination to be
the same density as the glass sample. successful? Explain.
Forensics Labs 1067

Forensics Lab
The Parking Lot Collision
SKILLS
MATERIALS
• Designing experiments
• Experimenting • safety goggles
• Collecting data • lab apron
• Inferring • gloves
• Interpreting • dropper bottles of dis-
tilled water and satu-
• Measuring
rated ZnI2 solution
OBJECTIVES • glass sample
• Determine the density of a • test tube, 2.5 mL with
small glass chip by the cap
method of suspension. • amber bottle for liquid
disposal and recovery
ChemSafety
Background Procedure
The high school campus police are following PART A: Design an Experiment
up on the report of a fender bender. A stu- 1. Work with members of your lab group to
dent said she was exiting the school when design a procedure to test the density of
she saw another student back into the front the glass fragment in order to solve the
of her car with a large truck, and then leave case. If the glass is the same density as
the scene. The police soon found the alleged headlight glass, the incident and the sus-
perpetrator, who denied any involvement in pect will require further investigation.
the collision that left the front of the small You will use the method of density deter-
car crushed, grill and headlights broken. mination by suspension and with the lab
While talking to the driver of the truck, the materials provided. See “Forensics
officer noticed a shard of glass stuck in the Lesson: Density” that precedes this lab,
soft rubber covering of the truck’s bumper. for hints.
When questioned, the driver of the truck 2. Write a procedure for your experiment.
claimed not to know the source of the glass, Create a data table that clearly displays
but announced confidently that she had not your calculations and results. Make a list
run into anyone’s car. In this lab, you will use of all the safety precautions you will take.
the suspension method to determine the den- Have your teacher approve your proce-
sity of the piece of glass retrieved from the dure and safety precautions before you
bumper of the suspect’s vehicle. begin the experiment.
1068 Forensics Labs
PART B: Conduct Your Experiment TABLE 1: DENSITY VALUES OF
3. Put on safety goggles, TESTED SUBSTANCES
protective gloves, and a Characteristic
lab apron. Substance
density range
4. CAUTION; ZnI2 is corrosive and is Water at 20˚C 0.998 g/mL
a poison. Do not taste or touch.
You will use two clear liquids of different Window-pane glass 2.47–2.56 g/mL
density, saturated zinc iodide solution
and distilled water. Glass densities are Headlight glass 2.47–2.63 g/mL
closer to the density of the saturated zinc
iodide solution, so you will want to start Ophthalmic glass 2.65–2.81 g/mL
by counting 25 drops of the zinc iodide
Saturated ZnI2 solution 2.73 g/mL
solution into the test tube with the glass
sample in it. Then add water dropwise,
keeping track of the number of drops Density values you will need are listed
until suspension is achieved. Refer to in Table 1. If the suspect glass fragment
Figure 1 as a guide to achieving suspen- in this case is determined to be headlight
sion of the glass fragment in the mixture. glass, investigation into the incident will
5. CAUTION: Glass samples have continue.
sharp edges. Handle them with
care. When the glass fragment is sus- PART C: Cleanup and Disposal
pended, you will be able to determine the 6. Dispose of paper and broken glass
density of the mixture by calculating a in the designated waste containers.
weighted average from the densities of Do not put lab materials in the trash
the two liquids (based on the number of unless your teacher tells you to do so.
drops added). If your technique and cal- 7. Clean up your work area and all lab
culations are accurate, this calculated equipment. Return lab equipment
density of the mixture when the glass to its proper place. Wash your hands
piece is suspended will be the same as thoroughly before you leave the lab.
the density of the glass piece.
1. What is the density of the glass sample?
Show how you calculated your result.
2. What statement can you make based on
the density of the glass sample?
3. What factors could affect the accuracy of
your results? How could your procedure
have been improved in order to control
for these factors?
4. How would you interpret a value of 2.50
g/mL for the suspect glass chip?
Figure 1 Glass denser than solution (left); glass same density

as solution (right)
Forensics Labs 1069

Forensics Lab
The Sports Shop Theft
SKILLS
• Designing experiments MATERIALS
• Experimenting • safety goggles
• Collecting data • lab apron
• Inferring • gloves
• Interpreting • dropper bottles of dis-
tilled water (d = 0.998
• Measuring
g/mL) and saturated
• Organizing and analyzing ZnI2 solution (d = 2.73
data g/ml)
• Communicating • size 0 cork stoppers
• markers
OBJECTIVES • crime scene and suspect
glass samples
• Determine the comparative • graduated cylinder, 10 mL
densities of two small glass • glass tubing, about 25 • pipette
chips by the method of sus- cm in length, 1/4 in.
inside diameter • small bottle to support the
pension in a gradient column. glass tubing
• ring stand
• amber bottle, for liquid dis-
• clamp posal and recovery
ChemSafety
Background
The police are investigating the burglary of a the shoes in his closet. The employee denied
sporting goods store. The thief broke a pane that he had stolen any shoes, but that was
of glass in the door to gain access and not what interested the investigating officer.
headed straight for the store’s valuable col- She found several shards of glass in one pair
lection of jerseys and collectors-edition of sports shoes, and she asked where it came
posters autographed by popular ball players. from. The former employee—now a sus-
The investigating officer suspected that the pect—said that he had accidentally stepped
job was planned—that the thief knew the lay- on his own eyeglasses, breaking the lenses.
out of the store and where to find the most In this lab, you will use the density column
valuable items. The owner told the police gradient method to compare the density of
that he had had to fire a young man the pre- the glass from the shoes with the density of
vious week. When the police paid a visit to both ophthalmic glass (used for lenses) and
the former employee, they asked to inspect of windowpane glass.
1070 Forensics Labs
Procedure
PART A: Design an Experiment
design a procedure to test the compara-
tive densities of the glass fragments in
Increasing Density
order to solve the case, using the method
of density determination using a gradient
column and with the lab materials pro-
vided. See “Forensics Lesson: Density”
earlier in this lab appendix, for hints.
Create a data table that clearly displays Figure 1 Suspension column
your calculations and results. Make a list
of all the safety precautions you will take. 6. CAUTION; ZnI2 is corrosive and is a
Have your teacher approve your proce- poison. Do not taste or touch.
dure and safety precautions before you Different concentrations of ZnI2 are com-
begin the experiment. monly used in the column. After you pre-
pare each layer in a graduated cylinder,
PART B: Conduct Your Experiment pour the layer carefully down the side of
3. Put on safety goggles, the column so that the different layers are
protective gloves, and a not mixed. Mark the top of each layer with
lab apron. a marker. Density values you will need are
4. CAUTION: Glass samples have listed in Table 1 in the lab “The Parking
sharp edges. Handle them with Lot Collision” that precedes this one.
care. You will use the density gradient col- PART C: Cleanup and Disposal
umn method for this analysis. This 7. Dispose of paper and broken glass
method uses glass tubing as a column, in the designated waste containers.
which will contain several layers of liquid, Do not put lab materials in the trash
each of a different density. The densest unless your teacher tells you to do so.
layer will be found at the bottom and the 8. Clean up your work area and all lab
least dense layer at the column’s top. equipment. Return lab equipment
When an object is placed into a liquid and to its proper place. Wash your hands
the substance neither sinks nor floats, but thoroughly before you leave the lab.
instead remains suspended, the density of
the object and the liquid are the same.
When dropped into the column, the sus- Analyze and Conclude
pect and crime scene glass samples will be 1. What is the density of the glass sample?
suspended in the layers of the column that the crime scene sample?
match their densities. If the two samples 2. What can you conclude about the case
stop in the same density layer, that would based on the density of the suspect glass
indicate that they have the same density. sample as compared with the density of
5. Your teacher will discuss with you the the crime scene sample?
nature of the liquids to be used and how 3. What factors could affect the accuracy of
many layers your column should contain. your results? How could you have con-
See Figure 1 for a diagram of the suspen- trolled for these factors?
sion column setup.
Forensics Labs 1071
Glossary
Pronunciation Key
Phonetic Phonetic Phonetic
Sound As In Sound As In Sound As In
Respelling Respelling Respelling
ahy bat (BAT) ihng going (GOH ihng) th that (THAT)
thin (THIHN)
ay face (FAYS) k card (KAHRD)
kite (KEYET) uh cut (CUHT)
ah lock (LAHK)
argue (AHR gyoo) ng anger (ANG guhr) ur fern (FURN)
ow out (OWT) oh over (OH vuhr) y yes (YEHS)
ch chapel (CHAP uhl) aw dog (DAWG) yoo globule (GLAHB yool)
horn (HAWRN)
eh test (TEHST) yu cure (KYUR)
oy foil (FOYL)
ai rare (RAIR) z bags (BAGZ)
u pull (PUL)
ee eat (EET) zh treasure (TREHZH uhr)
feet (FEET) oo pool (POOL)
ski (SKEE) uh medal (MEHD uhl)
s cell (SEHL) pencil (PEHN suhl)
ih bit (BIHT) sit (SIHT) onion (UHN yuhn)
ie idea (ie DEE uh) sh sheep (SHEEP) uhr paper (PAY puhr)
y ripe (RYP)
A actin a protein responsible for adductor muscle the thick mus-

the contraction and relaxation cle that joins the two valves in
abiotic factor an environmental of muscle (857) mollusks and that causes the
factor that is not associated action potential a sudden shell to open (647)
with the activities of living change in the polarity of the adhesion the attractive force
organisms (340) membrane of a neuron, gland between two bodies of differ-
ABO blood group system a sys- cell, or muscle fiber that facil- ent substances that are in
tem used to classify human itates the transmission of contact with each other (31)
blood by antigens found on the electrical impulses (946) adrenal gland one of the two
surface of red blood cells (878) activation energy the minimum endocrine glands located
acanthodian an early fish; the amount of energy required to above each kidney (985)
earliest known vertebrate to start a chemical reaction (39) aerobic describes a process that
have jaws (715) active site the site on an enzyme requires oxygen (104)
acid any compound that that attaches to a substrate aggregation a grouping of cells
increases the number of (41) or other organisms (418)
hydronium ions when dis- active transport the movement agnathan a member of a class of
solved in water; acids turn of chemical substances, usu- primitive, jawless fishes (714)
blue litmus paper red and ally across the cell membrane, AIDS acquired immune defi-
react with bases and some against a concentration gradi- ciency syndrome, a disease
metals to form salts (33) ent; requires cells to use caused by HIV, an infection
acid rain precipitation that has a energy (81) that results in an ineffective
pH below normal and has an adaptation the process of immune system (934)
unusually high concentration becoming adapted to an envi- allele one of the alternative
of sulfuric or nitric acids, often ronment; an anatomical, phys- forms of a gene that governs a
as a result of chemical pollu- iological, or behavioral change characteristic, such as hair
tion of the air from sources that improves a population’s color (167)
such as automobile exhausts ability to survive (279) allergy a physical response to an
and the burning of fossil fuels addiction a physiological or psy- antigen, which can be a com-
(386) chological dependence on a mon substance that produces
acoelomate an animal that substance, such as alcohol or little or no response in the gen-
lacks a coelom, or body cavity drugs (962) eral population (936)
(600)
1072 Glossary
alternation of generations the antibiotic a substance that can arthropod a member of the phy-
alternation of sexual reproduc- inhibit the growth of or kill lum Arthropoda, which
tion and asexual reproduction some microorganisms (443) includes invertebrate animals
in certain plants and animals antibody a protein that reacts to such as insects, crustaceans,
(463) a specific antigen or that inac- and arachnids; characterized
alveolus any of the tiny air cells tivates or destroys toxins (929) by having segmented bodies
of the lungs where oxygen and anticodon a region of tRNA that and paired appendages (266)
carbon dioxide are exchanged consists of three bases comple- ascus the spore sac where
(886) mentary to the codon of ascomycetes produce
amino acid any one of 20 differ- mRNA (212) ascospores (487)
ent organic molecules that antigen a substance that stimu- asexual reproduction reproduc-
contain a carboxyl and an lates an immune response tion that does not involve the
amino group and that combine (927) union of gametes and in which
to form proteins (36) antigen shifting the production a single parent produces off-
amino acid–based hormone a of new antigens by a virus as it spring that are genetically
hormone that is made up of mutates over time (932) identical to the parent (150)
simple amino acids, peptides, aorta the main artery in the asymmetrical irregular in shape;
or proteins (977) body; it carries blood from the without symmetry (598)
amniotic egg a type of egg that left ventricle to systemic circu- atom the smallest unit of an
is produced by reptiles, birds, lation (882) element that maintains the
and egg-laying mammals and apical dominance the inhibition properties of that element (28)
that contains a large amount of lateral bud growth on the ATP adenosine triphosphate, an
of yolk; usually surrounded by stem of a plant by auxin pro- organic molecule that acts as
a leathery or hard shell within duced in the terminal bud the main energy source for cell
which the embryo and its (581) processes; composed of a
embryonic membranes apical meristem the growing nitrogenous base, a sugar, and
develop (775) region at the tips of stems and three phosphate groups (37)
amylase an enzyme that breaks roots in plants (574) atrium a chamber that receives
down starches into sugars appendage a structure that blood that is returning to the
(907) extends from the main body, heart (881)
anaerobic describes a process such as a limb, tentacle, fin, or autoimmune disease a disease
that does not require oxygen wing (664) in which the immune system
(104) appendicular skeleton the attacks the organism’s own
anemia a condition in which the bones of the arms and legs cells (933)
oxygen-carrying ability of red (850) autosome any chromosome that
blood cells is reduced and the aquifer a porous rock that stores is not a sex chromosome (122)
production of red blood cells and allows the flow of ground- autotroph an organism that pro-
decreases (877) water (393) duces its own nutrients from
angiosperm a flowering plant Archaebacteria a classification inorganic substances or from
that produces seeds within a kingdom made up of bacteria the environment instead of
fruit (514) that live in extreme environ- consuming other organisms
annual a plant that completes its ments; differentiated from (94)
life cycle, reproduces, and dies other prokaryotes by various auxin a plant hormone that reg-
within one growing season important chemical differ- ulates cell elongation (580)
(573) ences (258) axial skeleton the bones of the
annual ring in secondary xylem archegonium a female repro- skull and vertebral column
(wood), the growth ring ductive structure of small, (850)
formed in one season (575) nonvascular plants that axon an elongated extension of a
anther in flowering plants, the produces a single egg and in neuron that carries impulses
tip of a stamen, which con- which fertilization and devel- away from the cell body (944)
tains the pollen sacs where opment take place (530)
grains form (538) artery a blood vessel that carries
antheridium a reproductive blood away from the heart to
structure that produces male the body’s organs (873)
sex cells in flowerless and
seedless plants (530)
Glossary 1073
Glossary continued
B biological magnification the brain stem the stemlike portion

accumulation of increasingly of the brain that connects the
B cell a white blood cell that large amounts of toxic sub- cerebral hemispheres with the
matures in bones and makes stances within each successive spinal cord and that maintains
antibodies (927) link of the food chain (391) the necessary functions of the
bacillus a rod-shaped bacterium biological species a group of body, such as breathing and
(443) organisms than can reproduce circulation (951)
bacteriophage a virus that only among themselves and bronchus one of the two tubes
infects bacteria (192) that are usually contained in a that connect the lungs with the
geographic region (305) trachea (886)
basal disk an area on cnidari-
ans, such as hydras, jellyfish, biology the scientific study of budding asexual reproduction in
and corals, that enables them living organisms and their which a part of the parent
to adhere to surfaces (624) interactions with the environ- organism pinches off and
ment (6) forms a new organism (487)
base any compound that
increases the number of biomass organic matter that can bulbourethral gland one of the
hydroxide ions when dissolved be a source of energy; the total two glands in the male repro-
in water; bases turn red litmus mass of the organisms in a ductive system that add fluid
paper blue and react with given area (349) to the semen during ejacula-
acids to form salts (33) biome a large region character- tion (998)
base pairing rules the rules stat- ized by a specific type of
ing that cytosine pairs with climate and certain types of
guanine and adenine pairs plant and animal communities C
with thymine in DNA, and that (372)
adenine pairs with uracil in biotic factor an environmental calorie the amount of energy
RNA (197) factor that is associated with needed to raise the tempera-
or results from the activities of ture of 1 g of water 1°C; the
basidium a structure that pro- Calorie used to indicate the
duces asexual spores in basid- living organisms (340)
blastocyst the modified blastula energy content of food is a
iomycetes (488) kilocalorie (900)
behavior an action that an indi- stage of mammalian embryos
(1004) Calvin cycle a biochemical path-
vidual carries out in response way of photosynthesis in
to a stimulus or to the environ- blastopore an opening that
develops in the blastula (692) which carbon dioxide is con-
ment (824) verted into glucose using ATP
biennial a plant that has a two- blastula the stage of an embryo
before gastrulation (596) (102)
year life cycle (573) cancer a tumor in which the
bilateral symmetry a condition blood pressure the force that
blood exerts on the walls of the cells begin dividing at an
in which two equal halves of a uncontrolled rate and become
body mirror each other (598) arteries (882)
invasive (12)
binary fission a form of asexual body cavity any cavity that
houses organs, such as the capillary a tiny blood vessel that
reproduction in single-celled allows an exchange between
organisms by which one cell thoracic, abdominal, or pelvic
cavity (849) blood and cells in tissue (873)
divides into two cells of the capsid a protein sheath that sur-
same size (119) body plan an animal’s shape,
symmetry, and internal organi- rounds the nucleic acid core in
binomial nomenclature a system a virus (435)
for giving each organism a zation (598)
bone marrow soft tissue inside capsule in mosses, the part that
two-word scientific name that contains spores; in bacteria, a
consists of the genus name fol- bones where red and white
blood cells are produced (851) protective layer of polysaccha-
lowed by the species name rides around the cell wall (443)
(300) brain the mass of nerve tissue
that is the main control center carapace a shieldlike plate that
biodiversity the number and covers the cephalothorax of
variety of organisms in a given of the nervous system (950)
some crustaceans (782)
area during a specific period
of time (341) carbohydrate any organic com-
pound that is made of carbon,
biogeochemical cycle the circu- hydrogen, and oxygen and that
lation of substances through provides nutrients to the cells
living organisms from or to the of living things (34)
environment (350)
1074 Glossary
carbon fixation the synthesis central nervous system the chlorofluorocarbons hydrocar-
of organic compounds from brain and the spinal cord; its bons in which some or all of
carbon dioxide, such as in main function is to control the the hydrogen atoms are
photosynthesis (102) flow of information in the replaced by chlorine and fluo-
carnivore an animal that eats body (950) rine; used in coolants for
other animals (346) central vacuole a large cavity or refrigerators and air condition-
carotenoid a class of pigments sac that is found in plant cells ers and in cleaning solvents;
that are present mostly in or protozoans and that con- their use is restricted because
plants and that aid in photo- tains air or partially digested they destroy the ozone (abbre-
synthesis (98) food (66) viation, CFC) (387)
carrier protein a protein that centromere the region of the chlorophyll a green pigment that
transports substances across a chromosome that holds the is present in most plant cells,
cell membrane (80) two sister chromatids together that gives plants their charac-
carrying capacity the largest during mitosis (119) teristic green color, and that
population that an environ- cephalization the concentration reacts with sunlight, carbon
ment can support at any given of nerve tissue and sensory dioxide, and water to form
time (322) organs at the anterior end of carbohydrates (98)
cartilage a flexible and strong an organism (599) chloroplast an organelle found
connective tissue (715) cephalothorax in arachnids and in plant and algae cells where
some crustaceans, the body photosynthesis occurs (66)
caste a group of insects in a
colony that have a specific part made up of the head and choanocyte any of the flagellate
function (679) the thorax (666) cells that line the cavities of a
cereal any grass that produces sponge (619)
cell in biology, the smallest unit
that can perform all life grains that can be used for chordate an animal that at some
processes; cells are covered by food, such as rice, wheat, corn, stage in its life cycle has a dor-
a membrane and have a oats, or barley (518) sal nerve, a notochord, and
nucleus and cytoplasm (7) cerebellum a posterior portion pharyngeal pouches; examples
of the brain that coordinates include mammals, birds, rep-
cell cycle the life cycle of a cell;
muscle movement and controls tiles, amphibians, fish, and
in eukaryotes, it consists of a
subconscious activities and some marine lower forms (700)
cell-growth period in which
DNA is synthesized and a cell- some balance functions (951) chromatid one of the two
division period in which mito- cerebral ganglion one of a pair strands of a chromosome that
sis takes place (125) of nerve-cell clusters that serve become visible during meiosis
as a primitive brain at the or mitosis (119)
cell membrane a phospholipid
layer that covers a cell’s sur- anterior end of some inverte- chromosome in a eukaryotic
face and acts as a barrier brates, such as annelids (651) cell, one of the structures in
between the inside of a cell cerebrum the upper part of the the nucleus that are made up
and the cell’s environment (56) brain that receives sensation of DNA and protein; in a
and controls movement (951) prokaryotic cell, the main ring
cell theory the theory that states
chelicera in arachnids, either of of DNA (119)
that all living things are made
up of cells, that cells are the a pair of appendages used to chrysalis the hard-shelled pupa
basic units of organisms, that attack prey (670) of certain insects, such as but-
each cell in a multicellular chitin a carbohydrate that terflies (675)
organism has a specific job, forms part of the exoskeleton cilium a hairlike structure
and that cells come only from of arthropods and other arranged in tightly packed
existing cells (55) organisms, such as insects, rows that projects from the
cell wall a rigid structure that crustaceans, fungi, and some surface of some cells (58)
surrounds the cell membrane algae (482) cladistics a phylogenetic classi-
and provides support to the chlamydia a bacterial sexually fication system that uses
cell (57) transmitted disease marked by shared derived characters and
cellular respiration the process painful urination and vaginal ancestry as the sole criterion
by which cells produce energy discharge (1009) for grouping taxa (327)
from carbohydrates; atmos-
pheric oxygen combines with
glucose to form water and car-
bon dioxide (95)
Glossary 1075
Glossary continued
cladogram a diagram that is cohesion the force that holds cone in plants, a seed-bearing
based on patterns of shared, molecules of a single material structure (511)
derived traits and that shows together (31) connective tissue a tissue that
the evolutionary relationships colon a section of the large has a lot of intracellular sub-
between groups of organisms intestine (910) stance and that connects and
(309) colonial organism a collection supports other tissues (847)
class a taxonomic category con- of genetically identical cells consumer an organism that eats
taining orders with common that are permanently associ- other organisms or organic
characteristics (302) ated but in which little or no matter instead of producing its
cleavage in biological develop- integration of cell activities own nutrients or obtaining
ment, a series of cell divisions occurs (418) nutrients from inorganic
that occur immediately after commensalism a relationship sources (345)
an egg is fertilized (1004) between two organisms in continental drift the hypothesis
climate the average weather which one organism benefits that states that the continents
conditions in an area over a and the other is unaffected once formed a single land-
long period of time (371) (364) mass, broke up, and drifted to
clone an organism that is pro- community a group of species their present locations (268)
duced by asexual reproduction that live in the same habitat contour feather one of the most
and that is genetically identical and interact with each other external feathers that cover a
to its parent; to make a genetic (340) bird and that help determine
duplicate (150) competition the relationship its shape (784)
closed circulatory system a cir- between species that attempt control group in an experiment,
culatory system in which the to use the same limited a group that serves as a stan-
heart circulates blood through resource (365) dard of comparison with
a network of vessels that form competitive exclusion the exclu- another group to which the
a closed loop; the blood does sion of one species by another control group is identical
not leave the blood vessels, due to competition (369) except for one factor (17)
and materials diffuse across complement system a system of convergent evolution the
the walls of the vessels (606) proteins that circulate in the process by which unrelated
cnidocyte a stinging cell of a bloodstream and that combine species become more similar
cnidarian (623) with antibodies to protect as they adapt to the same kind
coccus a sphere-shaped bac- against antigens (926) of environment (307)
terium (443) complementary base pairing a cork the outer layer of bark of
cochlea a coiled tube that is characteristic of nucleic acids any woody plant (553)
found in the inner ear and that in which the sequence of bases cork cambium a layer of tissue
is essential to hearing (959) on one strand is paired to the under the cork layer where
codominance a condition in sequence of bases on the other cork cells are produced (575)
which both alleles for a gene (197) coronary artery one of the two
are fully expressed (178) compound a substance made up arteries that supply blood
codon in DNA, a three- of atoms of two or more differ- directly to the heart (882)
nucleotide sequence that ent elements joined by chemi- corpus luteum the structure that
encodes an amino acid or sig- cal bonds (29) forms from the ruptured folli-
nifies a start signal or a stop compound eye an eye com- cle in the ovary after ovulation;
signal (211) posed of many light detectors it releases hormones (1002)
coelom a body cavity that con- separated by pigment cells cortex in plants, the primary tis-
tains the internal organs (600) (666) sue located in the epidermis;
coelomate an animal that has a concentration gradient a differ- in animals, the outermost por-
body cavity in which the inter- ence in the concentration of a tion of an organ (555)
nal organs are located (600) substance across a distance cotyledon the embryonic leaf of
coevolution the process in (74) a seed (535)
which long-term, interdepen- conditioning the process of countercurrent flow in fish gills,
dent changes take place in two learning by association (827) an arrangement whereby
species as a result of their cone in animals, a photorecep- water flows away from the
interactions (362) tor within the retina that can head and blood flows toward
distinguish colors and is very the head (747)
sensitive to bright light (958)
1076 Glossary
crossing-over the exchange of density-dependent factor a differentiation the process in
genetic material between variable affected by the num- which the structure and
homologous chromosomes ber of organisms present in a function of the parts of an
during meiosis; can result in given area (322) organism change to enable
genetic recombination (144) density-independent factor a specialization of those parts
cud partly digested food that is variable that affects a popula- (419)
regurgitated, rechewed, and tion regardless of the popula- diffusion the movement of parti-
reswallowed for further digestion density, such as climate cles from regions of higher
tion by mammals that have a (324) density to regions of lower
rumen (814) deoxyribose a five-carbon sugar density (75)
cuticle a waxy or fatty and that is a component of DNA digestion the breaking down of
watertight layer on the exter- nucleotides (194) food into chemical substances
nal wall of epidermal cells dependent variable in an experi- that can be used for energy
(502) ment, the variable that is (900)
cyanobacteria a bacterium that changed or determined by diploid a cell that contains two
can carry out photosynthesis, manipulation of one or more haploid sets of chromosomes
such as a blue-green alga (258) factors (the independent vari- (121)
cystic fibrosis a fatal genetic ables) (17) directional selection a natural
disorder in which excessive depressant a drug that reduces selection process in which one
amounts of mucus are functional activity and pro- genetic variation is selected
secreted, blocking intestinal duces muscular relaxation and that causes a change in
and bronchial ducts and caus- (964) the overall genetic composi-
ing difficulty in breathing (12) derived character a unique tion of the population (332)
cytokinesis the division of the characteristic of a particular dispersion in optics, the process
cytoplasma of a cell; cytokine- group of organisms (307) of separating a wave (such as
sis follows the division of the dermal tissue the outer covering white light) of different fre-
cell’s nucleus by mitosis or of a plant (552) quencies into its individual
meiosis (125) dermis the layer of skin below component waves (the differ-
cytoplasm the region of the cell the epidermis (862) ent colors) (321)
within the membrane that detritivore a consumer that diurnal describes animals that
includes the fluid, the feeds on dead plants and ani- are active during the day and
cytoskeleton, and all of the mals (346) sleep at night (732)
organelles except the nucleus deuterostome an animal whose DNA deoxyribonucleic acid, the
(56) mouth does not derive from material that contains the
cytoskeleton the cytoplasmic the blastopore and whose information that determines
network of protein filaments embryo has indeterminate inherited characteristics (37)
that plays an essential role in cleavage (692) DNA fingerprint the pattern of
cell movement, shape, and diabetes mellitus a serious dis- bands that results when an
division (56) order in which cells are unable individual’s DNA fragments
cytotoxic T cell a type of T cell to obtain glucose from the are separated (237)
that recognizes and destroys blood; caused by a deficiency DNA helicase an enzyme that
cells infected by virus (927) of insulin or lack of response unwinds the DNA double helix
to insulin (987) during DNA replication (198)
diaphragm a dome-shaped DNA polymerase an enzyme
D muscle that is attached to the that catalyzes the formation of
lower ribs and that functions the DNA molecule (199)
decomposer an organism that as the main muscle in respira- DNA replication the process of
feeds by breaking down tion (886) making a copy of DNA (198)
organic matter from dead
diatom a unicellular alga that dormancy a state in which
organisms; examples include
has a double shell that con- seeds, spores, bulbs, and other
bacteria and fungi (347)
tains silica (466) reproductive organs stop
dendrite a cytoplasmic exten- growth and development and
dicot a dicotyledonous plant; an
sion of a neuron that receives reduce their metabolism, espe-
angiosperm that has two
stimuli (944) cially respiration (584)
cotyledons, net venation, and
flower parts in groups of four
or five (515)
Glossary 1077
Glossary continued
double fertilization the process electrophoresis the process by endothermic describes the abil-
by which one of the two sperm which electrically charged par- ity of an organism to maintain
nuclei fuses with the egg ticles suspended in a liquid body temperature by produc-
nucleus to produce a diploid move through the liquid ing heat internally (724)
zygote and the other fuses because of the influence of an energy the capacity to do work
with the polar nuclei to pro- electric field (231) (38)
duce a triploid endosperm element a substance that cannot energy pyramid a triangular
(540) be separated or broken down diagram that shows an ecosys-
double helix the spiral-staircase into simpler substances by tem’s loss of energy, which
structure characteristic of the chemical means; all atoms of results as energy passes
DNA molecule (194) an element have the same through the ecosystem’s food
down feather a soft feather that atomic number (28) chain; each row in the pyra-
covers the body of young birds embryo an organism in an early mid represents a trophic
and provides insulation to stage of development of plants (feeding) level in an ecosystem,
adult birds (785) and animals; in humans, a and the area of a row repre-
developing individual is sents food chain the pathway
referred to as an embryo from of energy transfer through
E the second through the eighth various stages as a result of the
week of pregnancy (504) feeding patterns of a series of
ecology the study of the interac- endocrine gland a ductless organisms (346)
tions of living organisms with gland that secretes hormones envelope a membranelike layer
one another and with their into the blood (975) that covers the capsids of some
environment (9) endocytosis the process by viruses (435)
ecosystem a community of which a cell membrane sur- enzyme a type of protein that
organisms and their abiotic rounds a particle and encloses speeds up metabolic reactions
environment (340) the particle in a vesicle to in plant and animals without
ectoderm the outermost of the bring the particle into the cell being permanently changed or
three germ layers of an (83) destroyed (40)
embryo that develops into the endoderm the innermost germ epidermis the outer surface
epidermis and epidermal tis- layer of the animal embryo; layer of cells of a plant or
sues, the nervous system, develops into the epithelium of animal (553)
external sense organs, and the the pharynx, respiratory tract, epididymis the long, coiled tube
mucous membranes lining the digestive tract, bladder, and that is on the surface of a testis
mouth and anus (596) urethra (596) and in which sperm mature
ectothermic describes the abil- endoplasmic reticulum a system (997)
ity of an organism to maintain of membranes that is found epinephrine a hormone that
its body temperature by gain- in a cell’s cytoplasm and that is released by the adrenal
ing heat from the environment assists in the production, medulla and that rapidly
(724) processing, and transport of stimulates the metabolism in
electron microscope a micro- proteins and in the production emergencies, decreases insulin
scope that focuses a beam of lipids (63) secretion, and stimulates pulse
of electrons to magnify endosperm a triploid (3n) tissue and blood pressure; also called
objects (51) that develops in the seeds of adrenaline (985)
electron transport chain a series angiosperms and that provides epithelial tissue a tissue com-
of molecules, found in the food for a developing embryo posed of cells that form a
inner membranes of mito- (514) barrier between an organism
chondria and chloroplasts, endospore a thick-walled pro- and its external environment
through which electrons pass tective spore that forms inside (846)
in a process that causes pro- a bacterial cell and resists equilibrium in chemistry, the
tons to build up on one side of harsh conditions (443) state in which a chemical reac-
the membrane (100) endosymbiosis a mutually bene- tion and the reverse chemical
ficial relationship in which one reaction occur at the same rate
organism lives within another such that the concentrations of
(259) reactants and products do not
change (74)
1078 Glossary
esophagus a long, straight tube F food chain the pathway of
that connects the pharynx to energy transfer through vari-
the stomach (907) F1 generation the first genera- ous stages as a result of the
Eubacteria a classification king- tion of offspring obtained from feeding patterns of a series of
dom that contains all prokary- an experimental cross of two organisms (346)
otes except archaebacteria organisms (164) food web a diagram that shows
(258) F2 generation the second gener- the feeding relationships
eukaryote an organism made up ation of offspring, obtained between organisms in an
of cells that have a nucleus from an experimental cross of ecosystem (347)
enclosed by a membrane, mul- two organisms; the offspring foot an appendage that some
tiple chromosomes, and a of the F1 generation (164) invertebrates use to move; the
mitotic cycle; eukaryotes facilitated diffusion the trans- lower part of a vertebrate’s leg
include animals, plants, and port of substances through a (431)
fungi but not bacteria or cell membrane along a con- fossil the trace or remains of an
cyanobacteria (58) centration gradient with the organism that lived long ago,
evolution a change in the char- aid of carrier proteins (80) preserved in sedimentary rock
acteristics of a population fallopian tube a tube through (258)
from one generation to the which eggs move from the frond the leaf of a fern or palm
next; the gradual development ovary to the uterus (1000) (511)
of organisms from other family the taxonomic category fruit a mature plant ovary; the
organisms since the begin- below the order and above the plant organ in which the seeds
nings of life (9) genus (302) are enclosed (514)
excretion the process of elimi- fermentation the breakdown of fundamental niche the largest
nating metabolic wastes (912) carbohydrates by enzymes, ecological niche where an
exocytosis the process by which bacteria, yeasts, or mold in the organism or species can live
a substance is released from absence of oxygen (108) without competition (365)
the cell through a vesicle that fertilization the union of a male
transports the substance to the and female gamete to form a
cell surface and then fuses zygote (153) G
with the membrane to let the fetus a developing human from
substance out (83) seven or eight weeks after fer- gamete a haploid reproductive
exon the portion of the DNA tilization until birth (1006) cell that unites with another
sequence in a gene that con- fixed action pattern behavior an haploid reproductive cell to
tains the sequence of amino innate behavior that is charac- form a zygote (118)
acids in a chain and the begin- teristic of certain species (826) gametophyte in alternation of
ning and the end of a coding generations, the phase in
sequence (218) flagellum a long, hairlike struc-
ture that grows out of a cell which gametes are formed; a
exoskeleton a hard, external, and enables the cell to move haploid individual that pro-
supporting structure that (57) duces gametes (154)
develops from the ectoderm gastrovascular cavity a cavity
(607) flexor a muscle that bends a
limb or other body part (856) that serves both digestive and
experiment a procedure that is circulatory purposes in some
carried out under controlled flower the reproductive struc-
cnidarians (605)
conditions to discover, demon- ture of a flowering plant that
usually consists of a pistil, sta- gemmule an asexual reproduc-
strate, or test a fact, theory, or tive structure produced by
general truth (17) mens, petals, and sepals (505)
some freshwater sponges (621)
extensor a muscle that extends fluke a parasitic flatworm of the
class Trematoda (632) gene a segment of DNA that is
a joint (856) located in a chromosome and
external fertilization the union follicle a small, narrow cavity or
that codes for a specific hered-
of gametes outside the bodies sac in an organ or tissue, such
itary trait (8)
of the parents, as in many as the ones on the skin that
contain hair roots or the ones gene cloning the process of iso-
fishes and amphibians (610) lating a gene sequence in the
in the ovaries that contain the
extinct describes a species of genome of an organism and
developing eggs (1001)
organisms that has died out inserting the gene sequence
completely (282) into a plasmid vector for pro-
duction in large numbers (229)
Glossary 1079
Glossary continued
gene expression the manifesta- gill in mushrooms, a structure guard cell one of a pair of spe-
tion of the genetic material of that is located on the under- cialized cells that border a
an organism in the form of side of the cap and bears the stoma and regulate gas
specific traits (208) spores; in aquatic animals, a exchange (503)
gene flow the movement of respiratory structure that con- gymnosperm a woody vascular
genes into or out of a popula- sists of many blood vessels seed plant whose seeds are not
tion due to interbreeding (328) surrounded by a membrane enclosed by an ovary or fruit
genetic code the rule that that allows for gas exchange (512)
describes how a sequence of (605)
nucleotides, read in groups of gill slit a perforation between
three consecutive nucleotides two gill arches through which H
(triplets) that correspond to water taken in through the
specific amino acids, specifies mouth of a fish passes over the habitat the place where an
the amino acid sequence of a gills and out of the fish’s body organism usually lives (340)
protein (211) (747) hair in mammals, one of the
genetic drift the random change glucagon a hormone that is pro- many long and thin structures
in allele frequency in a popula- duced in the pancreas and that that grow out from the skin
tion (328) raises the blood glucose level (800)
genetic engineering a technol- (986) hair follicle a depression in the
ogy in which the genome of a glycolysis the anaerobic break- skin that encloses a hair and
living cell is modified for med- down of glucose pyruvic acid, its root (862)
ical or industrial use (228) which makes a small amount half-life the time required for
genetics the science of heredity of energy available to cells in half of a sample of a radioac-
and of the mechanisms by the form of ATP (105) tive substance to disintegrate
which traits are passed from glycoprotein a protein to which by radioactive decay or by nat-
parents to offspring (162) carbohydrate molecules are ural processes (252)
genital herpes a sexually trans- attached (435) haploid describes a cell,
mitted disease that is caused Golgi apparatus cell organelle nucleus, or organism that
by a herpes simplex virus that helps make and package has only one set of unpaired
(1010) materials to be transported out chromosomes (121)
genotype the entire genetic of the cell (64) Hardy-Weinberg principle the
makeup of an organism; also gonorrhea a sexually transmit- principle that states that the
the combination of genes for ted disease that is caused by frequency of alleles in a popu-
one or more specific traits bacteria and that results in lation does not change unless
(168) inflammation of the mucous evolutionary forces act on the
genus the level of classification membranes in the urinary and population (326)
that comes after family and reproductive tracts (1008) Haversian canal a channel
that contains similar species gradualism a model of evolution containing blood vessels in
(301) in which gradual change over compact bone tissue (852)
germination the beginning of a long period of time leads to heart attack the death of heart
growth or development in a biological diversity (282) tissues due to a blockage of
seed, spore, or zygote, espe- grain the edible seed or seedlike their blood supply (884)
cially after a period of fruit of a cereal grass (518) heartwood the nonconducting
inactivity (572) greenhouse effect the warming older wood in the center of a
gestation in mammals, the of the surface of Earth and the tree trunk (557)
process of carrying young lower atmosphere as a result helper T cell a white blood cell
from fertilization to birth of carbon dioxide and water necessary for B cells to
(1005) vapor, which absorb and rera- develop normal levels of anti-
gestation period in mammals, diate infrared radiation (388) bodies (927)
the length of time between fer- ground tissue a type of plant tis- herbaceous plant a plant that is
tilization and birth (810) sue other than vascular tissue soft and green instead of
that makes up much of the woody (556)
inside of a plant (552) herbivore an organism that eats
groundwater the water that is only plants (346)
beneath the Earth’s surface
(351)
1080 Glossary
heredity the passing of genetic hormone a substance that is incomplete dominance a condi-
traits from parent to offspring made in one cell or tissue and tion in which a trait in an indi-
(8) that causes a change in vidual is intermediate between
hermaphrodite an organism that another cell or tissue located the phenotype of the individ-
has both male and female in a different part of the body ual’s two parents because the
reproductive organs (609) (580) dominant allele is unable to
heterotroph an organism that Human Genome Project a express itself fully (177)
obtains organic food mole- research effort to sequence independent assortment the
cules by eating other organ- and locate the entire collection random distribution of the
isms or their by products and of genes in human cells (233) pairs of genes on different
that cannot synthesize organic hydrostatic skeleton in many chromosomes to the
compounds from inorganic invertebrates, the cavity that is gametes (146)
materials (95) filled with water and that has a independent variable the factor
heterozygous describes an indi- support function (607) that is deliberately manipu-
vidual that has two different hypertonic describes a solution lated in an experiment (17)
alleles for a trait (167) whose solute concentration is inflammatory response a pro-
histamine a chemical that stim- higher than the solute concen- tective response of tissues
ulates the autonomous ner- tration inside a cell (77) affected by disease or injury,
vous system, secretion of hypha a nonreproductive fila- characterized by redness,
gastric juices, and dilation of ment of a fungus (421) swelling, and pain (925)
capillaries (925) hypothalamus the region of the innate behavior an inherited
HIV human immunodeficiency brain that coordinates the behavior that does not depend
virus, the virus that causes activities of the nervous and on the environment or
AIDS (12) endocrine systems and that experience (826)
homeostasis the maintenance controls many body activities insulin a hormone that is pro-
of a constant internal state in related to homeostasis (952) duced by a group of special-
a changing environment; a hypothesis a theory or ized cells in the pancreas and
constant internal state that is explanation that is based on that lowers blood glucose lev-
maintained in a changing observations and that can be els (986)
environment by continually tested (16) interferon a protein that is pro-
making adjustments to the hypotonic describes a solution duced by cells infected by a
internal and external whose solute concentration is virus and that can protect
environment (8) lower than the solute concen- uninfected cells from repro-
hominid a member of the family tration inside a cell (77) duction of the virus (926)
Hominidae of the order internal fertilization fertilization
Primates; characterized by of an egg by sperm that occurs
opposable thumbs, no tail, rel- I inside the body of a female
atively long lower limbs, and (610)
bipedalism; examples include immunity the ability to resist or interneuron a neuron located
modern humans and their to recover from an infection or between the afferent neuron
ancestors (733) disease (931) and the final neuron in a
homologous chromosomes implantation the process by neural chain (953)
chromosomes that have the which the newly fertilized egg interphase a period between
same sequence of genes, that in the blastocyst stage embeds two mitotic or meiotic divi-
have the same structure, and itself in the lining of the uterus sions during which the cell
that pair during meiosis (120) (1004) grows, copies its DNA, and
homologous structures anatom- imprinting learning that occurs synthesizes proteins (125)
ical structures that share a early and quickly in a young intron a section of DNA that
common ancestry (286) animal’s life and that cannot does not code for an amino
homozygous describes an indi- be changed once learned (829) acid and that is transcribed
vidual that has identical alleles into RNA but is removed
for a trait on both homologous before it is translated (218)
chromosomes (167) invertebrate an animal that does
not have a backbone (424)
Glossary 1081
Glossary continued
ion an atom, radical, or mole- K-strategist a species character- limnetic zone the area in a
cule that has gained or lost ized by slow maturation, few freshwater habitat that is away
one or more electrons and has young, slow population from the shore but still close to
a negative or positive charge growth, reproduction late in the surface (376)
(30) life, and a population density lipase an enzyme that breaks
ion channel a pore in a cell near the carrying capacity of down fat molecules into fatty
membrane through which ions the environment (325) acids and glycerol (909)
can pass (78) lipid a type of biochemical that
isotonic solution a solution does not dissolve in water,
whose solute concentration is L including fats and steroids;
equal to the solute concentra- lipids store energy and make
tion inside a cell (77) lac operon a gene system whose up cell membranes (35)
operator gene and three struc- lipid bilayer the basic structure
tural genes control lactose of a biological membrane,
J metabolism in E. coli (216) composed of two layers of
larynx the area of the throat that phospholipids (60)
joint a place where two or more contains the vocal cords and littoral zone a shallow zone in a
bones meet (854) produces vocal sounds (886) freshwater habitat where light
lateral line a faint line visible on reaches the bottom and nur-
both sides of a fish’s body that tures plants (376)
K runs the length of the body logistic model a model of popu-
and marks the location of lation growth that assumes
karyotype an array of the sense organs that detect vibra- that finite resource levels limit
chromosomes found in an tions in water (753) population growth (323)
individual’s cells at metaphase law of independent assortment lung the central organ of the res-
of mitosis and arranged in the law that states that genes piratory system in which oxy-
homologous pairs and in order separate independently of one gen from the air is exchanged
of diminishing size (122) another in meiosis (169) with carbon dioxide from the
keratin a hard protein that law of segregation Mende’s law blood (758)
forms hair, bird feathers, nails, that states that the pairs of lymphatic system a collection of
and horns (861) homologous chromosomes organs whose primary func-
kingdom the highest taxonomic separate in meiosis so that tion is to collect extracellular
category, which contains a only one chromosome from fluid and return it to the
group of similar phyla (302) each pair is present in each blood; the organs in this sys-
Koch’s postulates a four-stage gamete (169) tem include the lymph nodes
procedure that Robert Koch learning the development of and the lymphatic vessels
formulated for identifying behaviors through experience (875)
specific pathogens and deter- or practice (827) lysosome a cell organelle that
mining the cause of a given lichen a mass of fungal and algal contains digestive enzymes
disease (930) cells that grow together in a (64)
Krebs cycle a series of biochem- symbiotic relationship and
ical reactions that convert that are usually found on rocks
pyruvic acid into carbon diox- or trees (491) M
ide and water; it is the major life cycle all of the events in the
pathway of oxidation in ani- growth and development of an macrophage an immune system
mal, bacterial, and plant cells, organism until the organism cell that engulfs pathogens and
and it releases energy (106) reaches sexual maturity (152) other materials (926)
krill a small marine crustacean ligament a type of tissue that magnification the increase of an
that is the main food source of holds together the bones in a object’s apparent size by using
the baleen whale (681) joint (854) lenses or mirrors (51)
light microscope a microscope Malpighian tubule an excretory
that uses a beam of visible tube that opens into the back
light passing through one or part of the intestine of most
more lenses to magnify an insects and certain arthropods
object (57) (669)
1082 Glossary
mammary gland a gland that is metabolism the sum of all mRNA messenger RNA, a single-
located in the chest of a female chemical processes that occur stranded RNA molecule that
mammal and that secretes in an organism (7) encodes the information to
milk (806) metamorphosis a phase in the make a protein (211)
mandible a type of mouthpart life cycle of many animals dur- mucous membrane the layer of
found in some arthropods and ing which a rapid change from epithelial tissue that covers
used to pierce and suck food; the immature organism to the internal surfaces of the body
the lower part of the jaw (673) adult takes place; an example and that secretes mucus (924)
mantle in biology, a layer of tis- is the change from larva to multiple alleles more than two
sue that covers the body of adult in insects (675) alleles (versions of the gene)
many invertebrates (643) mineral a natural, usually inor- for a genetic trait (178)
mass extinction an episode dur- ganic solid that has a charac- muscle tissue the tissue made
ing which large numbers of teristic chemical composition, of cells that can contract and
species become extinct (263) an orderly internal structure, relax to produce movement
medusa a free-swimming, jelly- and a characteristic set of (847)
fish-like, and often umbrella- physical properties (905) mutation a change in the
shaped sexual stage in the life mitochondrion in eukaryotic nucleotide-base sequence of a
cycle of a cnidarian; also a jel- cells, the cell organelle that is gene or DNA molecule (8)
lyfish or a hydra (622) surrounded by two mem- mutualism a relationship
meiosis a process in cell divi- branes and that is the site of between two species in which
sion during which the number cellular respiration, which pro- both species benefit (265)
of chromosomes decreases to duces ATP (65) mycelium the mass of fungal fil-
half the original number by mitosis in eukaryotic cells, a aments, or hyphae, that forms
two divisions of the nucleus, process of cell division that the body of a fungus (483)
which results in the produc- forms two new nuclei, each of mycorrhiza a symbiotic associa-
tion of sex cells (gametes or which has the same number of tion between fungi and plant
spores) (144) chromosomes (125) roots (265)
melanin a pigment that helps molecule the smallest unit of a myofibril a fiber that is found in
determine skin color (862) substance that keeps all of the striated muscle cells and that
membrane potential the differ- physical and chemical proper- is responsible for muscle con-
ence in electric potential ties of that substance; it can traction (857)
between the two sides of a cell consist of one atom or two or
more atoms bonded together myosin the most abundant pro-
membrane (945) tein in muscle tissue and the
menstrual cycle the female (29)
main constituent of the thick
reproductive cycle, character- molting the shedding of an filaments of muscle fibers
ized by a monthly change of exoskeleton, skin, feathers, or (857)
the lining of the uterus and the horns to be replaced by new
discharge of blood (1002) parts (668)
menstruation the discharge of monocot a monocotyledonous N
blood and discarded tissue plant; a plant that produces
from the uterus during the seeds that have only one natural killer cell a type of white
menstrual cycle (1003) cotyledon (515) blood cell that is present in
meristem a region of undifferen- monohybrid cross a cross individuals who have not been
tiated plant cells that are capa- between individuals that immunized and that kills a
ble of dividing and developing involves one pair of contrast- variety of cells (926)
into specialized plant tissues ing traits (164) natural selection the process by
(507) monosaccharide a simple sugar which individuals that have
mesoderm in an embryo, the that is the basic subunit of a favorable variations and are
middle layer of cells that gives carbohydrate (34) better adapted to their envi-
rise to muscles, blood, and var- motor neuron a nerve cell that ronment survive and repro-
ious systems (596) conducts nerve impulses from duce more successfully than
mesophyll in leaves, the tissue the central nervous system to less well adapted individuals
between epidermal layers, the muscles and glands (950) do (9)
where photosynthesis occurs nauplius the free-swimming
(559) larva of most crustaceans
(680)
Glossary 1083
Glossary continued
nematocyst in cnidarians, a norepinephrine a chemical that omnivore an organism that eats

stinging cell that is used to is both a neurotransmitter pro- both plants and animals (346)
inject a toxin into prey (623) duced by the sympathetic oogenesis the production,
nephridium a tubule through nerve endings in the auto- growth, and maturation of an
which some invertebrates nomic nervous system and a egg, or ovum (148)
eliminate wastes (644) hormone secreted by the open circulatory system a type
nephron the functional unit of adrenal medulla to stimulate of circulatory system in which
the kidney (913) the functions of the circulatory the circulatory fluid is not con-
nerve a collection of nerve fibers and respiratory systems tained entirely within vessels;
through which impulses travel (abbreviation, NE) (985) a heart pumps fluid through
between the central nervous normal distribution a distribu- vessels that empty into spaces
system and other parts of the tion of numerical data whose called sinuses (606)
body (944) graph forms a bell-shaped operator a short sequence of
nervous tissue the tissue of the curve that is symmetrical viral or bacterial DNA to
nervous system, which con- about the mean (331) which a repressor binds to pre-
sists of neurons, their support- notochord the rod-shaped sup- vent transcription (mRNA syn-
ing cells, and connective tissue porting axis found in the dor- thesis) of the adjacent gene in
(847) sal part of the embryos of all an operon (216)
neuron a nerve cell that is spe- chordates, including verte- operculum in fish, a hard plate
cialized to receive and conduct brates (700) that is attached to each side of
electrical impulses (944) nucleic acid an organic com- the head, that covers gills, and
neurotransmitter a chemical pound, either RNA or DNA, that is open at the rear (756)
substance that transmits nerve whose molecules are made up operon a unit of gene regulation
impulses across a synapse of one or two chains of and transcription in bacterial
(948) nucleotides and carry genetic DNA that consists of a pro-
information (37) moter, an operator, and one or
neutrophil a large leukocyte that
contains a lobed nucleus and nucleotide in a nucleic-acid more structural genes (216)
many cytoplasmic granules chain, a subunit that consists optic nerve the nerve that con-
(926) of a sugar, a phosphate, and a nects the retina of the eye to
nitrogenous base (37) the brain and that transmits
niche the position (way of life)
of a species in an ecosystem in nucleus in a eukaryotic cell, impulses that contribute to the
terms of the physical charac- biology, a membrane-bound sense of sight (958)
teristics (such as size, location, organelle that contains the order the taxonomic category
temperature, and pH) of the cell’s DNA and that has a role below the class and above the
area where the species lives in processes such as growth, family (302)
and the function of the species metabolism, and reproduction organ a collection of tissues that
in the biological community (58) carry out a specialized func-
(365) nutrient a substance or com- tion of the body (419)
nitrogen fixation the process by pound that provides nourish- organ system a group of organs
which gaseous nitrogen is con- ment (or food) or raw that work together to perform
verted into ammonia, a com- materials needed for life body functions (419)
pound that organisms can use processes (900)
organelle one of the small
to make amino acids and other nymph an immature stage of bodies that are found in the
nitrogen-containing organic some insects that is similar in cytoplasm of a cell and that
molecules (363) function and structure to the are specialized to perform a
nonvascular plant the three adult (675) specific function (58)
groups of plants (liverworts, osmosis the diffusion of water
hornworts, and mosses) that or another solvent from a
lack specialized conducting O more dilute solution (of a
tissues and true roots, stems, solute) to a more concentrated
and leaves (504) observation the process of
solution (of the solute)
obtaining information by
through a membrane that is
using the senses; the informa-
permeable to the solvent (76)
tion obtained by using the
senses (14)
1084 Glossary
ossicle one of the small, cal- parasitism a relationship petal one of the ring or rings of
cium carbonate plates that between two species in which the usually brightly colored,
make up the endoskeleton of one species, the parasite, bene- leaf-shaped parts of a flower
an echinoderm (694) fits from the other species, the (538)
osteocyte a bone cell (852) host, and usually harms the petiole the stalk that attaches a
ovarian cycle a series of hor- host (362) leaf to the stem of a plant
mone-induced changes in passive transport the movement (558)
which the ovaries prepare and of substances across a cell pH a value used to express the
release a mature ovum each membrane without the use of acidity or alkalinity of a
month (1001) energy by the cell (74) solution; it is defined as the
ovary in the female reproductive pathogen a virus, microorgan- logarithm of the reciprocal of
system of animals, an organ ism, or other substance that the concentration of hydro-
that produces eggs; in flower- causes disease; an infectious nium ions; a pH of 7 is neutral,
ing plants, the lower part of a agent (454) a pH of less than 7 is acidic,
pistil that produces eggs in pedigree a diagram that shows and a pH of greater than 7 is
ovules (538) the occurrence of a genetic basic (16)
oviparous describes organisms trait in several generations of a pharynx in flatworms, the mus-
that produce eggs that develop family (175) cular tube that leads from the
and hatch outside the body of pedipalp one of the second pair mouth to the gastrovascular
the mother (777) of appendages that are beside cavity; in animals with a diges-
ovoviviparous describes organ- the mouth of an arachnid and tive tract, the passage from the
isms that produce eggs that that are used for chewing and mouth to the larynx and
develop and hatch inside the handling prey (670) esophagus (886)
body of the mother (777) pelvic inflammatory disease a phenotype an organism’s
ovulation the release of an ovum pelvic infection of the upper appearance or other detectable
from a follicle of the ovary female reproductive system, characteristic that results from
(1001) including the uterus, ovaries, the organism’s genotype and
ovule a structure in the ovary of fallopian tubes, and other the environment (166)
a seed plant that contains an structures; it is a sexually phloem the tissue that conducts
embryo sac and that develops transmitted disease (1009) food (sugars, amino acids, and
into a seed after fertilization penis the male organ that trans- mineral nutrients) in vascular
(534) fers sperm to a female and that plants (507)
ovum a mature egg cell (149) carries urine out of the body phospholipid a lipid that con-
(998) tains phosphorus and that is a
pepsin an enzyme that is found structural component in cell
P in gastric juices and that helps membranes (60)
break down proteins into photoperiodism the response of
P generation parental genera- smaller molecules (908) plants to seasonal changes in
tion, the first two individuals perennial a plant whose under- the relative length of nights
that mate in a genetic cross ground vegetative parts live for and days (583)
(164) more than two years and photosynthesis the process by
paleontologist a scientist who whose upper parts die and which plants, algae, and some
studies fossils (285) regrow seasonally or annually bacteria use sunlight, carbon
Pangaea a single landmass that (573) dioxide, and water to produce
existed for about 40 million periosteum the fibrous tissue carbohydrates and oxygen (94)
years before it began to break that covers bones (851) phylogenetic tree a branching
apart and form the continents peripheral nervous system all of diagram that shows how
that we know today (722) the parts of the nervous system organisms are related through
parapodium in polychaetes, one except for the brain and the evolution (602)
of the two appendages that are spinal cord (the central ner- phylogeny the evolutionary his-
used for locomotion or gas vous system); includes the tory of a species or taxonomic
exchange (652) cranial nerves and nerves of group (307)
the neck, chest, lower back, phylum the taxonomic group
and pelvis (950) below kingdom and above
class (302)
Glossary 1085
Glossary continued
pigment a substance that gives plasmid a circular DNA mole- prediction a statement made in
another substance or a mix- cule that is usually found in advance that expresses the
ture its color (98) bacteria and that can replicate results that will be obtained
pilus a short, thick appendage independent of the main from testing a hypothesis if the
that allows a bacterium to chromosome (229) hypothesis is supported; the
attach to another bacterium plasmodium the multinucleate expected outcome if a hypoth-
(442) cytoplasm of a slime mold that esis is accurate (16)
pioneer species a species that is surrounded by a membrane preen gland in birds, a special
colonizes an uninhabited area and that moves as a mass gland that secretes oil that a
and that starts an ecological (470) bird spreads over its feathers
cycle in which many other plastron the bottom, or ventral, to clean and waterproof them
species become established portion of a turtle’s shell (782) (785)
(343) platelet a fragment of a cell that pregnancy the period of time
pistil the female reproductive is needed to form blood clots between conception and birth
part of a flower that produces (877) (1005)
seeds and consists of an ovary, point mutation a mutation in primary growth the growth that
style, and stigma (538) which only one nucleotide or occurs as a result of cell divi-
pith the tissue that is located in nitrogenous base in a gene is sion at the tips of stems and
the center of the stem of most changed (219) roots and that gives rise to pri-
vascular plants and that is pollen grain the structure that mary tissue (574)
used for storage (556) contains the male gameto- primary productivity the total
pituitary gland an endocrine phyte of seed plants (534) amount of organic material
gland that is located at the pollen tube a tubular structure that the autotrophic organisms
base of the brain, stores and that grows from a pollen grain, of an ecosystem produce (345)
releases hormones produced enters the embryo sac, and primary succession succession
by the hypothalamus, and allows the male reproductive that begins in an area that pre-
secretes hormones under the cells to move to the ovule (534) viously did not support life
control of the hypothalamus pollination the transfer of pollen (343)
(983) from the male reproductive primate a member of the order
placenta the structure that structures (the anthers) to the primates, the group of mam-
attaches a developing fetus to tip of a female reproductive mals that includes humans,
the uterus and that enables the structure (the pistil) of a apes, and monkeys; typically
exchange of nutrients, wastes, flower in angiosperms or to distinguished by highly devel-
and gases between the mother the ovule in gymnosperms oped brains, forward-directed
and the fetus (1005) (534) eyes, use of the hands, and
plankton the mass of mostly polygenic trait a characteristic varied locomotion (731)
microscopic organisms that of an organism that is deter- prion an infectious particle that
float or drift freely in the mined by many genes (177) consists only of a protein and
waters of aquatic (freshwater polyp a form of a cnidarian that that does not contain DNA or
and marine) environments has a cylindrical, hollow body RNA (441)
(378) and that is usually attached to probability the likelihood that a
plant propagation the practice a rock or to another object possible future event will
of reproducing plants from (622) occur in any given instance of
seeds or from vegetative parts population a group of organisms the event; the mathematical
(544) of the same species that live in ratio of the number of times
planula the free-swimming, cili- a specific geographical area one outcome of any event is
ated larva of a cnidarian (625) and interbreed (278) likely to occur to the number
plasma in biology, the liquid population density the number of possible outcomes of the
component of blood (876) of individuals of the same event (173)
plasma cell a type of white species that live in a given unit probe a strand of RNA or single-
blood cell that produces anti- of area (321) stranded DNA that has been
bodies (929) predation an interaction labeled with a radioactive ele-
between two species in which ment or fluorescent dye and
one species, the predator, feeds that is used to bind with and
on the other species, the prey identify a specific gene in
(362) genetic engineering (231)
1086 Glossary
producer an organism that can pseudopodium a retractable, realized niche the range of
make organic molecules from temporary cytoplasmic exten- resources that a species uses,
inorganic molecules; a photo- sion that functions in food the conditions that the species
synthetic or chemosynthetic ingestion and movement in can tolerate, and the functional
autotroph that serves as the certain ameboid cells (464) roles that the species plays as
basic food source in an psychoactive drug a substance a result of competition in the
ecosystem (345) that has a significant effect on species’ fundamental niche
profundal zone the zone in a the mind or on behavior (961) (367)
freshwater habitat to which lit- pulmonary vein the vein that reasoning the act of drawing a
tle sunlight penetrates (376) carries oxygenated blood from conclusion from facts or
proglottid one of the many body the lungs to the heart (759) assumption (828)
sections of a tapeworm; con- pulse the rhythmic pressure of receptor protein a protein that
tains reproductive organs the blood against the walls of a binds specific signal mole-
(631) vessel, particularly an artery cules, which causes the cell to
prokaryote an organism that (883) respond (84)
consists of a single cell that punctuated equilibrium a model recessive describes a trait or an
does not have a nucleus or cell of evolution in which short allele that is expressed only
organelles; an example is a periods of drastic change in when two recessive alleles for
bacterium (57) species, including mass extinc- the same characteristic are
prosimian a member of a tions and rapid speciation, are inherited (167)
suborder of primates that are separated by long periods of recombinant DNA DNA mole-
primarily arboreal and noctur- little or no change (282) cules that are artificially
nal, such as a lemur, loris, or Punnett square a graphic used created by combining DNA
tarsier (731) to predict the results of a from different sources (228)
prostate gland a gland in males genetic cross (170) red blood cell a disc-shaped cell
that contributes to the seminal pupa the immobile, nonfeeding that has no nucleus, that con-
fluid (998) stage between the larva and the tains hemoglobin, and that
protein an organic compound adult of insects that have com- transports oxygen in the
that is made of one or more plete metamorphosis; as a circulatory system (876)
chains of amino acids and that pupa, the organism is usually reflex an involuntary and almost
is a principal component of all enclosed in a cocoon or immediate movement in
cells (36) chrysalis and undergoes impor- response to a stimulus (952)
protist an organism that belongs tant anatomical changes (675) replication fork a Y-shaped point
to the kingdom Protista (261) that results when the two
protostome an organism whose strands of a DNA double helix
embryonic blastopore develops R separate so that the DNA mol-
into the mouth, whose coelom ecule can be replicated (199)
arises by schizocoely, and radial symmetry a body plan in repressor a regulatory protein
whose embryo has determi- which the parts of an animal’s that binds to an operator and
nate cleavage (692) body are organized in a circle blocks transcription of the
protozoan a single-celled protist around a central axis (598) genes of an operon (216)
that can be aquatic or para- radiometric dating a method of reproduction the process of pro-
sitic, that has organelles determining the age of an ducing offspring (7)
enclosed by a membrane, and object by estimating the rela- reproductive isolation the
that can move independently; tive percentages of a radioac- inability of members of a
examples include amebas and tive (parent) isotope and a population to successfully
paramecia (461) stable (daughter) isotope (252) interbreed with members of
provirus viral DNA that has radula a rasping, tonguelike another population of the
attached to a host cell’s chro- organ that is covered with same or a related species (281)
mosome and that is replicated chitinous teeth and that is resolution in microscopes, the
with the chromosome’s DNA used for feeding by many ability to form images with
(436) mollusks (643) fine detail (51)
pseudocoelomate an animal
that has a pseudocoelom, or
false body cavity (600)
Glossary 1087
Glossary continued
respiration the exchange of root cap the protective layer of secondary succession the
oxygen and carbon dioxide cells that covers the tip of a process by which one com-
between living cells and their root (555) munity replaces another
environment; includes breath- root hair an extension of the epi- community that has been par-
ing and cellular respiration dermis of a root that increases tially or totally destroyed (343)
(605) the root’s surface area for seed a plant embryo that is
resting potential the electric absorption (555) enclosed in a protective coat
potential across the cell mem- rRNA ribosomal RNA, an (504)
brane of a nerve cell or muscle organelle that contains most of seed coat the protective, outer
cell when the cell is not active the RNA in the cell and that is covering of a seed (535)
(946) responsible for ribosome seed plant a plant that produces
restriction enzyme an enzyme function (212) seeds (504)
that destroys foreign DNA r-strategist a species that is semen the fluid that contains
molecules by cutting them at adapted for living in an envi- sperm and various secretions
specific sites (229) ronment where changes are produced by the male repro-
retina the light-sensitive inner rapid and unpredictable; char- ductive organs (998)
layer of the eye, which receives acterized by rapid growth, semicircular canal the fluid-
images formed by the lens and high fertility, short life span, filled canal in the inner ear
transmits them through the small body size, and exponen- that helps maintain balance
optic nerve to the brain (958) tial population growth (324) and coordinate movements
Rh factor one of several blood- (959)
group antigens carried on the seminal vesicle one of two
surface of red blood cells (879) S glandular structures in male
rhizoid a rootlike structure in vertebrates that hold and
nonvascular plants, such as sapwood the tissue of the secrete seminal fluid (998)
mosses or liverworts, that secondary xylem that is dis-
seminiferous tubule one of the
holds the plants in place and tributed around the outside of
many tubules in the testis
aids in absorption (486) a tree trunk and is active in
where sperm are produced
rhizome a horizontal, under- transporting sap (557)
(996)
ground stem that provides a sarcomere the basic unit of con-
sensory neuron a neuron that
mechanism for asexual traction in skeletal and cardiac
carries stimuli from a sense
reproduction (510) muscle (857)
organ to the central nervous
ribosome a cell organelle com- scanning electron microscope a system (950)
posed of RNA and protein; the microscope that produces an
sensory receptor a specialized
site of protein synthesis (56) enlarged, three-dimensional
structure that contains the
RNA ribonucleic acid, a natural image of an object by using a
ends of sensory neurons and
polymer that is present in all beam of electrons rather than
that responds to specific types
living cells and that plays a light (54)
of stimuli (956)
role in protein synthesis (37) sebum the oily secretion of the
sepal in a flower, one of the
RNA polymerase an enzyme sebaceous glands (864)
outermost rings of modified
that starts (catalyzes) the for- second messenger a molecule leaves that protect the flower
mation of RNA by using a that is generated when a spe- bud (538)
strand of a DNA molecule as a cific substance attaches to a
septum a dividing wall, or parti-
template (209) receptor on the outside of a
tion, such as the wall between
rod one of the two types of light- cell membrane, which pro-
adjacent cells in a fungal
detecting cells in the eye; rods duces a change in cellular
hypha, the internal wall
can detect dim light and play a function (85)
between adjacent segments of
major role in noncolor and secondary growth plant growth an annelid, and the thick wall
night vision (958) that results from cell division between the right and left
root the mainly underground in the cambia, or lateral meris- chambers of the heart (760)
organ of vascular plants that tems, and that causes the
sessile describes an organism
holds plants in place and stems and roots to thicken
that remains attached to a sur-
absorbs and stores water and (574)
face for its entire life and does
minerals from the soil (507) not move (618)
1088 Glossary
seta one of the external bristles sodium-potassium pump a car- sporangium a specialized sac,
or spines that project from the rier protein that uses ATP to case, capsule, or other struc-
body of an annelid (652) actively transport sodium ions ture that produces spores
sex chromosome one of the out of a cell and potassium (463)
pair of chromosomes that ions into the cell (81) spore a reproductive cell or
determine the sex of an solution a homogeneous mix- multicellular structure that is
individual (122) ture of two or more substances resistant to environmental
sex-linked trait a trait that is uniformly dispersed through- conditions and that can
determined by a gene found on out a single phase (32) develop into an adult without
one of the sex chromosomes, sorus a cluster of spores or fusion with another cell (154)
such as the X chromosome or sporangia (532) sporophyte in plants and algae
the Y chromosome in humans source a part of a plant that that have alternation of gener-
(175) makes sugars and other ations, the diploid individual
sexual reproduction reproduc- organic compounds and from or generation that produces
tion in which gametes from which these compounds are haploid spores (154)
two parents unite (150) transported to other parts of sporozoite a sporozoan that has
sexual selection an evolutionary the plant (564) been released from the oocyst
mechanism by which traits speciation the formation of new and is ready to penetrate a
that increase the ability of species as a result of evolution new host cell (473)
individuals to attract or by natural selection (291) stabilizing selection a type of
acquire mates appear with species a group of organisms natural selection in which the
increasing frequency in a pop- that are closely related and average form of a trait is
ulation; selection in which a naturally mate to produce fer- favored and becomes more
mate is chosen on the basis of tile offspring; also the level of common (332)
a particular trait (836) classification below genus and stamen the male reproductive
shoot the portion of a plant that above subspecies (9) structure of a flower that pro-
grows mostly above the sperm the male gamete (sex duces pollen and consists of an
ground; includes the stems cell) (148) anther at the tip of a filament
and leaves (507) spermatogenesis the process by (538)
sieve tube in the phloem of a which male gametes form steroid a type of lipid that con-
flowering plant, a conducting (148) sists of four carbon rings to
tube that is made up of a spicule a needle of silica or cal- which various functional
series of sieve-tube members cium carbonate in the skeleton groups are attached and that
stacked end to end (554) of some sponges (620) usually has a physiological
sink any place where a plant spinal cord a column of nerve action (977)
stores or uses organic nutri- tissue running from the base stimulant a drug that increases
ents, such as sugar or starches of the brain through the verte- the activity of the body or the
(564) bral column (952) activity of some part of the
sinoatrial node a mass of car- spindle a network of micro- body (962)
diac muscle cells that lies at tubules that forms during stolon in plants, a creeping stem
the junction of the superior mitosis and moves chromatids that can develop roots and
vena cava with the right to the poles (128) shoots at its nodes or at its tip
atrium and that initiates and spinneret an organ that spiders to form new individuals; the
regulates contraction of the and certain insect larvae use to creeping hypha of some
heart (abbreviation, SA node) produce silky threads for webs fungi that gives rise to new
(882) and cocoons (670) individuals (486)
siphon a hollow tube of bivalves spiracle an external opening in stoma one of many openings in
used for sucking in and an insect or arthropod, used in a leaf or a stem of a plant that
expelling sea water (647) respiration (668) enable gas exchange to occur
skin gill a transparent structure (plural, stomata) (502)
spirillum a spiral-shaped
that projects from the surface bacterium (443) stroke a sudden loss of con-
of a sea star and that enables sciousness or paralysis that
respiration (695) spongin a fibrous protein that
occurs when the blood flow to
contains sulfur and composes the brain is interrupted (884)
the fibers of the skeleton of
some sponges (620)
Glossary 1089
Glossary continued
subcutaneous tissue the layer test cross the crossing of an transcription the process of
of cells that lies beneath the individual of unknown forming a nucleic acid by
skin (863) genotype with a homozygous using another molecule as a
substrate a part, substance, or recessive individual to deter- template; particularly the
element that lies beneath and mine the unknown genotype process of synthesizing RNA
supports another part, sub- (172) by using one strand of a DNA
stance, or element; the reac- testes the primary male repro- molecule as a template (208)
tant in reactions catalyzed by ductive organs, which produce transfer RNA an RNA molecule
enzymes (41) sperm cells and testosterone that transfers amino acids to
succession the replacement of (singular, testis) (996) the growing end of a polypep-
one type of community by thalamus the part of the brain tide chain during translation
another at a single location that directs incoming sensory (212)
over a period of time (343) and motor signals to the transformation the transfer of
swim bladder in bony fishes, a proper region (952) genetic material in the form of
gas-filled sac that is used to thecondont the extinct reptile DNA fragments from one cell
control buoyancy (756) from which dinosaurs evolved to another or from one organ-
symbiosis a relationship in (722) ism to another (191)
which two different organisms theory an explanation for some transgenic animal an animal
live in close association with phenomenon that is based on into which cloned genetic
each other (364) observation, experimentation, material has been transferred
synapse the junction at which and reasoning (19) (241)
the end of the axon of a therapsid the extinct order of translation the portion of pro-
neuron meets the end of a mammal-like reptiles that tein synthesis that takes place
dendrite or the cell body of likely gave rise to mammals at ribosomes and that uses the
another neuron or meets (728) codons in mRNA molecules to
another cell (948) thorax in higher vertebrates, the specify the sequence of amino
syphilis a sexually transmitted part of the body between the acids in polypeptide chains
disease caused by the bac- neck and the abdomen; in (208)
terium Treponema pallidum other animals, the body region translocation the movement of a
(1009) behind the head; in arthro- segment of DNA from one
pods, the mid-body region chromosome to another, which
(666) results in a change in the posi-
T thylakoid a membrane system tion of the segment; also the
found within chloroplasts that movement of soluble nutrients
target cell a specific cell to contains the components for from one part of a plant to
which a hormone is directed to photosynthesis (99) another (564)
produce a specific effect (977) tissue a group of similar cells transpiration the process by
taxonomy the science of that perform a common func- which plants release water
describing, naming, and classi- tion (419) vapor into the air through
fying organisms (300) tissue culture the technique for stomata; also the release of
teleost a group of ray-finned growing living cells in an arti- water vapor into the air by
fishes that have a caudal fin, ficial medium (544) other organisms (351)
scales, and a swim bladder; the tolerance the condition of drug trochophore a free-swimming,
largest group of bony fishes addiction in which greater ciliated larva of many worms
(757) amounts of a drug are needed and some mollusks (642)
tendon a tough connective tis- to achieve the desired effect trophic level one of the steps in
sue that attaches a muscle to a (962) a food chain or food pyramid;
bone or to another body part toxin a substance that is pro- examples include producers
(856) duced by one organism and and primary, secondary, and
terrestrial describes an organ- that is poisonous to other tertiary consumers (345)
ism that lives on land (721) organisms (449) tropism the movement of all or
trachea in insects, myriapods, part of an organism in
and spiders, one of a network response to an external stimu-
of air tubes; in vertebrates, the lus, such as light or heat;
tube that connects the pharynx movement is either toward or
to the lungs (668) away from the stimulus (582)
1090 Glossary
true-breeding describes organ- vaccine a substance prepared vein in biology, a vessel that car-
isms or genotypes that are from killed or weakened ries blood to the heart (873)
homozygous for a specific trait pathogens and introduced into vena cava one of the two large
and thus always produce off- a body to produce immunity veins that carry blood from the
spring that have the same (190) body tissues to the heart (881)
phenotype for that trait (164) vagina the canal in the female ventricle one of the two large
that extends from the vulva to muscular chambers that pump
the cervix and that receives the blood out of the heart (881)
U penis during sexual intercourse vertebra one of the 33 bones in
(1000) the spinal column (backbone)
ungulate a hoofed mammal valve a fold of membranes that (712)
(814) controls the flow of a fluid vertebrate an animal that has a
uracil one of the four bases that (874) backbone; includes mammals,
combine with sugar and phos- vas deferens a duct through birds, reptiles, amphibians,
phate to form a nucleotide which sperm move from the and fish (267)
subunit of RNA; uracil pairs epididymis to the ejaculatory vesicle a small cavity or sac
with adenine (208) duct at the base of the penis that contains materials in a
urea the principal nitrogenous (997) eukaryotic cell; forms when
product of the metabolism of vascular bundle in a plant, a part of the cell membrane
proteins that forms in the liver strand of conducting tissue surrounds the materials to be
from amino acids and from that contains both xylem and taken into the cell or trans-
compounds of ammonia and phloem (556) ported within the cell (63)
that is found in urine and vascular cambium in a plant, vessel in plants, a tubelike
other body fluids (912) the lateral meristem that pro- structure in the xylem that is
ureter one of the two narrow duces secondary xylem and composed of connected cells
tubes that carry urine from the phloem (575) that conduct water and min-
kidneys to the urinary bladder vascular plant a plant that has a eral nutrients; in animals, a
(914) vascular system composed of tube or duct that carries blood
urethra the tube that carries xylem and phloem, specialized or another bodily fluid (554)
urine from the urinary bladder tissues that conduct materials vestigial structure a structure in
to the outside of the body from one part of the plant to an organism that is reduced in
(914) another (504) size and function and that may
urinary bladder a hollow, mus- vascular system a conducting have been complete and func-
cular organ that stores urine system of tissues that trans- tional in the organism’s
(914) port water and other materials ancestors (286)
urine the liquid excreted by the in plants or in animals (504) villus one of the many tiny pro-
kidneys, stored in the bladder, vascular tissue the specialized jections from the cells in the
and passed through the ure- conducting tissue that is found lining of the small intestine;
thra to the outside of the body in higher plants and that is increases the surface area of
(914) made up mostly of xylem and the lining for absorption (909)
uterus in female mammals, the phloem (422) viroid an infectious agent that
hollow, muscular organ in vector in biology, any agent, consists of a small strand of
which a fertilized egg is such as a plasmid or a virus, RNA and that causes disease
embedded and in which the that can incorporate foreign in plants (441)
embryo and fetus develop DNA and transfer that DNA virulent describes a micro-
(1000) from one organism to another; organism or virus that causes
an intermediate host that disease and that is highly
transfers a pathogen or a para- infectious (190)
V site to another organism (229) virus a nonliving, infectious par-
vegetative part any nonrepro- ticle composed of a nucleic
vaccination the administration ductive part of a plant (516) acid and a protein coat; it can
of treated microorganisms into vegetative reproduction a type invade and destroy a cell (434)
humans or animals to induce of asexual reproduction in visceral mass the central sec-
an immune response (931) which new plants grow from tion of a mollusk’s body that
nonreproductive plant parts contains the mollusk’s organs
(541) (643)
Glossary 1091
Glossary continued
vitamin an organic compound Z

that participates in biochemi-
cal reactions and that builds zygosporangium in members of
various molecules in the body; the phylum Zygomycota, a sex-
some vitamins are called coen- ual structure that is formed by
zymes and activate specific the fusion of two gametangia
enzymes (904) and that contains one or more
zygotes that resulted from the
fusion of gametes produced by
W the gametangia (486)
zygospore in some algae, a
water vascular system a system thick-walled protective struc-
of canals filled with a watery ture that contains a zygote that
fluid that circulates through- resulted from the fusion of two
out the body of an echinoderm gametes (462)
(695) zygote the cell that results from
weaning the time when an ani- the fusion of gametes; a fertil-
mal’s dependence on its ized egg (121)
mother for food (milk) and
protection comes to an end
(806)
white blood cell a type of cell in
the blood that destroys bacte-
ria, viruses, and toxic proteins
and helps the body develop
immunities (877)
withdrawal the set of symptoms
associated with the removal of
an addictive drug from the
body (962)
Y
yeast a very small, unicellular
fungus that ferments carbohy-
drates into alcohol and carbon
dioxide; used to ferment beer
and to leaven bread and used
as a source of vitamins and
proteins (487)
1092 Glossary
Spanish Glossary
A active site / sitio activo el sitio allergy / alergia una reacción

en una enzima que se une al física a un antígeno, el cual
abiotic factor / factor abiótic un sustrato (41) puede ser una substancia
factor ambiental que no está active transport / transporte común que produce una reac-
asociado con las actividades de activo el movimiento de sub- ción ligera o que no produce
los seres vivos (340) stancias químicas, normal- ninguna reacción en la
ABO blood group system / sis- mente a través de la población general (936)
tema de grupo sanguíneo membrana celular, en contra alternation of generations /
ABO un sistema que se usa de un gradiente de concen- alternacia de generaciones la
para clasificar la sangre tración; requiere que la célula alternación entre reproducción
humana en función de los gaste energía (81) sexual y asexual que se da en
antígenos que se encuentran adaptation / adaptación el pro- ciertas plantas y animales (463)
en la superficie de los glóbulos ceso de adaptarse a un ambi- alveoli / alveolo cualquiera de
rojos (878) ente; un cambio anatómico, las diminutas células de aire de
acanthodian / acantodio un fisiológico o en la conducta los pulmones, en donde ocurre
pez antiguo; el primer verte- que mejora la capacidad de el intercambio de oxígeno y
brado con mandíbulas que se supervivencia de una dióxido de carbono (886)
conoce (715) población (279) amino acid / aminoácido
acid / ácido cualquier com- addiction / adicción una depen- cualquiera de las 20 distintas
puesto que aumenta el número dencia fisiológica o psicológica moléculas orgánicas que con-
de iones de hidrógeno cuando de una substancia, tal como el tienen un grupo carboxilo y un
se disuelve en agua; los ácidos alcohol o las drogas (962) grupo amino y que se combi-
cambian el color del papel tor- adductor muscle / músculo nan para formar proteínas (36)
nasol a rojo y forman sales al aductor el músculo grueso que amino acid–based hormone /
reaccionar con bases y con une las dos válvulas en los hormona derivada de aminoá-
algunos metales (33) moluscos y hace que la concha cidos una hormona que está
acid rain / lluvia ácida precip- se abra (647) formada por aminoácidos sim-
itación con un pH inferior al adhesion / adhesión la fuerza ples, péptidos o proteínas (977)
normal, que tiene una concen- de atracción entre dos cuerpos amniotic egg / huevo amniótico
tración inusualmente alta de de diferentes substancias que un tipo de huevo que es pro-
ácido sulfúrico y ácido nítrico están en contacto (31) ducido por los reptiles, las aves
como resultado de la contami- adrenal gland / glándula y los mamíferos que ponen
nación química del aire por suprarrenal una de las dos huevos y que contiene una
fuentes tales como los escapes glándulas endocrinas ubicadas gran cantidad de yema; nor-
de los automóviles y la quema arriba de cada riñón (985) malmente está rodeado por
de combustibles fósiles (386) aerobic / aeróbico término que una cáscara áspera y dura,
acoelomate / acelomado un describe un proceso que dentro de la cual se desarro-
animal que no tiene celoma, o requiere oxígeno (104) llan el embrión y sus mem-
cavidad en el cuerpo (600) branes embrionarias (775)
aggregation / conglomerado un
actin / actina una proteína grupo de células u otros orga- amylase / amilasa enzima que
responsable de la contracción nismos (418) descompone los almidones en
y relajación de los músculos azúcares (907)
agnathan / agnato un miembro
(857) de una clase de peces primi- anaerobic / anaeróbico término
action potential / potencial de tivos, sin mandíbulas (714) que describe un proceso que
acción un cambio súbito en la no requiere oxígeno (104)
AIDS / SIDA síndrome de
polaridad de la membrana de inmunodeficiencia adquirida, anemia / anemia condición en
una neurona, célula glandular enfermedad causada por una la que se reduce la capacidad
o fibra muscular, el cual infección de VIH, la cual de los glóbulos rojos de trans-
facilita la transmisión de resulta en un sistema portar oxígeno y la produc-
impulsos eléctricos (946) inmunológico ineficiente (934) ción de glóbulos rojos
activation energy / energía de disminuye (877)
allele / alelo una de las formas
activación la cantidad mínima alternativas de un gene que rige angiosperm / angiosperma una
de energía que se requiere un carácter, como por ejemplo, planta que da flores y que pro-
para iniciar una reacción el color del cabello (167) duce semillas dentro de la
química (39) fruta (514)
Spanish Glossary 1093

Spanish Glossary continued
annual / anual planta que com- appendage / apéndice una ATP / ATP adenosín trifosfato;
pleta su ciclo de vida, se repro- estructura que se extiende del molécula orgánica que fun-
duce y muere en una estación cuerpo principal, como por ciona como la fuente principal
de cultivo (573) ejemplo, una extremidad, un de energía para los procesos
annual ring / anillo anual en el tentáculo, una aleta o un ala celulares; formada por una
xilema secundario (madera), el (664) base nitrogenada, un azúcar y
anillo de crecimiento que se appendicular skeleton / tres grupos fosfato (37)
forma en una estación (575) esqueleto apendicular los atrium / aurícula una cámara
anther / antera en las plantas huesos de los brazos y pier- que recibe la sangre que
que dan flores, la punta del nas (850) regresa al corazón (881)
estambre, que contiene los aquifer / acuífero un cuerpo autoimmune disease / enfer-
sacos de polen donde se for- rocoso o sedimento que alma- medad autoinmune una enfer-
man los granos (538) cena agua subterránea y per- medad en la que el sistema
antheridium / anteridio una mite que fluya (393) inmunológico ataca las células
estructura reproductiva que archaebacteria / arqueobacteria del propio organismo (933)
produce células sexuales mas- un organismo procariótico que autosome / autosoma cualquier
culinas en las plantas que no se diferencia de otros procari- cromosoma que no es un cro-
dan flores ni producen semil- otes por la composición de su mosoma sexual (122)
las (530) membrana y pared celular autotroph / autótrofo un
antibiotic / antibiótico una (258) organismo que produce sus
substancia que inhibe el archegonium / arquegonio una propios nutrientes a partir de
crecimiento de algunos estructura reproductiva substancias inorgánicas o del
microorganismos o los mata femenina de ciertas plantas ambiente, en lugar de con-
(443) pequeñas y no vasculares, que sumir otros organismos (94)
antibody / anticuerpo una pro- produce un solo óvulo y en el auxin / auxina una hormona
teína que reacciona ante un cual ocurren la fertilización y vegetal que regula el
antígeno específico o que inac- el desarrollo (530) alargamiento de las células
tiva o destruye toxinas (929) artery / arteria un vaso sanguí- (580)
anticodon / anticodón una neo que transporta sangre del axial skeleton / esqueleto axial
región del ARNt formada por corazón a los órganos del los huesos del cráneo y la
tres bases que complementan cuerpo (873) columna vertebral (850)
el codón del ARNm (212) arthropod / artrópodo miembro axon / axón una extensión
antigen / antígeno una substan- del phylum Arthropoda, el cual alargada de una neurona que
cia que estimula una respuesta incluye a animales invertebra- transporta impulsos hacia
inmunológica (927) dos tales como insectos, fuera del cuerpo de la célula
antigen shifting / cambio crustáceos y arácnidos, carac- (944)
antigénico la producción de terizados por tener un cuerpo
antígenos nuevos por un virus segmentado y un par de
cuando éste muta con el paso apéndices (266) B
del tiempo (932) ascus / asca el saco de esporas
aorta / aorta la arteria principal donde los ascomicetos pro- B cell / célula B un glóbulo
del cuerpo; transporta sangre ducen acosporas (487) blanco de la sangre que
del ventrículo izquierdo a la asexual reproduction / repro- madura en los huesos y fabrica
circulación sistémica (882) ducción asexual reproducción anticuerpos (927)
apical dominance / dominancia que no involucra la unión de bacillus / bacilo una bacteria que
apical inhibición del creci- gametos, en la que un solo tiene forma de bastón (443)
miento lateral de un brote en progenitor produce descen- bacteriophage / bacteriófago
el tallo de una planta debido a dencia que es genéticamente un virus que infecta a las bac-
la producción de auxina en el igual al progenitor (150) terias (192)
brote terminal (581) asymmetrical / asimétrico de basal disk / disco basal un área
apical meristem / meristemo forma irregular; sin simetría de los celenterados, como las
apical la región de crecimiento (598) hidras, medusas y corales, que
en la punta de los tallos y atom / átomo la unidad más les permite adherirse a las
raíces de las plantas (574) pequeña de un elemento que superficies (624)
conserva las propiedades de
ese elemento (28)
1094 Spanish Glossary

base / base cualquier com- biogeochemical cycle / ciclo body plan / plan corporal la
puesto que aumenta el número biogeoquímico la circulación forma, simetría y organización
de iones de hidróxido cuando de substancias del ambiente a interna de un animal (598)
se disuelve en agua; las bases los seres vivos y de los seres bone marrow / médula ósea
cambian el color del papel tor- vivos al ambiente (350) tejido blando que se encuen-
nasol a azul y forman sales al biological magnification / mag- tra en el interior de los hue-
reaccionar con ácidos (33) nificación biológica la acumu- sos, donde se producen los
base pairing rules / regla de lación de cantidades cada vez glóbulos blancos y los glóbu-
apareamiento de las bases mayores de substancias tóxi- los rojos (851)
las reglas que establecen que cas en cada eslabón sucesivo brain / encéfalo la masa de
en el ADN, la citosina se une de la cadena alimenticia (391) tejido nervioso que es el centro
con la guanina y la adenina se biological species / especie principal de control del sis-
une a la timina, y que en el biológica un grupo de organis- tema nervioso (950)
ARN, la adenina se une con el mos que sólo se reproducen brain stem / tronco encefálico
uracilo (197) entre ellos mismos y que nor- la porción del cerebro que
basidium / basidio una estruc- malmente están limitados a tiene forma de tronco, la cual
tura que produce esporas una región geográfica (305) conecta los hemisferios cere-
asexuales en los basidiomice- biology / biología el estudio brales con la médula espinal y
tos (488) científico de los seres vivos y mantiene las funciones nece-
behavior / conducta una acción sus interacciones con el medio sarias del cuerpo, tales como
que un individuo realiza en ambiente (6) la respiración y la circulación
respuesta a un estímulo o a su biomass / biomasa materia (951)
ambiente (824) orgánica que puede ser una bronchus / bronquio uno de los
biennial / bienal una planta que fuente de energía; la masa dos tubos que conectan los
tiene un ciclo de vida de dos total de los organismos en un pulmones con la tráquea (886)
años (573) área determinada (349) budding / gemación reproduc-
bilateral symmetry / simetría biome / bioma una región ción asexual en la que una
bilateral una condición en la extensa caracterizada por un parte del organismo progeni-
que dos mitades iguales de un tipo de clima específico y cier- tor se separa y forma un nuevo
cuerpo son imágenes de espejo tos tipos de comunidades de organismo (487)
una de otra (598) plantas y animales (372) bulbourethral gland / glándula
binary fission / fisión binaria una biotic factor / factor biótico un bulbouretral una de las dos
forma de reproducción asexual factor ambiental que está aso- glándulas del aparato repro-
de los organismos unicelulares, ciado con las actividades de ductor masculino que añaden
por medio de la cual la célula los seres vivos o que resulta de líquido al semen durante la
se divide en dos células del ellas (340) eyaculación (998)
mismo tamaño (119) blastocyst / blastocisto la etapa
binomial nomenclature / de bástula modificada de los
nomenclatura binomial un embriones de los mamíferos C
sistema para darle a cada (1004)
organismo un nombre cientí- blastopore / blastoporo una calorie / caloría la cantidad de
fico de dos palabras, el cual abertura que se desarrolla en energía que se requiere para
está formando por el género la blástula (692) aumentar la temperatura de 1
seguido de la especie (300) blastula / blástula la etapa en la g de agua en 1°C; la Caloría
biodiversity / biodiversidad la que se encuentra un embrión que se usa para indicar el con-
variedad de organismos que se antes de la gastrulación (596) tenido energético de los ali-
encuentran en un área deter- blood pressure / presión san- mentos es la kilocaloría (900)
minada, la variación genética guínea la fuerza que la sangre Calvin cycle / ciclo de Calvin
dentro de una población, la ejerce en las paredes de las una vía bioquímica de la foto-
variedad de especies en una arterias (882) síntesis en la que el dióxido de
comunidad o la variedad de body cavity / cavidad corporal carbono se convierte en glu-
comunidades en un ecosis- cualquier cavidad que aloja cosa usando ATP (102)
tema (341) órganos, tales como la cavidad cancer / cáncer un tumor en el
torácica, abdominal o pélvica cual las células comienzan a
(849) dividirse a una tasa incontro-
lable y se vuelven invasivas (12)

capillary / capilar diminuto vaso cell cycle / ciclo celular el ciclo cephalothorax / cefalotórax en
sanguíneo que permite el de vida de una célula; en los los arácnidos y algunos
intercambio entre la sangre y eucariotes, consiste de un crustáceos, la parte del cuerpo
las células de los tejidos (873) período de crecimiento celular constituida por la cabeza y el
capsid / cápside una cubierta en el que el ADN se sintetiza, y tórax (666)
de proteína que rodea el cen- un período de división celular cereal / cereal cualquier hierba
tro de ácido nucleico de un en el que ocurre la mitosis (125) que produce granos que
virus (435) cell membrane / membrana pueden ser usados como ali-
capsule / cápsula en los mus- celular una capa de fosfolípi- mento, tales como el arroz,
gos, la parte que contiene las dos que cubre la superficie de trigo, maíz, avena o centeno
esporas; en las bacterias, una la célula y funciona como una (518)
capa protectora de polisacári- barrera entre el interior de la cerebellum / cerebelo una por-
dos que se encuentra alrededor célula y el ambiente de la ción posterior del cerebro que
de la pared celular (443) célula (56) coordina el movimiento de los
carapace / caparazón una placa cell theory / teoría celular la músculos y controla las activi-
parecida a un escudo que teoría que establece que todos dades subconscientes y algunas
cubre el cefalotórax de algunos los seres vivos están formados funciones de equilibrio (951)
crustáceos (782) por células, que las células son cerebral ganglion / ganglio
carbohydrate / carbohidrato las unidades fundamentales de cerebral uno de un par de
cualquier compuesto orgánico los organismos y que las célu- conjuntos de células nerviosas
que está hecho de carbono, las provienen únicamente de que funcionan como si fueran
hidrógeno y oxígeno y que pro- células existentes (55) un cerebro primitivo en la
porciona nutrientes a las célu- cell wall / pared celular una parte anterior de algunos
las de los seres vivos (34) estructura rígida que rodea la invertebrados, tales como los
carbon fixation / fijación del car- membrana celular y le brinda anélidos (651)
bono la síntesis de compuestos soporte a la célula (57) cerebrum / cerebro la parte
orgánicos a partir del dióxido cellular respiration / respiración superior del encéfalo que
de carbono, como ocurre celular el proceso por medio recibe las sensaciones y con-
durante la fotosíntesis (102) del cual las células producen trola el movimiento (951)
carnivore / carnívoro un animal energía a partir de los carbo- chelicera / quelíceros en los
que se alimenta de otros ani- hidratos; el oxígeno atmos- arácnidos, uno de los dos
males (346) férico se combina con la apéndices usados para atacar a
carotenoid / carotenoide una glucosa para formar agua y las presas (670)
clase de pigmentos que se dióxido de carbono (95) chitin / quitina un carbohidrato
encuentran presentes princi- central nervous system / que forma parte del
palmente en las plantas y que sistema nervioso central el exoesqueleto de los artrópodos
ayudan en la fotosíntesis (98) cerebro y la médula espinal; su y de otros organismos, como
carrier protein / proteína trans- principal función es controlar por ejemplo, insectos,
portadora una proteína que el flujo de información en el crustáceos, hongos y algunas
transporta substancias a través cuerpo (950) algas (482)
de la membrana celular (80) central vacuole / vacuola cen- chlamydia / clamidia una enfer-
carrying capacity / capacidad tral una cavidad o bolsa medad bacteriana transmitida
de carga la población más grande que se encuentra en las sexualmente caracterizada por
grande que un ambiente puede células vegetales o en los pro- dolor al orinar y descargas
sostener en cualquier tozoarios y que contiene aire o vaginales (1009)
momento dado (322) alimentos parcialmente digeri-
dos (66)
cartilage / cartílago un tejido
conectivo flexible y fuerte (715) centromere / centrómero la
región de un cromosoma que
caste / casta un grupo de insec-
mantiene unidas las dos
tos en una colonia que tienen
cromátidas hermanas durante
una función específica (679)
la mitosis (119)
cell / célula en biología, la
cephalization / cefalización la
unidad más pequeña que puede
concentración de tejido
realizar todos los procesos
nervioso y órganos sensoriales
vitales; las células están cubier-
en la parte anterior de un
tas por una membrana y tienen
organismo (599)
un núcleo y citoplasma (7)

chlorofluorocarbons / clorofluo- cilium / cilio una estructura pare- codominance / codominancia
rocarbonos hidrocarburos en cida a un pelo ordenada en una condición en la que los
los que algunos o todos los hileras muy comprimidas, que dos alelos de un gene están
átomos de hidrógeno son se proyecta a partir de la super- totalmente expresados (178)
reemplazados por cloro y flúor; ficie de algunas células (58) codon / codón en el ADN, una
se usan en líquidos refriger- cladistics / cladística un sis- secuencia de tres nucleótidos
antes para refrigeradores y tema de clasificación que codifica un aminoácido o
aires acondicionados y en sol- filogénica en el que los únicos indica una señal de inicio o
ventes para limpieza; su uso criterios de agrupación de los una señal de terminación (211)
está restringido porque taxa son los caracteres coelom / celoma una cavidad
destruyen las moléculas de comunes derivados y la ascen- del cuerpo que contiene los
ozono de la estratosfera (abre- dencia (327) órganos internos (600)
viatura: CFC) (387) cladogram / cladograma un coelomate / celomado un ani-
chlorophyll / clorofila un pig- diagrama basado en modelos mal que tiene una cavidad en
mento verde presente en la de caracteres comunes deriva- el cuerpo donde se encuentran
mayoría de las células vege- dos, que muestra las rela- los órganos internos (600)
tales que les da a las plantas su ciones evolutivas entre grupos coevolution / coevolución la
color verde característico y de organismos (309) evolución de dos o más
que reacciona con la luz del class / clase una categoría tax- especies que se debe a su influ-
Sol, el dióxido de carbono y onómica que contiene órdenes encia mutua, a menudo de un
el agua para formar carbo- con características comunes modo que hace que la relación
hidratos (98) (302) sea más mutuamente benefi-
chloroplast / cloroplasto un cleavage / segmentación en el ciosa (362)
organelo que se encuentra en desarrollo biológico, una serie cohesion / cohesión la fuerza
las células vegetales y en las de divisiones celulares que que mantiene unidas a las
células de las algas, en el cual ocurren inmediatamente moléculas de un solo material
se lleva a cabo la fotosíntesis después de que un óvulo es (31)
(66) fecundado (1004) colon / colon una sección del
choanocyte / coanocito climate / clima las condiciones intestino grueso (910)
cualquiera de las células flage- promedio del tiempo en un
ladas que cubren las cavidades colonial organism / organismo
área durante un largo período colonial un conjunto de célu-
de una esponja (619) de tiempo (371) las genéticamente idénticas
chordate / cordado un animal clone / clon un organismo que están asociadas perma-
que, en alguna etapa de su producido por reproducción nentemente, pero en el que no
ciclo de vida, tiene un nervio asexual que es genéticamente se da una gran integración de
dorsal, un notocrodio y bolsas idéntico a su progenitor; las actividades celulares (418)
faríngeas; entre los ejemplos se clonar significa hacer un
encuentran los mamíferos, commensalism / comensalismo
duplicado genético (150) una relación entre dos organis-
aves, reptiles, anfibios, peces y
closed circulatory system / mos en la que uno se beneficia
algunas formas marinas inferi-
aparato circulatorio cerrado y el otro no es afectado (364)
ores (700)
un aparato circulatorio en el community / comunidad un
chromatid / cromátida una de que el corazón hace que la
las dos hebras de un cromo- grupo de varias especies que
sangre circule a través de una viven en el mismo hábitat e
soma que se vuelve visible red de vasos que forman un
durante la meiosis o mitosis interactúan unas con otras
circuito cerrado; la sangre no (340)
(119) sale de los vasos sanguíneos y
chromosome / cromosoma en competition / competencia la
los materiales pasan a través relación entre dos especies (o
una célula eucariótica, una de de las paredes de los vasos por
las estructuras del núcleo que individuos) en la que ambas
difusión (606) especies (o individuos) inten-
está hecha de ADN y proteína; cnidocyte / cnidocito una célula
en una célula procariótica, el tan usar el mismo recurso lim-
urticante de los cnidarios (623) itado, de modo que ambas
anillo principal de ADN (119)
coccus / coco una bacteria que resultan afectadas negativa-
chrysalis / crisálida la pupa de tiene forma de esfera (443) mente por la relación (365)
cubierta dura de ciertos insec-
cochlea / cóclea un tubo enrol-
tos, como las mariposas (675)
lado que se encuentra en el
oído interno y es esencial para
poder oír (959)

competitive exclusion / continental drift / deriva conti- countercurrent flow / flujo a

exclusión competitiva la nental la hipótesis que contracorriente en las bran-
exclusión de una especie por establece que alguna vez los quias de los peces, un arreglo
otra debido a la competencia continentes formaron una sola por el cual el agua fluye aleján-
(369) masa de tierra, se dividieron y dose de la cabeza y la sangre
complement system / sistema se fueron a la deriva hasta ter- fluye hacia la cabeza (747)
complementario un sistema minar en sus ubicaciones crossing-over / entrecruzamien
de proteínas que circulan en el actuales (268) el intercambio de material
torrente sanguíneo y que se contour feather / pluma de con- genético entre cromosomas
combinan con anticuerpos torno una las plumas más homólogos durante la meiosis;
para proteger en contra de los externas que cubren a un ave y puede resultar en la recombi-
antígenos (926) que sirven para determinar su nación genética (144)
complementary base pairing / forma (784) cud / bolo alimenticio de los
complementariedad de las control group / grupo de con- rumiante comida parcial-
bases nitrogenadas una car- trol en un experimento, un mente digerida que es regurgi-
acterística de los ácidos nucle- grupo que sirve como estándar tada, masticada y tragada
icos en que la secuencia de de comparación con otro nuevamente con el fin de
bases de una hebra está grupo, al cual el grupo de con- digerirla más por los
acoplada con la secuencia de trol es idéntico excepto por un mamíferos que tienen rumen
bases de la otra (197) factor (17) (814)
compound / compuesto una convergent evolution / evolu- cuticle / cutícula una capa
substancia formada por áto- ción convergente el proceso cerosa o grasosa e imperme-
mos de dos o más elementos por medio del cual especies no able ubicada en la pared
diferentes unidos por enlaces relacionadas se vuelven más externa de las células de la epi-
químicos (29) parecidas a medida que se dermis (502)
compound eye / ojo compuesto adaptan al mismo tipo de cyanobacteria / cianobacteria
un ojo compuesto por muchos ambiente (307) una bacteria que efectúa la
detectores de luz separados cork / corcho la capa externa de fotosíntesis, como por ejem-
por células de pigmentos (666) corteza de cualquier planta plo, el alga verdiazul (258)
concentration gradient/gradi- leñosa (553) cystic fibrosis / fibrosis quística
ente de concentración una cork cambium / cámbium de un trastorno genético mortal
diferencia en la concentración corcho una capa de tejido que en el que se secretan canti-
de una substancia a través de se encuentra debajo de la capa dades excesivas de moco, lo
una distancia (74) de corcho, en la cual se pro- cual bloquea los conductos
conditioning / condicion- ducen las células de corcho intestinales y bronquiales y
amiento aprendizaje por (575) causa dificultad al respirar (12)
asociación (827) coronary artery / arteria coro- cytokinesis / citocinesis la
cone / cono en los animales, un naria una de las dos arterias división del citoplasma de una
fotorreceptor de la retina que que suministran sangre direc- célula; la citocinesis ocurre
distingue colores y es muy sen- tamente al corazón (882) después de que el núcleo de la
sible a la luz brillante (958) corpus luteum / cuerpo lúteo la célula se divide por mitosis o
cone / cono en las plantas, una estructura que se forma a par- meiosis (125)
estructura portadora de semil- tir de los folículos rotos del cytoplasm / citoplasma la región
las (511) ovario después de la ovulación; de la célula dentro de la mem-
connective tissue / tejido libera hormonas (1002) brana, que incluye el líquido, el
conectivo un tejido que tiene cortex / corteza en las plantas, citoesqueleto y los organelos,
mucha substancia intracelular, el tejido primario ubicado en pero no el núcleo (56)
y que conecta y sostiene otros la epidermis; en los animales, cytoskeleton / citoesqueleto
tejidos (847) la porción externa de un red citoplásmica de filamentos
consumer / consumidor un órgano (555) de proteínas que juega un
organismo que se alimenta de cotyledon / cotiledón la hoja papel esencial en el
otros organismos o de materia embrionaria de una semilla movimiento, forma y división
orgánica, en lugar de producir (535) de la célula (56)
sus propios nutrientes o de cytotoxic T cell / célula T
obtenerlos de fuentes inorgáni- citotóxica un tipo de célula T
cas (345) que reconoce y destruye las
células infectadas por un virus
(927)
D deuterostome / deuteróstomo dispersion / dispersión en
un animal cuya boca no se óptica, el proceso de separar
decomposer / descomponedor deriva del blastoporo y cuyo una onda que tiene diferentes
un organismo que desintegra embrión presenta seg- frecuencias (por ejemplo, la
la materia orgánica de organis- mentación indeterminada (692) luz blanca) de las ondas indi-
mos muertos y se alimenta de diabetes mellitus / diabetes viduales que la componen
ella; entre los ejemplos se mellitus un serio trastorno en (los distintos colores) (321)
encuentran las bacterias y los el que las células no pueden diurnal / diurno término que
hongos (347) obtener glucosa de la sangre; describe animales que son
dendrite / dendrita la extensión es causado por una deficiencia activos durante el día y duer-
citoplásmica de una neurona de insulina o por una falta de men en la noche (732)
que recibe estímulos (944) respuesta a la insulina (987) DNA / ADN ácido desoxirribonu-
density-dependent factor / fac- diaphragm / diafragma un mús- cleico, el material que contiene
tor dependiente de la densi- culo en forma de cúpula que la información que determina
dad una variable afectada por está unido a las costillas inferi- las características que se
el número de organismos pre- ores y que es el músculo prin- heredan (37)
sentes en un área determinada cipal de la respiración (886) DNA fingerprint / huella de ADN
(322) diatom / diatomea un alga el patrón de bandas que se
density-independent factor / unicelular que tiene una con- obtiene cuando los fragmentos
factor independiente de la cha doble la cual contiene de ADN de un individuo se
densidad una variable que sílice (466) separan (237)
afecta a una población inde- dicot / dicotiledónea una DNA helicase / ADN helicasa
pendientemente de la densidad angiosperma con dos cotile- una enzima que separa las
de la población, por ejemplo, dones, venación en forma de hebras de la doble hélice del
el clima (324) red y partes florales en grupos ADN durante la replicación del
deoxyribose / desoxirribosa de cuatro o cinco (515) ADN (198)
azúcar de cinco carbonos que differentiation / diferenciación DNA polymerase / ADN
es un componente de los el proceso por medio del cual polimerasa una enzima que
nucleótidos de ADN (194) la estructura y función de las actúa como catalizadora en la
dependent variable / variable partes de un organismo cam- formación de la molécula de
dependiente en un experi- bian para permitir la especial- ADN (199)
mento, la variable que se cam- ización de dichas partes (419) DNA replication / replicación
bia o que se determina al diffusion / difusión el del ADN el proceso de hacer
manipular dos o más factores movimiento de partículas de una copia del ADN (198)
(las variables independientes) regiones de mayor densidad a dormancy / letargo un estado en
(17) regiones de menor densidad el que las semillas, esporas,
depressant / depresor un (75) bulbos y otros órganos repro-
medicamento que reduce la digestion / digestión la descom- ductores dejan de crecer y
actividad funcional y produce posición de la comida en sub- desarrollarse y reducen su
relajación muscular (964) stancias químicas que se usan metabolismo, sobre todo la
derived character / carácter para generar energía (900) respiración (584)
derivado una característica diploid / diploide una célula que double fertilization / fecun-
especial de un grupo particular contiene dos juegos de cromo- dación doble el proceso por
de organismos (307) somas haploides (121) medio del cual uno de los dos
dermal tissue / tejido dérmico directional selection / selección núcleos de los espermato-
la cubierta exterior de una direccional un proceso de zoides se une con el núcleo del
planta (552) selección natural en el cual se óvulo para producir un cigoto
dermis / dermis la capa de piel selecciona una variación diploide, y el otro núcleo se
que está debajo de la epider- genética que origina un cam- une con el núcleo polar para
mis (862) bio en la composición genética producir un endosperma
global de la población (332) triploide (540)
detritivore / detritívoro un con-
sumidor que se alimenta de double helix / doble hélice la
plantas y animales muertos estructura en forma de escalera
(346) en espiral característica de la
molécula del ADN (194)

down feather / plumón una element / elemento una endosymbiosis / endosimbiosis

pluma suave que cubre el substancia que no se puede una relación mutuamente ben-
cuerpo de las crías de las aves separar o descomponer en eficiosa en la que un organ-
y sirve como aislante en las substancias más simples por ismo vive dentro de otro (259)
aves adultas (785) medio de métodos químicos; endothermic / endotérmico tér-
todos los átomos de un ele- mino que describe la capaci-
mento tienen el mismo dad de un organismo de
E número atómico (28) mantener su temperatura cor-
embryo / embrión un organismo poral al producir calor interna-
ecology / ecología el estudio de en una de las primeras etapas mente (724)
las interacciones de los seres del desarrollo de las plantas y energy / energía la capacidad de
vivos entre sí mismos y entre sí animales; en los humanos, un realizar un trabajo (38)
mismos y su ambiente (9) individuo en desarrollo se energy pyramid / pirámide de
ecosystem / ecosistema una denomina embrión de la energía un diagrama con
comunidad de organismos y su segunda a la octava semana de forma de triángulo que mues-
ambiente abiótico (340) embarazo (504) tra la pérdida de energía que
endocrine gland / glándula ocurre en un ecosistema a
ectoderm / ectodermo la capa medida que la energía pasa a
más externa de las tres capas endocrina una glándula sin
través de la cadena alimenticia
germinales de un embrión, que conductos que secreta hor- del ecosistema; cada hilera de
al desarrollarse se convierte en monas a la sangre (975) la pirámide representa un nivel
la epidermis y en los tejidos endocytosis / endocitosis el trófico (de alimentación) en el
epidérmicos, el sistema proceso por medio del cual la ecosistema, y el área de la
nervioso, los órganos externos membrana celular rodea una hilera representa la energía
de los sentidos y las mem- partícula y la encierra en una almecenada en ese nivel trófico
branas mucosas que cubren la vesícula para llevarla al inte- (348)
boca y el ano (596) rior de la célula (83) envelope / envoltura una capa
ectothermic / ectotérmico tér- endoderm / endodermo la capa similar a una membrana que
mino que describe la capaci- germinal interna del embrión cubre las cápsides de algunos
dad de un organismo de de un animal; al desarrollarse virus (435)
mantener su temperatura cor- se convierte en el epitelio de la enzyme / enzima un tipo de pro-
poral al obtener calor del faringe, tracto respiratorio, teína que acelera las reac-
ambiente (724) tracto digestivo, vejiga y uretra ciones metabólicas en las
electron microscope / micro- (596) plantas y animales, sin ser
scopio electrónico microsco- endoplasmic reticulum / modificada permanentemente
pio que enfoca un haz de retículo endoplásmico un sis- ni ser destruida (40)
electrones para aumentar la tema de membranas que se epidermis / epidermis la super-
imagen de los objetos (51) encuentra en el citoplasma de ficie externa de las células de
la célula y que tiene una fun- una planta o animal (553)
electron transport chain /
ción en la producción, proce- epididymis / epidídimo el con-
cadena de transporte de elec-
samiento y transporte de ducto largo y enrollado que se
trones una serie de moléculas encuentra en la superficie de
que se encuentran en las mem- proteínas y en la producción
los testículos, en el que los
branas internas de las mito- de lípidos (63)
espermatozoides maduran
condrias y cloroplastos y a endosperm / endosperma un (997)
través de las cuales pasan los tejido triploide (3n) que se epinephrine / epinefrina una
electrones en un proceso que desarrolla en las semillas de hormona liberada por la
hace que los protones se acu- las angiospermas y que provee médula suprarrenal que estim-
mulen en un lado de la mem- alimento para el embrión en ula el metabolismo rápida-
brana (100) desarrollo (514) mente en casos de emergencia,
electrophoresis / electroforesis endospore / endospora una disminuye la secreción de
el proceso por medio del cual espora protectiva que tiene insulina y estimula el pulso y
las partículas con carga eléc- una pared gruesa, se forma la presión sanguínea; también
trica que están suspendidas en dentro de una célula bacteri- se llama adrenalina (985)
un líquido se mueven por todo ana y resiste condiciones epithelial tissue / tejido epitelial
el líquido debido a la influen- adversas (443) un tejido compuesto por célu-
cia de un campo eléctrico (231) las que forman una barrera
entre un organismo y su ambi-
ente externo (846)

equilibrium / equilibrio en experiment / experimento un fetus / feto un ser humano en
química, el estado en el que un procedimiento que se lleva a desarrollo de las semanas siete
proceso químico y el proceso cabo bajo condiciones contro- a ocho después de la fecun-
químico inverso ocurren a la ladas para descubrir, dación hasta el nacimiento
misma tasa, de modo que las demostrar o probar un hecho, (1006)
concentraciones de los reac- teoría o verdad general (17) fixed action pattern behavior /
tivos y los productos no extensor / extensor un músculo conducta de patrón fijo de
cambian (74) que extiende una articulación acción una conducta innata
esophagus / esófago un con- (856) que es característica de ciertas
ducto largo y recto que external fertilization / fecun- especies (826)
conecta la faringe con el dación externa la unión de flagellum / flagelo una estruc-
estómago (907) gametos afuera del cuerpo de tura larga parecida a una cola,
Eubacteria / Eubacteria un los padres, como en el caso de que crece hacia el exterior de
reino de clasificación que muchos peces y anfibios (610) una célula y le permite
agrupa a todos los procariotes, extinct / extinto término que moverse (57)
excepto a las arqueobacterias describe a una especie de un flexor / flexor un músculo que
(258) organismo que ha desapare- dobla una extremidad u otra
eukaryote / eucariote un organ- cido completamente (282) parte del cuerpo (856)
ismo cuyas células tienen un flower / flor la estructura repro-
núcleo contenido en una mem- ductiva de una planta que da
brana, múltiples cromosomas F flores, que normalmente con-
y un ciclo mitótico; los eucari- siste en un pistilo, estambres,
otes incluyen animales, plan- F1 generation / generación F1 la pétalos y sépalos (505)
tas y hongos, pero no bacterias primera generación de descen- fluke / trematodo un gusano
ni algas (58) dencia que se obtiene de la plano parasítico de la clase
evolution / evolución un cambio cruza experimental de dos Trematoda (632)
en las características de una organismos (164) follicle / folículo una bolsa o
población de una generación a F2 generation / generación F2 la cavidad angosta y pequeña en
la siguiente; el desarrollo grad- segunda generación de descen- un órgano o tejido, como las
ual de organismos a partir de dencia que se obtiene de la que se encuentran en la piel y
otros organismos desde los ini- cruza experimental de dos contienen las raíces de los
cios de la vida (9) organismos de una generación pelos, o las que se encuentran
excretion / excreción el proceso F1 (164) en los ovarios y contienen los
de eliminar desechos facilitated diffusion / difusión óvulos en desarrollo (1001)
metabólicos (912) facilitada el transporte de sub- food chain / cadena alimenticia
exocytosis / exocitosis el pro- stancias a través de la mem- la vía de transferencia de
ceso por medio del cual una brana celular de una región de energía través de varias etapas,
substancia se libera de la mayor concentración a una de que ocurre como resultado de
célula a través de una vesícula menor concentración con la los patrones de alimentación de
que la transporta a la superfi- ayuda de proteínas transporta- una serie de organismos (346)
cie de la célula en donde se doras (80) food web / red alimenticia un
fusiona con la membrana para fallopian tube / trompa de diagrama que muestra las rela-
dejar salir a la substancia (83) Falopio un conducto a través ciones de alimentación entre
exon / exón la porción de la del cual se mueven los óvulos los organismos de un
secuencia del ADN de un gene del ovario al útero (1000) ecosistema (347)
que contiene la secuencia de family / familia la categoría foot / pie un apéndice que
aminoácidos en una cadena, y taxonómica debajo del orden algunos invertebrados usan
el inicio y el fin de una secuen- y arriba del género (302) para moverse; la parte inferior
cia de codificación (218) fermentation / fermentación la de la pierna de un vertebrado
exoskeleton / exoesqueleto una descomposición de carbo- (431)
estructura de soporte, dura y hidratos por enzimas, bacte- fossil / fósil los rastros o restos
externa, que se desarrolla a rias, levaduras o mohos, en de un organismo que vivió
partir del ectodermo (607) ausencia de oxígeno (108) hace mucho tiempo, conserva-
fertilization / fecundación la dos en rocas sedimentarias
unión de un gameto masculino (258)
y femenino para formar un frond / fronda la hoja de un
cigoto (153) helecho o palma (511)

fruit / fruto un ovario maduro de genetic code / código genético gill / branquia en los animales
planta; el órgano de una planta la regla que describe la forma acuáticos, una estructura res-
donde se encuentran con- en que una secuencia de nucle- piratoria que está formada por
tenidas las semillas (514) ótidos, leídos en grupos de tres muchos vasos sanguíneos
fundamental niche / nicho nucleótidos consecutivos rodeados por una membrana
fundamental el nicho ecológico (triplete) que corresponden a que permite el intercambio
más grande en el que un aminoácidos específicos, gaseoso (605)
organismo o especie vive sin especifica la secuencia de gill / laminilla en los hongos, una
experimentar competencia aminoácidos de una proteín estructura que se ubica en la
(365) (211) parte inferior de sombrerete y
genetic drift / deriva genética el que contiene las esporas (605)
cambio aleatorio en la frecuen- gill slit / apertura branquial una
G cia de los alelos de una perforación entre dos arcos
población (328) branquiales a través de la cual
gamete / gameto una célula genetic engineering / ingeniería el agua que un pez toma por la
reproductiva haploide que se genética una tecnología en la boca pasa sobre las branquias
une con otra célula reproduc- que el genoma de una célula y hacia el exterior del cuerpo
tiva haploide para formar un viva se modifica con fines del pez (747)
cigoto (118) médicos o industriales (228) glucagon / glucagón una hor-
gametophyte / gametofito en genetics / genética la ciencia de mona producida en el pán-
generaciones alternadas, la la herencia y de los mecanis- creas que aumenta el nivel de
fase en la que los gametos se mos por los cuales los carac- glucosa en la sangre (986)
forman; un individuo haploide teres son transmitidos de glycolysis / glicólisis la descom-
que produce gametos (154) padres a hijos (162) posición anaeróbica de ácido
gastrovascular cavity / cavidad genital herpes / herpes genital pirúvico glucosa, la cual hace
gastrovascular una cavidad una enfermedad transmitida que una pequeña cantidad de
que tiene funciones digestivas sexualmente causada por el energía en forma de ATP esté
y circulatorias en algunos virus herpes simplex (1010) disponible para las células
cnidarios (605) genotype / genotipo la constitu- (105)
gemmule / gémula una estruc- ción genética completa de un glycoprotein / glicoproteína
tura asexual reproductiva pro- organismo; también, la combi- una proteína que tienen
ducida por algunas esponjas nación de genes para uno o unidas moléculas de
de agua dulce (621) más caracteres específicos carbohidratos (435)
gene / gene un segmento de (168) Golgi apparatus / aparato de
ADN ubicado en un cromo- genus / género el nivel de clasi- Golgi un organelo celular que
soma, que codifica para un ficación que viene después de ayuda a hacer y a empacar los
carácter hereditario la familia y que contiene materiales que serán trans-
específico (8) especies similares (301) portados al exterior de la
gene cloning / clonación de germination / germinación el célula (64)
genes el proceso por medio comienzo del crecimiento o gonorrhea / gonorrea una enfer-
del cual se aísla la secuencia desarrollo de una semilla, medad transmitida sexual-
de un gene del genoma de un espora o cigoto, sobre todo mente producida por
organismo y esta secuencia se después de un período de bacterias, que resulta en la
inserta en un vector plásmido inactividad (572) inflamación de las membranas
para producir el gene en gestation / gestación en los mucosas de los tractos uri-
grandes cantidades (229) mamíferos, el proceso de llevar nario y reproductor (1008)
gene expression / expresión de a las crías de la fecundación al gradualism / gradualismo un
los genes la manifestación del nacimiento (1005) modelo de evolución en el que
material genético de un organ- gestation period / período de un cambio gradual a través de
ismo en forma de caracteres gestación en los mamíferos, el un largo período de tiempo
específicos (208) tiempo que transcurre entre la conlleva a la diversidad
gene flow / flujo de genes el fecundación y el nacimiento biológica (282)
movimiento de genes a una (810) grain / grano la semilla
población o fuera de ella comestible, o fruta similar a
debido al entrecruzamiento una semilla, de un cereal (518)
(328)

greenhouse effect / efecto de Hardy-Weinberg principle / histamine / histamina una sub-
invernadero el calentamiento principio de Hardy-Weinberg stancia química que estimula
de la superficie terrestre y de la el principio que establece que el sistema nervioso autónomo,
parte más baja de la atmósfera, la frecuencia de alelos en una la secreción de jugos gástricos
el cual se produce cuando el población no cambia a menos y la dilatación de capilares
dióxido de carbono, el vapor de que fuerzas evolutivas actúen (925)
agua y otros gases del aire en la población (326) HIV / VIH virus de inmunodefi-
absorben radiación infrarroja y Haversian canal/canal de ciencia humana; el virus que
la vuelven a irradiar (388) Havers un canal que contiene causa el SIDA (12)
ground tissue / tejido basal un vasos sanguíneos en los huesos homeostasis / homeostasis la
tipo de tejido vegetal diferente compactos (852) capacidad de mantener un
del tejido vascular y que con- heart attack / ataque cardíaco estado interno constante en un
stituye gran parte del interior la muerte de los tejidos del ambiente en cambio; un
de una planta (552) corazón debido a una obstruc- estado interno constante que
groundwater / agua subter- ción de su suministro se mantiene en un ambiente
ránea el agua que está debajo sanguíneo (884) en cambio al hacer ajustes
de la superficie de la Tierra heartwood / duramen la madera continuos al ambiente interno
(351) más vieja y que no conduce la y externo (8)
guard cell / célula oclusiva una electricidad, que se encuentra hominid / homínido miembro de
de las dos células especial- en el centro de un tronco de la familia Hominidae del
izadas que se encuentran al árbol (557) orden de los primates; carac-
borde de un estoma y regulan helper T cell / célula T auxiliar terizado por tener pulgares
el intercambio gaseoso (503) un glóbulo blanco de la sangre oponibles y extremidades infe-
gymnosperm / gimnosperma necesario para que las células riores relativamente largas, ser
una planta leñosa y vascular, la B desarrollen niveles normales bípedo y no tener cola; incluye
cual produce semillas que no de un anticuerpo (927) a los seres humanos modernos
están contenidas en un ovario herbaceous plant / planta her- y a sus ancestros (733)
o fruto (512) bácea una planta que es suave homologous chromosomes /
y verde, en vez de leñosa (556) cromosomas homólogos cro-
herbivore / herbívoro un organ- mosomas con la misma
H ismo que sólo come plantas secuencia de genes, que tienen
(346) la misma estructura y que se
habitat / hábitat el lugar heredity / herencia la trans- acoplan durante la meiosis
donde un organismo vive misión de caracteres genéticos (120)
normalmente (340) de padres a hijos (8) homologous structures /
hair / pelo en los mamíferos, hermaphrodite / hermafrodita estructuras homólogas
una de las muchas estructuras un organismo que tiene estructuras que comparten un
largas y delgadas que crecen a órganos reproductores tanto ancestro común (286)
partir de la piel (800) masculinos como femeninos homozygous / homocigoto
hair follicle / folículo piloso una (609) término que describe a un
depresión en la piel que con- heterotroph / heterótrofo un individuo que tiene alelos
tiene un pelo y su raíz (862) organismo que obtiene idénticos para un carácter
half-life / vida media el tiempo moléculas de alimento al en los dos cromosomas
que tarda la mitad de una comer otros organismos o sus homólogos (167)
muestra de una substancia productos secundarios y que hormone / hormona una sub-
radiactiva en desintegrarse por no puede sintetizar com- stancia que es producida en
desintegración radiactiva o por puestos orgánicos a partir de una célula o tejido, la cual
procesos naturales (252) materiales inorgánicos (95) causa un cambio en otra célula
haploid / haploide término que heterozygous / heterocigoto o tejido ubicado en una parte
describe a una célula, núcleo u término que describe a un diferente del cuerpo (580)
organismo que tiene sólo un individuo que tiene dos alelos Human Genome Project /
juego de cromosomas que no distintos para un mismo Proyecto del Genoma
están asociados en pares (121) carácter (167) Humano un esfuerzo de inves-
tigación para determinar la
secuencia y ubicación de todo
el conjunto de genes de las
células humanas (233)

hydrostatic skeleton / incomplete dominance / domi- intron / intrón una sección del
esqueleto hidrostático la cavi- nancia incompleta una condi- ADN que no codifica para
dad llena de agua de muchos ción en la que un carácter de ningún aminoácido y que se
invertebrados que tiene una un individuo es intermedio transcribe al ARN pero se elim-
función de sostén (607) entre el fenotipo de los dos ina antes de ser traducida (218)
hypertonic / hipertónico tér- padres del individuo porque el invertebrate / invertebrado un
mino que describe una solu- alelo dominante no puede animal que no tiene columna
ción cuya concentración de expresarse por completo (177) vertebral (424)
soluto es más alta que la con- independent assortment / ion / ion un átomo, radical o
centración del soluto en el distribución independiente la molécula que ha ganado o
interior de la célula (77) distribución al azar de pares perdido uno o más electrones
hypha / hifa un filamento node genes de diferentes cromo- y que tiene una carga negativa
reproductor de un hongo (421) somas a los gametos (146) o positiva (30)
hypothalamus / hipotálamo la independent variable / variable ion channel / canal iónico un
región del cerebro que coor- independiente el factor que se poro en la membrana celular a
dina las actividades de los sis- manipula deliberadamente en través del cual pueden pasar
temas nervioso y endocrino y un experimento (17) los iones (78)
que controla muchas activi- inflammatory response / reac- isotonic solution / solución
dades del cuerpo relacionadas ción inflamatoria una reacción isotónica una solución cuya
con la homeostasis (952) de protección de los tejidos concentración de soluto es
hypothesis / hipótesis una afectados por una enfermedad igual a la concentración de
teoría o explicación basada en o lesión, caracterizada por soluto en el interior de la
observaciones y que se puede enrojecimiento, inflamación y célula (77)
probar (16) dolor (925)
hypotonic / hipotónico término innate behavior / conducta
que describe una solución innata una conducta heredada J
cuya concentración de soluto que no depende del ambiente
es más baja que la concen- ni de la experiencia (826) joint / articulación un lugar
tración del soluto en el interior insulin / insulina una hormona donde se unen dos o más
de la célula (77) que es producida por un grupo huesos (854)
de células especializadas en el
páncreas y que reduce los nive-
I les de glucosa en la sangre K
(986)
immunity / inmunidad la capaci- interferon / interferón una pro- karyotype / cariotipo una dis-
dad de resistir una infección o teína que producen las células tribución de cromosomas que
enfermedad, o de recuperarse infectadas por un virus y que se encuentra en las células de
de ella (931) puede proteger a las células un individuo en la metafase o
implantation / implantación el que no han sido infectadas en la mitosis, los cuales están
proceso por medio del cual el contra la reproducción del ordenados en pares homólogos
óvulo fecundado en la etapa virus (926) y en orden de mayor a menor
de blastocisto se adhiere a la internal fertilization / fecun- (122)
cubierta interior del útero dación interna fecundación de keratin / queratina una proteína
(1004) un óvulo por un espermato- dura que forma el cabello, las
imprinting / impresión apren- zoide, la cual ocurre dentro del plumas de las aves, las uñas y
dizaje que ocurre rápida- cuerpo de la hembra (610) los cuernos (861)
mente al inicio de la vida de interneuron / interneurona una kingdom / reino la categoría tax-
un animal joven y que una vez neurona ubicada entre la neu- onómica más alta, que con-
que se aprende no se puede rona aferente y la neurona tiene un grupo de phyla
cambiar (829) final en una cadena neural similares (302)
(953) Koch’s postulates / postulados
interphase / interfase un de Koch un procedimiento de
período entre dos divisiones cuatro etapas que formuló
mitóticas o meióticas durante Robert Koch para identificar
las cuales la célula crece, copia patógenos específicos y para
su ADN y sintetiza proteínas determinar la causa de una
(125) determinada enfermedad (930)

Krebs cycle / ciclo de Krebs una law of segregation / ley de la littoral zone / zona litoral una
serie de reacciones bioquími- segregación la ley de Mendel zona poco profunda del hábi-
cas que convierten el ácido que establece que pares de tat de agua dulce donde la luz
pirúvico en dióxido de carbono cromosomas homólogos se llega al fondo y nutre a las
y agua; es la vía principal de separan en la meiosis de modo plantas (376)
oxidación en las células ani- que sólo un cromosoma de logistic model / modelo
males, bacterianas y vegetales, cada par esté presente en cada logístico un modelo del crec-
y libera energía (106) gameto (169) imiento de la población que
krill / krill un crustáceo marino learning / aprendizaje el desar- supone que los niveles finitos
pequeño que es la fuente prin- rollo de conductas por medio de recursos limitan el crec-
cipal de alimentos de la bal- de la experiencia o práctica imiento de la población (323)
lena barbada (681) (827) lung / pulmón el órgano central
K-strategist / estratega K una lichen / liquen una masa de del aparato respiratorio en el
especie caracterizada por células de hongos y de algas que el oxígeno del aire se inter-
maduración lenta, pocas crías, que crecen juntas en una cambia con el dióxido de car-
crecimiento lento de la relación simbiótica y que nor- bono de la sangre (758)
población, reproducción en malmente se encuentran en lymphatic system / sistema lin-
etapas tardías de la vida y una rocas o árboles (491) fático un conjunto de órganos
densidad de población cercana life cycle / ciclo de vida todos cuya función principal es
a la capacidad de carga del los sucesos en el crecimiento y recolectar el fluido extracelu-
ambiente (325) desarrollo de un organismo lar y regresarlo a la sangre; los
hasta que el organismo llega a órganos de este sistema
su madurez sexual (152) incluyen los nodos linfáticos y
L ligament / ligamento un tipo de los vasos linfáticos (875)
tejido que mantiene unidos los lysosome / lisosoma un
lac operon / operón lac un huesos en una articulación organelo celular que contiene
sistema de genes cuyo gene (854) enzimas digestivas (64)
operador y sus tres genes light microscope / microscopio
estructurales controlan el óptico un microscopio que usa
metabolismo de la lactosa en un rayo de luz visible que pasa M
E. Coli (216) a través de uno o más lentes
larynx / laringe el área de la gar- para magnificar la imagen de macrophage / macrófago
ganta que contiene las cuerdas un objeto (57) una célula del sistema
vocales y que produce sonidos limnetic zone / zona limnética inmunológico que envuelve a
vocales (886) el área de un hábitat de agua los patógenos y otros materi-
lateral line / línea lateral una dulce que está lejos de la costa, ales (926)
línea apenas visible que se pero que se encuentra cerca de magnification / magnificación el
encuentra a ambos lados del la superficie (376) aumento del tamaño aparente
cuerpo de un pez y que recorre lipase / lipasa una enzima que de un objeto mediante el uso
la longitud del cuerpo, mar- descompone moléculas de de lentes o espejos (51)
cando la ubicación de los grasa en ácidos grasos y Malpighian tubule / tubo de
órganos de los sentidos que glicerol (909) Malpighi un tubo excretorio
detectan vibraciones en el lipid / lípido un tipo de substan- que se abre hacia la parte
agua (753) cia bioquímica que no se trasera del intestino de la may-
law of independent disuelve en agua, como por oría de los insectos y ciertos
assortment / ley de la dis- ejemplo, las grasas y artrópodos (669)
tribución independiente la ley esteroides; los lípidos almace- mammary gland / glándula
que establece que los genes se nan energía y forman las mamaria una glándula que se
separan de manera independi- membranas celulares (35) encuentra en el pecho de los
ente durante la meiosis (169) lipid bilayer / bicapa lipídica la mamíferos hembra y que sec-
estructura básica de la mem- reta leche (806)
brana biológica, formada por mandible / mandíbula un tipo
dos capas de fosfolípidos (60) de parte de la boca que se
encuentra en algunos artrópo-
dos y que se usa para perforar
y chupar la comida; la parte
inferior de la quijada (673)

mantle / manto en biología, una mesophyll / mesófilo en las monohybrid cross / cruza
capa de tejido que cubre el hojas, el tejido que se encuen- monohíbrida una cruza entre
cuerpo de muchos tra entre capas de epidermis, individuos que involucra un
invertebrados (643) donde ocurre la fotosíntesis par de caracteres contrastantes
mass extinction / extinción (559) (164)
masiva un episodio durante el metabolism / metabolismo la monosaccharide/monosacárido
cual grandes cantidades de suma de todos los procesos un azúcar simple que es una
especies se extinguen (263) químicos que ocurren en un subunidad fundamental de los
medusa / medusa una etapa organismo (7) carbohidratos (34)
sexual del ciclo de vida de un metamorphosis / metamorfosis motor neuron / neurona motora
cnidario, que nada libremente, una fase del ciclo de vida de una célula nerviosa que trans-
tiene la apariencia de un agua- muchos animales durante la mite impulsos nerviosos del
mala y la forma de un cual ocurre un cambio rápido sistema nervioso central a los
paraguas; también, un agua- del organismo inmaduro al músculos y a las glándulas
mala o hidra (622) adulto; un ejemplo es el cam- (950)
meiosis / meiosis un proceso de bio de larva a adulto en los mRNA / ARNm ARNm men-
división celular durante el cual insectos (675) sajero; una molécula de ARN
el número de cromosomas dis- mineral / mineral un sólido nat- de una sola hebra que codifica
minuye a la mitad del número ural, normalmente inorgánico, la información para hacer una
original por medio de dos divi- que tiene una composición proteína (211)
siones del núcleo, lo cual química característica, una mucous membrane / mem-
resulta en la producción de estructura interna ordenada y brana mucosa la capa de
células sexuales (gametos o propiedades físicas y químicas tejido epitelial que cubre las
esporas) (144) características (905) superficies internas del cuerpo
melanin / melanina un pigmento mitochondrion / mitocondria en y que secreta moco (924)
que ayuda a determinar el las células eucarióticas, el multiple alleles / alelos múlti-
color de la piel (862) organelo celular rodeado por ples más de dos alelos (ver-
membrane potential / potencial dos membranas que es el lugar siones del gene) para un
de membrana la diferencia en donde se lleva a cabo la res- carácter genético (178)
potencial eléctrico entre los piración celular, la cual pro- muscle tissue / tejido muscular
dos lados de una membrana duce ATP (65) el tejido formado por células
celular (945) mitosis / mitosis en las células que se contraen y relajan para
menstrual cycle / ciclo men- eucarióticas, un proceso de producir movimiento (847)
strual el ciclo reproductor división celular que forma dos mutation / mutación un cambio
femenino, caracterizado por núcleos nuevos, cada uno de en la secuencia de la base de
un cambio mensual en el los cuales posee el mismo nucleótidos de un gene o de
revestimiento del útero y una número de cromosomas (125) una molécula de ADN (8)
descarga de sangre (1002) molecule / molécula la unidad mutualism / mutualismo una
menstruation / menstruación la más pequeña de una substan- relación entre dos especies en la
descarga de sangre y tejido de cia que conserva todas las que ambas se benefician (265)
desecho del útero durante el propiedades físicas y químicas mycelium / micelio una masa de
ciclo menstrual (1003) de esa substancia; puede estar filamentos de hongos, o hifas,
meristem / meristemo una formada por un átomo o por que forma el cuerpo de un
región de células vegetales no dos o más átomos enlazados hongo (483)
diferenciadas que son capaces uno con el otro (29)
mycorrhiza / micorriza una
de dividirse y desarrollarse en molting / mudar la muda de un asociación simbiótica entre
tejidos vegetales especializados exoesqueleto, piel, plumas o los hongos y las raíces de las
(507) cuernos, los cuales son reem- plantas (265)
mesoderm / mesodermo en un plazados por partes nuevas
myofibril / miofibrilla una fibra
embrión, la capa de células (668)
que se encuentra en las células
intermedia que da origen a los monocot / monocotiledónea de los músculos estriados, la
músculos, sangre y varios una planta que produce semil- cual es responsable de la con-
sistemas (596) las que sólo tienen un tracción muscular (857)
cotiledón (515)

myosin / miosina la proteína neurotransmitter / neurotrans- nucleic acid / ácido nucleico un
más abundante en los tejidos misor una substancia química compuesto orgánico, ya sea
musculares, la cual es el ele- que transmite impulsos ARN o ADN, cuyas moléculas
mento constitutivo principal nerviosos por una sinapsis están formadas por una o más
de los filamentos gruesos de (948) cadenas de nucleótidos y que
las fibras musculares (857) neutrophil / neutrófilo un leu- contiene información genética
cocito grande que contiene un (37)
núcleo lobulado y muchos nucleotide / nucleótido en una
N gránulos citoplásmicos (926) cadena de ácidos nucleicos,
niche / nicho la posición única una subunidad formada por
natural killer cell / célula que ocupa una especie, tanto un azúcar, un fosfato y una
asesina natural un glóbulo en lo que se refiere al uso de su base nitrogenada (37)
blanco presente en individuos hábitat como en cuanto a su nucleus / núcleo en una célula
que no han sido inmunizados, función dentro de una comu- eucariótica, biología, un
el cual destruye una variedad nidad ecológica (365) organelo cubierto por una
de células (926) nitrogen fixation / fijación de membrana, el cual contiene el
natural selection / selección nitrógeno el proceso por ADN de la célula y participa en
natural el proceso por medio medio del cual el nitrógeno procesos tales como el crec-
del cual los individuos que gaseoso se transforma en amo- imiento, metabolismo y repro-
tienen condiciones favorables niaco, un compuesto que los ducción (58)
y que están mejor adaptados a organismos utilizan para elab- nutrient / nutriente una substan-
su ambiente sobreviven y se orar aminoácidos y otras cia o compuesto que propor-
reproducen con más éxito que moléculas orgánicas que con- ciona nutrición (o alimento) o
los individuos que no están tan tienen nitrógeno (363) materias primas que se necesi-
bien adaptados (9) nonvascular plant / planta no tan para llevar a cabo procesos
nauplius / naupilia la larva de la vascular los tres tipos de plan- vitales (900)
mayoría de los crustáceos, la tas (hepáticas, milhojas y mus- nymph / ninfa una etapa
cual nada libremente (680) gos) que carecen de tejidos inmadura de algunos insectos
nematocyst / nematocisto en transportadores y de raíces, que es similar en función y
los cnidarios, una célula tallos y hojas verdaderas (504) estructura al adulto (675)
urticante que se usa para norepinephrine / norepinefrina
inyectar una toxina en una una substancia química que es
presa (623) un neurotransmisor producido O
nephridium / nefridio túbulo a por las terminaciones
través del cual algunos inverte- nerviosas simpáticas en el sis- observation / observación el
brados eliminan desechos tema nervioso, y también una proceso de obtener informa-
(644) hormona secretada por la ción por medio de los sentidos;
nephron / nefrona la unidad médula suprarrenal para la información que se obtiene
funcional del riñón (913) estimular las funciones de los al usar los sentidos (14)
nerve / nervio un conjunto de aparatos circulatorio y respira- omnivore / omnívoro un organ-
fibras nerviosas a través de las torio (abreviatura: NE) (985) ismo que come tanto plantas
cuales se desplazan los impul- normal distribution / distribu- como animales (346)
sos entre el sistema nervioso ción normal una distribución oogenesis / oogénesis la pro-
central y otras partes del de datos numéricos cuya grá- ducción, crecimiento y madu-
cuerpo (944) fica forma una curva en forma ración de un óvulo (148)
nervous tissue / tejido nervioso de campana que es simétrica open circulatory system /
el tejido del sistema nervioso, respecto a la media (331) aparato circulatorio abierto
formado por neuronas, sus notochord / notocordio el eje un tipo de aparato circulatorio
células de apoyo y el tejido de soporte que tiene forma de en el que el fluido circulatorio
conectivo (847) bastoncillo y está ubicado en no está totalmente contenido
neuron / neurona una célula la parte dorsal de los embri- en los vasos sanguíneos; un
nerviosa que está especializada ones de todos los cordados, corazón bombea fluido por los
en recibir y transmitir impul- incluyendo los vertebrados vasos sanguíneos, los cuales se
sos eléctricos (944) (700) vacían en espacios llamados
senos (606)

operator / operador una osteocyte / osteocito una célula Pangaea / Pangea una sola
secuencia corta de ADN viral ósea (852) masa de tierra que existió
o bacteriano a la que se une ovarian cycle / ciclo ovárico durante aproximadamente 40
un represor para impedir la una serie de cambios induci- millones de años y luego
transcripción (síntesis de dos por hormonas en los comenzó a separarse para for-
ARNm) del gene adyacente cuales los ovarios preparan y mar los continentes, tal como
en un operón (216) liberan un óvulo maduro todos los conocemos en la actualidad
operculum / opérculo en los los meses (1001) (722)
peces, una placa dura que se ovary / ovario en el aparato parapodium / parapodio en los
encuentra adherida a cada reproductor femenino de los poliquetos, uno de los dos
lado de la cabeza, cubre las animales, un órgano que pro- apéndices que se usan para
branquias y está abierta en la duce óvulos; en las plantas con locomoción o para el inter-
parte trasera (756) flores, la parte inferior del pis- cambio de gases (652)
operon / operón una unidad de tilo que produce óvulos (538) parasitism / parasitismo una
regulación y transcripción de oviparous / ovíparo término que relación entre dos especies en
los genes en el ADN bacteri- describe organismos que pro- la que una, el parásito, se ben-
ano, formada por un promo- ducen huevos que se desarrol- eficia de la otra, el huésped, y
tor, un operador y uno o más lan fuera del cuerpo de la normalmente lo daña (362)
genes estructurales (216) madre, y cuyas crías también passive transport / transporte
optic nerve / nervio óptico el salen del cascarón fuera del pasivo el movimiento de sub-
nervio que conecta la retina cuerpo de la madre (777) stancias a través de una mem-
del ojo con el cerebro y que ovoviviparous / ovovivíparo brana celular sin que la célula
transmite impulsos que con- término que describe a organ- tenga que usar energía (74)
tribuyen al sentido de la vista ismos que producen huevos pathogen / patógeno un virus,
(958) que se desarrollan dentro del microorganismo u otra sub-
order / orden la categoría tax- cuerpo de la madre, y cuyas stancia que causa enfer-
onómica que se encuentra crías también salen del cas- medades; un agente infeccioso
debajo de la clase y arriba de carón dentro del cuerpo de la (454)
la familia (302) madre (777) pedigree / pedigrí un diagrama
organ / órgano un conjunto de ovulation / ovulación la lib- que muestra la incidencia de
tejidos que desempeñan una eración de un óvulo de un un carácter genético en varias
función especializada en el folículo del ovario (1001) generaciones de una familia
cuerpo (419) ovule / óvulo una estructura del (175)
organ system / aparato (o sis- ovario de una planta con semi- pedipalp / pedipalpo uno de los
tema) de órganos un grupo de llas que contiene un saco dos pares de apéndices que se
órganos que trabajan en con- embrionario y se desarrolla encuentran junto a la boca de
junto para desempeñar fun- para convertirse en una semi- un arácnido y que sirven para
ciones corporales (419) lla después de la fecundación masticar y manipular a las
organelle / organelo uno de los (534) presas (670)
cuerpos pequeños que se ovum / óvulo una célula sexual pelvic inflammatory disease /
encuentran en el citoplasma de madura (149) enfermedad pélvica inflama-
una célula y que están espe- toria una infección pélvica del
cializados para llevar a cabo aparato reproductor femenino
una función específica (58) P superior, incluyendo al útero,
osmosis / ósmosis la difusión ovarios, trompas de Falopio y
de agua u otro solvente de una P generation / generación P otras estructuras; es una enfer-
solución más diluida (de un generación parental; los medad que se transmite
soluto) a una solución más primeros dos individuos que se sexualmente (1009)
concentrada (del soluto) a aparean en una cruza genética penis / pene el órgano masculino
través de una membrana que (164) que transfiere espermatozoides
es permeable al solvente (76) paleontologist / paleontólogo a una hembra y que lleva la
ossicle / osículo una de las un científico que estudia los orina hacia el exterior del
pequeñas placas de carbonato fósiles (285) cuerpo (998)
de calcio que forman el
endoesqueleto de un equino-
dermo (694)

pepsin / pepsina una enzima phloem / floema el tejido que pituitary gland / glándula
que se encuentra en los jugos transporta alimento (azúcares, pituitaria una glándula endoc-
gástricos y que sirve para aminoácidos y nutrientes min- rina que se ubica en la base del
descomponer proteínas en erales) en las plantas vascu- encéfalo, almacena y libera
moléculas más pequeñas (908) lares (507) hormonas producidas por el
perennial / perenne una planta phospholipid / fosfolípido un hipotálamo y secreta hor-
cuyas partes vegetativas sub- lípido que contiene fósforo y monas bajo el control del
terráneas viven más de dos que es un componente estruc- hipotálamo (983)
años y cuyas partes superiores tural de la membrana celular placenta / placenta la estruc-
mueren y vuelven a crecer (60) tura que une al feto en desar-
estacional o anualmente (573) photoperiodism / fotoperiodici- rollo con el útero y que
periosteum / periostio el tejido dad la respuesta de las plantas permite el intercambio de
fibroso que cubre los huesos a los cambios de estación nutrientes, desechos y gases
(851) durante la duración relativa de entre la madre y el feto (1005)
peripheral nervous system / las noches y de los días (583) plankton / plancton la masa de
sistema nervioso periférico photosynthesis / fotosíntesis el organismos casi microscópicos
todas las partes del sistema proceso por medio del cual las que flotan o se encuentran a la
nervioso, excepto el encéfalo y plantas, algas y algunas bacte- deriva en aguas (dulces y mari-
la médula espinal (el sistema rias utilizan la luz solar, dióx- nas) de ambientes acuáticos
nervioso central); incluye los ido de carbono y agua para (378)
nervios craneales y los nervios producir carbohidratos y plant propagation / propa-
del cuello, pecho, espalda baja oxígeno (94) gación vegetal la práctica de
y pelvis (950) phylogenetic tree / árbol filo- reproducir plantas a partir de
petal / pétalo una de las partes genético un diagrama ramifi- semillas o partes vegetativas
de una flor que normalmente cado que muestra cómo se (544)
tienen colores brillantes y relacionan los organismos a planula / plánula la larva ciliada
forma de hoja, las cuales for- través de la evolución (602) de un cnidario, la cual nada
man uno de los anillos de una phylogeny / filogenia la historia libremente (625)
flor (538) evolutiva de una especie o plasma / plasma en biología, el
petiole / pecíolo el pedúnculo grupo taxonómico (307) componente líquido de la
que une una hoja al tallo de phylum / phylum el grupo tax- sangre (876)
una planta (558) onómico que se ubica debajo plasma cell / célula plasmática
pH / pH un valor que expresa la del reino y arriba de la clase un tipo de glóbulo blanco que
acidez o la alcalinidad (basici- (302) produce anticuerpos (929)
dad) de un sistema; cada pigment / pigmento una sub- plasmid / plásmido una
número entero de la escala stancia que le da color a otra molécula de ADN circular que
indica un cambio de 10 veces substancia o mezcla (98) se encuentra comúnmente en
en la acidez; un pH de 7 es pilus / pilus un apéndice corto y las bacterias y que puede
neutro, un pH de menos de 7 grueso que le permite a una duplicarse independiente-
es ácido y un pH de más de 7 bacteria unirse a otra (442) mente del cromosoma
es básico (16) pioneer species / especie pio- principal (229)
pharynx / faringe en los gusanos nera una especie que coloniza plasmodium / plasmodio el cito-
planos, el tubo muscular que un área deshabitada y empieza plasma plurinucleado de un
va de la boca a la cavidad gas- un ciclo ecológico en el cual se moho de fango, el cual está
trovascular; en los animales establecen muchas otras rodeado por una membrana y
que tienen tracto digestivo, el especies (343) se mueve como si fuera una
conducto que va de la boca a pistil / pistilo la parte reproduc- masa (470)
la laringe y al esófago (886) tora femenina de una flor, la plastron / plastrón la porción
phenotype / fenotipo la aparien- cual produce semillas y está inferior, o ventral, del
cia de un organismo u otra formada por el ovario, estilo y caparazón de una tortuga
característica perceptible que estigma (538) (782)
resulta debido al genotipo del pith / médula el tejido que se platelet / plaqueta el fragmento
organismo y a su ambiente ubica en el centro del tallo de de una célula que se necesita
(166) la mayoría de las plantas vas- para formar coágulos
culares y que se utiliza para sanguíneos (877)
almacenamiento (556)

point mutation / mutación pun- prediction / predicción una probability / probabilidad tér-
tual una mutación en la que afirmación que se hace por mino que describe qué tan
sólo cambia un nucleótido o anticipado, la cual expresa los probable es que ocurra un
una base nitrogenada en un resultados que se obtendrán al posible evento futuro en un
gene (219) poner a prueba una hipótesis caso dado del evento; la pro-
pollen grain / grano de polen la si ésta es corroborada; el resul- porción matemática del
estructura que contiene el tado esperado si la hipótesis es número de veces que es posi-
gametofito masculino en las correcta (16) ble que ocurra un resultado de
plantas con semilla (534) preen gland / glándula uropígea cualquier evento respecto al
pollen tube / tubo de polen una en las aves, una glándula espe- número de resultados posibles
estructura tubular que crece a cial que secreta grasa que el del evento (173)
partir de un grano de polen, ave esparce en sus plumas probe / sonda una hebra de
entra al saco embrionario y para limpiarlas e impermeabi- ARN o una sola hebra de ADN
permite que las células repro- lizarlas (785) que se ha marcado con un ele-
ductoras masculinas se pregnancy / embarazo el mento radiactivo o con un
muevan al óvulo (534) período de tiempo que tran- color fluorescente, y que se usa
pollination / polinización la scurre entre la concepción y el en ingeniería genética para
transferencia de polen de las nacimiento (1005) enlazarse con un gene especí-
estructuras reproductoras primary growth / crecimiento fico e identificarlo (231)
masculinas (las anteras) de primario el crecimiento que producer / productor un organ-
una flor a la punta de la ocurre como resultado de la ismo que elabora moléculas
estructura reproductora división celular en las puntas orgánicas a partir de molécu-
femenina (el pistilo) en las de los tallos y raíces y que da las inorgánicas; un autótrofo
angiospermas o al óvulo en lugar al tejido primario (574) fotosintético o quimiosintético
las gimnospermas (534) primary productivity / produc- que funciona como la fuente
polygenic trait / carácter tividad primaria la cantidad fundamental de alimento en
poligénico una característica total de material orgánico que un ecosistema (345)
de un organismo que está producen los organismos profundal zone / zona profunda
determinada por muchos autótrofos de un ecosistema la zona de un hábitat de agua
genes (177) (345) dulce en la que entra poca luz
polyp / pólipo una forma de un primary succession / sucesión solar (376)
cnidario que tiene un cuerpo primaria sucesión que proglottid / proglótido una de
hueco y cilíndrico y que nor- comienza en un área donde las muchas secciones corpo-
malmente está unido a una previamente no podía existir la rales de una tenia; contiene los
roca o a otro objeto (622) vida (343) órganos reproductores (631)
population / población un grupo primate / primate un miembro prokaryote / procariote un
de organismos de la misma del orden de los primates, el organismo que está formado
especie que viven en un área grupo de mamíferos entre los por una sola célula y que no
geográfica específica y se que se encuentran los seres tiene núcleo ni organelos
reproducen entre sí (278) humanos, simios y monos; celulares; un ejemplo es una
population density / densidad normalmente se distinguen bacteria (57)
de población el número de por tener cerebros muy desar- prosimian / prosimio un miem-
individuos de la misma especie rollados, ojos que miran hacia bro de un suborden de los
que viven en una unidad delante, uso de las manos y primates que es principal-
superficial determinada (321) locomoción variada (731) mente arbóreo y nocturno,
predation / depredación la prion / prión una partícula infec- tal como el lémur, lorí o tarsius
interacción entre dos especies ciosa formada únicamente por (731)
en la que una especie, el una proteína y que no contiene prostate gland / glándula
depredador, se alimenta de la ni ADN ni ARN (441) próstata una glándula que
otra especie, la presa (362) contribuye al fluido seminal en
los machos (998)
protein / proteína un compuesto
orgánico que está hecho de
una o más cadenas de aminoá-
cidos y que es el principal
componente de todas las
células (36)

protist / protista un organismo punctuated equilibrium / equi- reasoning / razonamiento el
que pertenece al reino Protista librio puntuado un modelo de acto de sacar una conclusión a
(261) evolución en el que períodos partir de hechos o suposi-
protostome / protóstomo un cortos en los que ocurren cam- ciones (828)
organismo cuyo blastoporo bios drásticos en una especie receptor protein / proteína
embriónico se desarrolla para (incluyendo extinciones masi- receptora una proteína que
convertirse en la boca, cuyo vas y especiación rápida) están liga moléculas señal específi-
celoma surge por esquizocelia separados por períodos largos cas, lo cual hace que la célula
y cuyo embrión tiene seg- en los que ocurren muy pocos responda (84)
mentación determinada (692) cambios o en los que no recessive / recesivo término
protozoan / protozoario un pro- ocurre ningún cambio (282) que describe un carácter o un
tista unicelular que puede ser Punnett square / cuadro de alelo que se expresa sólo
acuático o parasítico, tiene Punnett una gráfica que se usa cuando se heredan dos alelos
organelos cubiertos por una para predecir los resultados de recesivos de la misma
membrana y se puede mover una cruza genética (170) característica (167)
independientemente; entre los pupa / pupa la etapa inmóvil y recombinant DNA / ADN
ejemplos se encuentran las que no se alimenta, entre la recombinante moléculas de
amebas y los paramecios (461) larva y el adulto de insectos ADN que son creadas artifi-
provirus / provirus ADN viral que experimentan una meta- cialmente al combinar ADN de
que se ha unido al cromosoma morfosis completa; en la diferentes fuentes (228)
de una célula huésped y se ha etapa de pupa, el organismo red blood cell / glóbulo rojo una
duplicado con el ADN del normalmente está encerrado célula que tiene forma de disco
cromosoma (436) en un capullo o crisálida y y que no tiene núcleo, contiene
pseudocoelomate / pseudo- sufre importantes cambios hemoglobina y transporta
celomado un animal que tiene anatómicos (675) oxígeno en el aparato
un pseudoceloma, o cavidad circulatorio (876)
falsa del cuerpo (600) reflex / reflejo un movimiento
pseudopodium / pesudópodo R involuntario y prácticamente
una extensión citoplásmica inmediato en respuesta a un
retráctil y temporal que tiene radial symmetry / simetría estímulo (952)
una función en la ingestión de radial un plan corporal en el replication fork / horquilla de
alimentos y en el movimiento que las partes del cuerpo del replicación un punto que tiene
de algunas células ameboides animal están organizadas en forma de Y, el cual se produce
(464) un círculo alrededor de un eje cuando las dos hebras de una
psychoactive drug / droga psi- central (598) doble hélice de ADN se sepa-
coactiva una substancia que radiometric dating / datación ran de modo que la molécula
tiene un efecto considerable en radiométrica un método para de ADN pueda duplicarse
la mente o en el compor- determinar la edad de un (199)
tamiento (961) objeto estimando los porcenta- repressor / represor una pro-
pulmonary vein / vena pul- jes relativos de un isótopo teína reguladora que se une a
monar la vena que lleva sangre radiactivo (precursor) y un isó- un operador y bloquea la tran-
oxigenada de los pulmones al topo estable (hijo) (252) scripción de los genes de un
corazón (759) radula / rádula un órgano operón (216)
pulse / pulso la presión rítmica áspero similar a una lengua, reproduction / reproducción
de la sangre contra las paredes que está cubierto de dientes el proceso de producir
de un vaso sanguíneo, particu- quitinosos y que muchos descendencia (7)
larmente de una arteria (883) moluscos utilizan para
alimentarse (643) reproductive isolation /
aislamiento reproductivo la
realized niche / nicho realizado incapacidad de los miembros
la gama de recursos que una de una población de repro-
especie usa, las condiciones ducirse exitosamente con
que la especie tolera y los miembros de otra población
papeles funcionales que la de la misma especie o de una
especie juega como resultado especie relacionada (281)
de la competencia en su nicho
fundamental (367)

resolution / resolución en los RNA polymerase / ARN sarcomere / sarcómero la

microscopios, la capacidad de polimerasa una enzima que unidad fundamental de
formar imágenes con detalles comienza (cataliza) la forma- contracción del músculo
precisos (51) ción de ARN usando una esquelético y cardíaco (857)
respiration / respiración en hebra de una molécula de scanning electron microscope /
biología, el intercambio de ADN como plantilla (209) microscopio electrónico de
oxígeno y dióxido de carbono rod / bastoncillo uno de los dos barrido un microscopio que
entre células vivas y su ambi- tipos de células detectoras de produce una imagen
ente; incluye la respiración y la luz que hay en el ojo; los bast- agrandada tridimensional de
respiración celular (605) oncillos pueden detectar luz un objeto usando un haz de
resting potential / potencial de tenue y juegan un papel electrones en lugar de luz (54)
reposo el potencial eléctrico importante en la visión noc- sebum / sebo la secreción gra-
que existe en la membrana turna y sin color (958) sosa de las glándulas sebáceas
celular de una célula nerviosa root / raíz el órgano principal- (864)
o de una célula muscular mente subterráneo de las plan- second messenger / mensajero
cuando la célula no está activa tas vasculares, el cual secundario una molécula que
(946) mantiene a las plantas en su se genera cuando una substan-
restriction enzyme / enzima de lugar y absorbe y almacena cia específica se une a un
restricción una enzima que agua y minerales del suelo receptor en el exterior de la
destruye moléculas de ADN (507) membrana celular, lo cual pro-
extraño cortándolas en sitios root cap / cofia la capa protec- duce un cambio en la función
específicos (229) tora de células que cubre la celular (85)
retina / retina la capa interna del punta de una raíz (555) secondary growth / crecimiento
ojo, sensible a la luz, que root hair / pelo radicular una secundario crecimiento de las
recibe imágenes formadas por extensión de la epidermis de plantas que ocurre como resul-
el lente ocular y las transmite una raíz, la cual aumenta el tado de la división celular en
al cerebro por medio del área superficial de la raíz para los cámbiums, o meristemos
nervio óptico (958) la absorción (555) laterales, y que hace que se
Rh factor / factor Rh uno de rRNA / ARNr ARN ribosomal; un engruesen los tallos y las raíces
varios antígenos de los grupos organelo que contiene la (574)
sanguíneos que son trans- mayor parte del ARN en la secondary succession / suce-
portados en la superficie de los célula y que es responsable del sión secundaria el proceso por
glóbulos rojos (879) funcionamiento de los medio del cual una comunidad
rhizoid / rizoide una estructura ribosomas (212) reemplaza a otra, la cual ha
parecida a una raíz que se r-strategist / estratega r una sido parcial o totalmente
encuentra en las plantas no especie que está adaptada para destruida (343)
vasculares, tales como los vivir en un ambiente donde los seed / semilla el embrión de
musgos o las hepáticas, la cual cambios son rápidos e impre- una planta que está encerrado
mantiene a las plantas en su decibles; se caracteriza por en una cubierta protectora
lugar y tienen una función en presentar crecimiento rápido, (504)
la absorción (486) alta fertilidad, período de vida seed coat / cubierta seminal la
rhizome / rizoma un tallo hori- corto, cuerpo pequeño y cre- cubierta exterior y protectora
zontal subterráneo que pro- cimiento exponencial de la de una semilla (535)
porciona un mecanismo de población (324) seed plant / planta con semillas
reproducción asexual (510) una planta que produce
ribosome / ribosoma un semillas (504)
organelo celular compuesto de S semen / semen el fluido que
ARN y proteína; el sitio donde contiene espermatozoides y
ocurre la síntesis de proteínas sapwood / albura el tejido del varias secreciones producidas
(56) xilema secundario que se dis- por los órganos reproductores
RNA / ARN ácido ribonucleico; tribuye en el exterior del masculinos (998)
un polímero natural que se tronco de un árbol y que tiene semicircular canal / canal semi-
encuentra en todas las células una función en el transporte circular el canal lleno de fluido
vivas y que juega un papel en de la savia (557) ubicado en el oído interno, el
la síntesis de proteínas (37) cual ayuda a mantener el equi-
librio y a coordinar los
movimientos (959)

seminal vesicle / vesícula semi- sexual reproduction / reproduc- solution / solución una mezcla
nal una de las dos estructuras ción sexual reproducción en la homogénea de dos o más sus-
glandulares en los vertebrados que se unen los gametos de los tancias dispersas de manera
macho, las cuales acumulan y dos padres (150) uniforme en una sola fase (32)
secretan fluido seminal (998) sexual selection / selección sorus / soro un grupo de espo-
seminiferous tubule / túbulo sexual un mecanismo evolu- ras o esporangios (532)
seminífero uno de los muchos tivo por medio del cual los car- source / fuente la parte de una
túbulos que hay en los testícu- acteres que aumentan la planta que elabora azúcares y
los, en donde se producen los capacidad de los individuos de otros compuestos orgánicos y
espermatozoides (996) atraer o adquirir una pareja a partir de la cual estos com-
sensory neuron / neurona sen- aparecen con más frecuencia puestos se transportan a otras
sorial una neurona que lleva en una población; selección en partes de la planta (564)
estímulos de un órgano senso- la que se elige una pareja con speciation / especiación la for-
rial al sistema nervioso central base en un carácter o carac- mación de especies nuevas
(950) teres particulares (6) como resultado de la evolución
sensory receptor / receptor shoot / brote la porción de una por selección natural (291)
sensorial una estructura espe- planta que crece principal- species / especie un grupo de
cializada que contiene los mente sobre el suelo; incluye organismos que tienen un par-
extremos de las neuronas sen- los tallos y las hojas (507) entesco cercano y que pueden
soriales y que responde a tipos sieve tube / tubo criboso en el aparearse de modo natural
específicos de estímulos (956) floema de una planta que da para producir descendencia
sepal / sépalo en una flor, uno flores, un tubo de transporte, fértil; tambien, el nivel de
de los anillos más externos de que está hecho de una serie de clasificación debajo de género
hojas modificadas que prote- miembros de tubos cribosos y arriba de subespecie (9)
gen el capullo de la flor (538) apilados de un extremo al otro sperm / espermatozoide el
septum / septo una pared divi- (554) gameto masculino (célula
soria, o partición, tal como la sink / sumidero cualquier lugar sexual) (148)
pared que se encuentra entre donde una planta almacena o spermatogenesis / esper-
células adyacentes en las hifas usa nutrientes orgánicos, tales matogénesis el proceso por
de los hongos, la pared interna como azúcares o almidones medio del cual se forman los
que se encuentra entre seg- (564) gametos masculinos (148)
mentos adyacentes de un sinoatrial node / nodo sinoau- spicule / espícula una aguja de
anélido y la pared gruesa que ricular una masa de células de sílice o carbonato de calcio
se encuentra entre las cámaras músculo cardíaco que se que se encuentra en el
derecha e izquierda del encuentra en la unión entre la esqueleto de algunas esponjas
corazón (760) vena cava superior y el atrio (620)
sessile / sésil término que derecho, y que inicia y regula
spinal cord / médula espinal
describe a un organismo que la contracción del corazón
una columna de tejido
permanece unido a una super- (abreviatura: nodo SA) (882)
nervioso que se origina en la
ficie durante toda su vida y no siphon / sifón un conducto base del cerebro y corre a lo
se mueve (618) hueco que los bivalvos utilizan largo de la columna vertebral
seta / seda una de las cerdas o para sorber y expulsar el agua (952)
espinas externas que se de mar (647)
spindle / huso mitótico una red
proyectan del cuerpo de un skin gill / branquia dérmicas de microtúbulos que se forma
anélido (652) una estructura transparente durante la mitosis y que
sex chromosome / cromosoma que protege la superficie de las mueve cromátidas a los polos
sexual uno de los dos cromo- estrellas de mar y les permite (128)
somas que determinan el sexo respirar (695)
spinneret / hilera un órgano que
de un individuo (122) sodium-potassium pump / utilizan las arañas y algunas
sex-linked trait / carácter ligado bomba de sodio-potasio una larvas de insectos para pro-
al sexo un carácter que es proteína transportadora que ducir hilos sedosos con los que
determinado por un gene que utiliza el ATP para efectuar el hacen redes y capullos (670)
se encuentra en uno de los cro- transporte activo de iones de
spiracle / espiráculo una aber-
mosomas sexuales, tal como el sodio hacia el exterior de la
tura externa de un insecto o
cromosoma X o el cromosoma célula y de iones de potasio
artrópodo, que se usa en la
Y en los seres humanos (175) hacia el interior de la célula
respiración (668)
(81)

spirillum / espirilo una bacteria stolon / estolón en las plantas, T

que tiene forma en espiral un tallo que crece y que al
(443) desarrollarse da lugar a raíces target cell / célula blanco una
spongin / espongina una pro- y brotes en los nodos o en la célula específica a la que se
teína fibrosa que contiene punta para formar individuos dirige una hormona para
azufre y que forma las fibras nuevos; la hifa de algunos hon- producir un efecto específico
del esqueleto de algunas gos, la cual crece y da lugar a (977)
esponjas (620) individuos nuevos (486) taxonomy / taxonomía la cien-
sporangium / esporangio una stoma / estoma una de las cia de describir, nombrar y
bolsa, cubierta, cápsula u otra muchas aberturas de una hoja clasificar organismos (300)
estructura especializada que o de un tallo de una planta, la teleost / teleósteo un grupo de
produce esporas (463) cual permite que se lleve a peces con aletas rayadas que
spore / espora una célula repro- cabo el intercambio de gases tienen una aleta caudal, esca-
ductora o estructura multi- (502) mas y una vejiga natatoria; el
celular que resiste las stroke / ataque de apoplejía grupo más grande de peces
condiciones ambientales y que una pérdida súbita de la con- óseos (757)
se puede desarrollar para con- ciencia o parálisis que ocurre tendon / tendón un tejido
vertirse en un adulto sin cuando se interrumpe el flujo conectivo duro que une un
necesidad de fusionarse con sanguíneo al cerebro (884) músculo con un hueso o con
otra célula (154) subcutaneous tissue / tejido otra parte del cuerpo (856)
sporophyte / esporofito en las subcutáneo la capa de células terrestrial / terrestre término
plantas y algas que tienen gen- que se encuentra debajo de la que describe a un organismo
eraciones alternas, el individuo piel (863) que vive en la tierra (721)
o generación diploide que pro- substrate / sustrato una parte, test cross / cruza de prueba el
duce esporas haploides (154) sustancia o elemento que se cruzamiento de un individuo
sporozoite / esporozoito un encuentra debajo de otra cuyo genotipo se desconoce
esporozoario que ha sido liber- parte, sustancia o elemento y con un individuo homocigoto
ado de un ooquiste y está listo lo sostiene; el reactivo en reac- recesivo para determinar el
para entrar a una nueva célula ciones que son catalizadas por genotipo desconocido (172)
huésped (473) enzimas (41)
testes / testículos los princi-
stabilizing selection / selección succession / sucesión el reem- pales órganos reproductores
de estabilización un tipo de plazo de un tipo de comunidad masculinos, los cuales pro-
selección natural en la que se por otro en un mismo lugar a ducen espermatozoides y
favorece la forma promedio de lo largo de un período de testosterona (996)
un carácter, el cual se vuelve tiempo (343)
thalamus / tálamo la parte del
más común (332) swim bladder / vejiga natatoria cerebro que dirige a la región
stamen / estambre la estructura en los peces óseos, una bolsa apropiada las señales sensori-
reproductora masculina de llena de gas que se usa para ales y motoras que se reciben
una flor, que produce polen y controlar la flotabilidad (756) (952)
está formada por una antera symbiosis / simbiosis una thecondont / tecodonte el reptil
ubicada en la punta del relación en la que dos organis- extinto a partir del cual evolu-
filamento (538) mos diferentes viven cionaron los dinosaurios (722)
steroid / esteroide un tipo de estrechamente asociados uno
theory / teoría una explicación
lípido que está formado por con el otro (364)
sobre algún fenómeno que está
cuatro anillos de carbono a los synapse / sinapsis el punto en basada en la observación,
cuales se encuentran unidos el cual el extremo del axón de experimentación y razon-
diversos grupos funcionales, y una neurona se une con el amiento (19)
que normalmente tiene acción extremo de una dendrita o con
therapsid / terápsido el orden
fisiológica (977) el cuerpo de la célula de otra
extinto de reptiles parecidos a
stimulant / estimulante una neurona, o bien, se encuentra
mamíferos que posiblemente
droga que aumenta la activi- con otra célula (948)
dio origen a los mamíferos
dad del cuerpo o la actividad syphilis / sífilis una enfermedad (728)
de alguna parte del cuerpo transmitida sexualmente,
(962) producida por la bacteria
Treponema pallidum (1009)

thorax / tórax en los vertebrados transgenic animal / animal U
superiores, la parte del cuerpo transgénico un animal al que
que se encuentra entre el se le ha transferido material ungulate / ungulado un animal
cuello y el abdomen; en otros genético clonado (241) que tiene pezuñas (814)
animales, la región del cuerpo translation / traducción la por- uracil / uracilo una de las cuatro
que se encuentra detrás de la ción de la síntesis de proteínas bases que se combinan con un
cabeza; en los artrópodos, la que tiene lugar en los riboso- azúcar y un fosfato para for-
región media del cuerpo (666) mas y que usa los codones de mar una subunidad de nucle-
thylakoid / tilacoide un sistema las moléculas de ARNm para ótido de ADN; el uracilo se une
de membranas que se encuen- especificar la secuencia de a la adenina (208)
tra dentro de los cloroplastos y aminoácidos en las cadenas de urea / urea el principal producto
que contiene los componentes polipéptidos (208) nitrogenado que se obtiene del
para que se lleve a cabo la translocation / translocación el metabolismo de las proteínas,
fotosíntesis (99) movimiento de un segmento de se forma en el hígado a partir
tissue / tejido un grupo de célu- ADN de un cromosoma a otro, de aminoácidos y compuestos
las similares que llevan a cabo lo cual resulta en un cambio de amoníaco y se encuentra en
una función común (419) en la posición del segmento; la orina y otros fluidos del
tissue culture / cultivo de teji- también, el movimiento de cuerpo (912)
dos la técnica de cultivar célu- nutrientes solubles de una ureter / uréter uno de los dos
las vivas en un medio artificial parte a otra de una tubos angostos que llevan
(544) planta (564) orina de los riñones a la vejiga
tolerance / tolerancia el estado transpiration / transpiración el urinaria (914)
de adicción a una droga en el proceso por medio del cual las urethra / uretra el tubo que lleva
que se necesitan mayores can- plantas liberan vapor de agua orina de la vejiga urinaria al
tidades de la droga para al aire por medio de los exterior del cuerpo (914)
obtener el efecto deseado (962) estomas; también, la lib-
eración de vapor de agua al urinary bladder / vejiga urinaria
toxin / toxina una sustancia que un órgano hueco y muscular
un organismo produce y que aire por otros organismos
(351) que almacena orina (914)
es venenosa para otros organ- urine / orina el líquido que exc-
ismos (449) trochophore / trocófora una
larva ciliada de muchos retan los riñones, se almacena
trachea / tráquea en los insec- en la vejiga y pasa a través de
tos, miriápodos y arañas, uno gusanos y algunos moluscos,
la cual nada libremente (642) la uretra hacia el exterior del
de una red de conductos de cuerpo (914)
aire; en los vertebrados, el con- trophic level / nivel trófico uno
de los pasos de la cadena ali- uterus / útero en los mamíferos
ducto que une la faringe a los hembras, el órgano hueco y
pulmones (668) menticia o de la pirámide ali-
menticia; entre los ejemplos se muscular en el que se incrusta
transcription / transcripción el el óvulo fecundado y en el que
proceso de formar un ácido encuentran los productores y
los consumidores primarios, se desarrollan el embrión y el
nucleico usando otra molécula feto (1000)
como plantilla; en particular, secundarios y terciarios (345)
el proceso de sintetizar ARN tropism / tropismo el
usando una de las hebras de la movimiento de un organismo
molécula de ADN como plan- o de una parte de él en V
tilla (208) respuesta a un estímulo
externo, como por ejemplo, la vaccination / vacunación la
transfer RNA / ARN de transfer- administración a seres
encia una molécula de ARN luz o el calor; el movimiento
puede ser hacia el estímulo o humanos o animales de organ-
que transfiere aminoácidos al ismos que han sido tratados
extremo en crecimiento de una en sentido opuesto a él (582)
para inducir una respuesta
cadena de polipéptidos true-breeding / variedad pura inmunológica (931)
durante la traducción (212) término que describe organis-
mos o genotipos que son vaccine / vacuna una sustancia
transformation / transforma- que se prepara a partir de
ción la transferencia de mater- homocigotos para un carácter
específico y, por lo tanto, pro- organismos patógenos muer-
ial genético en forma de tos o debilitados y se introduce
fragmentos de ADN de una ducen descendencia que tiene
el mismo fenotipo para ese al cuerpo para producir inmu-
célula a otra o de un organ- nidad (190)
ismo a otro (191) carácter (164)

vagina / vagina el canal de las vegetative reproduction / repro- villus / vellosidad intestina una
hembras que se extiende de la ducción vegetativa un tipo de de las muchas proyecciones
vulva al cuello del útero y que reproducción asexual en el que diminutas de las células que se
recibe al pene durante el coito crecen plantas nuevas a partir encuentran en la pared inte-
(1000) de partes plantas que no se rior del intestino delgado;
valve / válvula un pliegue de reproducen (541) aumenta el área superficial de
membranas que controla el vein / vena en biología, un vaso la pared para absorción (909)
flujo de un fluido (874) que lleva sangre al corazón viroid / viroide un agente infec-
vas deferens / conducto defer- (873) cioso que está constituido por
ente un conducto a través del vena cava / vena cava una de una hebra pequeña de ARN y
cual los espermatozoides se las dos venas grandes que lle- que produce enfermedades en
mueven del epidídimo al con- van sangre de los tejidos del las plantas (441)
ducto eyaculatorio que está en cuerpo al corazón (881) virulent / virulento término que
la base del pene (997) ventricle / ventrículo una de las describe a un microorganismo
vascular bundle / haz vascular dos cámaras musculares o virus que causa enfer-
en una planta, una hebra de grandes que bombean sangre medades y que es altamente
tejido de transporte que con- hacia el exterior del corazón infeccioso (190)
tiene tanto xilema como (881) virus / virus una partícula infec-
floema (556) vertebra / vértebra uno de los ciosa sin vida formada por un
vascular cambium / cámbium 33 huesos de la columna verte- ácido nucleico y una cubierta
vascular en una planta, el bral (espina dorsal) (712) de proteína; puede invadir una
meristemo lateral que produce vertebrate / vertebrado un ani- célula y destruirla (434)
xilema y floema secundarios mal que tiene columna verte- visceral mass / masa visceral la
(575) bral; incluye a los mamíferos, sección central del cuerpo de
vascular plant / planta vascular aves, reptiles, anfibios y peces un molusco, la cual contiene
una planta que tiene un sis- (267) sus órganos (643)
tema vascular formado por vesicle / vesícula una cavidad o vitamin / vitamina un com-
xilema y floema, tejidos espe- bolsa pequeña que contiene puesto orgánico que participa
cializados que transportan materiales en una célula en las reacciones bioquímicas
materiales de una parte de la eucariótica; se forma cuando y que forma varias moléculas
planta a otra (504) parte de la membrana celular en el cuerpo; algunas vitami-
vascular system / sistema vas- rodea los materiales que van a nas se llaman coenzimas y
cular un sistema de transporte ser llevados al interior la célula activan enzimas específicas
de los tejidos que lleva agua y o transportados dentro de ella (904)
otros materiales en las plantas (63)
o en los animales (504) vessel / vaso en las plantas, una
vascular tissue / tejido vascular estructura tubular que se W
el tejido especializado de encuentra en el xilema y que
transporte que se encuentra en está formada por células water vascular system /
las plantas superiores y que conectadas que transportan sistema vascular acuoso un
está formado principalmente agua y nutrientes minerales; sistema de canales que están
por xilema y floema (422) en los animales, un tubo o llenos de un fluido acuoso que
vector / vector en biología, conducto que lleva sangre y circula por todo el cuerpo de
cualquier agente, como por otros fluidos del cuerpo (554) los equinodermos (695)
ejemplo un plásmido o un vestigial structure / estructura weaning / destete el momento
virus, que tiene la capacidad vestigial una estructura de un en el que termina la dependen-
de incorporar ADN extraño y organismo, cuyo tamaño y cia que tiene un animal en su
de transferir ese ADN de un función están reducidos, pero madre para obtener alimento
organismo a otro; un huésped que es posible que haya estado (leche) y protección (806)
intermediario que transfiere completa y que haya sido fun- white blood cell / glóbulo
un organismo patógeno o un cional en los ancestros del blanco un tipo de célula de la
parásito a otro organismo organismo (286) sangre que destruye bacterias,
(229) virus y proteínas tóxicas, y que
vegetative part / parte vegeta- ayuda al cuerpo a desarrollar
tiva cualquier parte no repro- inmunidad (877)
ductiva de una planta (516)

withdrawal / abstinencia la serie
de síntomas asociados con la
remoción del cuerpo de una
droga adictiva (962)
Y
yeast / levadura un hongo
unicelular muy pequeño que
fermenta a los carbohidratos y
los convierte en alcohol y dióx-
ido de carbono; se usa para
fermentar cerveza, para hacer
pan y como fuente de vitami-
nas y proteínas (487)
Z
zygosporangium / en los miem-
bros del
phylum Zygomycota, una
estructura sexual que se forma
debido a la fusión de dos
gametangios y que contiene
uno o más cigotos que se for-
maron a partir de la fusión de
gametos producidos por los
gametangios (486)
zygospore / zigospora en
algunas algas, una estructura
protectora que tiene una pared
gruesa y que contiene un cig-
oto que se formó a partir de la
fusión de dos gametos (462)
zygote / cigoto la célula que
resulta debido a la fusión de
los gametos; el óvulo fecun-
dado (121)

Index
Note: Boldface page numbers refer to primary discussions. Page numbers followed
by f refer to figures. Page numbers followed by t refer to tables.
adrenal cortex, 983t, 985, alcoholic fermentation, linked in proteins, 36

A 985f 108–109, 108f, 110f microspheres, 256–257
adrenal glands, 982f, 983t, alcohol use, 962, 964, 964t, ammonification, 353, 353f
AAV (virus), 182 985, 985f 964f, 1005–1006 amniocentesis, 123, 123f
abdominal cavity, 849, adrenocorticotropic aldosterone, 985 amnion, 775, 775f, 1005,
849f hormone (ACTH), 982f, aleurone layer, 577f 1005f
abiotic factors, 340 983t algae, 465 amniotic eggs, 775, 775f
ABO blood groups, 178, adventitious roots, 555, blue-green, 399 amoebas
178f, 878–879, 879t 576f brown, 261, 261f, 461t, aggregations, 418, 418f,
abstinence, 1008 aerobic bacteria, 445 465, 465f 470f
acanthodians, 714f, 715 aerobic energy pathway, cell specialization in, classification, 417t, 420,
Acer saccharum, 562–563, 860 419, 419f 461t
562f, 563f aerobic respiration, 104, chloroplasts in, 66 cytoskeletal projections,
acetylcholine, 948 104f, 107, 107f, 110, 110f, classification, 420, 465 59, 59f
acetyl-CoA, 106–107, 106f 860 evolution of, 261 micrographs of, 51f, 59f
acetylsalicylic acid, 521 agar, 465 green, 419, 419f, 461, pseudopodia, 420, 461t,
Acidianus brierleyi, 415f age-group levels, 325, 325f 462–463, 462f, 463f, 464, 464f
acid rain, 15–18, 15f, 16f, age of Earth, 252, 283 465, 465f amoebocytes, 619, 619f, 621
386, 386f aggregations, 418, 418f plankton, 378 amphibians, 758–764. See
acids, 33, 33f, 661, 908 agnathans, 714, 714f, 717 as primary producers, also frogs
acne, 448, 864 agriculture 345, 346, 346f brains of, 763f
acoelomates, 600, 600f bacterial uses in, 450, red, 461t, 465, 465f caecilians, 720f, 764, 764f
acquired immuno- 450f reproduction, 503, 506 characteristics, 758
deficiency syndrome cereals, 518–519, 518f, symbiosis, 464, 491, 491f circulation, 759–760,
(AIDS). See AIDS. 519f, 576–577 uses of, 465 759f, 760f
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic domestic animals and, alkaline solutions, 33, 33f disappearance of, 14–18,
hormone), 982f, 983t 811 allantois, 775 18f
actin fibers, 59, 857–859, fruits and vegetables, alleles, 167–168, 178, 178f, eggs, 775, 775f
857f, 858f, 859f 516, 516f 326–330 evolution of, 267,
action potential, 946–948, genetic engineering in, allergic reactions, 239, 936 718–720
947f 238–242, 238f, 239f, alligators, 727, 727f, eyes, 762f
activation energy, 39, 40, 240f, 241f, 354 782–783, 783f fertilization, 763, 764
40f global warming and, 388, forelimbs during gills, 605, 605f, 761, 764
active sites, 41, 41f 389 development, 286f life cycle, 291f, 761, 761f,
active transport, 81–86 loss of topsoil, 393 respiration in, 776 763–764
ATP in, 81–82, 82f nitrogen-fixing plants, Aloe dichotoma, 550f respiratory system in,
movement in vesicles, 83, 353, 353f, 354, 517 alternation of generations, 719, 758–759, 759t
83f pesticides, 238–239, 332, 154, 154f, 506, 506f salamanders, 14–18, 14f,
receptor proteins, 61, 61f, 390–391, 391f, 678 nonvascular plants, 720f, 764, 764f
84–86, 84f, 85f plant hormones, 580f, 530–531, 530f, 531f toads, 761, 761f
second messengers, 85, 581 meiosis, 506, 506f, 531f ampulla, 696f
85f pollution from, 390–391, protists, 154, 463, 463f, amylase, 41, 907
sodium-potassium 391f, 399 465 Anabaena, 444, 444f
pumps, 81–82, 82f root crops, 517, 517f Altman, Sidney, 256 anabolic steroids, 981
addiction, 962–966, 962f, sustainable, 354 alveoli, 803, 803f, 885f, 886 anaerobic bacteria, 444
963f AIDS (acquired Amanita spp., 209, 488, anaerobic energy pathway,
adductor muscles, 647 immunodeficiency virus), 489f 860
adenine, 194f, 195–197, 12, 12f, 435, 437, 437f, Ambulocetus natans, 284f anaerobic respiration, 104,
195f, 197f, 208–209, 208f, 438, 438f, 439, 439f, 440t, Ambystoma tigrinum, 104f, 108–109, 108f
211f 934–935, 934f, 1008t, 14–18, 14f anaerobic threshold, 109
adenine diphosphate 1010f. See also HIV amebic dysentery, 464, 472t analogous characters, 307,
(ADP). See ADP. diagnosis, 934, 1008t amino-acid-based 307f
adenovirus, 435, 435f slow onset of, 86, 439, hormones, 977–978, anaphase, 130, 131f, 144f,
ADH (antidiuretic hormone), 934, 934f 978f, 979f 145, 145f
983, 983t statistics on, 934, 934f, amino acids, 211–213. See ancestral characters,
adherence, in E. coli, 446f 935, 935t, 1010 also protein synthesis 307–310
adhesion, 31 transmission, 438–439, dietary sources, 902 Andrias, 764
adipose tissue, 597, 597f 440t, 930, 935, 935f essential, 519, 902 anemia, 877. See also
ADP (adenosine air pollution, 396–397, evolution of sequences, sickle cell anemia
diphosphate), 96, 96f, 396f, 397f, 492 287, 287f anemones, sea, 627
100–101, 100f, 102f, air roots, 542f, 555, 576 genetic code for, 211–213, asexual reproduction in,
104f, 105f, 106f, 107, 107f albinism, 175–176, 175f 211f 609, 609f
albumen, 775
1118 Index
commensalism in, 364, reproductive strategies, apes, 732, 732f. See also respiration, 668, 668f
364f 609–610 See also primates segmentation, 666, 666f
angiosperms, 423, 423f, reproduction aphids, 364, 364f Ascaris lumbricoides,
514–515, 515f, 515t respiration, 605, 605f apical dominance, 581 633–634, 634f
fertilization, 514, 540, See also respiratory apical meristems, 574, asci, 421
540f systems 574f, 577f ascocarps, 421, 487f
flowers, 534f, 538–539, segmentation, 601, 601f, Apis mellifera, 300, 300f, ascomycetes, 421, 487,
538f 651–652, 666 303–304, 303f, 539f 487f, 490–491
life cycle, 540, 540f skeletal systems, appendages ascus, 487, 487f
meiosis in, 540, 540f 607–608, 607f See also chelipeds, swimmerets, asexual reproduction. See
mitosis in, 540, 540f skeletal systems and uropods, 681, 681f also cell division;
sexual reproduction, symmetry, 598–599, 598f, jointed, 664, 667, 667f cloning
534–535, 534f 599f, 629, 694, 694f pedipalps, 670, 670f, 671f in bacteria, 119, 150, 442,
animal behavior, 823–841 tissues, 597, 604–608 appendicular skeleton, 446f
categories of, 830, 831f trophic levels, 345–349, 850–851, 850f binary fission, 119, 119f,
communication, 345f, 346f, 347f, 348f, aquatic ecosystems, 351, 150, 442, 446f, 469f
833–834, 833f, 349f 376–378, 376f, 377f, 378f budding, 150, 487, 544f,
840–841 viruses in, 437–441, 437f, aqueous solutions, 32–33, 554t, 621, 625
definition, 638, 824 439f, 440t, 441f 32f in flatworms, 630f
food consumption, annelids, 651–656 aquifers, 393, 393f in fungi, 484–488, 486f,
831–832, 831f characteristics, 651–652 arachnids, 670–672, 670f, 487f
genetically influenced, earthworms, 417f, 601, 671f, 672f parthenogenesis, 153,
826, 826f 607, 651–655, 651f, Archaea (domain), 413, 609
imprinting, 829, 829f 654, 654f, 655f 413f, 415, 415f plant propagation, 544,
innate behavior, 826, 826f evolution of, 602f, 651 archaebacteria, 258, 261, 544t, 578
learning and, 827, 827f excretory system in, 654 412, 412f, 415, 417t, in protists, 151, 461, 462,
mate choice, 831f, leeches, 656, 656f 444–445 462f
835–836, 835f marine worms, 653, 653f cell membranes in, 415 in sea anemones, 609,
natural selection and, annual rings, 575, 575f, cell walls in, 415 609f, 627
825 583, 583f evolution of, 268 in sponges, 621, 621f
parental care, 806, 806f, annuals, 573 gene structure in, 415 types of, 150
831f anoles, 772f, 796–797 kinds of, 415 vegetative reproduction,
reasoning, 828, 828f Antarctica, 346f, 387, 387f Archaeopteryx, 725, 725f 541, 541f, 542f,
territorial, 831f, 834 anteaters, 808, 808f, 816t archegonia, 530–533, 530f, 548–549
Animalia, (kindgom), antheridia, 530–533, 530f, 531f, 532f, 533f aspirin, 521, 976
424–426, 594–610 531f, 533f arithmetic progression, assimilation, 353, 353f
See also animals anthers, 538, 538f, 540f, 278, 278f asthma, 890, 936, 936f
animals, 593–616 See also 576f arteries. See also human asymmetry, 598, 598f
chordates; inverte- anthozoans, 627–628, 627f circulatory system atherosclerosis, 884, 884f
brates; vertebrates anthrax, 447t, 930 coronary, 882 athlete’s foot, 485
circulation, 606, 606f See anthropology, forensic, hardened, 884, 884f atmosphere
also circulatory 729, 1049 maternal and fetal, 1005f early, 254, 258
systems antibiotic resistance, 216, pulmonary, 881, 881f, greenhouse effect,
classification, 412, 412f, 230, 230f, 449 888, 888f 388–389, 388f, 389f
416, 416f, 417, 417f, antibiotics, 443, 445, 449, renal, 913f nitrogen in, 353, 353f
424–425, 602–603, 449f structure, 873, 873f ozone layer formation,
602f antibodies arteriosclerosis, 884 264, 264f, 387, 387f
digestion, 604–605, 604f in blood, 876, 877, 879, arthropods, 663–689 atoms, 28, 28f, 30
See also digestive 879t arachnids, 670–672, 670f, ATP, 37, 104–110
systems to detect cytoskeleton, 59 671f, 672f in active transport,
ecological roles, 354, 426 immune responses, 877, centipedes and milli- 81–82, 82f
excretion, 608 See also 927–931, 928f, 931f pedes, 679, 679f from cellular respiration,
excretory systems vaccines and, 235, 235f, characteristics, 425, 95–96, 95f, 96f,
general features of, 236, 931, 932 664–669, 664f, 666f, 104–107, 104f, 107f
594–597 anticodons, 212–213, 212f, 667, 667f, 668f effect of oxygen on, 110,
genetically engineered, 213f classification, 303–304, 110f
240–242, 240f, 241f antidiuretic hormone 665, 665f from glycolysis, 105, 105f
internal body cavity, 600, (ADH), 983, 983t crustaceans, 680–682, mitochondria and, 65,
600f, 642–643 antigens, 915–916, 927, 680f, 680t, 681f 65f
invertebrates vs. 927f, 928, 928f, 929 evolution of, 266, 266f, in muscle contraction,
vertebrates, 424 antigen shifting, 932 602f, 665, 665f 859–860, 859f
movement, 424, 424f, 595 antihistamines, 936 excretion, 669 in photosynthesis,
nervous systems, anti-inflammatory drugs, exoskeletons, 667, 668, 100–103, 100f, 102f
606–607, 607f See also 953, 985 668f atria, 881, 881f, 882, 882f
nervous systems antlers, 810–811 insects, 669, 673–679, 831f attachment, 436f, 438
ants, 364, 364f
Index 1119
Index
attractiveness, 291 reproduction, 119, 150, phosphorus, 353 human circulatory

Aurelia, 592f, 626, 626f 442, 446f water, 351, 351f system
australopithecines, 733, structure, 442, 443, 443f, biological magnification, ABO blood groups, 178,
733f, 734f, 743 446f 391, 391f 178f, 878–879, 879t
autoimmune diseases, 933, toxins from, 448, 448f biological species concept, anti-clotting agents, 656
933t, 987. See also HIV transformation in, 191, 305–306. See also species carbon dioxide in, 40
autonomic nervous 191f biology, study of, 6–9 clotting, 876–878, 878f
system, 955, 955t uses in agriculture, 450, biomass, 349 cryopreservation, 60
autosomal traits, 175 450f biomes, 372–378, 372f, dialysis of, 915–916, 916f
autosomes, 122 uses of, 450, 450f 373f, 375f enzymes in, 752, 752f
autotrophs, 94, 94f, 417, viral reproduction biorhythms, 988, 988f in forensics, 878
417t, 422, 465. See within, 436–437, 436f biotic factors, 340 hemoglobin, 36, 180,
also plants bacteriophages, 192, 192f, biowarfare, 445, 448 181t, 218, 224, 287,
auxin, 580–581, 580f 435–436, 436f bioweapon, 445, 448 877
Avery, Oswald, 191 bark, 557, 557f, 562f birds, 784–792 lactic acid formation, 108
axial skeleton, 850, 850f barnacles, 368, 368f, 682 amniotic eggs, 775, 775f menstruation, 1002f,
axons, 944–949, 945f, 947f, basal disks, 622f, 624, 624f beak and foot adaptations, 1003
948f, 949f basal metabolic rate, 36 790–792, 790t, 791t plasma, 876
base-pairing rules, 197, body temperature in, 786 platelets, 877, 877f, 878
B 197f, 220 circulatory system in, during pregnancy, 1005,
basic solutions, 33, 33f 786f 1005f
Babesia, 471t basidiomycetes, 421, 485t, classification, 301, 417t red blood cells, 56, 128,
bacillus, 443, 443f, 447t 488, 488f, 489f, 490. See Darwin’s finches, 278, 876–877, 877f
backbones, 712, 712f. See also mushrooms 278f, 290, 290f Rh factor, 879
also skeletal systems bat pollination, 539, 539f DDT effects, 391, 391f transfusions, 935
bacteria, 442–450 bats, 807, 807f, 812, 812f digestive system in, 789f urea in, 81
aerobic, 445 forelimbs during endothermic metabolism, white blood cells, 877,
anaerobic, 444 development, 286f 786–787 877f, 922f, 925, 925f,
antibiotic resistance, 449 fungi in feces of, 483 evolution of, 268, 268f, 926–929, 926f, 928f,
cell shapes, 443, 443f B cells, 927–929, 928f, 931 309, 725–726, 725f, 935
characteristics, 414, 417t, beaks, 290, 290f, 788f, 790t, 726f blood alcohol
444 791t excretory system in, 789f concentration (BAC),
chemoautotrophs, 444, beans, 517, 535f, 572, 572f, external structures, 788f, 964, 964t
450 588–589 792 blood flukes, 632, 632f
classification, 57, 57f, bears, 804–805f eyes, 788f, 792 blood plasma, 876
413–414, 413f bees, 303–304, 303f feathers, 784–785, 785f, blood pressure, 882–883,
as decomposers, 347, classification of, 300, 788f 882f
414, 445 300f fossils, 725–726, 725f blood sugar levels, 986,
in digestion, 910 parthenogenesis in, 153, internal structures, 986t, 987
cyanobacteria, 258, 264, 609 785–787, 785f, 786f, blue-green algae, 399
264f, 418, 444, 444f beetles, 38f, 341f, 673t, 787f, 789f blue orchard bee, 539
diseases from, 447–448, 674, 678 mate choice, 835–836, blue whales, 424f, 595,
447t behavior, definition, 638, 835f 807, 807f
DNA in, 446f 824, 826, 826f. See also migration, 787 BMI (body mass index), 903
evolution of, 258, 260, animal behavior nest building, 826, 826f, body cavities, 633, 849,
258f innate, 826, 826f 831f 849f
fermentation reactions, insect, 679, 679f, 834 parasites, 634 body mass index (BMI),
450, 450f beta blockers, 86 pollination by, 539 903
flagella, 442, 442f, 446f bicarbonate ions, respiratory system in, body symmetry, 598–599,
gene regulation in, 414 888–889, 888f 786–787, 787f 598f, 599f, 629, 694, 694f
in genetic engineering, biennials, 573 birth rates, 394–395, 395f body temperature
228–229, 229f, 230f, bilateral symmetry, bivalves, 647–648, 647f, birds, 786
232, 450, 450f 598–599, 599f, 629 648f, 660–661, 661f daily variations, 988, 988f
heterotrophs, 414, 445 bile, 755f, 909–911 black bread mold, 484f, ectothermic metabolism,
largest, 444 binary fission, 119, 119f, 485t, 486, 486f 724, 773, 773f
movement, 442, 442f, 150, 442, 446f, 469f bladders, 914, 914f, 915 endothermic metabolism,
446f binomial nomenclature, blades (leaf), 558, 558f 724, 786–787, 803,
multicellular, 418, 418f 300 blastocysts, 1004, 1004f 849, 863
nitrogen-fixing, 353–354, biodiversity, 341–342, 370, blastopores, 692, 692f fevers, 925
353f, 444, 444f, 445, 378 blastula formation, mammals, 803, 849, 863
445f biogeochemical cycles, 596–597, 596f, 597f reptiles, 773, 773f, 795f
photosynthesizers, 444, 350–354 blind spot, 958 bonds
444f carbon, 350, 350f, 352, blood, 876–879. See also chemical, 29–30
protein synthesis in, 352f circulatory systems;
215–216, 215f nitrogen, 353–354, 353f
1120 Index
covalent, 29, 29f, 210
hydrogen, 29, 29f, 31
C carotenoids, 98, 98f, 528f
carrier proteins, 80–81,
cell recognition, 618
cells, 7, 49–71, 55t
ionic, 30, 30f, 32, 32f 80f, 100–101, 100f, 107, B-cells, 927–929, 928f,
bone density, 792, 853, cactuses, 307f, 539f, 556, 107f 931
853f 558 carrying capacity, blastula, 596–597, 596f,
bone growth, 852, 852f caecilians, 720, 720f, 764, 322–323, 323f 596t, 597f
bone marrow, 851, 851f, 764f cartilage, 715–716 chloroplasts, 66, 66f, 97,
875, 875f caffeine, 521t, 961, 963 cartilaginous fishes, 752, 99–101, 99f, 100f,
bones. See human skeletal calcitonin, 984 752f 259–260, 467, 467f
system; skeletal systems calcium, 579t, 859, 984 castes, 679 collar, 619, 619f, 621
bone structure, 851, 851f calcium carbonate, 352, catalysts, 40, 42, 256, 256f companion, 554, 554f
bony fishes, 753–757, 753f, 464 cats, 179, 712f, 713f cork, 553, 557f
755f, 757f calories, 900, 903, 903f cavity, dental, 447t cytoplasm, 56, 58–59
book lungs, 671f Calvin cycle, 102–103, CCR5, 438 cytoskeleton, 56, 58, 59,
Borrelia burgdorferi, 447t 102f, 543, 543f, 559 CD4, 86, 438, 934 59f
botulism, 448 CAM photosynthesis, 543, Cech, Thomas, 256 cytotoxic T cells,
Bowman’s capsules, 543f cecum, 814 927–929, 928f
913–914, 913f cancer, 12, 126–127, 129, cell cycle, 125–126, 125f, diffusion, 74–75, 75f, 80,
Boyer, Herbert, 228, 228f 440, 926, 926f. See also 126f, 198–199, 198f 80f
Brachiosaurus, 723, 723f under types of cancer cell-death inhibitors, 953 diploid, 121, 148, 148f,
Bradford, David, 14 carcinomas, 864, 864f cell division, 125–132. See 152, 152f, 153, 153f,
brains cervical, 440, 1010 also meiosis; mitosis 154, 154f, 595
amphibian, 763f leukemia, 521 cancer and, 126–127 egg, 120f, 142f, 149, 149f,
earthworm, 651–652 liver, 440, 440t cell cycle, 125–126, 125f, 1000–1003, 1000f
fish, 746, 755f lung, 890, 890f, 965 126f endoplasmic reticulum,
hominids, 733 malignant melanomas, checkpoints, 126, 126f 59f, 63–64, 63f, 64f
human, 950–952, 951f, 387, 864, 864f chromosome number eukaryotic, 58–66, 58f, 59f,
957, 957f and mutations, 126, 127, during, 122–123, 122f 416
insect, 677f 127f, 864, 864f cytokinesis, 125, 131–132, hair, 959
mammals, 805f skin, 387, 862, 864, 864f 131f, 132f, 145, 145f haploid, 121, 144–145,
primitive, 607, 607f, 647, Canis spp., 121t, 175, 305, diploid life cycle, 152f, 144f, 152, 152f, 153
651, 655 305f 153, 153f guard, 503, 503f, 561,
reptile, 772 capillaries, 873–874, 873f, DNA replication, 561f
brain stem, 951–952, 951f 885f 198–199, 198f helper T cells, 927–929,
bread molds, 421, 484, capillary action, 31 eukaryotic cells, 119, 928f, 934, 934f, 934t
484f, 486, 486f capsids, 435, 437f 119f immune system, 926–929
breathing, 887, 887f. See capsules (cell), 57, 57f, haploid life cycle, 152, kingdom classification,
also respiratory systems 190, 443 152f, 153f 412
bronchi, 885f, 886 carapaces, 681, 681f, 782, mutations during, 124, measurement units, 50,
brown algae, 261, 261f, 782f 124f 50t
461t, 465, 465f carbohydrates, 34, 34f, 36, number of cells resulting memory, 931
bubble model, 255, 255f 901, 901f, 903f from, 129 mesophyll, 543f, 559,
bubonic plague, 447t carbon compounds, prokaryotic cells, 119, 150 559f, 563f
budding 34–37, 34f, 35f, 36f, 37f cell membranes, 56, microscopes and, 50–54,
in cnidarians, 625 carbon cycle, 350, 350f, 60–61, 60f, 61f 51f, 52f, 53f, 54f
in hydras, 150, 150f 352, 352f in archaebacteria, 415 mitochondria, 58, 58f,
in plant propagation, carbon dioxide diffusion, 74–75, 75f, 80, 59f, 65, 65f, 107,
544f, 544t in blood, 40, 887–889, 80f 259–260, 737
in sponges, 621, 621f 888f electrical charge and, 79, muscle, 108–109, 419
in yeasts, 487, 487f in carbon cycle, 352, 352f 79t natural killer, 926, 962f
buds, 556, 556f, 557, 557f, cellular respiration, 104, enzymes in, 61f nerve, 72f, 79, 79f, 83,
562f, 581, 584, 584f 104f, 106–107, 106f, ion channels, 78–79, 78f, 242f, 942f
bulbourethral glands, 997f, 109 79t, 84f, 85, 946–947, nucleus, 58, 58f, 62, 62f,
998 greenhouse effect, 947f 125
bulbs, 541t 388–389, 388f, 389f membrane receptor nurse, 149
Burkitt’s lymphoma, 440 in photosynthesis, 102, proteins, 61f, 84–86, origin of, 256–257
butterflies, 363, 662f, 666, 102f, 502 84f, 85f osmosis, 76–77, 76f, 77t
675, 675f, 831f carbon fixation, 559 movement in vesicles, 83, plant, 66, 66f, 132, 132f
B vitamins, 904, 904t, 910 carcinomas, 864, 864f 83f prokaryotic, 57, 57f, 119,
cardiovascular system, osmosis, 76–77, 76f, 77t 150
872, 872f. See also sodium-potassium ribosomes, 56, 58f, 59f,
human circulatory pumps, 81–82, 82f, 63–64, 63f, 64f,
system 946–947, 947f 212–213, 212f, 213f
carnivores, 346–347, 813, cell plates, 132, 132f sperm, 996–998
813f
Index 1121
Index
cells (continued) Chargaff, Erwin, 196 structure, 37, 37f, 119f flatworms, 629
vacuoles of, 66, 66f, 77, Chase, Martha, 192–193, viruses in, 436–437, 436f fungi, 412, 412f, 417t,
468, 469f, 543f 192f chrysalis, 675, 675f 421, 482
white blood cells, 877, cheetahs, 328–329, Chthamalus stellatus, 368, green algae, 461t
877f, 922f, 926–929, 328f, 831f 368f insects, 425, 673, 673f
926f, 928f chelicerae, 670, 670f, 671f chytrid fungus, 18 kingdoms, 412, 412f
cell theory, 55 chemical bonding, 29–30 cilia mushrooms, 417t, 421,
cellular respiration, 95, chemical reactions, in ciliates, 420, 461t, 468, 485t,
95f, 104–110, 104f. See 38–39, 39f, 95, 95f, 97 468f, 469f scientific names, 301,
also metabolism chemoautotrophs, 444, 450 in human respiratory 301t, 303
aerobic ATP production, chemoreceptors, 956t, system, 58, 58f trees, 301, 301f, 314–315
110, 110f 960, 966 in mollusks, 642, 642f, vascular plants, 417t,
aerobic electron trans- chimpanzees, 121, 806, 644–645, 644f 423, 423f
port chain, 107, 107f 806f, 813, 833–834. See ciliates, 420, 461t, 468, cleavage (of eggs), 597,
alcoholic fermentation, also primates 468f, 469f. See also 597f, 1004, 1004f
108–109, 108f chitin, 421, 482, 678 Paramecium climate, 372–374
carbon cycle, 352, 352f chlamydia, 1008t, 1009 circulatory systems, biomes, 372–374, 372f,
glycolysis, 104–105, 104f, Chlamydomonas, 152, 871–884. See also hearts 373f
105f, 108, 108f 152f, 462, 462f amphibians, 759–760, global warming, 388–389,
Krebs cycle, 106–107, chlorinated hydrocarbons, 759f, 760f 388f, 389f
106f, 110f 391, 391f birds, 786–787, 786f, 787f temperature and
lactic acid fermentation, chlorofluorocarbons echinoderms, 695, 695f moisture, 371, 371f
108, 108f (CFCs), 387, 396 fishes, 746, 748, 748f cloaca, 763f, 781f, 789f
cellulose, 34, 346, 522, 901 chlorophyll, 35, 98–99, 98f human, 848t, 871–884 cloning, 241–242
cell walls chloroplasts, 66, 66f insects, 677f by asexual reproduction,
absence in animals, 596 in euglenas, 467, 467f mammals, 803 150
in archaebacteria, 415 evolution of, 259–260 mollusks, 644, 644f confirmation of, 231, 231f
in eubacteria, 258, 414, in leaves, 559, 559f open vs. closed, 606, gene cloning, 229, 229f
443 photosynthesis in, 97, 99, 606f, 652 genetically engineered
in fungi, 421, 482 99f reptiles, 776, 776f animals, 11, 240–242,
kingdom classification thylakoid membranes, vertebrates, 713, 713f 240f, 241f
and, 412 99–101, 99f, 100f cirrhosis, 911, 964 genomic imprinting, 242,
in plant cells, 66, 66f, choanocytes, 619, 619f cladistics, 307–310, 308f, 242f
132, 132f cholesterol, 35, 181t, 884, 310f by parthenogenesis, 153
in prokaryotes, 57, 57f 884f cladograms, 308–309, 308f mammary cell cloning,
centipedes, 362, 679, 679f chordates, 693f, 700–702, clams, 647, 647f, 650f, 240f, 241
central nervous system 700f, 701f, 706–707. See 660–661, 661f problems with, 242
(CNS), 950–953, 950f, also vertebrates classes, 302, 302f screening cells, 230, 230f
951f, 952f. See also chorion, 775, 775f, 1005, classical conditioning, 827 twins, 153
human nervous system 1005f classification of closed circulatory systems,
central vacuole, 66, 66f, 77 chorionic villi sampling, organisms, 299–315 606, 606f
centrioles, 128–129, 128f, 123, 123f algae, 420, 465 closed ecosystems, 358
130f chromatids, 119, 119f, 121f animals, 412, 412f, 416, Clostridium spp., 448,
centromeres, 119, 119f, 121f meiosis, 144–145, 144f, 416f, 417, 417f, 448f, 450
meiosis, 144–145, 144f, 145f 424–425, 602, 602f clotting, 876–878, 878f
145f mitosis, 128–130, 128f, arachnids, 303–304, 665, club mosses, 511, 511f
mitosis, 129, 130 131f 665t cnidarians, 425, 602f,
cephalization, 599 chromatography, bacteria, 57, 57f, 622–628, 638–639
cephalopods, 649–650, 649f paper, 568–569 413–414, 413f cnidocytes, 623, 623f
cephalothorax, 666, chromosomes, 118–124 binomial nomenclature, coacervates, 256–257, 257f
670–671, 671t during cell division, 300 cocaine, 961t, 962–963,
cereals, 518–519, 518f, 118–119, 128–132, biological species concept, 962f, 963f
519f, 576–577 128f, 130f 305–306 coccus, 443, 443f
cerebellum, 755f, 805f, in cell nucleus, 62 birds, 301, 417t cochlea, 959, 959f
951, 951f chromosome number, cladistics, 307–310, 308f, codeine, 521t, 961t
cerebral cortex, 957, 957f 120–123, 121t, 122f 310f codominance, 178
cerebral ganglion, 651 crossing-over, 144, 144f, dichotomous keys, 304, codons, 211–213, 211f
cerebrum, 755f, 805f, 951, 146–147, 147f 314–315 coelacanths, 757, 757f
951f homologous, 120 domains, 413, 413f, 417t coelom, 600, 607, 642,
cervical cancer, 440, 1010 independent assortment, earthworms, 471t, 651f 644f, 652, 713
CFCs 146, 146f echinoderms, 602f, 693, coelomates, 600, 600f
(chlorofluorocarbons), during meiosis, 144–149, 693f coenzyme A, 106, 106f
387, 396 144f, 145f, 146f evolutionary systematics, coevolution, 362, 362f
cf gene, 182 mutations, 124, 124f, 310, 310f Cohen, Stanley, 228
characters, derived and 219–220, 219f field guides, 304 cohesion, 31, 31f
ancestral, 307–309 sex chromosomes, 122, fishes, 717
175, 181, 737
1122 Index
cold-blooded, 724, 773, convergent evolution, cycads, 513, 513f density-dependent factors,
773f 307, 307f cycles 322–323
cold sores, 437 Cooksonia, 265, 265f, 510, biogeochemical, dental cavities, 447t
cold virus, 182, 440t 510f 350–354, 350f, 351f, deoxyribonucleic acid
collar cells, 619, 619f, 621 coral reefs, 338f, 378, 610, 352f, 353f (DNA), 190–220
colonial organisms, 418, 610f, 627–628, 627f, 628f carbon, 350, 350f, 352, in bacteria, 446f
418f, 624–625, 679, 679f cork cambium, 575, 575f 352f base-pairing in, 197, 197f
comb jellies, 626 cork cells, 553, 557f nitrogen, 353–354, 353f during cell division,
commensalism, 364, 364f corms, 541, 541t phosphorus, 353 118–119, 119f, 125–126
communication, 833–834, corn, 239, 518, 518f, water, 351, 351f in cell nucleus, 62
833f, 840–841 535f, 556, 556f, 559, cyclic AMP (cAMP), 978, discovery of structure,
communities (biological), 559f, 572f 978f 196–197, 196f, 197f
361–381. See also coronary arteries, 882 cystic fibrosis, 13, 13f, DNA dating, 737
ecosystems corpus luteum, 1002, 1002f 180, 181t, 327, 330 enzymes in replication,
coevolution within, 362, cortex, 555, 555f, 556f cysts, germ cell, 149 198–199, 198f
362f cortisol, 979, 979f, 985 cytokinesis, 125, 131–132, extraction from onion
commensalism, 364, 364f cortisone, 521t 131f, 132f, 145, 145f cells, 195
competition, 365–370, cotton, 522, 522f cytokinins, 581 fingerprinting, 237, 862
836 cotyledons, 515, 535, cytoplasm, 56, 58–59, 58f, helicases, 198–199, 198f
definition, 340 535f, 572f 59f heredity from, 8, 11
freshwater, 376, 376f countercurrent flow, 747 cytosine, 195–196, 194f, introns and exons, 218,
marine, 378, 378f covalent bonds, 29, 29f, 195f, 208, 208f 218f
mutualism, 364, 364f 210 cytoskeleton, 56, 58, 59, mitochondrial, 65, 737
parasitism, 362 cowpox, 235, 235f, 931 59f mutations, 8, 219–220,
plant defenses, 363 crabs, 666, 666f, 680–681 cytosol, 58, 63 219f
predation, 362, 363, crassulacean acid cytotoxic T cells, 927–929, origin of, 259
365f, 370, 370f metabolism (CAM), 543f 928f PCR duplication, 236, 236f
resource use, 366, 368, crayfish, 681, 681f plasmids, 229, 229f, 230,
368f, 369, 369f Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease, D 230f
wetlands, 377, 377f 441 polymerases, 198–199,
companion cells, 554, 554f Crick, Francis, 194, Daphnia, 20f, 595, 595f, 198f
competition for 196–198, 196f 680, 992f recombinant, 228–229,
resources, 365–370, 366f, crickets, 834, 836 Darwin, Charles 229f, 230f
367f, 368f, 369f, 836 crocodiles, 268f, 776, on competition, 369 repair of, 126, 151–152,
competitive exclusion, 782–783, 783f finches of, 278, 278f, 290, 199
369, 369f crop, 654–655, 655f, 677f 290f replication forks, 198f,
complementary strands, crops, genetically life of, 276, 276f 199–200, 199f, 200f
197 modified, 238–239, on mate choice, 835–836 replication of, 198–200,
complement system, 926 238f, 239f, 578 observations on HMS 198f
compound leaves, 558, crosses (genetic), 170–174 Beagle, 276–278, 277f structure of, 37, 37f, 119f,
558f cross-pollination, 163, published theory of, 188f, 194–197, 194f,
compound light 163f 279–280 197f
microscopes, 52–53, 52f dihybrid, 169, 171, 171f day-neutral plants, 583, synthesis checkpoint,
compounds, 29 monohybrid, 164, 583f 126, 126f
concentration gradients, 170–171, 170f, 171f DDT, 391, 391f, 396 transcription, 208–210,
74–82, 75f, 76f, 80f, 82f outcome probabilities, death rates, 394–395 208f, 209f, 438
conditioning, 827, 827f 173–174, 173f, 174f decapods, 681, 681f transformation and, 191,
cones, 511, 511f, 513, test, 172, 172f deciduous plants, 573 191f
536–537, 536f, 537f crossing-over, 144, 144f, decomposers, 346–347 transposable elements, 11
cones, in eyes, 958 146–147, 147f bacteria, 347, 414, 445 unused, 233
cone shells, 646, 647f cross-pollination, 163, 163f in carbon cycle, 352f in viruses, 192–193, 192f,
conifers, 513, 513f, 537, Crotalus horridus, 780f, in food chain, 346–347 435–436, 436f
537f 781f fungi, 421, 482 deoxyribose, 194, 194f
conjugation, 443, 463, 469f crustaceans, 667, 680–682, in phosphorus and dependent variables, 17
connective tissue, 846f, 847 680t, 681f nitrogen cycles, depressant drugs, 961t,
Connell, Joseph, 368 cryopreservation, 60 353–354, 353f 964
consumers, 345–347, 345f Cryptosporidia, 471, 471f, sustainable agriculture derived characters,
continental drift, 268, 471t and, 354 307–309
722, 722f cud, 814 deep-sea volcanic vents, dermal tissue, 552–553,
contractile vacuoles, 77, culms, 576, 576f, 577 94, 346 552f, 553f
469f cuticle, 502, 543f, 553 deletion mutations, 219, dermis, 861f, 862–863
control groups, 17 cuttings, 542f, 544t 219f, 220 desert biomes, 360f, 371f,
conus arteriosus, 748, 748f, cuttlefish, 649–650, 649f demography, 320, 322 372f, 373f, 375, 375f
760, 760f cyanobacteria, 258, 264, dendrites, 944, 945f, 948f detritivores, 346–347, 472
264f, 418, 444, 444f denitrification, 353, 353f deuteromycetes, 485
Index 1123
Index
deuterostomes, 692–693, diseases, 930–932. See also drugs. See also medicines in genetic engineering,
692f, 700 genetic disorders; See addiction to, 962–963, 228, 228f
Devers, Gail, 972f also under names of 962f, 963f in Hershey-Chase experi-
diabetes, 234, 234f, 903, diseases anti-inflammatory, 953, ment, 192–193, 192f
933t, 987 autoimmune, 933, 933t, 985 poisoning from, 119, 448
dialysis, 915–916, 916f 987 cocaine, 961t, 962–963, ecology, definition, 9, 340
diaphragms, 803, 849f, bacterial, 447–448, 447t 962f, 963f EcoRI, 230f
886, 885f, 887f cancer, 12, 126, 127, 440, depressant, 961t, 964 ecosystems, 339–359. See
diatoms, 378, 378f, 420, 926, 926f effects on nervous also communities
461t, 466, 466f Creutzfeldt-Jacob system, 961, 961t, (biological)
dichotomous keys, 304, disease, 441 964–966, 964t, 965f biodiversity and
314–315 diabetes, 234, 234f, 903, genetically engineered, predation, 341, 370,
dicots 933t, 987 228–229, 229f, 230f, 370f
families of, 515, 515f, 515t fungal, 483, 483f 234, 234f biogeochemical cycles,
germination, 572f heart, 884 psychoactive, 961, 961f 350–354
seed structure, 535, 535f, Hodgkins disease, 521 duckbill platypus, 808, 808f biomes, 372–375, 372f,
572f Graves’ disease, 933t Dugesia, 629–630, 630f 373f
structures in, 535, 535f, Lyme disease, 447t, 672 dugongs, 815 biotic and abiotic factors,
555–557, 555f, 556f mad cow disease, 12–13, duodenum, 908f, 909 340
differentiation, 419 441, 441f dust mites, 424f, 672f boundaries, 342
diffusion, 74–77 natural selection and, 330 dysentery, amebic, 464, 472t chemical pollution
cell size and, 90–91 from protists, 464, 471, effects, 390–391, 391f
facilitated, 80, 80f
principle of, 74–77, 75f
471t, 472–474, 472t,
473f
E climate and, 371–375
closed, 358
through ion channels, sexually transmitted, eagles, 384f, 391, 391f, definition, 340, 340f, 348
78–79, 78f, 79t 1008–1010, 1008t 788f, 789f energy pyramids, 348,
digestion, definition, 900 viral, 438–441, 440t ears, 956, 956t, 957, 957f, 348f
digestive enzymes, 42, 64, from yeast, 487 959, 959f niches, 365–367, 365f,
604, 907–909 disease transmission, Earth, 252, 283, 372, 372f 366f, 368
digestive systems. See also 930–932, 940–941 age of, 252, 283 succession in, 343–344,
human digestive system disjunction, 123 earthworms, 654–655 343f
of animals, 604–605 diurnal, 732 brain, 651–652 trophic levels, 345–349,
annelids, 654–655 divergence, 291 characteristics, 652, 654, 346f, 347f, 348f, 349f
birds, 789f DNA. See deoxyribonucleic 654f, 655f water cycle, 351, 351f
echinoderms, 696f acid circulatory system in, ectoderm,
extracellular, 604–605, DNA dating, 737 655f 596, 596t, 622, 622f, 623f
604f, 623 DNA fingerprinting, 237, classification, 417t, 651f ectotherms, 724, 773, 773f
fishes, 755f 862 hydrostatic skeletons, 607 Edmondson, W. T., 399
gastrovascular cavities, DNA ligase, 229–230, 230f movement, 654–655, 655f egg cells, 120f, 142f, 149,
604–605, 604f, 607, DNA polymerases, Ebola virus, 434f, 435, 149f, 1000–1003, 1000f
622–623, 622f, 623f 198–199, 198f 440t, 434 eggs
insects, 677f docking, in HIV infection, ecdysis, 668, 668f, 682, 784 amniotic, 775, 775f
mammals, 805f, 814 86 echidnas, 808, 808f human, 999–1002, 1000f
Paramecium, 469f dogs, 121t, 175, 175f, 305, echinoderms, 692–699 mammals, 808
vertebrates, 713, 713f, 305f characteristics, 425, reptile and amphibian,
906–911, 906f domains, 413–417, 413f, 694–695, 696f, 697f 268, 775, 775f
Digitalis pupurea, 521, 417t circulatory system in, terrestrial animals, 610
521f dominant genes, 167, 168, 695, 695f Eldredge, Niles, 282
dihybrid crosses, 169, 171, 168f, 170–171, 176–178 digestive system in, 696f electrocardiograms, 883,
171f dopamine, 962–963, diversity of, 697–699 883f
dinoflagellates, 461t, 467, 962–963f embryonic development, electron carriers, 107. See
467f, 627 doping, blood, 878 692–693, 692f also NADPH
dinosaurs dormancy, 584, 584f evolution of, 602f, 693, electron microscopes, 51,
evolution of, 721f, double fertilization, 540, 693f 51f, 53–54, 53f, 54f
722–725, 722f, 723f 540f excretory system in, 695 electrons, 28, 28f, 99–101,
feathered, 268 double helix, 194, 194f gills, 695, 695f 105–109
mass extinction of, 263 Down syndrome, 122–123, movement, 696f electron transport chains,
study of, 273f 122f echolocation, 807 100–101, 100f, 107, 107f,
diploid cells, 121, 595 dragonflies, 266, 266f, 678 E. coli 110, 110f
in life cycles, 152, 152f, Drosophila, 121, 149, 326f, characteristics, 443f, 446, electrophoresis, 231–232,
153, 153f, 154, 154f 332 446f 231f
meiosis of, 148, 148f evolution of, 258 elements, 28, 350
directional selection, 332, gene regulation in, 215 Elodea, 101f
332f embryonic stem cells, 847
1124 Index
embryos, 504–505, 505f, mitochondria and, 65 RNA polymerase, of bacteria, 258, 258f, 260
535, 535f, 1005–1006, from photosynthesis, 66, 209–210, 209f, 217, of birds, 268, 268f, 309,
1005f 94, 97–103 217f 725–726, 725f
emphysema, 890, 965 polysaccharides, 34, 34f specificity, 41, 41f bubble model, 255, 255f
endocrine system, 848f, pyramids, 348, 348f spider toxins, 670 of chloroplasts, 259–260
975, 982–988. See also enkephalins, 976 starch breakdown, 95f cladistics, 307–310, 308f,
hormones Entamoeba histolytica, Eoraptor, 722, 722f 310f
adrenal glands, 985, 420f, 464, 472t Ephedra, 513f, 521t within communities,
985f enterobacteria, 417t ephedrine, 521t 362–364, 362f
amino-acid-based vs. environment, 385–405. epidermis, 553, 553f, 555, continental drift and, 268
steroid hormones, See also ecosystems; 555f, 861–862, 861f convergent, 307, 307f
977–979, 978f, 979f pollution epididymis, 996–997, 996f, Darwin on, 276–280
anabolic steroids, 981 energy conservation, 400, 997f definition, 9
endocrine glands, 975, 400f epinephrine, 975, 985, of dinosaurs, 722–724
975f, 982–988 genetically modified 992–993 DNA dating, 737
hormonelike substances, crops and, 239 epithelial tissue, 846, 846f of E. coli, 258
976 global warming, 388–389, Epstein-Barr virus, 440 of eubacteria, 258
hypothalamus, 982–983, 388f, 389f equilibrium, 74–75, 75f, of eukaryotic cells,
982f ground water, 393, 393f 77, 77t 259–260, 260f
pancreas, 986, 986f human population growth, Equisetum, 309f, 511, 511f evolutionary timelines,
pineal gland, 988 394–395, 394t, 395f erosion, 352, 393 258–268f, 272–273
pituitary gland, 982f, 983 loss of topsoil, 393 Eryops, 718, 719f of fishes, 267, 267f,
target cells, 977–979, ozone layer, 264, 264f, Escherichia coli. See E. coli 714–717, 714f, 715f
977f, 978f, 979f 387, 387f esophagus, 906f, 907, 907f of flight, 595
thyroid and parathyroid pollution reduction, estrogens, 987, 1001–1003, fossil evidence, 283, 283f,
glands, 984, 984f 396–397, 396f 1002f 285
endocytosis, 83, 83f, 436, solving problems, 398–400 estuaries, 377, 377f of fungi, 265, 265f
438 species extinctions, 392 ethanol, 104, 108f, 109 gradualism and punctu-
endoderm, 596, 596t, 622, enzymes, 40–42 Eubacteria, 258, 261, 412, ated equilibrium, 282,
622f, 623f activation energy, 40, 40f 412f, 444. See also 282f
endoplasmic reticulum, activity of, 42, 42f bacteria of heredity, 257
59f, 63–64, 63f, 64f in the blood, 40 euglenas, 417t, 461t, 467, of hominids, 733–737,
endorphins, 976 catalysts, 40 467f 733f, 734f
endoskeletons, 608, 694, in cell membranes, 61f Eukarya (domain), 413, of Homo, 735–738
700 digestive, 42, 64, 604, 413f, 416 importance of genetic
endosperm, 514, 518, 535, 907–909 eukaryotic cells, 58–61, variation, 147, 151
535f DNA polymerases, 58f, 59f of insects, 266, 266f
endospores, 443 198–199, 198f cell cycle, 125–126, 125f, of lungs, 267
endosymbiosis, 259–260, DNA repair, 126, 151 126f of mammals, 268, 268f,
260f DNA replication, cell reproduction, 119, 284, 284f, 285f,
endothelium, 873, 873f 198–199, 198f 119f 728–730
endothermic metabolism, helicases, 198–199, 198f characteristics, 416, 417t mass extinctions, 263, 392
724, 786–787, 803, 849, hormone activation of, contractile vacuoles in, 77 milestones in, 602f
863 978, 978f DNA replication rate, of mitochondria, 65,
Endothia parasitica, 487 in glycolysis, 105 200, 200f 259–260, 260f
energy, 345–349 in laundry detergent, 41, DNA transcription, 210 of multicellularity,
activation, 39–40, 40f 46–47 evolution of, 259–260, 260f 261–262, 261f
ATP and, 95–96, 95f, 96f lactase, 920 multicellularity, 418–419, of organic molecules,
cellular respiration, 95, ligase, 229–230, 230f 419f 253–257, 256f
95f, 104–110 lipases, 909 protein synthesis in, origins of modern organ-
chemical reactions and, naming of, 40 217–220, 217f, 218f, isms, 262, 262f
38–39, 39f in photosynthesis, 99–101, 219f phylogenetic trees, 602,
conservation efforts, 400, 99f, 100f RNA replication rate, 210f 602f, 665f, 714f, 721f,
400f polymerases, 198–199, sexual life cycles, 732f
definition, 38 198f 152–154 plants and fungi on land,
in ecosystems, 345–347, production of, 215–216, structure, 58–66 265, 265f
345f 215f evaporation, 351, 351f, 863 of primates, 731–734,
flow through living in protein synthesis, 213 evolution, 275–292. See 732f
systems, 36, 94, 94f receptor proteins as, 85, also natural selection primordial soup model,
food consumption 85f allele frequency, 326–329 254, 254f
efficiency, 349, 349f restriction, 229–230, of algae, 261 principle forces, 326
from inorganic 229f, 230f, 237 of amphibians, 267, of prokaryotes, 258
substances, 94 reverse transcriptase, 718–720, 718f of proteins and nucleic
loss during transfer, 348 438, 439f of archaebacteria, 258 acids, 287, 287f
metabolism and, 7, 36 RNA as, 256–257 of arthropods, 266, 266f, of protists, 261, 460–461
602f, 665, 665f
Index 1125
Index
evolution (continued) dietary sources, 35, 36 fight-or-flight response, flight

of reptiles, 268, 268f, 721, digestion of, 909 955, 975, 985 birds, 784–787, 785f,
721f, 727 energy storage in, 36 filter feeders, 647–648, 787f, 788f
species formation, 281, lipid bilayers, 60, 60f 647f, 697, 697f evolution of, 595
291–292, 291f oils, 35, 35f, 363 finches, Darwin’s, 278, heart and lung require-
updates to theory, feather dusters, 653, 653f 278f, 290, 290f ments, 786–787, 786f,
281–282 feathers, 784–785, 785f, fireflies, 206f, 835 787f
vestigial and homologous 788f fireworms, 651f, 652 insects, 676f, 678, 678f
structures, 286, 286f feather stars, 697, 697f fishes, 746–757 mammals, 807, 807f, 816t
of whales, 284, 284f, 285f feedback, negative, 980, bony, 753–757, 753f, 755f, flowering seed plants, 423,
evolutionary systematics, 980f 757f 423f, 505, 514–515, 515f,
310, 310f feet, 643, 643f, 644f, 790t, cartilaginous, 752, 752f 515t.
excretion, definition, 912 791t, 804f, 810 characteristics, 746, 746f See also angiosperms
excretory systems, 608, in mollusks, 643 circulation, 746, 748, flowers
912–916 female reproductive 748f advantages of, 505, 505f
annelids, 654 system, 148–149, classification, 717 biennial plants, 573
arthropods, 669 999–1003, 999f, 1000f, courtship behavior, 831f photoperiodism, 583, 583f
birds, 789f 1001f, 1002f digestive system in, 775f pollination, 539
echinoderms, 695 fermentation reactions, evolution, 267, 267f, structure, 514, 538, 538f
fishes, 749, 749f 108–109 714–717, 714f, 715f temperature responses,
human, 910, 912–916, alcoholic, 108–109, 108f, excretory system in, 749, 584
912f, 913f, 914f, 916f 110f 749f trees, 562, 562f
mollusks, 644, 644f bacteria in, 450, 450f gills, 746–747, 747f flukes, 632, 632f
vertebrates, 713, 713f in food processing, 109 jawless, 714, 714f, 751, flu viruses, 435, 435f, 440,
exercise, 860, 860f lactic acid, 108, 108f, 110f 751f 440t, 932
exocrine glands, 975 ferns. See also seedless kidneys, 749 follicles, 149, 149f,
exocytosis, 83, 83f, 469f vascular plants lobe-finned, 718, 718f, 1001–1002, 1001f, 1002f
exons, 218, 218f characteristics, 511, 511f 757, 757f follicle-stimulating
exoskeletons, 607, 643, chromosome number in, lungfishes, 757 hormone (FSH), 983t,
643f, 667–668, 668f 121, 121t movement, 754f, 756 996, 1001–1002, 1002f
exponential growth classification, 417t, 423, reproduction, 750, 750f, food. See agriculture;
curves, 322, 322f 423f 755f nutrition
extensor muscles, 856, life cycle, 532–533, 533f respiration, 747, 747f, food chain, 345f, 346–347,
856f fertilization 758–759, 759f 346f, 391, 391f
extinctions amphibians, 763f, 764 flagella food guide pyramid, 902,
Cretaceous, 724 angiosperms, 514, 540, bacteria, 442, 442f, 446f 902f
current rate of, 10, 392 540f choanoflagellates, 619, food poisoning, 448
genetic uniformity and, chromosomes in, 120–122, 619f food production. See
329 120f dinoflagellates, 461t, 467, agriculture
mass, 263, 392, 724 double, 540, 540f 467f, 627 food webs, 347, 347f, 358
extracellular digestion, gymnosperms, 536 prokaryotes, 57, 57f foot. See feet
604–605, 604f, 623 in humans, 596f, 997–998, protists, 420, 467, 467f foraging, 831–832, 831f
extremophiles, 415, 415f 1002–1004, 1004f sperm, 997, 997f forams, 420, 461t, 464
eyes internal vs. external, 610, sponges, 619, 619f forensics, 236, 237, 237f,
amphibians, 762f 610f flatworms, 629–632 445, 539, 669, 729, 852,
birds, 788f, 792 micrographs of, 142f, 596f bilateral symmetry in, 629 862, 862f, 878, 908,
cephalopods, 649 nonvascular plants, 508, Cestoda, 631–632, 631f 1048–1071
compound, 666, 666f 530–531, 531f classification, 629 forests. See also trees
human, 958, 958f random, 146–147, 147f digestion by, 605, 630f acid rain and, 386, 386f
visual processing, 957, reptiles, 777 nervous systems, deciduous, 375, 375f
957f seedless vascular plants, 606–607, 607f, 630f destruction of, 392
510, 533, 533f reproduction, 630f evergreen, 375, 375f
F in sponges, 621, 621f Trematoda, 632, 632f succession in, 343–344,
wind pollination, 512, Turbellaria, 629–630, 343f
facilitated diffusion, 80, 512f, 534, 537f, 539 629f, 630f taiga, 374, 374f
80f fertilizers, 354, 579t fleas, 669 temperate, 375, 375f
factor VIII, 234 fetal alcohol syndrome, Fleming, Alexander, 449 wetlands, 377, 377f
FADH2, 107 1005–1006 flexor muscles, 856, 856f fossil fuels, 352, 352f,
fallopian tubes, 999f, fetal karyotyping, 123, flies 388
1000–1001, 1000f, 1001f 123f characteristics, 666, 666f, fossils, 283–285
family classification, 302, fetus, 1006, 1006f 674f, 678 birds, 725–726, 725f
302f, 718 fevers, 925 chromosome number, dinosaurs, 722–725, 725f
fats, 35 F1/F2 generations, 164, 164f 121t evidence of evolution,
body fat, 805f, 987 fibers, 522, 522f fruit flies, 121, 149, 326f, 283, 283f, 284f, 285f
chemical structure, fibrin, 878, 878f 332
35–36, 35f field guides, 304 pollination by, 539
1126 Index
extinctions, 262–263, molds, 420–421, 470, in bacteria, 414 genetic diversity
267f, 277 470f, 484, 485t cf gene, 182 in cheetahs, 328–329
formation of, 284–285 mycelium, 483, 483f, 489f codominance, 178 conjugation, 443, 463,
hominids, 733–738, 733f, mycorrhizae, 265, 265f, definition, 8, 119 469f
735f, 736f, 738f 490, 490f, 502 dominant, 167, 168, 168f, disease resistance and,
intermediaries, 283 nuclear mitosis, 482 170–171, 176–178 329
mammoth, 710f reproduction, 484–488, dominant and recessive, from sexual reproduc-
punctuated equilibrium 484f, 485t, 486f, 487f, 167, 167f, 168, 168f, tion, 151
and gradualism in, 488f, 489, 489f 170–171, 175–178 genetic drift, 328–329
282, 282f soil, 18 genetic variation, 146–147, genetic engineering,
frameshift mutations, toxins from, 483, 488 146f, 147f, 151, 288 227–242
220 zygomycetes, 421, 485t, heterozygous and in agriculture, 238–242,
Franklin, Rosalind, 196, 486, 486f, 490 homozygous, 167–168, 238f, 240f, 241f, 354
196f fur, 800–801, 801f, 804f 167f, 171–172, 171f, in animals, 240–242,
frequency distribution 176 240f, 241f
curves, 336 G human, 233 bacteria in, 228–229,
FROGLOG, 769, 769f introns and exons, 218, 229f, 230f, 232, 450,
frogs. See also amphibians Galápagos Islands, 278, 218f 450f
disappearance of, 14 278f, 290 jumping, 216 basic steps of, 228–229,
glass, 158f gallbladders, 908–909, 908f karyotype analysis, 122, 228f, 230f
life cycle, 761, 761f gametes, 118, 121, 146–147, 122f, 123, 123f, 577f cloning and screening
mating activity, 291f, 146f, 173. See also egg law of independent cells, 230, 230f
763f, 833, 835 cells; sperm cells assortment, 169, 169f cloning problems, 242
saltwater, 81 gametophytes multiple alleles, 178, 178f in crops, 238–239, 238f,
structures, 121t, 762f, 763f alternation of generations, mutations, 219–220, 219f 239f, 578
fronds, 511, 511f, 532, 154, 154f, 506, 506f nitrogen-fixing, 354 cutting and recombining
532f, 533, 533f angiosperms, 538, 540, nomenclature, 168 DNA, 230, 230f
fruit flies, 121, 149, 326f, 540f oncogenes, 127 of drugs, 228–229, 229f,
332 gymnosperms, 512, 537, persistence, 330 230f, 234, 234f
fruits, definition, 516, 516f 537f protein synthesis, food supply and, 11
fundamental niches, nonvascular plants, 208–209, 208f nitrogen-fixing genes, 354
366–367, 366f, 369 508–509, 530–531, recessive, 167, 167f, 168, polymerase chain reac-
fungi (singular, fungus), 530f, 531f 170–171, 170f, 175, tion (PCR), 236, 236f
481–492 seedless vascular plants, 176 Southern blot confirma-
absorption of nutrients 510–511, 511f, 532, transposons, 216, tion, 231–232, 231f
by, 483, 483f 532f, 533, 533f 219–220 of vaccines, 235–236, 235f
acid rain and, 386 seed plants, 534, 534f tumor supressor, 127 genetic recombination,
ascomycetes, 421, 487, ganglia, 606, 607f in viruses, 437 146–147, 147f. See also
487f, 490, 491 gastric juices, 908 gene sequencing, 220 genetic engineering
basidiomycetes, 421, gastrin, 908, 986 gene therapy, 13, 182 genetics, 161–176. See also
485t, 488, 488f, 489f, gastropods, 646, 646f genetically modified heredity
490 gastrovascular cavities, crops, 238–239. See also Mendel’s breeding experi-
cells walls, 421, 482 604–605, 604f, 607, genetic engineering ments, 162–165, 163f,
chitin in, 482 623, 622f, 623f genetic code, 211, 214 164f, 165t
chromosome number, gastrulation, 597, 597f genetic disorders, 180–182 Mendel’s hypotheses,
121, 121t gated sodium ion albinism, 175–176, 175f 166–168, 166f, 167f
as decomposers, 347 channels, 78–79, 78f chromosome mutations, Mendel’s ratios, 165, 165f
diseases caused by, 483, Gause, G. F., 369, 369f 124, 124f probability, 173–174,
483f geckos, 778–779, 778f cystic fibrosis, 13, 13f, 173f, 174f
as eukaryotes, 416–417, gel electrophoresis, 180, 181t, 327, 330 genetic variation, 146–147,
417t 231–232, 231f Down syndrome, 146f, 147f, 151, 288
evolution of, 265, 265f gemmules, 621 122–123, 122f genital herpes, 235–236,
fermentation reactions gene alterations, 219, 219f gene therapy for, 182 235f, 1008t, 1010, 1010f
in, 108–109, 108f gene cloning, 229, 229f. hemophilia, 181, 181t, genital warts, 1008t
forest, 342, 342f See also cloning 234, 330, 878 genome, human, 11, 233
hyphae, 421, 421f, gene expression. See Huntington’s disease, genomic imprinting, 242,
486–489 protein synthesis 181, 181t 242f
kingdom classification, gene flow, 328 hypercholesterolemia, genotypes, 168, 170–171
412, 412f, 417t, 421, gene rearrangements, 181t genus, definition, 301
482 219, 219f phenylketonuria (PKU), geometric progression,
lichens, 342, 491–492, gene regulation, 215–220, 182 278, 278f
491f 215f, 217f, 218f, 219f sickle cell anemia, 8, germ cell cysts, 149
mitosis in, 482 genes 180–181, 180f, 181t, germination, 572–573,
alleles, 167–168, 326–330 224, 329 572f, 584
in archaebacteria, 415 Tay-Sachs disease, 181t
treating, 182
Index 1127
Index
gestation periods, Gram staining, 443, Hardy-Weinberg origin of, 257

810–811, 811f, 1005 454–455, 445f principle, 326–329, 327f polygenic traits, 177, 177f
Giardia lamblia, 472t grasses, 518–519, 518f, Harte, John, 14–19 probability, 173–174,
gibberellins, 581 519f, 576–577 Haversian canals, 852, 852f 173f, 174f
gill filaments, 747, 747f grasshoppers, 676–677 hawk (Swainson’s), 832, Punnett squares,
gills external structures, 674f, 832f 170–172, 170f
amphibians, 605, 605f, 676, 676f, 678 head lice, 668 sex-linked traits, 175
761, 764 internal structures, 607f, heart attacks, 884 hermaphrodites, 148,
echinoderms, 695, 695f 677f heart rate, 883, 883f 609–610
fishes, 746–747, 747f life cycle, 675, 675f hearts, 880–884 barnacles, 682
mollusks, 644–645, 644f, sex chromosomes in, 122 in amphibians, 719, earthworms, 655
647–648 Graves’ disease, 933t 759–760, 759f, 760f flatworms, 630f
opercula, 754f, 756, 756f gravitropism, 582, 582f in birds, 786, 786f mollusks, 645, 647
skin, 695, 695f green algae cardiac muscle tissue, sea cucumbers, 698
surface area of, 719 characteristics, 419, 419f, 846f, 847 sponges, 621, 621f
gill slits, 747, 747f 465, 465f in earthworms, 655f tunicates, 701
Gilman, Alfred, 978 classification, 461t in fishes, 746, 748, 748f herpes virus, 235–236,
ginkgo, 513, 513f reproduction, 462–463, in humans, 880–884, 880f, 235f, 1008t, 1010, 1010f
gizzards, 654–655, 677f 462f, 463f 881f, 882f, 883f, 888f Hershey, Alfred, 192–193,
Glacier Bay, succession in, greenhouse effect, in insects, 677f 192f
343–344, 343f 388–389, 388f, 389f in mammals, 803, 805f Hershey-Chase experi-
glands Griffith, Frederick, in reptiles, 776, 776f, 781f ment, 192–193, 192f
endocrine, 975, 975f, 190–191, 191f heartwood, 557, 557f heterotrophs, 95, 445, 594
982–988 grizzly bears, 804f, 805f heat, 31, 348. See also bacteria, 414, 445
exocrine, 975 ground tissue, 552–553, temperature fungi, 421, 482
glass sponges, 620, 620f 552f, 553f height, 331, 331f protists, 461t
global change, 386, 386f, ground water, 351, 351f, helicases, 198–199, 198f heterozygous individuals,
387f, 388–389, 389f, 393, 393f Helix, 646 167–168, 167f
global warming, 388–389, growth factors, 234f helper T cells, 927–929, crosses, 171, 171f
388f, 389f growth hormones, 234f, 928f, 934, 934f, 934f determining genotypes,
glomerulus, 913, 913f, 240, 983, 983t hemocytometers, 405f 172
glucagon, 978, 978f, 986, Guadalupe Mountains hemodialysis, 915–916, 916f Hardy-Weinberg
986f National Park, 375f hemoglobin principle, 326–329,
glucose guanine, 195–197, 195f, 208f amino acid differences 327f
active transport of, 82 guard cells, 503, 503f, 561, in, 287, 287f phenotypes, 168, 176
in foods, 901 561f multiple copies of, 218 high blood pressure, 883
glycolysis, 104–105, 104f, gymnosperms, 512–513 oxygen transport, 36, hinge joints, 854t
105f, 108, 108f, 860 characteristics, 423, 423f, 877, 888, 888f histamine, 925, 936
insulin and, 986–987, 986f 512 in sickle cell anemia, 8, HIV (human immuno-
structure of, 34, 34f fertilization, 536 180, 180f, 224 deficiency virus),
glutamate, 948 kinds of, 513, 513f hemophilia, 181, 181t, 934–935, 934f, 1010.
glycogen, 34, 109, 860, 901 life cycle, 534–536, 534f, 234, 330, 878 See also AIDS
glycolysis 537, 537f hepatitis viruses, 236, macrophages in HIV
in cellular respiration, meiosis in, 537, 537f 440, 440t, 910, 1008t infection, 86, 438
104–105, 104f, 105f, mitosis in, 537, 537f herbaceous plants, 556, structure of, 435, 437,
108, 108f 556f, 573, 573f 437f, 438f
enzymes, 105 H herbicide resistance, testing for, 934
transmission, 438–439,
during exercise, 109–110, 238–239
110f, 860 herbivores, 346, 363 440t, 935
habitat, 340, 377. See also
glycoproteins, 435, 437–439, heredity, 161–185. See also vaccines, 12
ecosystems
437f, 439f genetics Hodgkin’s disease, 521
Haeckel, Ernst, 340
glyphosate, 238–239 allele frequencies, 326 homeostasis, 8, 31, 40,
hagfish, 751, 751f
gnetophytes, 513, 513f, 554 codominance, 178 561, 849, 889
hair, 800–801, 801f
goiter, 984, 984f definition, 8 hominids, 733–738
cells, 959
Golgi apparatus, 58f, 64, determining genotypes, australopithecines, 733,
facial, 985
64f, 83, 132 172, 172f 733f, 734f
follicles, 861f, 862–863
gonorrhea, 1008–1009, environmental influ- brains of, 733
heredity, 177, 177f
1008t, 1009f ences, 179, 179f definition, 733
Haldane, J. B. S., 254
gorillas, 732f, 733f, 836, intermediate traits, 177 DNA dating, 737
half-life, 252, 252f
836f law of independent fossils, 733–738, 733f,
hantavirus, 441
Gould, Stephen Jay, 282 assortment, 169, 169f 735f, 736f, 738f
haploid cells, 121, 144–145,
gradualism, 282, 282f law of segregation, 169 Homo spp., 735–738,
144f, 152, 152f, 153f
grains, 518–519, 518f, mitochondria from the 735f, 736f
hardened arteries, 884
519f, 576–577, 576f, 577f mother, 737 migrations, 736f, 737
884f
multiple alleles, 178, 178f movement, 733, 733f
1128 Index
other early, 734, 734f parathyroid hormone human growth hormone, female reproductive
skulls, 743 (PTH), 984 234f system, 148–149,
homologous chromo- from the pituitary gland, human heart, 880–884, 999–1003, 999f, 1000f,
somes, 120 983, 983t 880f, 881f, 882f, 883f, 1001f, 1002f
homologous structures, plant growth, 580–581, 888f fertilization, 596f,
286, 286f 580f human immune system, 997–998, 1002–1004,
Homo spp., 735–738, 735f, progesterone, 1002, 1002f 848t, 924–936 1004f
736f prostaglandins, 976 allergic reactions, 239, 936 fetal development, 1006,
homozygous individuals, receptors, 978–979, 978f, antigen shifting, 932 1006f
167, 167f, 170, 170f, 172, 979f autoimmune disease, fetus, 994f
326–329 reproduction and, 988 933, 933t, 987 male reproductive system,
honeybees, 153, 300, 300f, resistin, 903 cells involved in, 926–929 148, 996–998, 996f,
303f, 303–304, 539, 539f, as signal molecules, 84 HIV infection, 934–935, 997f, 998f
609 target cells for, 977–979, 934f human respiratory system,
Hooke, Robert, 50, 55 977f, 978f, 979f inflammatory response, 885–890
hookworms, 633–634 testosterone, 981, 987 925, 925f amount of air respired,
hooves, 810, 811f thyroid, 979, 979f long-term protection, 886f
hormones, 974–993. See horns, 810 931, 931f circulation to lungs, 880,
also endocrine system hornworts, 509, 509f lymphatic system, 880f
adrenocorticotropic hor- horsetails, 309, 511, 511f 874–875, 875f diseases of, 890, 890f
mone (ACTH), 983t host cell specificity, 437 macrophages, 596, 926, fetal lungs, 886f
aldosterone, 985 human body structure, 926f, 931 path of air, 885-886,
amino-acid-based vs. 845–864. See also human nonspecific defenses, 885f
steroid, 977–979, 978f, skeletal system 924–926, 925f, 926f regulation of breathing
979f body cavities, 849, 849f organ transplants and, rate, 887, 887f
anabolic steroids, 981 endothermy, 849 915–916 role of muscles in
activation of enzymes, kinds of tissues, 846–847, recognizing invaders, breathing, 887, 887f
978, 978f 846f 927, 927f structure of, 885f
body fat and, 987 organ systems, 848–849, vaccination, 931–932 transport of carbon
calcitonin, 984 848t white blood cells, 877, dioxide, 889, 889f
cortisol, 979, 979f, 985 skin, 861–864, 861f, 864f, 877f, 922f, 926–929, transport of oxygen, 888,
daily rhythms, 988, 988f 924 926f, 927f, 928f 888f
endorphins, 976 human circulatory human immuno- humans
enkephalins, 976 system, 871–884 deficiency virus (HIV). chromosome number of,
epinephrine, 975, 985, arteries, 873, 873f, See HIV. 62, 121t
992–993 881–882, 881f, 884, human nervous system, language development of,
estrogens, 987, 884f, 888, 888f, 913f, 848t, 943–971 834
1001–1003, 1002f 1005f autonomic, 955, 955t number of genes in, 233
and flight-or-flight capillaries, 873–874, brain, 950–952, 951f, ovarian follicles in, 149f,
response, 955, 975, 873f, 885f 957, 957f 1001, 1001f
985 heart, 880–884, 880f, drug addiction and, trophic levels of, 349, 349f
follicle stimulating hor- 881f, 882f, 883f, 888f 962–963, 962f, 963f vestigial and homologous
mone (FSH), 983t, kidneys, 913f drug effects on, 961, 961t, structures of, 286,
996, 1001–1002, 1002f lymphatic system, 964–966, 964t, 965f 286f
functions of, 974 874–875, 875f membrane potential, human skeletal system,
gastrin, 908, 986 pulmonary and systemic 945–948, 947f 850–855
glucagon, 978, 978f, 986, circuits, 880, 880f, 888f nerve impulses, 945–947, appendicular skeleton,
986f transport and distribution, 947f 850–851, 850f
growth hormones, 234f, 872, 872f neuron structure, axial skeleton, 850, 850f
240, 983, 983t veins, 873–874, 873f, 874f 944–945, 944f, 945f bone growth, 852, 852f
insulin, 228–229, 229f, human digestive system, neurotransmitters, bone marrow, 851, 851f,
234, 234f, 903, 906–911, 906f 948–949, 949f, 962–963, 875, 875f
986–987, 986f esophagus, 906f, 907, 907f 966, 975–976 bone structure, 851, 851f
leptin, 987 large intestine, 910, 910f optic nerve, 958, 958f joints, 854–855, 854f,
luteinizing hormone liver, 755f, 909, 911, 964 sensory system, 956–960 854t, 855f
(LH), 983t, 996, mouth and throat, 907, somatic, 954, 954f movement of, 856, 856f
1001–1002, 1002f 907f spinal cord, 952–953, 952f osteoporosis, 853, 853f,
melatonin, 988, 988f small intestine, 909, 909f synaptic transmission, 987
negative feedback, 980, stomach, 906f, 907–908, 948–949, 948f, 949f skeletal muscle tissue,
980f 908f human papilloma virus, 846f, 847, 857, 857f
neuropeptides, 976 water absorption, 910 440 hummingbirds, 44, 362f,
neurotransmitters and, human excretory system, human reproduction, 539, 790t
975–976 910, 912–916, 912f, 913f, 848t, 995–1007. See also Huntington’s disease,
oxytocin, 980, 983t 914f, 916f pregnancy 181, 181t
parathyroid, 984 human genome, 11, 233 childbirth, 1007, 1007f Hybodus, 716f
Index 1129
Index
hybrids, 305–306, 305f, 811 inbreeding, 321, 328 cnidarians, 425, 602f, snakes, 781f
hydrangeas, 179, 179f incomplete dominance, 622–628, 638–639 transplants, 915–916
hydras 177 echinoderms, 692–699 kidney stones, 914, 914f
body plan, 623, 623f independent assortment, flatworms, 605–607, kinetoplastids, 461t, 467
freshwater/marine, 624, 146, 146f 629–632, 630f, 631f kingdom classification,
624f independent variables, 17 invertebrate chordates, 302, 302f, 412, 412f,
gastrovascular cavity of, individual selection, 825 700–702, 700f, 701f 430–431
604–605, 604f, 607, infection process, 86, mollusks, 642–650 knee-jerk reflex, 954, 954f
623, 623f 192–193, 192f, 438, 925, roundworms, 602f, 604, knees, 855f
hydrostatic skeletons, 930 604f, 633–634, 633f, Knight, T. A., 162
607, 607f inflammatory response, 634f Koch, Robert, 930
locomotion of, 624, 624f 925, 925f sponges, 618–621 Koch’s postulates, 930
nervous systems, influenza viruses, 435, iodine, 905t, 984, 984f kokerboom, 550f
606–607, 607f 435f, 440, 440t, 932 ion channels, 78–79 Krebs cycle, 106–107,
reproduction, 150, 150f, innate behavior, 826, 826f channel-gated, 948, 949f 106f, 110f
596 insects, 673–679 diffusion through, 78–79, krill, 346f, 681, 681f
hydrochloric acid, 661, 908 behavior, 679, 679f, 834 78f, 79t K-strategists, 324f, 325
hydrogen body plan, 674, 674f, nerve impulses and,
acidity, 33 676–677 945–948, 947f, 949f L
in cellular respiration, brains of, 677f in photosynthesis,
105, 105f, 106f, 107, circulatory system in, 100–101 labia, 1000f
107f 677f receptor proteins, 84f, 85, Lack, David, 290
in photosynthesis, classification, 425, 673, 85f, 86 lac operon, 215–216, 215f
100–101, 100f 673f voltage-gated, 946–947 lactase, 920
hydrogenated oils, 35 compared to crustaceans, ionic bonds, 30, 30f, 32, 32f lactate, 104, 108, 108f
hydrogen bonding, 29, 680t ions, 30 lactic acid fermentation,
29f, 31 digestive system in, 677f iridium, 724 108, 108f
hydrogen peroxide, 41 evolution, 266, 266f Irish potato famine, 470 Lactobacillus bulgaricus,
hydrologic cycle, 351, 351f flight, 676f, 677f, 678, 678f islets of Langerhans, 414f
hydrophytes, 377 in forensics, 669 986–987, 986f lactose metabolism,
hydrostatic skeletons, life cycle, 675, 675f, 677f isopods, 680 215–216, 215f, 920–921
607, 607f, 654 mouthparts, 674, 674f, isotonic solutions, 77, 77t Lamarck, Jean Baptiste,
hydrothermal vents, 94, 676f 277
346 insertion mutations, 219, J lampreys, 751, 751f
hydrozoans, 624–625, 624f, 219f lancelets, 700, 700f, 702,
625f. See also hydras Insectivora (order), 812, Jacobson’s organs, 781f 702f
hypercholesterolemia, 181t 812f jaundice, 910 large intestine, 910, 910f
hypertension, 883 instinct, 826, 826f Java Man, 736 large offspring syndrome,
hypertonic solutions, 77, insulin jawless fishes, 714, 714f, 242
77t blood sugar levels, 986, 751, 751f larval stage
hyphae, 421, 421f, 483, 986f jaws, evolution of, 267, crustaceans, 680, 680f, 682
483f diabetes and, 903, 987 715, 715f echinoderms, 694
ascomycetes, 487, 487f genetic engineering of, jellyfish, 592f, 622, 622f, insects, 675, 675f
basidiomycetes, 488f, 228–229, 229f, 234, 626, 626f mollusks, 642, 642f, 645,
489, 489f 234f Jenner, Edward, 931 647
mycorrhizae, 490, 490f integumentary system, joints, 854–855, 854f, 854t. tunicates, 701
in reproduction, 484 848t See also skeletal systems larynx, 885f, 886
zygomycetes, 486, 486f interbreeding, 305–306 jumping genes, 216 lateral line, 753, 753f, 754f
hypothalamus, 951f, 952, interdependence, 9 Jurassic period, 721f, 723 latex, 520, 520f
982–983, 982f interferons, 234f, 926 laundry detergents, 41,
hypotheses, 16, 19 intermediate fibers, 59 46–47
hypotonic solutions, 77, intermediate traits, 177 K law of independent
77t interneurons, 953 assortment, 169, 169f
Kalanchoë daigremon-
hyrax, 816, 816f internodes, 556–557, 556f, law of segregation, 169
tiana, 542, 542f, 543f
557f leaf cuttings, 542f, 544t
karyotypes, 122, 122f, 123,
I interphase, 125, 125f
intertidal zone, 378
123f, 577f leaflets, 558, 558f
kelps, 417t, 465. See also Leakey, Richard, 735f
identification keys, 314–315, intoxication, 964, 964t learning, 827
brown algae
314f introns, 218, 218f leaves, 558–559, 558f,
keratin, 214, 800, 810–811,
immune system. See invertebrate chordates, 559f, 562f
861, 863
human immune system 700–702, 700f, 701f leeches, 656, 656f
kidneys, 913–916
immunity, 931 invertebrates, 424–425 Leeuwenhoek, Anton van,
blood filters, 608,
implantation, 1004, 1004f See also under types of 50, 55
913–914, 913f
imprinting, 242, 242f, 829, invertebrates
dialysis, 915–916, 916f
829f annelids, 651–656
fishes, 749
arthropods, 663–689
1130 Index
legumes, 517
lemmas, 576f
hind-limb length
variations, 292, 292f
M manatees, 815, 815f
mandibles, 673–674, 674f,
lemurs, 816t lobe-finned fishes, 718, 676f
leopard frogs, 291f, 744f, 718f, 757, 757f MacArthur, Robert, manioc, 517, 517f
762f, 763f lobsters, 842, 842f 366–367 mantles, molluscan, 643,
leptin, 987 locomotion. See also Macrocystis pyrifera, 420f 643f, 644f, 647, 648
Lerman, Louis, 255, 255f movement macromolecules, 34 Margulis, Lynn, 259–260
leukemia, 521 in animals, 424, 424f, macrophages, 926 marijuana, 966, 966f
lice, head, 668 595, 595f function of, 926, 926f, marker proteins, 61, 61f
lichens, 342, 491–492, 491f in bacteria, 442, 442f, 446f 928f, 929 marrow, bone, 851, 851f,
life, 6f, 254, 256–257, 256f. in earthworms, 654–655, in HIV infection, 86, 438 875, 875f
See also evolution 655f in human immune marsupials, 730, 809, 809f
life cycles in echinoderms, 696f system, 596, 926, mass extinctions, 263,
alternation of generations, in fish, 754f, 756 926f, 931 392, 724
154, 154f, 506, 506f in hominids, 733, 733f mad cow disease, 12–13, mate choice, 835–836, 835f
of amphibians, 291f, 761, in hydra, 624, 624f 441, 441f matter, 28
761f, 763–764 in mollusks, 643, 643f, madreporite, 696f Mayr, Ernst, 305
of angiosperms, 540, 540f 646, 647, 649–650 magnesium, 579t McClintock, Barbara, 216
diploid, 152f, 153, 153f in protists, 420, 461t, magnification, 51–53, 51f mean, 336
of frogs, 761, 761f 464, 464f malaria, 472–474 median, 336
of grasshoppers, 675, 675f logistic growth model, sickle cell anemia and, medicines. See also drugs;
of gymnosperms, 323, 323f 180, 180f, 329 vaccines
534–536, 534f, 537, Lorenz, Konrad, 829, 829f sporozoans in, 420, 471, beta blockers, 86
537f Losos, Jonathan, 292 471t, 472t, 473, 473f genetically engineered,
haploid, 152, 152f, 153f lovebirds, 826, 826f symptoms, 473 234, 234f
of insects, 675, 675f, 677f Loxosceles reclusa, 671, treatment, 474 plant sources, 521, 521f,
of mosses, 531, 531f 671f malignant melanoma, 521t
of nonvascular plants, Lucy (hominid fossil), 733f 387, 864, 864f receptor protein binding,
530–531, 530f, 531f lufeneuron, 669 Malpighian tubules, 669, 85
of protists, 463, 463f, 465 lumber, 520, 520f, 556 671f medulla oblongata, 755f,
of vascular plants, lung cancer, 890, 890f, 965 Malthus, Thomas, 278 951–952, 951f
552–553, 533f lungfishes, 757 mammals, 799–821 medusa body forms, 622,
ligaments, 854, 855f lungs, 886. See also body temperature, 803, 622f, 625, 625f
ligase, 229–230, 230f respiratory systems, 849, 863 meiosis, 144–149
light, 98–101, 98f, 100f human respiratory circulatory system in, alternation of genera-
light microscopes, 51–52, systems 803, 805f tions, 506, 506f, 531f
51f, 52f amphibians, 719, comparison of bats and in angiosperms, 540, 540f
lightning, 250f, 254 758–759, 759f whales, 807, 807f centromeres, 129, 130
lignin, 510 birds, 786–787, 787f digestive system in, 805f, crossing-over, 144, 144f,
limbic system, 952, 962f, book lungs, 671f 814 146–147, 147f
963f evolution, 267 eggs, 808 DNA repair during,
limestone, 352, 352f, 464 excretion by, 912, 912f evolution, 268, 268f, 284, 151–152
limnetic zone, 376, 376f human, 880, 880f, 885f, 284f, 285f, 728–730 genetic variation, 147
Linnaeus, Carl, 300, 886, 889 external structures, in gymnosperms, 537,
302 lung capacity, 894–895 800–801, 801f, 804f, 537f
lions, 825, 825f mammals, 803, 803f, 805f 863 haploid cell formation,
lipases, 909 multicellularity in, 419f flight in, 807, 807f, 816t 144–145, 144f, 145f
lipid bilayers, 60, 60f. See reptiles, 776, 776f, 781f Insectivora (order), 812, independent assortment,
also cell membranes sensitivity of, 605 812f 146, 146f
lipids, 35, 35f, 256, snails, 645 internal structures, 802, law of segregation, 169
902–903, 903f luteal phase, 1002 802f, 803, 803f, 805f in males and females,
littoral zone, 376, 376f luteinizing hormone (LH), marsupials, 730, 809, 809f 148–149, 148f
liver, 755f, 909, 911, 964 983t, 996, 1001–1002, monotremes, 808, 808f origin of term, 147
liver cancer, 440, 440t 1002f placental, 730, 730f, 812f, in sporophytes, 154, 154f
liver failure, 209 Lycopodium, 510, 511f 810–816, 813f, 814f, melanin, 175, 862–863
liverworts, 509, 509f, 530, Lyell, Charles, 277 815f, 816t melanoma, 387, 864, 864f
530f Lyme disease, 447t, 672 reproduction, 806, 806f, melatonin, 988, 988f
living organisms, lymphatic system, 808–811 membrane attack
characteristics, 6, 6f 874–875, 875f respiratory system, 803, complex (MAC), 926
lizards, 778, 778f. See also lymphatic vessels, 909, 909f 803f, 805f, 814 membrane potential,
reptiles lymphoma, Burkitts, 440 in urban environments, 945–948, 947f
characteristics, 153, 153f, lysogenic cycle, 436–437, 803 membrane receptor
772f, 778, 778f 436f mammary cell cloning, proteins, 61, 61f, 84–86,
ectothermic metabolism, lysosomes, 58, 58f, 64, 64f 240f, 241 84f, 85f, 928f, 929
773, 773f lysozyme, 924 mammary glands, 806
lytic cycle, 436, 436f mammoth, fossils, 710f
Index 1131
Index
membranes. See also cell microvilli, 909, 909f locomotion, 643, 643f, muscle fatigue, 109, 860
membranes migrations 646, 647, 649–650 muscles
amnion, 775, 775f, 1005, birds, 787 reproduction, 644f, 645, abductor, 647
1005f butterflies, 831f 647 extensor, 856, 856f
mitochondria, 65, 65f, hominid, 736f, 737 respiration, 644–645, flexor, 856, 856f
107, 107f, 260 individuals, 328 644f, 647 muscular systems, 848t,
mucous, 924 milk, 806, 935 molting, 668, 668f, 682, 784 856–860
nuclear, 62, 62f Miller-Urey experiment, Monera (kingdom), 412 aerobic and anaerobic
periosteum, 851, 851f 254, 254f monkeys, 732, 833–834, pathways, 860
permeable, 75–77, 76f millipedes, 679, 679f 833f. See also primates contractions, 857–859,
thylakoid, 99–101, 99f, mineral nutrients, 548, monocots, 515 857f, 858f, 859f
100f 579, 579t, 900, 904, 905, classification, 515, 515f, muscle cells, 108–109, 419
memory cells, 931 905t 515t opposing pairs, 856, 856f
Mendel, Gregor mites, 424, 424f, 672, 672f root systems, 555, 555f structure, 857, 857f
breeding experiments, mitochondria, 58f, 59f, 65, seeds, 535, 535f, 572f tissue, 846f, 847, 857,
162–165, 163f, 164f, 65f vascular bundles, 556, 857f
165t ATP production, 65, 65f 556f, 557 mushrooms, 488–489.
hypotheses, 166–167, electron transport chain monohybrid crosses, 164, See also fungi
166f, 167f in, 107, 107f 170–171, 170f, 171f characteristics, 480f,
life of, 162, 162f evolution of, 65, 259–260, monosaccharides, 34, 34f 482f, 489f
ratios of traits, 165, 165f 260f monotremes, 808, 808f classification, 417t, 421,
menopause, 853, 1003 membranes, 65, 65f, 107, mosquitoes, 121t, 473–474, 485t
menstrual cycle, 107f, 260 473f, 674f from mycorrhizae, 490
1002–1003, 1002f mitochondrial DNA, 65, mosses, 508–509 reproduction, 482, 485t,
mercury pollution, 390 737 characteristics, 423, 423f, 488, 488f
meristems, 507, 507f, from mother, 997 509, 509f toxicity of, 421
574–575, 574f, 575f, 577f mitochondrial DNA club mosses, 511, 511f mutations, 219–220
merozoites, 473, 473f (mDNA), 65, 737 life cycle, 531, 531f allele frequencies, 327
mesoderm, 596, 596t, 597f mitosis, 125, 128–132, in mats, 508f antibiotic resistance, 449
mesoglea, 622, 622f, 623f 128f, 130f spore formation, 154, cancer and, 126, 127,
mesohyl, 618, 619f alternation of generations, 154f 127f, 864, 864f
mesonychids, 284f 506, 506f moths, 539, 601f, 835 chromosome, 124, 124f
mesophyll cells, 543f, 559, in angiosperms, 540, 540f motor proteins, 59 during cell division, 124,
559f, 563f centromeres, 129, 130 mouth 124f
messenger RNA (mRNA), checkpoint, 126, 126f human, 907, 907f definition, 8
211–213, 211f, 212f, in fungi, 482 parts of, in insects, 674, deletion, 219, 219f, 220
213f, 218, 218f, 233 in gymnosperms, 537, 676, 676f DNA, 8, 219–220, 219f
metabolism. See also 537f movement. See also frameshift, 220
cellular respiration mode, 336 flagella; locomotion insertion, 219, 219f
ATP in, 95–96, 95f, 96f molds cilia, 58, 58f, 420, 461t, genetic disorders from,
basal metabolic rate, 36 bread molds, 421, 484, 468, 469f, 642, 642f 180–182
chemical reactions of, 39, 484f, 486, 486f joints, 854, 854t modeling, 124, 124f
39f protistan, 420–421, 470, pseudopodia, 420, 461t, natural selection and, 281
definition, 7 470f 464, 464f from reverse transcrip-
ectothermic, 724, 773, reproduction, 485–486, skeletons, 856, 856f tase, 438
773f 485t, 486f tests, 464 transposons, 216,
endothermic, 724, slime molds, 418, 418f, mucous membranes, 924 219–220
786–787, 803, 849, 863 420–421, 461t, 470, mucus, 924 types of, 219–220, 219f
leptin and, 987 470f mudpuppies, 764 mutualism, 265, 265f, 364,
role of liver in, 911 molecules, 29, 29f, 34 mules, 811 364f, 490. See also
metamorphosis, 675, 675f, mollusks, 642–650 multicellularity, 418–426 symbiosis
761, 761f bivalves, 647–648, 647f, aggregations, 418, 418f mycelium, 483, 483f, 489f
metaphase, 130, 130f, 144f, 648f, 660–661, 661f bacteria and, 442 Mycobacterium
145, 145f cephalopods, 649–650, colonies, 418, 418f tuberculosis, 289, 289f,
methanogens, 415, 417t 649f complex, 419, 419f 447, 447f
methionine, 212, 212f, 213f characteristics, 425, 643, description of, 261, 416 mycorrhizae, 265, 265f,
methylprednisolone, 953 643f, 644f, 646–650 feature of animals, 595, 490, 490f, 502
metric system, 16, 50, circulation, 644, 644f 618 myelin, 944–945, 945f
50t classification, 602f, 642 modeling exercise, 426 myofibrils, 857–859, 857f,
Micrococcus luteus, 443f excretion, 644, 644f protists, 261, 261f, 461, 858f
microfilaments, 58, 58f, 59 gastropods, 646, 646f 461t myosin, 857–859, 857f,
micronucleus, 469f gills, 644–645, 644f, true, 419, 426 858f, 859f
microscopes, 50–54, 51f, 647–648 multiple sclerosis, 933, Myrmecia, 121
52f, 53f, 54f, 623 in human diets, 648, 648f 933t
microspheres, 256–257 larval stage, 642, 642f, mumps virus, 440t
microtubules, 58–59, 58f, 645, 647 Münch, Ernst, 564
59f, 125, 128, 128f
1132 Index
N neurotransmitters,
948–949, 949f,
nucleolus, 62, 62f
nucleotides, 37, 194–197,
operon, 215f, 216
opportunistic infections,
962–963, 966, 975–976 195f 934
nacre, 648 structure, 944, 945, 945f nucleus (cell), 58, 58f, 62, optic nerve, 958, 958f
NADH, in cellular types of, 606–607, 607f 62f, 125. See also cell orders, 302, 302f
respiration, 104–109, vertebrates, 713, 713f division organelles, 62–66
104f, 105f, 106f, 107f, neurons, 944–949 nudibranchs, 646, 646f central vacuole, 66, 66f, 77
108f action potential, nurse cells, 149 chloroplasts, 66, 66f, 97,
NADPH, in photosynthesis, 946–948, 947f nutrients, definition, 900 99–101, 99f, 259–260
97, 97f, 100f, 101, 102f, insulated, 944–945, 945f carbohydrates, 34, 34f, endoplasmic reticulum,
103 interneurons, 953 36, 901, 901f, 903f 59f, 63–64, 63f, 64f
nails, 863 membrane potential, lipids, 35, 35f, 902–903, mitochondria, 58, 58f,
narcotics, 961t 945–948, 947f 903f 59f, 65, 65f, 259–260,
Nashua River cleanup, presynaptic, 948–949, proteins, 36, 902, 903f 260f
399, 399f 948f, 949f, 962–963, minerals, 900, 904, 905, nucleus, 58, 58f, 62, 62f
natural killer cells, 926, 962f, 963f 905t in nurse cells, 149
926f resting potential, vitamins, 900, 904, 904t ribosomes, 56, 59f, 63–64,
natural selection, 279–282, 946–947, 947f nutrition, 900–905 63f, 64f, 212–213, 212f,
329–332 sensory vs. motor, 950 alcoholism and, 964 213f
allele frequency and, 329 structure, 944–945, 944f, balancing, 903, 903f organic compound
in bacteria, 288–289, 289f 945f bone density and, 853, formation, 102–103,
Darwin on, 279–280 neuropeptides, 976 853f 102f, 253–256, 256f
definition, 9 neurotransmitters, carbohydrates, 34, 34f, organisms, definition, 6
directional and stabilizing, 948–949, 949f, 962–963, 36, 901, 901f organs, 419, 419f
332, 332f 962–963f, 966, 975–976 dairy products, 809, 904t organ systems, 419, 419f,
distribution of traits, 331, neutrons, 28, 28f food guide pyramid, 902, 848, 848t
331f neutrophils, 926 902f organ transplants, 915–916
in finches, 278, 278f, 290, niches, 365–368, 365f, 366f, genetically engineered oscula, 618, 618f, 619f
290f 369 crops, 238 osmosis, 76–77, 76f, 77t,
genetic variation and, nicotine, 965–966, 965f kingdom classification 560, 749
147, 151 Nikolayevich, Alexei, 330, and, 412 ossicles, 694–695, 697
individual selection, 825 330f lipids, 35, 35f, 902–903 osteoarthritis, 855
modeling, 280 Nirenberg, Marshall, 211 mineral nutrients, 548, osteocytes, 852, 852f
of phenotypes, 330 nitrification, 353, 353f, 444 579, 579t, 905, 905t osteoporosis, 853, 853f, 987
sexual selection, 835–836 Nitrobacter, 444 proteins, 902 ostia, 618, 618f, 619f
nauplius, 680, 680f nitrogen, 579t vegetarian diets, 519 ostracoderms, 714
nautilus, 649, 649f nitrogen cycle, 353–354, vitamins, 519, 910, 984, out-groups, 308
Necator, 633–634 353f 904–905, 904t ovarian cycle, 1001–1003,
negative feedback, 980, nitrogen fixation, 353–354, nymphs, 675, 675f 1001f, 1002f
980f 353f, 444–445, 444f, 445f, ovaries, 538, 538f, 755f,
nematocysts, 623–624,
623f
517
Nitrosomonas, 444
O 999–1000, 999f, 1000f,
1001f
nematodes, 602f, 633, 633f nodes, 556–557, 556f, 557f Obelia, 625, 625f oviparous, 777
nephridia, 644, 644f nodes of Ranvier, 944, 945, obesity, 903, 987 ovipositors, 676f, 677
nephrons, 749, 913, 913f 945f observations, 14–15 ovoviviparous, 777
nephrotic syndrome, 915 nondisjunction, 123 ocelli, 676f ovulation, 1001–1002,
Nereis, 653, 653f nonpolar molecules, 32 octopus, 640f, 649–650, 649f 1001f, 1002f, 1003f
nerve grafts, 953 nonvascular plants, 423, oils, 35, 35f, 363. See also ovules, 534–538, 534f,
nerve impulses, 945–949, 504, 508–509, 509f, fats 537f, 540, 540f
947f 530–531, 530f, 531f. See oil spills, 390, 390f ovum (plural, ova), 149,
nerve nets, 606, 607f also mosses olfactory bulbs, 755f 149f, 1000, 1000f. See
nerve, optic, 958, 958f nonverbal communication, olfactory receptors, 960 also egg cells
nervous systems, 943–971. 840–841 oligochaetes, 654, 654f. oxygen
See also human nervous norepinephrine, 985 See also earthworms in blood, 888, 888f
system normal distribution, 331, omnivores, 346, 349, 349f in cellular respiration,
autonomic, 955, 955t 331f oncogenes, 127 104, 104f, 107, 107f,
of flatworms, 607f, 630f notochords, 700, 700f oogenesis, 148–149, 148f 110, 110f
ganglia, 606, 607f nuclear bases, 37, Oparin, A. I., 254 in early atmosphere, 254,
human, 848t, 943–971 194–197, 195f open circulatory systems, 258, 258f, 264
of insects, 677f nuclear envelopes, 62, 62f, 606, 606f from photosynthesis, 99,
nerve cells, 72f, 79, 79f, 130, 130f, 131, 131f, operant conditioning, 99f, 101
83, 942f 144–145, 144f, 145f, 482 827, 827f in plants, 502
nerve nets, 606, 607f nuclear pores, 62, 62f operators, 215f, 216 oxytocin, 980, 983t
nervous tissue, 846f, 847 nucleic acids, 37, 37f, 287. opercula, 754f, 756, 756f oysters, 647, 648, 648f
See also deoxyribonucleic
acid; ribonucleic acid
Index 1133
Index
ozone, 254, 264, 264f, 387, pathogens, 924, 928f, enzymes in, 99–101, 99f, meristems, 574–575,
387f 929–931, 931f 100f 574f, 577f
ozone hole, 387, 387f Pavlov, Ivan, 827 evolution of, 260, 265, mineral nutrient require-
peas, 121t, 162–163, 163t 265f ments, 548, 579, 579t
P pedicellaria, 697–698 factors affecting, 103 photoperiodism, 583, 583f
pedigrees, 175–176, 175f, oxygen production, 99, response to temperature,
Paine, Robert, 370 176f 99f, 101, 258, 258f 584, 584f
pain receptors, 956–957, pedipalps, 670, 670f, 671f by plankton, 378 tissue culture, 544, 544t,
956t pellicles, 467, 467f, 469f primary productivity, 345 578
palea, 576f pelvic inflammatory by protists, 461t, 467, 472 tropisms, 582, 582f
paleontologists, 285 disease (PID), 1009, 1009f summary of, 97, 97f plantlets, 542f
palindromes, 230 penicillin, 449 phototropism, 582, 582f plant propagation, 544,
palisade layer, 559, 559f Penicillium, 121, 121t, 449, phyla (singular, phylum), 544t, 578. See also
pancreas, 755f, 906f, 483, 483f, 485 302, 302f genetic engineering
908–909, 908f, 986, 986f penis, 997f, 998, 998f Phyllium pulchrifolium, plants, 501–527. See also
Pangaea, 722, 722f pepsin, 42, 42f, 908 274f photosynthesis
pangolins, 816t peptidoglycan, 258, 414, phylogenetic trees, 602, angiosperms, 423, 423f,
paper chromatography, 443, 445, 446f 602f, 665f, 714f, 732f 514–515, 515f, 515t,
568–569 Perca flavescens, 754f, Physalia, 624, 624f 538–540
paralysis, 953 755f Phytophthora infestans, cells, 66, 66f, 70f, 132,
Paramecium perennials, 573, 573f 470 132f
characteristics, 469f periosteum, 851, 851f phytoremediation, 699 characteristics, 422–423
competition among, 369, peripheral nervous system pigments day-neutral, 583, 583f
369f, 468, 468f (PNS), 954–955, 955t. See bile, 910 deciduous, 573
micrographs of, 7f, 48f, also human nervous definition, 568 evolution on land,
56f, 261f system jumping genes, 216 265–266, 265f, 502
Paramecium aurelia, peristaltic contractions, melanin, 175, 862–863 food, 516–519
369f, 468f 907, 907f, 909 in photosynthesis, 35, gymnosperms, 423, 423f,
Paramecium bursaria, pesticides, 238–239, 332, 98–101, 98f 512–513, 513f
261f, 369, 369f 390–391, 391f, 678 polygenic traits, 331 herbaceous, 556, 556f,
Paramecium caudatum, petals, 538, 538f sepia, 650 573, 573f
369, 369f, 468f, 469f P generation, 164, 164f pili (singular, pilus), life cycles, 506–507, 506f
Paramecium syngens, 305 pH, 33 442–443, 442f, 446f Mendel experiments,
parapodia, 652–653 acid rain and, 386 pill bugs, 680, 686–687 162–165, 163f, 163t,
parasites, 362 amphibians and, 16, 16f Pinctada, 648, 648f 164f, 165t
amphibian decline and, 18 enzyme activity, 42, 42f pineal gland, 988 mineral nutrients, 548,
of birds, 634 pH scale, 33, 33f pine trees, 417t, 505f, 513, 579, 579t
within communities, 362 phages, 192, 192f, 435–436, 535f, 536, 536f movement of organic
fungi, 421, 483, 483f 436f pioneer species, 343 compounds, 563, 563f,
identifying, 634 pharyngeal slits, 700, 700f, Pisaster, 370, 370f 564, 564f
leeches, 656, 656f 701f pistils, 163, 163f, 538, mycorrhizae, 490, 490f,
mollusks, 647 pharynx, 885f, 886, 906f, 538f, 540f 502
of plants, 502, 502f 907 Pisum sativum, 121t, 162, nonfood uses, 520–522
protists, 464, 471, 471f, phenotypes, 168, 170–171, 163, 163t nonvascular, 423, 504,
471t, 473–474 175–176, 330 pith, 556–557, 556f, 557f 508–509, 509f, 530–531,
as symbiotic species, 364 phenylketonuria (PKU), pit organ, 780f 531f
worms, 631–634, 631f, 182 pituitary glands, 982f, predation effects, 363,
632f, 633f pheromones, 679 983, 983t, 1002 363f
parasympathetic division, phloem, 507, 510, 554, placenta, 810, 1005, 1005f, propagation of, 544, 544t,
955, 955t 554f, 556, 557, 557f 1007f 578
parathyroid gland, 984, phospholipids, 35, 60, 60f placental mammals, 730, reproduction on land,
984f phosphorus, 353, 579t 730f, 810–816, 813f, 503, 506, 506f, 508
parathyroid hormone phosphorus cycle, 353 814f, 815f, 816t roots, 507, 507f, 542f,
(PTH), 984 photoperiodism, 583, 583f placoderms, 714f, 715 555, 555f
parental care, 806, 806f, photosynthesis, 97–103 planarians, 629–631, 630f seedless vascular, 423,
831f absorption of light plankton, 378, 420, 465, 467 510–511, 510f, 511f,
parthenogenesis, 153, 609 energy, 98, 98f Plantae (kingdom), 412, 532–533, 533f
passive transport, 74–80 by bacteria, 444, 444f 412f, 417f, 422–423, 423f seed plant reproduction,
diffusion, 74–75, 75f Calvin cycle, 102–103, 102f plant growth, 571–589 534–540
electrical charge and, 78, CAM, 543f development, 578 seeds, 504–505, 505f
79, 79t in carbon cycle, 352f germination, 572–573, self-fertilizing, 328
facilitated diffusion, 80, C3 vs. C4, 559, 559f 572f, 584 tissue types, 552–554,
80f electron transport chains, hormonal control, 552f, 553f, 554f
ion channels, 78–79, 78f, 100–101, 100f 580–581, 580f trophic levels, 345–347,
79t in energy flow, 94 life span, 573 345f, 346f, 348
osmosis, 76–77, 76f, 77t
1134 Index
vascular, 510–515 oil spills, 390, 390f preen glands, 785 characteristics, 57, 57f,
vascular tissue, 422, 504, sea urchin bioassays, 699 pregnancy, 1004–1007 417t
504f, 507 polychaetes, 653, 653f alcohol use and, cyanobacteria, 258
vascular vs. nonvascular, polygenic traits, 177, 177f, 1005–1006 energy and, 94
423, 423f, 506, 506f 331–332, 331f, 332f childbirth, 1007, 1007f eubacteria, 258
water loss prevention for, polyhedral viruses, 435, cleavage and implanta- fermentation and, 108,
502–503, 503f 435f tion, 1004, 1004f 108f
water movement in, polymerase chain fertilization, 596f, 1002, mitochondria and chloro-
560–561, 560f, 561f reaction (PCR), 236, 236f 1004, 1004f plasts from, 65–66
planulae, 625, 625f, 627 polymerases, 198–199, fetal development, 994f, protein synthesis in,
plasma, blood, 876 198f, 209–210, 209f, 217, 1006, 1006f 215–216, 215f
plasma cells, 928f, 929 217f first trimester, 1005–1006 prolactin, 983t
plasmids, 229–230, 229f, polymorphisms, 237 HIV transmission, 935 promoters, 215–217, 215f,
230f polynomial classification, menstrual cycle, 217f
plasmodial slime molds, 300, 300f 1002–1003, 1002f propagation, plant, 544,
418, 418f, 420, 461t, 470, polyp body forms, 622, placenta, 1005, 1005f 544t, 578
470f 622f, 624, 625, 625f Rh factor, 879 prophase, 130, 130f, 144,
Plasmodium, 470, 471t, polyploidy, 577f second and third 144–145, 145f
472t, 473–474, 473f polysaccharides, 34, 34f, 57 trimesters, 1007 prosimians, 731, 731f
plastron, 782 Polytrichum, 509f smoking during, 965 prostaglandins, 976
platelets, 877, 877f, 878 poppies, 521t prenatal testing, 123, 123f prostate gland, 997f, 998
platyhelminthes, 602f. population pyramid, 325, pressure-flow model, 564, protease, 46
See also flatworms 325f 564f protective coloration,
platypus, 808, 808f populations, 319–337 presynaptic neurons, 288, 690f, 796–797,
pneumonia, 190–191, 190f, allele frequencies in, 948–949, 948f, 949f, 800, 800f, 801, 801f
191f 326–329 962–963, 962f, 963f protein
point mutations, 219, 219f carrying capacity of, primary growth, 574 membrane receptor, 61f,
polar bodies, 148, 148f 322–323, 323f primary productivity, 345 84–86, 84f, 85f
polar molecules, 29, 29f, change within, 281 primary succession, 343, proteins, 36. See also
32, 32f, 60–61, 60f definition, 320, 320f 343f enzymes; protein
polio virus, 235, 440t density, 321 primary tissues, 574 synthesis
pollen density-independent primates, 731–733. See carrier, 80–81, 80f,
adaptation, 503 factors, 324 also hominids 100–101, 100f, 107, 107f
angiosperms, 534, 534f, gene flow in, 328 characteristics, 731, 813 in cell membranes, 61, 61f
540, 540f genetic drift in, 328–329 classification, 813, 813f cytoskeleton fibers and,
gymnosperms, 512, 512f growth models of, 278, communication of, 59, 59f
micrograph, 528f 278f, 322–323, 322f, 833–834, 833f dietary sources, 36, 902,
pollen cones, 536, 536f 323f, 394–395 evolution of, 731–733 903f
pollen tubes, 534, 534f, human, 10, 325, 325f, mate choice of, 835–836, error-detection, 127
536–537, 537f, 540f 394–396, 394t, 395f 835f, 836f evolution of amino acid
pollination key features of, 321, 321f monkeys, 732, 833–834, sequences, 287, 287f
bats, 539, 539f mutations in, 327 833f glycoproteins, 435,
by birds, 539 natural selection in, prosimians, 731, 731f 437–439, 437f, 439f
by flies, 539 279–280, 329–332, 332f reasoning and, 828 immune system and, 926
definition, 534 nonrandom mating in, primers, 220, 236, 236f marker, 61, 61f
insects, 505, 505f, 539 328, 328f primordial soup model, molecular structure, 36,
wind, 512, 512f, 534, phenotype selection in, 254, 254f 36f
537f, 539 330 prions, 441 motor, 59
pollution, 390–391 rate of growth, 324 probability, 173–174, 173f, in muscles, 857, 857f
from agriculture, size, 321–323 174f packaging and distribu-
390–391, 391f, 399 species formation in, 281, probes, Southern blot, 231, tion, 64, 64f
air, 396–397, 396f, 397f, 291–292 231f in plasma, 876
492 in United States, 325, Proboscidea, 815, 815f receptor, 61f, 84–86, 84f,
amphibian decline and, 18 325f producers, 345–346, 345f, 85f, 928f, 929
asthma and, 936 Portuguese man-of-war, 346f repressor, 216
chemical, 390–391, 391f, 624, 625f products, reaction, 38 ribosomal, 62–63, 63f
399 potassium, 81–82, 82f, 579t, profundal zone, 376, 376f role of RNA in, 37, 56
cleanup, 398–400, 699 946–947, 947f, 985 progesterone, 1002, 1002f surface of, 235, 235f
costs of, 397 potassium-40, 252, 252f proglottids, 631, 631f transcription factors,
economics of, 397 potatoes, 121, 517 prokaryotes, 258. See also 217, 217f
filter feeders and, 648 powdery mildew, 487 bacteria transport, 61, 61f, 78–79,
ground-water, 393, 393f precipitation in biomes, archaebacteria, 258 78f
lichens and, 492 371–375, 371f cell reproduction, 119, in vegetarian diets, 519
mercury, 390 predation, 362, 370, 370f 150, 200, 200f, 210
prednisone, 985
Index 1135
Index
protein synthesis, 207–220 Prusiner, Stanley, 441 rays, 752 in molds, 485–486, 485t,
cloning problems, 242 pruning, 581 reactants, 38 486f
codons, 211, 211f pseudocoelomates, 600, realized niches, 367, 369 in mollusks, 644f, 645,
in the endoplasmic 600f, 633 reasoning, 828 647
reticulum, 63, 63f pseudopodia, 420, 461t, receptor proteins, 61, in mushrooms, 482, 485t,
in eukaryotes, 217–220, 464, 464f 84–86 488, 488f
217f, 218f, 219f Psilotum, 511f drugs and, 962, 962f, natural selection and, 288
hormones, 977–979, 977f, psychoactive drugs, 961, 963f, 966 nonrandom mating, 328
978f, 979f 961f in cell membranes, 61, parental care, 609, 609f,
introns and exons, 218, pterodactyls, 283f 61f, 84–86, 84f, 85f 806, 806f
218f pulmonary arteries, 881, for HIV, 438, 439, 439f in protists, 151, 462–463,
origin of, 256–257, 256f 881f, 888f in immune response, 462f, 463f, 465
process of gene pulmonary veins, 758–759, 928f, 929 in sea turtles, 610, 610f,
expression, 208, 208f 759f, 881, 881f, 888f nerve impulses and, 948, 777, 777f
in prokaryotes, 215–216, pulse, 883 949f in seedless vascular
215f punctuated equilibrium, recessive genes, 167, 167f, plants, 532–533, 532f,
transcription, 208–210, 282, 282f 168, 170–171, 170f, 175, 533f
208f, 209f Punnett squares, 170–172, 176 in snakes, 153, 777, 777f,
translation, 208, 208f, 170f, 171f, 174f recombinant DNA, 781f
212–214, 212f, 213f pupa stage, 675, 675f 228–229, 229f, 230f. in sponges, 621, 621f
Protista classification, purines, 195–197, 195f, See also genetic in sporozoans, 471
412, 412f, 420, 420f, 461t 197f engineering in viruses, 436–437, 436f
protists, 459–479. See also purple nonsulfur bacteria, red algae, 461t, 465, 465f reproductive isolation,
amoebas; see also under 444 red blood cells, 56, 128, 281, 281f, 292
names of protists pyrimidines, 195–197, 876–877, 877f reptiles, 772–783
actin fibers, 59 195f, 197f red tides, 467 body temperature in,
alternation of generations, pyruvate, 104–105, 104f, Reeve, Christopher, 953, 773, 773f, 795f
154, 463, 463f, 465 105f, 108, 108f 953f brains of, 772
asexual reproduction and, reflexes, 952, 954f characteristics, 772, 772f,
151, 461, 462, 462f Q replication, 198–200, 198f, 774, 774f
characteristics, 416, 417t, 438 circulatory system in,
460, 460f Quercus, 301, 301t replication forks, 198f, 776, 776f, 781f
ciliates, 420, 461t, 468, quinine, 474 199–200, 199f, 200f crocodilians, 268f, 776,
468f repressors, 216 782–783, 783f
conjugation, 463 R reproduction. See also
asexual reproduction;
eggs, 268, 775, 775f
ectothermic metabolism,
diatoms, 378, 378f, 420,
461t, 466, 466f human reproduction; 773, 773f
rabies virus, 235, 435, 440t sexual reproduction evolution of, 268, 268f,
dinoflagellates, 461t, 467,
racehorse breeding, 147 in bacteria, 119, 150, 442, 727
467f
radial symmetry, 598, 446f fertilization
diseases from, 464, 471t,
598f, 694, 694f alternation of generations, lizards, 292, 292f, 772f,
472–474, 472t, 473f
radioactive decay, 252–253, 154, 154f, 463, 463f, 773, 773f, 778, 778f
euglenoids, 417t, 467, 467f
252f 465, 506, 506f, as pets, 724
evolution of, 261, 460–461
radioisotopes, 252 530–531, 531f reproduction of, 775,
forams, 420, 461t, 464
radiometric dating, 252, chloroplasts and 775f, 777, 777f
haploid life cycles, 152
252f mitochondria, 260 respiration of, 776, 776f,
kinetoplasts, 461t, 467,
radiotracers, 192–193, 192f in ciliates, 468 781f
467f
radula, 643, 643f, 646 definition, 7 snakes, 777, 777f, 779,
micrographs of, 420f,
Rafflesia keithii, 502f DNA conditioning in, 242 779f, 780f, 781f
458f, 460f
rainfall, 371–375, 371f, in flagellates, 467 tuataras, 783, 783f
molds, 420–421, 470, 470f
372f, 373f in flatworms, 630f turtles and tortoises, 610,
movement, 420, 461t,
rain forests. See tropical in fungi, 484–488, 484f, 610f, 727f, 776, 782,
464, 464f
rain forests 485f, 486f, 487f, 488f, 782f
photosynthesis, 461t,
Rana palustris, 291f 489f resistin, 903
467, 467f, 472
Rana pipiens, 291f, 744f, in green algae, 462–463, resolution, of microscopes,
responses to light, 478–479
762f, 763f 462f, 463f 51, 51f
sexual reproduction and,
ranavirus, 18 hermaphrodites, 148, resource competition,
151, 462–463, 462f,
Rancho La Brea, 729 609–610 365–367
463f
red fire ants, 325 hyphae, 484 respiration
sporozoans, 461t, 471,
random distribution, 321f importance of genetic aerobic, 104, 104f, 107,
471f, 471t
random fertilization, variation, 147, 151 107f, 110, 110f, 860
unicellular, 261, 261f
146–147, 147f in mammals, 806, 806f, anaerobic, 104, 104f,
protons, 28, 28f
range (statistical), 336 808–811 108–109, 108f
protoplast fusion, 578, 578f
rattlesnakes, 780f, 781f mate choice in animals, in arthropods, 668, 668f
protostomes, 692, 692f
ray-finned bony fishes, 835–836, 835f
protozoans. See protists
757, 757f
proviruses, 436–437, 436f
1136 Index
respiratory systems, transfer, 212–213, 212f, samaras, 562, 562f seaweed, 66, 261, 261f. See
885–890. See also gills, 213f sand dollars, 698, 698f also algae
human respiratory uracil base in, 208, 208f sand fleas, 680 sebum, 864
system in viruses, 434–435, 437f sap, 562–563, 563f secondary compounds, 363
amphibians, 758–759, ribose, 96, 96f saprophytes, 421 secondary growth,
759f ribosomal proteins, sapwood, 557, 557f 574–575, 575f
annelids, 655f 62–63, 63f sarcomeres, 857–859, 857f, secondary succession,
arthropods, 668, 668f, ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 858f 343–344
671f 212–213, 212f, 213f satellite tracking of second messengers, 85,
birds, 786–787, 787f ribosomes, 56, 59f animals, 832, 832f 85f, 978, 978f
carbon cycle, 352 mitochondria and bacte- saturated fatty acids, 35, secretion, 914
definition, 605 ria similarities, 260 35f seed coats, 535, 535f
echinoderms, 695, 695f protein production, sauropods, 723, 723f seedless vascular plants,
fishes, 747, 747f, 63–64, 63f, 64f savannas, 371f, 372f, 373, 423, 423f. See also ferns
758–759, 759f translation in, 212–213, 373f characteristics, 423, 510
human, 885–890, 885f, 212f, 213f scales kinds of, 511, 511f
887f, 888f, 890f rice, 11, 238, 519, 519f on bony fishes, 754f oldest known, 510f
mammals, 803, 803f, Rickettsia, 447t on gymnosperms, 536, reproduction of,
805f, 814 ring canals, 149 537f 532–533, 532f, 533f
mollusks, 644–645, 644f, rings, annual, 575, 575f, on reptiles, 774, 774f seed plants
647 583, 583f on sharks, 752, 752f advantages of, 504–505,
reptiles, 776, 776f ringworm, 485 scanning electron 505f
vertebrates, 713, 713f RNA. See ribonucleic acid microscope (SEM), 51, angiosperms, 423, 423f,
resting potential, 946–947, RNA polymerase, 54, 54f 514–515, 515f, 515t,
947f 209–210, 209f, 217, 217f scanning interferometric 538–540
restriction enzymes, robins, 301 apertureless microscope cones, 512–513, 536, 536f
229–230, 229f, 230f, 237 Rodbell, Martin, 978 (SIAM), 53 flowers, 538–539, 538f
restriction fragment Rodentia, 812, 812f scanning tunneling gymnosperms, 423, 423f,
length polymorphisms Rodhocetus kasrani, 285f microscope, 54, 54f 512–513, 513f,
(RFLPs), 237 rods, 958, 958f schistosomiasis, 632 536–537, 537f
retina, 958, 958f root caps, 555, 555f, 574 Schleiden, Mattias, 55 reproductive structures
reverse transcriptase, 438, root crops, 517, 517f Schwann, Theodor, 55 of, 534, 534f
439f roots, 507, 507f scientific methods, 14–20, seeds, 504–505
rheumatoid arthritis, 855, adventitious, 555, 575f, 15f, 19f advantages of, 504–505,
933t 576f scientific names, 301, 301t 505f
Rh factor, 879 air, 542f, 555, 576 scientific processes, dicot, 535, 535f, 572f
rhinoceros, 810, 814, 814f apical meristems, 574, 14–20, 15f, 19f germination, 572–573,
Rhizobium, 445, 445f 574f scorpions, 266, 664f, 672 572f, 584
rhizoids, 486, 486f, 508 monocot, 555, 555f, 557f scrapie, 441 gymnosperms, 512, 512f,
rhizomes, 510–511, 541t dicots, 555, 555f, 557f screening cells, 230, 230f 536–537, 537f
Rhizopus stolonifer, 421, root hairs, 555, 555f sea anemones, 627 monocot, 535, 535f, 572f
486, 486f rosy periwinkles, 392f, 521 asexual reproduction in, monocots and dicots,
RhoGAM, 879 rotational grazing, 354, 609, 609f 535, 535f, 572f
ribonucleic acid (RNA), 521f commensalism in, 364, structures of, 535, 535f
212–214 rough ER, 63–64, 63f, 64f 364f segmentation, 601, 601f
as enzymes, 256–257 roundworms, 602f, 604, sea baskets, 697 annelids, 651–652, 651f
functions, 37 604f, 633–634, 633f, 634f sea cows, 815, 815f arthropods, 666, 666f
messenger (mRNA), r-strategists, 324, 324f sea cucumbers, 698, 698f selection, directional, 332,
211–214, 211f, 212f, rubber, 520, 520f sea horses, 609, 746, 750 332f
213f, 218, 218f, 233 rumen, 814 sea lettuce, 463, 463f semen, 998
movement through runners, 541t sea lilies, 693f, 697 Semibalanus balanoides,
microtubules, 59 rusts, 485t, 488, 488f seasonal affective disorder 368, 368f
origin of life and, (SAD), 988 semicircular canals, 959,
256–257, 256f S sea stars, 370, 694, 694f, 959f
replication rate of, 210f 696f, 697, 697f seminal receptacles, 677f
ribosomal (rRNA), 212, Saccharomyces, 121t, 487. sea turtles seminal vesicles, 997f, 998
212f See also yeasts characteristics, 782, 782f seminiferous tubules, 996,
RNA polymerase, saddle joints, 854t heart structure of, 776, 996f
209–210, 209f, 217, Sahelanthropus 776f sensory receptors,
217f tchadensis, 734, 734f reproduction of, 610, 956–957, 956t
role in protein synthesis, salamanders, 14–18, 720f, 610f, 777, 777f sensory systems,
208–209, 208f, 209f, 764, 764f sea urchin fertilization 956–960
210, 211, 212–214, salicin, 521 bioassay, 699 ears, 957, 957f, 959, 959f
212f, 213f saliva, 713, 907 sea urchins, 597, 597f, eyes, 958, 958f
salt, 29–30, 30f, 32, 32f 698, 698f sensory processing, 957,
salt marshes, 377 sea wasps, 626 957f
Index 1137
Index
sensory systems (continued) in spiders, 671f skin cancer, 387, 862, 864, formation of, 281,
sensory receptors, in sponges, 621, 621f 864f 291–292, 291f
956–957, 956t, 960, in vertebrates, 713, 713f skin color, 175, 862 interbreeding, 305–306
960f sexual selection, 836 skin gills, 695, 695f maintaining, 291, 291f
sepals, 538, 538f sharks, 714f, 716, 716f, Skinner boxes, 827, 827f niches, 365f, 366–367, 366f
sepia, 650 752, 752f skulls, 742–743, 802f, 850, number of, 306
septa, 489f, 652 sheep, 240–241, 240f, 241f, 850f pioneer, 343
septum, 760, 776 814, 814f sleeping sickness, 467, populations, 320
sessile, 618 shells, 420, 464–466, 465f, 472t in scientific names, 301,
setae, 652 643, 644f, 649, 649f slime molds, 418, 418f, 420, 301t
sex chromosomes, 122, shoots, 507, 507f 461t, 470, 470f subspecies, 291
175, 181, 737 shrews, 807, 812, 812f, slugs, 470, 470f, 646, 646f symbiotic, 364, 364f
sex hormones 816f small intestine, 909, 909f spermatogenesis, 148, 148f
estrogens, 987, sickle cell anemia, smallpox virus, 440t, sperm cells, 996–998
1001–1003, 1002f 180–181, 181t 931–932 in angiosperms, 540, 540f
follicle-stimulating malaria and, 180, 180f, 329 smell, sense of, 960 chromosomes in, 120f
hormone, 983t, 996, mutation in, 8, 224 smokestack scrubbers, maturation and storage
1001–1002, 1002f natural selection in, 329 396–397, 396f of, 997, 997f
luteinizing hormone, 983t, sieve tubes, 554, 554f smoking, 12, 965–966, 965f micrographs of, 52f, 53f,
996, 1001–1002, 1002f signal molecules, 61, smooth ER, 63–64, 63f, 64f 54f, 142f
progesterone, 1002, 1002f 84–85, 84f, 85f smooth muscle tissue, production of, 148, 148f,
testosterone, 981, 987 signature species, 415 846f, 847 996
sex-linked traits, 175, 181 sinks (in plants), 564, 564f smuts, 485t structure of, 997, 997f
sexually transmitted sinoatrial node, 882, 882f snails, 643f, 644–646, 645f, Sphenodon punctatus,
diseases (STDs), 235–236, sinus venosus, 748, 748f, 646f 783, 783f
235f, 1008–1010, 1008t, 760, 760f, 786 snakes, 779–781 sphincters, 907
1010f. See also AIDS siphons, 647, 647f eating, 779, 779f spicules, 619f, 620, 620f
sexual reproduction, 150, Sirenia, 815, 815f hatching, 777f spiders, 362, 670–671,
151f, 529–540. See also SI system, 16, 50, 50t kidneys, 781f 670f, 671f, 826, 826f
fertilization; human skates, 752 reproduction, 153, 777, spiderwort, 503f
reproduction skeletal muscle tissue, 777f, 781f spikes, 576f
in algae, 506 846f, 847, 856, 857, 857f structures, 780f, 781f spinal cavity, 849, 849f
alternation of genera- skeletal systems, 850–855. sodium chloride, 29, 30, spinal cord, 952–953, 952f
tions, 154, 154f, 463, See also human skeletal 30f injuries, 953
463f, 465, 506, 506f system sodium ion channels, 78f, spinal cord injuries, 953
in amphibians, 761, 761f, amphibian, 763f 84f, 85, 946–947, 947f, spinal reflexes, 954, 954f
763f annelids, 654 948 spindle fibers, 128–130,
in birds, 789f birds, 785, 785f sodium-potassium 128f, 130f, 482
in cnidarians, 625, 625f bone density calculation, pumps, 81–82, 82f, spindles, 128, 128f
diploid life cycle, 153, 153f 792 946–947, 947f spinnerets, 670, 671f
in earthworms, 655f bone growth, 852, 852f solutions spiny anteaters, 808, 808f
in echinoderms, 696f cartilaginous, 752 acidic, 33, 33f, 908 spiracles, 668, 668f, 676f
in eukaryotes, 416 echinoderms, 694 alkaline, 33, 33f Spirillum volutans, 443,
evolution of, 151 endoskeletons, 608, 694, aqueous, 32–33 443f
in fishes, 750, 750f, 755f 700 basic, 33, 33f spirochetes, 417t
in fungi, 484–488, 484f, exoskeletons, 607, 643, hypertonic, 77, 77t Spirogyra, 463
485t, 486f, 487f, 488f 643f, 667–668, 668f hypotonic, 77, 77t spirometry, 895, 895f
genetic variation, 146–147, fishes, 746 isotonic, 77, 77t spleen, 875, 875f
146f, 147f, 151 human, 848t, 850–855 solvents, 568 spliceosomes, 218
haploid life cycle, 152, 152f hydrostatic skeletons, somatic cells, definition, sponges, 618–621
hormonal control, 988 607, 607f, 654 120–121 asymmetry of, 598, 598f
human, 848t, 995–1007 invertebrate chordates, somatic nervous system, cell recognition of, 618
in insects, 677f, 679, 679f 700 954, 954f characteristics, 425, 425f,
in mammals, 805f, osteoporosis, 853, 853f, somites, 601 618–619, 619f
808–811 987 songbirds, 790, 790t digestion, 604
mate choice and, 835–836 shells, 420, 464–466, 465f, sori (singular, sorus), 532, fertilization, 621, 621f
in mollusks, 645, 647 643, 644f, 649, 649f 532f flagella, 619, 619f
in nonvascular plants, snakes, 779, 779f, 781f source, 564, 564f glass, 620, 620f
530–531, 530f, 531f sponges, 620, 620f Southern blot technique, in phylogenetic tree,
in protists, 461–463, 462f, turtles and tortoises, 782, 231, 231f 602f, 619, 619f
463f 782f sparrows, 790, 835 reproduction, 621, 621f
in reptiles, 777, 777f, 781f skeleton, appendicular, spawning, 750, 750f skeletons, 620, 620f
in seedless vascular plants, 850–851, 850f species, 9, 305–306 uses of, 617f
532–533, 532f, 533f skeleton, axial, 850, 850f biodiversity and spongin, 620, 620f
in seed plants, 534–540 skin, 861–864, 861f, 864f, productivity, 370 spongy layer, 559, 559f
924
1138 Index
spontaneous origin, Streptococcus mutans, taiga, 371f, 372f, 373, 373f, theories, 19–20
253–254 447t 374, 374f therapsids, 720, 728
sporangia, 463, 463f, 511 Streptococcus pneumoniae, talons, 788f thermophiles, 415, 415f
spores 190–191, 190f, 191f Tampa Bay, Florida, theropods, 723, 723f
endospores, 443 Streptomyces, 445 reclamation in, 377 thigmotropism, 582, 582f
in ferns, 423 stress, 982, 982f, 985 tapeworms, 631–632, 631f Thiomargarita
fungal, 484, 484f, 486, strokes, 884 tapioca, 517f namibiensis, 444
486f, 487, 487f, 488, style, 538, 538f taproot systems, 555, 555f thoracic cavity, 849, 849f
488f subcutaneous tissue, 861f, target cells, 977–979, 977f, thorax, 666, 674, 676f
seedless vascular plants, 863 978f, 979f thrush, 487
510, 533, 533f subspecies, 291 taste, sense of, 960, 960f thylakoids, 99–101, 99f, 100f
slime molds, 470, 470f substrates, 41, 41f taxol, 234f, 521t thymine, 195–196, 195f,
sporophytes, 154, 154f, succession, 343–344, 343f, taxonomy. See classifica- 208f
463, 463f 491 tion of organisms thymus, 875, 875f
meiosis in, 154, 154f succulents, 542f, 543f Tay-Sachs disease, 181t thyroid gland, 984, 984f
nonvascular plants, 509, sugar maples, 562–563, T4 bacteriophage, 435 thyroid hormones, 979,
530–531, 530f, 531f 562f, 563f T cells, 439, 927–929, 927f, 979f
seedless vascular plants, sugars, 34, 97, 102–103, 928f, 931, 934, 934f thyroid-stimulating
510–511, 532–533, 102f, 194, 215 teeth hormone (TSH), 983t
532f, 533f Sulfolobus, 258 human, 907, 907f ,908 ticks, 672, 672f
seed plants, 534–535, sulfur, 386, 579t mammalian, 802, 802f, tiger salamanders, 14–18,
534f, 537f, 540, 540f sunlight, 98, 98f 805f 14f
vascular plants, 506–507, surface area-to-volume, shark, 752, 752f Tilman, David, 370
506f, 507f 55–56, 55t, 90–91 tegument, 632, 632f tissue culture, 544, 544t,
sporozoans, 420, 461t, 471, surface proteins, 235, 235f teleosts, 757, 757f. See also 578
471f, 472t, 473, 473f surface tension, 31 fishes tissues, 419, 419f
sporozoites, 473, 473f surveys, definition, 431, telophase, 130–131, 131f, adipose, 597, 597f
spruce trees, 344 431f 144f, 145, 145f cardiac muscle, 846f, 847
spurges, 307f sustainable agriculture, telsons, 681, 681f in cnidarians, 622
squids, 649–650, 649f 354 temperate forests, 371f, connective, 846f, 847
squirrels, 281, 281f, 824f swamps, 266, 266f 372f, 373f, 375, 375f dermal, 552–553, 552f,
stabilizing selection, 332, sweat glands, 861f, 863, temperate grasslands, 553f
332f 924 371f, 372f, 373f, 375, 375f epithelial, 846, 846f
stag beetles, 341f swelling, 76–77, 76f, 77t, 82 temperature. See also ground, 552–553, 552f,
staining, 443, 454–455 swim bladders, 716, 756 body temperature 553f
stamens, 163, 163f, 538, swimmerets, 681, 681f climate and, 371–372, muscle, 846f, 847, 857,
538f, 540f symbiosis, 364 371f, 375f 857f
Stanley, Wendell, 434 between algae and enzyme activity and, 42 nervous, 846f, 847
Staphylococcus, 445, 448, forams, 464 fever and, 925 subcutaneous, 861f, 863
449 commensalism, 364, 364f fur color and, 179, 179f vascular, 422, 504, 504f,
starch dinoflagellates and sea global warming and, 507
breakdown of, 41, 95, 95f anemones, 627 388–389, 388f, 389f toads, 720f, 761, 761f. See
chemical structure, 34, 34f kinetoplastids and odor travel and, 78 also amphibians
formation of, 97, 103 termites, 467 plant growth and, 584, tobacco, 12, 965–966, 965f
stem cells, 847 lichens, 342, 491–492, 584f tobacco mosaic virus
stems, 507, 507f, 556–557, 491f, 492f regulation by dermis, 863 (TMV), 434–437, 435f
556f, 557f mutualism, 265, 265f, of sperm, 996 tofu, 517
Stentor coeruleus, 261f 364, 364f, 490, 490f tendinitis, 860 tolerance, in drug addiction,
steroid hormones, 35, 977, mycorrhizae, 490, 490f, tendons, 856, 856f, 860 962
979, 979f, 981 502 tentacles, 622f, 623, 623f, tomatoes, 506f, 584
steroids, anabolic, 981 symmetry, 598–599, 598f, 626, 649, 700f tongues, 960, 960f
stickleback fishes, 831f 599f, 629, 694, 694f termites, 679, 679f tonsils, 875, 875f
sticky ends, 230 sympathetic division, 955, test crosses, 172, 172f topsoil losses, 393
stigmas, 576f 955t testes (singular, testis), 148, Toxicodendron, 363
stimulants, 961t, 962–963 synapses, 948–949, 948f, 609, 996, 996f toxins
Stoddart, Marion, 399 949f testosterone, 981, 987 bacterial, 448, 448f
stolons, 486, 486f syphilis, 1008t, 1009, 1009f tests, foram, 464 dinoflagellates, 467
stomachs, 906f, 907–908, systemic lupus erythe- tetracycline resistance, echinoderms, 698
908f matosus (SLE), 933t 230, 230f fungal, 483, 488
stomata (singular, stoma), thalamus, 951f, 952, 957, jellyfish, 626
502–503, 503f, 559, 559f, T 958 liver, 911
560–561, 561f THC, 961t, 966 molluscan, 646
stop codons, 213–214, tadpoles, 761, 761f thecodonts, 722 snakes, 779, 781f
213f Taenia saginata, 632 Theologis, Athanasios, 238f spiders, 670, 671f
Streptococcus, 432f, 448f Toxocara, 633f
Index 1139
Index
Toxoplasma, 471t Trichinella spiralis, uniramians, 673. See also sporophytes, 507, 507f
Toxoplasma gondii, 472t 633–634 insects stems, 556–557, 556f, 557f
toxoplasmosis, 472t trichinosis, 634 units, metric system, 16, tissues in, 552, 552f
trace elements, 905, 905t Trichonympha, 467 50, 50t water movement in,
tracheae, 668, 668f, 885f, trilobites, 262, 262f, 664, unsaturated fatty acids, 560–561, 560f, 561f
886, 907 665f 35, 35f vascular tissues, 422, 504,
tracheids, 554, 554f triploid cells, 540, 540f uracil, 208–209, 208f, 211 504f, 507, 510, 552, 552f,
traits trisomy, 122–123, 122f urea, 81, 608, 912 554
autosomal, 175 Triticum aestivum, 518, ureters, 914, 914f in leaves, 558–559, 559f
transcription, 208–210, 518f, 576f, 577f urethras, 914, 914f, 998, movement of organic
208f, 209f, 217, 217f, 438 trochophores, 642, 642f, 998f compounds, 563–564,
transcription factors, 217, 647 Urey, Harold, 254 563f, 564f
217f trophic levels, 345–349, urine, 749, 914–915 phloem, 507, 510, 554,
transfer RNA (tRNA), 345f, 346f, 347f, 348f, 349f uropods, 681, 681f 554f, 556–557, 557f
212–213, 212f, 213f tropical rain forests, Ursus arctos horribilis, in roots, 555, 555f
transformation, 191, 191f 371–373 804f, 805f secondary growth of,
transfusions, blood, 935 as biome, 372–373, 372f, urushiol, 363 575, 575f
transgenic animals, 241 373f uterus, 999f, 1000, 1000f stems, 556–557, 556f, 557f
translation, 208, 211–214, climate of, 371f, 373 vascular bundles,
208f, 212f, 213f destruction of, 263, 263f, V 556–557, 556f
in archaebacteria, 415 392 water movement,
in bacteria, 414 water cycle in, 351 vaccines, 931–932 560–561, 560f, 561f
RNA roles in, 212–214, tropisms, 582, 582f and antibodies, 235, 235f, xylem, 507, 510, 554,
212f, 213f true-breeding varieties, 236, 931, 932 554f, 556–557, 557f
in viruses, 438 164 definition, 190, 931 vas deferens, 997, 997f
translocation, 564, 564f truffles, 485t, 490 effects of, 931–932 vasopressin, 983, 983t
transmission electron trypanosomes, 467 in fruits and vegetables, vectors, in genetic
microscope (TEM), 51, Trypanosoma gambiense, 235 engineering, 229–230
53, 53f 472t genetically engineered, vegetables, definition,
transpiration, 351, 351f, Trypanosoma rhodesiense, 235–236, 235f 516, 516f
560–561, 560f, 561f 472t HIV, 12 vegetarian diets, 519
transplants, organ, trypsin, 42, 42f malaria, 474 vegetative parts, 516
915–916 tuataras, 727f, 783, 783f pneumonia, 190–191, vegetative reproduction,
transport, cellular tube feet, 695, 696f, 697, 190f, 191f 541, 541t, 542f, 543f,
active, 81–86 697f Vaccinia, 235, 235f 548–549
diffusion, 74–75, 75f tuberculosis, 447, 447t vacuoles, 66, 66f, 77, 468, veins, 873–874
facilitated diffusion, 80, tubers, 517, 541t 469f, 543f human, 873–874, 873f,
80f tubeworms, 653, 653f vagina, 1000, 1000f 874f
ion channels, 78–79, 78f, tubulin, 59 valine, 214 in insect wings, 678
79t, 84f, 85, 945–948, tumor supressor genes, valves, of veins, 874, 874f maternal and fetal, 1005f
947f 127 variables pulmonary, 758, 759,
membrane receptor tuna, 757, 757f dependent, 17 759f, 881, 881f, 888f
proteins, 61f, 84–86, tundra, 371f, 372f, 373, independent, 17 renal, 913f
84f, 85f 373f, 374, 374f vascular bundles, venae cavae, 881, 881f
osmosis, 76–77, 76f, 77t túngara frogs, 833, 835 556–557, 556f Velociraptors, 723f
passive, 74–80 tunicates, 701, 701f vascular cambium, 575, venae cavae, 881, 881f
sodium-potassium pumps, Turbellaria, 629, 629f, 630, 575f venom, 781f. See also toxins
81–82, 82f, 946–947, 630f vascular plants, 510–515 ventricles, 881, 881f
947f turtles, 610, 610f, 727f, angiosperms, 423, 423f, vents (volcanic), 94, 346
in vesicles, 83, 83f 776, 776f, 782, 782f 514–515, 515f, 515t, venules, 873, 873f
transport proteins, 61, twins, identical, 153 538–540 vertebrae, 712–713, 712f
61f, 78–79, 78f tympanic membrane, dermal tissue, 552–553, vertebrates, 711–743
transposable elements, 11 762f, 959, 959f 552f, 553f amphibian evolution,
transposons, 216, 219–220 typhus, 447t fertilization, 510, 533, 267, 718–720, 720f
trees. See also forests; 533f bird evolution, 725–726,
wood U ground tissue, 552–553, 726f
in carbon cycle, 350, 350f 552f, 553f circulatory system in,
classification, 301, 301f, ultrasound imaging, 1007, gymnosperms, 423, 423f, 713, 713f
314–315 1007f 512–513, 513f definition, 424–425
deciduous, 573 ultraviolet radiation (UV leaves, 558–559, 558f, 559f digestive system in, 713,
pollination, 539 radiation), 19, 254, 264, roots, 507, 507f, 555, 555f 713f, 906–911, 906f
rings, 575, 575f, 583, 583f 264f, 387, 862 seedless, 423, 510–511, dinosaurs, 722–724
succession, 343–344 Ulva, 463, 463f, 465f 510f, 511f, 532–533, excretory system in, 713
transpiration, 560–561, umbilical cord, 1005, 1005f 533f fish evolution, 267, 267f,
560f, 561f ungulates, 814, 814f seed plants, 504–505, 505f 714–716, 714f
Trematoda, 632, 632f
1140 Index
hominids, 733–734, 733f, immune system defenses, movement in plants, 351, woody stems, 557, 557f
734f 924–929, 928f 351f, 560–561, 560f, worms
Homo, 735–738 influenza, 435, 435f, 440, 561f characteristics, 425, 652,
mammal evolution, 268, 440t, 932 need for, 905 654, 654f, 655f
728–730 lysogenic cycle, 436–437, osmosis, 76–77, 76f, 77t digestion, 604, 604f, 605
nervous system in, 713, 436f in photosynthesis, 99, fireworms, 651f, 652
713f lytic cycle, 436, 436f 99f, 101 flatworms, 605, 629–632,
organ systems, 713, 713f mumps, 440t polarity, 32, 32f 630f, 631f
primate evolution, prions, 441 retention in reptiles, 721, hookworms, 633–634
731–734, 732f proviruses, 436–437, 436f 774, 774f nervous systems, 607f,
reptile evolution, 268, ranavirus, 18 water cycle, 351, 351f 651–652
721, 727 reproduction of, water-vascular systems, roundworms, 604, 604f,
shark and bony fish evo- 436–437, 436f 695, 696f 633–634, 633f, 634f
lution, 714f, 716, 717f tabulated diseases, 440, Watson, James, 194, segmentation, 601,
skeletal system, 712, 712f 440t 196–198, 196f 651–652, 651f
terrestrial evolution, 721f tobacco mosaic, 434, weaning, 806 tapeworms, 631–632, 631f
vesicles, 63–64, 64f, 83, 435f Weinberg, Wilhelm, 326 tubeworms, 653, 653f
83f, 132 viroids, 441 Went, Frits, 580, 580f
vessels, of plants, 554, 554f West Nile, 12–13, 441 West Nile Virus, 12–13, X
vestigial structures, 286 visceral mass, 643, 643f 441
Vibrio cholerae, 447t vitamins, 519, 904–905, wetlands, 377, 377f X chromosomes, 122, 175,
villi, intestinal, 909, 909f 904t, 910, 984 whales, 284–285 181
vinblastine, 521 volume calculation, 56 blue, 424f, 595, 807, 807f X-ray diffraction, 196, 196f
vincristine, 521 Volvox, 418f characteristics, 807, 807f, xylem, 507, 510, 554, 554f,
Virchow, Rudolph, 55 814 556–557, 557f
viroids, 441 W evolution of, 284, 284f,
virulence, 190 285f Y
viruses, 434–441, 434f, 435f Wadlow, Robert, 983 orca, 814, 814f
in animals, 437–441, Wallace, Alfred Russel, 279 population growth of, 324f yams, 517, 521t
437f, 439f, 440t, 441f warblers, 366–367, 366f, wheat, 518, 518f, 576f, 577f Y chromosomes, 122, 737
AAV, 182 726f whiptail lizards, 153, 153f yeasts
amphibian decline, 18 warmblooded, 724, 785, whiskers, 801 chromosome number, 121t
bacteriophages, 192, 803, 849, 863. See also whisk ferns, 511, 511f classification, 417, 417t,
192f, 435–436, 436f endothermy. white blood cells, 926–929 421, 485t
cancer and, 440 warts, genital, 1008t HIV transmission diseases from, 487
cold, 182, 440t Washington, Lake, 399, through, 935 reproduction, 151, 485t,
cowpox, 235, 235f, 931 399f immune system 487, 487f
discovery of, 434 water responses, 877, 877f, uses of, 109, 483, 487
DNA in, 192–193, 192f, absorption of, 910 926–929, 926f, 927f, yellow fever virus, 440t
435–436, 436f acids and bases, 33, 33f 928f Yersinia pestis, 447t
Ebola, 434f, 435, 440t, aqueous solutions, 32–33 micrograph, 922f, 926f yew trees, 521t
434 climate and moisture, widowbirds, 328f, yolk, 775, 775f
emerging, 441 371–372, 371f, 372f, 835–836, 835f
Epstein-Barr, 440
flu, 435, 435f, 440, 440t,
373, 373f Wilkins, Maurice, 196
willow bark, 521
Z
cohesion and adhesion,
932 31, 31f Wilmut, Ian, 241
zoospores, 462, 462f
gene regulation in, 437 excretion of, 608, 910, 912 wings, of insects, 676f, 678,
zygomycetes, 421, 485t,
hantavirus, 441 freezing and melting, 39 678f. See also flight
486, 486f, 490
hepatitis, 236, 440, 440t, ground, 351, 351f, 393, withdrawal, 962
Zygomycota, 485t
1008t 393t Woese, Carl, 413
zygosporangia, 421, 486,
herpes, 235–236, 235f, heat storage, 31 wood
486f
1008t, 1010, 1010t lipid bilayers and, 60 annual rings, 575, 583,
zygospores, 462, 462f
HIV, 12, 86, 435, 437, and metabolic wastes, 583f
zygotes, 120f, 121, 1004,
437f, 934, 1010 912–916 grain, 556
1004f
host cell specificity, 437 molecular structure, 29, heartwood vs. sapwood,
human infection by, 193 29f 557, 557f
uses of, 520, 520f, 563f
Index 1141
Acknowledgments continued
Academic Reviewers (continued from page iv)

Chris Nice, Ph.D. Miles Silman, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor of Biology Cindy Copolo, Ph.D.
Department of Biology Department of Biology Science Education Consultant
Texas State University Wake Forest University Summit Solutions
San Marcos, Texas Winston-Salem, North Carolina Bahama, North Carolina
Martin Nickels, Ph.D. Richard Storey, Ph.D. Linda Culp

Professor Dean of the Faculty and Professor Science Chair and Science Teacher
Department of Anthropology of Biology Thorndale High School
Illinois State University Colorado College Thorndale, Texas
Normal, Illinois Colorado Springs, Colorado
Katherine Cummings
Eva Oberdörster, Ph.D. Mary Wicksten, Ph.D. Science Teacher
Lecturer Professor of Biology Currituck County High School
Department of Biological Department of Biology Currituck, North Carolina
Sciences Texas A&M University
Southern Methodist University College Station, Texas Alonda Droege
Dallas, Texas Biology Teacher
Highline High School
Brian L. Pagenkopf, Ph.D. Burien, Washington
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemistry Benjamin Ebersole
University of Texas Teacher Reviewers Science Teacher
Austin, Texas Donegal High School
Robert Akeson Mount Joy, Pennsylvania
Barron Rector, Ph.D. Science Teacher
Assistant Professor and Extension Boston Latin School Richard Filson
Range Specialist Boston, Massachusetts Science Teacher
Texas Agricultural Extension Edison High School
Service Robert Baronak Stockton, California
Texas A&M University Biology Teacher
College Station, Texas Donegal High School Randa Flinn
Mount Joy, Pennsylvania Science Teacher
Michael Ryan, Ph.D. Northeast High School
Clark Hubbs Regents Professor Betty Bates Fort Lauderdale, Florida
in Zoology Biology Teacher
The University of Texas DeKalb High School Arthur Goldsmith
Austin, Texas DeKalb, Texas Biology and Earth Sciences Teacher
Hallandale High School
Dork Sahagian David Blinn Hallandale, Florida
Research Professor, Stratigraphy and Biology Teacher
Basin Analysis, Geodynamics Wrenshall High School Marguerite A. Graham
Global Analysis, Interpretation, Wrenshall, Minnesota Science Teacher
and Modeling Program Gulliver Preparatory School
University of New Hampshire Miami, Florida
Durham, New Hampshire
1142 Acknowledgments
Teacher Reviewers (continued from page 1136)
Stacey Jeffress Betsy McGrew
Environmental Science Teacher Science Teacher
El Dorado High School Star Charter School
El Dorado, Arkansas Austin, Texas
Bruce Katt Tammie Niffenegger

Biology Teacher Science Chair and Science Teacher
Georgetown High School Port Washington High School
Georgetown, Texas Port Washington, Wisconsin
Debbie Keel Donna Norwood

Science Teacher Science Teacher
Cypress Creek High School Monroe High School
Houston, Texas Charlotte, North Carolina
Mike Lubich Denice Lee Sandefur

Science Teacher Science Chairperson
Mapletown High School Nucla High School
Greensboro, Pennsylvania Nucla, Colorado
Thomas Manerchia Bert Sherwood

Environmental Science Teacher, Secondary Science Instructional
Retired Specialist
Archmere Academy Socorro Independent School
Claymont, Delaware District
El Paso, Texas
Jason Marsh
Biology Teacher Joe Stanaland
Moose Lake Community School Biology Teacher
Moose Lake, Minnesota Lake Travis High School
Austin, Texas
Ray McLarty
Science Teacher Tyson Yager
Hononegah High School Science Teacher
Rockdon, IL Wichita High School East
Wichita, Kansas
Acknowledgments 1143
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Photography Credits 21 TF; 22 TF; 24 HRW/SD; CHAPTER 2: 26 Georg Gerster/PR; 29 HRW/SD; 30 (bc) Dennis
Kunkel/PT, (bl) SP/FOCA, (tl) Paul Hermansen/GI; 31 Marc Epstein/DRK; 33 HRW/SD;
Abbreviation Code 34 SP/FOCA; 35 HRW/SD; 36 TF; 38 (l) HRW/SD, (r) G.I. Bernard/AA/ES; 43 Georg
AA=Animals, Animals; BC=Bruce Coleman, Inc.; DRK=DRK Photo; ES=Earth Gerster/PR; 44 Georg Gerster/PR; 46 HRW/SD; CHAPTER 3: 48 Robert Brons/BPS/GI; 51
Scenes; GH=Grant Heilman Photography; GI=Getty Images; HRW/SD=Holt, (b, c) HRW/SD, (cl) Dr. Dennis Kunkel/PT, (cr) Victoria Smith/HRW, (tr) M. Abbey/PR; 52
Rinehart and Winston/Sam Dudgeon; MP=Minden Pictures; PA=Peter Arnold, (l) SP/FOCA/HRW, (r) Manfred Kage/PA; 53 (bl) Sinclair Stammers/SPL/PR, (br) Dr. Tony
Inc.; PR=Photo Researchers; PT=Phototake; RLM=Robert & Linda Mitchell; Brain/SPL/PR, (t) Victoria Smith/HRW; 54 (l) Philippe/Plailly/Eurelios/SPL/PR, (r) David
SP/FOCA= Sergio Purtell/Foca Co., NY, NY; TF=Tim Fuller; VU=Visuals Unlimited M. Philips/VU; 56 Michael Abbey/PR; 57 (b) Chris Bjornberg/PR, (t) John
Cardmore/BPS/GI; 58 Michael Gabridge/VU; 59 Volker Steger/Christian Bardele/SPL/PR;
Abbreviations used: (t) top, (b) bottom, (c) center, (l) left, (r) right, (bkgd) 60 Dr. Dennis Kunkel/PT; 62 Don Fawcett/VU; 63 R. Boldender/D. Fawcett/VU; 65 Don
background Fawcett/VU; 67 Robert Brons/BPS/GI; 68 (b) Michael Gabridge/VU, (t) Robert
Brons/BPS/GI; 70 E.R. Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc.; 71 Barry Bomzer/GI; CHAPTER 4: 72 Dr.
COVER AND TITLE Biotic/Photonica; BACK COVER John Shaw/Bruce Coleman, Inc.; ii Don Dennis Kunkel/PT; 75 HRW/SD; 76 HRW/SD; 78 Victor Scocozza/GI; 79 Dr. David
Riepe/PA; iii UNEP (Brunner)/PA; v Art Wolfe/GI; vii (t) Norbert Wu/PA, (b) Arthur Scott/PT; 81 Doug Wechsler; 84 TF; 85 HRW/SD; 86 Nibsc/PR; 87 Dr. Dennis Kunkel/PT;
Tilley/GI; viii (t) E.R. Degginger/AA/ES, (b) Jerry L. Ferrara/PR; ix R.H. Virdee/GH; xi (t) 88 Dr. Dennis Kunkel/PT; 90 Ward’s Natural Science; CHAPTER 5: 92 Steve Gettle/ENP
William H. Mullins/NASC/PR, (b) D. Cavagnaro/VU; xii PhotoDisc; xiii (t) William H. Images; 99 Dr. E. R. Degginger/Color-Pic; 101 C. Milkins/OSF/AA/ES; 103 Alan & Linda
Mullins/NASC/PR., (b) Dan Guravich/PR; xiv SP/FOCA; xv Tom McHugh/PR; xvi A. Witte Detrick/PR; 108 John Cowell/GH; 109 AFP/Corbis; 111 Steve Gettle/ENP Images; 112 (b)
& C. Mahaney/GI; xvii (t) Marty Cordano/DRK, (c) Jeff Rotman/PA, (b) Scott BPA/SS/PR, (t) Steve Gettle/ENP Images; 114 HRW/SD; 115 HRW/SD; CHAPTER 6: 116
Bauer/Agricultural Research Service, USDA; xviii HRW/SD; xix Patti Murray/AA/ES; xx Professors P.M. Motta & J. van Blerkom/SPL/PR; 118 (t) HRW/SD, (b) Stephen J.
HRW/SD; xxi C. Milkins/OSF/AA/ES; CHAPTER 1: 2-3 (bkgd) Dr. Dennis Kunkel/PT; 2 Krasemann/DRK; 119 Institut Pasteur/CNRI/PT; 120 (b) David M. Phillips/VU, (l, r)
PhotoDisc; 3 (b) C. Meckes/Ottawa/PR, (c) Wood Ransaville Harlin, Inc., (t) Corbis; 4 TF; PhotoDisc; 121 (bc) Dennis Kunkel/PT, (bl) Evelyn Gallaroo/PA, HRW/SD, (t) David M.
6 UNEP/Brunner/PA; 7 (b) TF, (c) Zig Leszczynski/AA/ES, (t) M. Abbey/VU; 8 (b) Walter Philips/VU; 122 (bl) Custom Medical Stock Photo, (br) TF, (tl) CNRI/SPL/PR; 123
Hodges/GI, (tl) Dan Guravich/NASC/PR; 9 (b) Gerard Lacz/PA, (t) Jamie Harron- ISM/PT; 127 Nancy Kedersha/PR; 129 Ariel Skelley/The Stock Market; 130 John D.
Papilio/Corbis; 11 Mauro Fermariello/SPL/PR; 12 Scott Camazine/PR; 13 Simon Cunningham/VU; 131 (bl, c, br) John D. Cunningham/VU, (tr) David M. Philips/VU; 132
Fraser/RVI, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne/SPL/PR; 14 Zig Leszczynski/AA/ES; 15 (l) John Harte, (cr) HRW/SD, (tl) R. Calentine/VU; 133 Professors P.M. Motta & J. van Blerkom/SPL/PR;
(r) Jeff Smith/Fotosmith; 16 (b) RLM, (t) HRW/SD; 17 HRW/SD; 18 (b) J. Reid/Custom 134 Professors P.M. Motta & J. van Blerkom/SPL/PR; 136 (l) HRW/SD, John D.
Medical Stock Photo, (t) Dan Nedrelo; 19 Will & Deni/PR; 20 Sinclair Stammers/SPL/PR; Cunningham/VU; 137 HRW/SD; 138 (b) Dr. Tony Brian/SPL/PR, (t) Moredun
1144 Credits
Scientific/PR; 139 Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc./Corbis; 140-141 (bkgd) Dee Breger/PR; 140 Holmes/SPL/PR, (t) Corbis; 410 Larry Ulrich/DRK; 412 (bl) Gary D. Gaugler/PR, (br)
Roger Tully/GI; 141 (b) GH, (c) Francoise Sauze/SPL/PR, (c) W & D Downey/Hulton- Wolfgang Baumeister/PR, (c) Dr. Dennis Kunkel/PT, (tc) Adam Jones/PR, (tl) Myron Jay
Getty/GI; CHAPTER 7: 142 Yorgos Nikas/GI; 148 Norbert Wu/PA; 149 Professor P.M. Dorf/Corbis, (tr) Rod Planck/PR; 414 (l) Andrew Syred/SPL/PR, (r) TF; 415 Corale L.
Motta, G. Macchiarelli, S.A, Nottola/SPL/PR; 150 BPA/SS/PR; 151 (b) HRW/SD, (t), (l), Brierley/VU; 416 Micheal Fogdan/AA; 418 (l) Rakosky/Custom Medical Stock Photo, (r)
(tr) PhotoDisc; 152 Robert Calentine/VU; 153 (b) L.J. Vitt, (c), (t) PhotoDisc; 154 Alan & Robert Calentine/VU; 419 N. Pecnik/VU; 420 (b) Gerald & Buff Corsi/VU, (t) D.
Linda Detrick/PR; 155 Yorgos Nikas/GI; 156 Yorgos Nikas/GI; 157 (b) David M. Despommier/PR; 421 Ken Wagner/PT; 422 (l) Rod Planck Photography, (r) Tom
Phillips/VU, (c) Jason Burns/Ace/PT, (cl) Petit Format/Nestle/PR, (cr) Yorgos Nikas/GI, (t) Bean/DRK; 423 (b) Barbara Gerlach/DRK, (c) Jim Steinberg/PR, (tl) Wayne Lynch/DRK,
PhotoDisc; 158 (tc) HRW/SD, (tr) Paul A. Zahl/PR; 159 HRW/SD; CHAPTER 8: 160 Gary J. (tr) John Gerlach/DRK; 424 (l) David Scharf, (r) Flip Nicklin/MP, (t) Patrick
Benson; 162 Culver Pictures, Inc.; 165 Nigel Cattlin/Holt Studios International/PR; 167 Ward/Masterfile; 425 Fred Bavendam/PA; 426 James McCullagh/VU; 427 Larry
(c) Barry Runk/GH, (t) Christian Grzimek/Okapia/PR; 168 (b) Jeff Noble/International Ulrich/DRK; 428 (b) Hal Harrison/GH, (t) Larry Ulrich/DRK; 430 (c) Dr. E.R.
Stock Photography, (tl) Picture Press/Corbis, (tr) Mark S. Skalny/VU; 169 Angelina Degginger/Color-Pic Inc., (l) Gerry Ellis/ENP Images, (r) Photodisc; 431 Fred
Lax/PR; 173 Image Shop/PT; 174 (cr) Lynn M. Stone/DRK, (cl) HRW/SD, (t) Ken Bruemmer/DRK; CHAPTER 20: 432 S. Lowry/Univ. Ulster/GI; 434 Barry Dowsett/SPL/PR;
Lax/HRW Photo; 175 (b) G.R. ‘Dick’ Roberts, (t) GI; 176 Ben Klaffke; 177 Arthur 435 (r) E.O.S./Gelderglom/PR, (c) Dr. O. Bradfute/PA, (l) NIBSC/SPL/PR; 438 Oliver
Tilley/GI; 178 Yoav Levy/PT; 179 (l) Dan Guravich/PR, (r) Tom Walker/GI, (t) Darrell Meckes/Gelderblom/PR; 440 Runk/Schoenberger/GH; 441 Germain Rey/Liaison Agency;
Gulin/Corbis; 180 Meckes/Ottawa/PR; 181 Meckes/Ottawa/PR; 183 Gary J. Benson; 184 442 Fred Hossler/VU; 443 (c) G. Shih and R. Kessel/VU, (l) Fran Heyl Associates, (r) John
Gary J. Benson; CHAPTER 9: 188 GI; 190 Alfred Pasieka/PA; 193 Phil Degginger/Color-Pic, D. Cunningham/VU; 444 Rakosky/Custom Medical Stock Photo; 445 (br) Luis M.
Inc.; 195 Victoria Smith/HRW; 196 (b, t) SS/PR, (c) SPL/PR; 199 Dr. Gopal Alvarez/AP/Wide World Photos, (tl) C.P. Vance/VU, (tr) E. Weber/VU; 446 Fred
Murti/SPL/PR; 201 GI; 202 GI; 204 (c) SP/FOCA, (r) HRW/SD; 205 HRW/SD; CHAPTER Hossler/VU; 447 Cecil H. Fox/Science Source/PR; 448 Michael Abbey/PR; 449 Christine
10: 206 Runk Schoenberger/GH; 209 Jacana/PR; 210 (b) HRW/SD, (t) O.L. Miller, B .R. Case/VU; 450 (b) Richard T. Nowitz/PT, (t) TF; 451 S. Lowry/Univ. Ulster/GI; 452 (b) Fred
Beatty, D.W. Fawcett/VU; 214 John Langford/HRW; 216 Topham /The Image Works; 220 Hossler/VU, (t) S. Lowry/Univ. Ulster/GI; 454 HRW/SD; 455 Michael Rosenfeld/GI; 456
2000 Nature Publishing Group/Radiographs provided by Dr. Rena D’Souza, Professor - (bc) Gilbert S. Grant/PR, (bl) Judd Cooney/PT, (br) Scott Camazine/Science Source/PR,
Department of Orthodontics, University of Texas Health Science Center, Dental Branch, (t) M. Weber/Index Stock Imagery, Inc.; 457 Maximilian Stock/SPL/PR; CHAPTER 21: 458
Houston; 221 Runk Schoenberger/GH; 222 Runk Schoenberger/GH; 224 HRW/SD; 225 RLM; 460 George J. Wilder/VU; 461 (b) Fran Heyl Associates, (c) M. Abbey/PR, (t) Runk
HRW/SD; CHAPTER 11: 226 Ted Horowitz/The Stock Market; 228 (c) Biophoto Schoenberger/GH; 462 Microfield Scientific Ltd./SPL/PR; 464 Robert Brons/GI; 465 (c)
Associates/PR, (l) James Gerholdt/PA, (r) David M. Phillips/VU; 232 HRW/SD; 233 Gary R. Robinson/VU, (l) Mark E. Gibson/VU, (r) Darryl Torckler/GI; 466 Kent Wood;
Charles Thatcher/GI; 234 Thomas Bishop/Custom Medical Stock Photo; 235 HRW 467 Roland Birke/PA; 468 Manfred Kage/PA; 469 RLM; 470 (b) Bill Beatty/AA/ES, (t)
Photo/Digital Vision Ltd.; 237 S. Fraser/PR, Inc.; 238 Agricultural Research Service, Cabisco/VU; 471 (b) Tetsu Yamazaki/International Stock Photography, (t) Centers for
USDA; 241 Roslin Institute/PT; 243 Ted Horowitz/The Stock Market; 244 Ted Disease Control; 474 Dufka/Archive Photos; 475 RLM; 476 RLM; 477 (l) Courtesy of
Horowitz/The Stock Market; 246 Mark Joseph/GI; 248-249 (bkgd) Gregory G. Richard Triemer, Rutgers University, (r) M. Abbey/VU; 478 Robert Brons/BPS/GI; 479
Dimijian/PR; 248 RLM; 249 (b) Philip Nayson/PR, (c) Alejandro Balaguer/GI, (t) The HRW/SD; CHAPTER 22: 480 Jeff Lepore/PR; 482 Michael Gadomski/AA/ES; 483 (b)
Granger Collection, New York; CHAPTER 12: 250 Steve Bloom/Masterfile; 253 HRW/SD; Courtesy of Marshall Lyon/CDC, (c) Mike Eichelberger/VU, (inset) HRW/SD, (t) Noble
254 Sojourner ®, Mars Rover ® and spacecraft design and images © copyright 1996-97 Proctor/PR; 484 (b) Tom Bean/DRK, (t) Stephen Dalton/NASC/PR; 486 (b) E. R.
California Institute of Technology. All rights reserved. Further reproduction prohibited; Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc., (t) Barry Runk/GH; 488 (t),Runk/Schoenberger/GH, (b)
257 Sydney Fox/VU; 259 Newcomb & Wergin/BPS/GI; 261 (b) Lewis Trusty/AA/ES, (tl) Cabisco/VU; 489 Marty Cordano/DRK; 490 BPA/SS/PR; 491 (b) Runk/Schoenberger/GH,
A.M. Siegelman/VU, (tr) M. Abbey/VU; 262 James L. Amos/Corbis; 263 Martin (tl) V. Ahmadjian/VU, (tr) Doug Wechsler/AA/ES; 492 D. Cavagnaro/DRK; 493 Jeff
Wendler/PA; 265 (l) Courtesy of Hans Steur, (r) Dana Richter/VU; 266 Lepore/PR; 494 Jeff Lepore/PR; 496 J. Rorsdyke/SPL/PR; 498-499 (bkgd) George
Runk/Schoenberger/GH; 267 Eric Kamp/PT; 268 Wolfgang Bayer/BC; 269 Steve Lepp/GI; 498 Corbis; 499 (b) Howard Buffett/GH, (c) Keith Weller/Agricultural Research
Bloom/Masterfile; 270 Steve Bloom/Masterfile; 272 HRW/SD; 273 Rich Frishman/GI; Service, USDA, (t) The Granger Collection, New York; CHAPTER 23: 500 Adam
CHAPTER 13: 274 RLM; 276 Bridgeman Art Library; 279 SS/PR; 280 HRW/SD; 281 (c) Jones/Pictor International ltd./PictureQuest; 502 Michael J. Doolittle/The Image Works;
Tom & Pat Leeson/DRK, (r) Tom & Pat Leeson/DRK; 283 (bc) E.R. Degginger/AA/ES, (l) 503 (b) HRW/SD, (tl) L. Mellichamp/VU, (tr) HRW/SD; 504 RLM; 505 RLM; 506 (l)
RLM; 288 N. Pecnik/VU; 289 (b) Camr/A. B. Dowsett/PR, (t) S. Camazine/PR; 290 Michael P. Gadomski/PR, (r) Jane Grushow/GH; 508 Uniphoto Picture Agency; 509 (c)
Vireo/Academy of Natural Sciences; 291 (b) Gary Mezaros/VU, (t) Zig Runk/Schoenberger/GH, (l) Ed Reschke/PA, (r) Runk/Schoenberger/GH; 510 Heather
Leszczynski/AA/ES; 293 RLM; 294 RLM; 296 TF; 297 Brian Milne/AA/ES; CHAPTER 14: Angel/Natural Visions; 511 (bc) Ed Reschke/PA, (bl) Runk/Schoenberger/GH, (br) RLM,
298 Jack Dykinga; 300 Jerry L. Ferrara/PR; 301 (bc), (bl), (tc) SP/FOCA/HRW, (br) TF, (tl) (tl) Dwight Kuhn, (tr) Michael Ederegger/DRK; 512 RLM; 513 (bc)
Leonare Lee Rue III/NASC/PR, (tr) GH; 303 (b) Stephen Dalton/AA/ES, (t) Jack Kelly Runk/Schoenberger/GH, (bl) Patti Murray/AA/ES, (br) Gerald & Buff Corsi/VU, (t)
Clark/University of California; 304 HRW/SD; 305 (c) Jeff Lepore/NASC/PR, (l) Zig HRW/SD; 514 Guy Marche/GI; 515 (l) Alan & Linda Detrick/PR, (r) William H.
Leszczynski/AA/ES, (r) Ron Kimball Photography; 306 (c) Scala/Art Resource, (t) Tim Mullins/NASC/PR; 517 (t, l, b) TF, (tr) Peter Holden/VU; 518 (b) Alan Pitcairn from GH,
Flannery; 307 (b) Gregory Ochocki/PR, (br) RLM; 311 Jack Dykinga; 312 (c) RLM, (t) Inc., (t) Photodisc; 519 (b) TF/HRW. (t) Grant Heilman from GH, Inc.; 520 (bc) Bob
Jack Dykinga; 314 (bc) BIOS (Klein/Hubert)/PA, (bl) RLM, (br) Barry Runk/GH, (tc) Thomas/GI, (bl) Robert Kusel/GI, (br) Howard Kingsnorth/GI, (cl) Nick Gunderson/GI,
BIOS (Klein/Hubert)/PA, (tl) John Gilmore, (tr) Runk/Schoenberger/GH; 315 HRW/SD; (cr) James Rowan/GI, (t) Paolo Koch/PR; 521 (c) Patti Murray/AA/ES, (l) RLM, (r) Larry
316 (c) Art Wolfe/GI; 316-317 (bkgd) Carr Clifton/MP; 317 (b) Stephen J. Lefever/GH; 522 (l) Inga Spence/VU, (r) Ric Ergenbright/Corbis; 523 Adam Jones/Pictor
Krasemann/DRK, (c) Art Wolf/GI, (t) AA/ES; CHAPTER 15: 318 Anup Shah/AA/ES; 320 (c) International, ltd./PictureQuest; 524 (b) David M. Schleser/PR, (t) Adam Jones/Pictor
Peter Unmack, (l) Tom McHugh/Steinhare Aquarium/PR; 320 (r) Richard Laird/GI, (c) International ltd./PictureQuest; 526 HRW/SD; 527 Bill Bachman/PR; CHAPTER 24: 528 S.
Manfred Danegger/PA; 321 (l) Manfred Mehlig/GI, (r) Jack Wilburn/AA/ES; 322 Corbis; Lowry/University of Ulster/GI; 530 (c) E. R. Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc., (l), (r) RLM; 532
323 Shin Yoshino/MP; 324 (l) Tom McHugh/PR, (r) Johnny Johnson/DRK; 325 (b) E. R. Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc., (t) Ed Reschke/PA; 534 RLM; 536 (b) Dr. E.R.
Runk/Schoenberger/GH, Inc.; 326 David Scharf/PA; 327 Michelle Bridwell/HRW; 328 (b) Degginger/AA/ES, (t) Runk/Schoenberger/GH; 538 HRW/SD; 539 (b) Eye of Science/PR,
R.H. Virdee/GH, (t) Stan Osolinski; 329 HRW/SD; 330 UPI/Corbis-Bettmann; 331 (t) Merlin D. Tuttle/Bat Conservation International; 542 HRW/SD; 544 (l, r) Wiliam D.
HRW/SD; 333 Anup Shah/AA/ES; 334 Anup Shah/AA/ES; 336 HRW/SD; 337 HRW/SD; Adams; 545 S. Lowry/University of Ulster/GI; 546 (c) RLM, (t) S. Lowry/University of
CHAPTER 16: 338 Marc Chamberlain/GI; 340 Merlin D. Tuttle/Bat Conservation Ulster/GI; 548 RLM; CHAPTER 25: 550 Art Wolfe/PR; 553 (b) Ed Reschke/PA, (tl)
International/PR; 341 (l) Patti Murray/AA/ES, (r) Runk/Schoenberger/GH, (t) Jim Lefever/Grushow/GH, (tr) E.R. Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc.; 554 George J. Wilder/VU; 555
Strawser/GH; 342 (b) Randal Alhadeff/HRW, (tl), (tr) Jim Tuten/AA/ES; 343 (b), (c) (bc) Cabisco/VU, (br) Herb Charles Ohlmeyer/Fran Heyl Assocs., (t) R. Calentine/VU; 556
Richard Kolar/AA/ES, (t) Tom Bean/DRK; 344 HRW/SD; 346 Alfred Pasieka/SPL/PR, Inc; (bl, br) Runk/Schoenberger/GH; 557 (c) Runk/Schoenberger/GH, (t) John D.
350 Grant Heilman/GH; 354 Steve Strickland/VU; 355 Marc Chamberlain/GI; 356 Marc Cunningham/VU; 558 RLM; 559 Dwight Kuhn/DRK; 562 Walter H. Hodge/PA; 563
Chamberlain/GI; 358 HRW/SD; 359 HRW/SD; CHAPTER 17: 360 Jack Dykinga; 362 Dominic Oldershaw; 565 Art Wolfe/PR; 566 (b) Scott Camazine/PR, (t) Art Wolfe/PR; 568
Anthony Mercieca/PR; 363 (b) Patti Murray/AA/ES, (t) Bill Beatty/VU; 364 (b) RLM, (t) HRW/SD; 569 Geoff Tompkinson/SPL/PR; CHAPTER 26: 570 (bkgd) Arthur C. Smith
Hans Pfletschinger/PA; 368 Anne Wertheim/AA/ES; 370 (b) Runk/Schoenberger/GH, III/GH; 573 D. Cavagnaro/VU; 574 (cl) RLM, (cr) R.F. Evert, (l) Robert P.
(inset) RLM; 371 D. Cavagnaro/DRK; 373 (b) Art Wolfe/GI, (t) Tom Bean/GI; 374 (b) Comport/AA/ES, (r) TF; 576 Darrell Gulin/DRK; 577 R.F. Evert; 578 Dr. Jeremy
Victoria Smith/HRW, (c) Arthur C. Smith, III/GH, (t) Wolfgang Kaehler; 375 (b) Bill Burgess/SPL/PR; 581 HRW/SD; 582 (c) R. Calentine/VU, (l) Barry L. Runk/GH, (r) Ed
Ross/Corbis, (c) Doug Wechsler/AA/ES, (t) David Muench/Corbis, (tc) Raymond Reschke/PA; 583 Runk/Schoenberger/GH; 584 Runk/Schoenberger/GH; 585 Arthur C.
Gehman/Corbis; 377 (b) Jeff Greenberg/PR, (t) Dr. G. G. Dimijian/PR; 378 (b) Norbert Smith III/GH; 586 (b) Walter Chandoha, (t) Arthur C. Smith III/GH; 588 Michael P.
Wu/PA, (c) Manfred Kage/PA; 378 (t) David R. Fleetham/VU; 379 Jack Dykinga; 380 Jack Gadomski/PR; 589 (b) Michael Rosenfeld/GI, (t) HRW/SD; 590-591 (bkgd) Gerry
Dykinga; 382 (b) Victoria Smith/HRW, (t) Manfred Kage/PA; CHAPTER 18: 384 Johnny Ellis/MP; 590 Maria Stenzel/National Geographic Society Image Collection; 591 (c)
Johnson/DRK; 386 Phil Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc.; 387 NOAA; 390 John S. Lough/VU; 392 Christopher Burk/GI, (t) GI; CHAPTER 27: 592 Bill Kamin/VU; 594 (l) PhotoDisc, (r) TF;
D. Halleux/ PA; 394 Chad Ehlers/GI; 396 (l) Lester Lefkowitz/Corbis, (r) E. R. 595 (bl) Manfred Kage/PA, (br) Jeff Smith/Fotosmith, (t) Tim Fitzharris/MP; 596 (b)
Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc.; 397 (t) Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit, (cr) Zephyr/SPL/PR; 398 (b) Carolina Biological Supply/PT, (t) David Philips/The Population Council/PR; 597 (b) Jeff
Larry Kolvooro/HRW, (c) Courtesy of Chesapeake Bay Foundation, (t) SuperStock; 399 Rotman/PA, (t) Quest/SPL/PR; 598 (b) Don Riepe/PA, (t) Mary Beth Angelo/PR; 599 (b)
(b) Randy Wells, (t) Seth Resnick; 400 (c) HRW/TF, (r) HRW/SD, (l) Steve Smith/GI; 401 TF, (t) W.J. Weber/VU; 601 (l) Dr. E.R. Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc., (r) Don Riepe/PA; 603
Johnny Johnson/DRK; 402 Johnny Johnson/DRK; 404 LSF/OSF/AA/ES; 405 Tom Stephen Dalton/AA/ES; 605 (b) E.R. Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc., (t) Mitch Kezar/GI; 607
Tracy/GI; CHAPTER 19: 406 (b) Enrico Ferorelli/Masterfile, (c) Stuart Westmorland/GI, (t) Runk/Schoenberger/GH; 608 SP/FOCA; 609 (b) Brandon D. Cole, (t) Dr. Paul Zahl/PR;
VCG/GI; 407 (bl) Michael P. Moore, (br) Scott Camazine/PR; 408 (c) Jeff Corwin/GI; 610 (b) MP, (t) Franklin J. Viola; 611 Bill Kamin/VU; 612 Bill Kamin/VU; 614 Jeff
408-409 (bkgd) Ray Pfortner/PA; 409 (b) NIBSC/SPL/PR, (c) James King- Smith/Fotosmith; 615 Agricultural Research Service, USDA; CHAPTER 28: 616 J.W.
Credits 1145
Credits continued
Mowbray/NASC/PR; 618 Jeffrey L. Rotman/PA; 620 (bc) Manfred Kage/PA, (bl) Phil Schermeister/Corbis, (t) Arthur C. Smith III/GH; CHAPTER 36: 822 J. Eastcott & Y.
Cabisco/VU, (br) RLM, (cr) Runk/Schoenberger/GH, (c) Neil G. McDaniel/NASC/PR, (cl) Momatiuk/Masterfile; 824 (l) Klaus Uhlenhut/AA/ES, (r) Neil McIntyre/Masterfile; 825
David J. Wrobel/Biological Photo Service, (t) TF; 624 Runk/Schoenberger/GH; 625 (b) (b) Tim Davis/PR, (t) Robin Brandt/Natural Selection; 826 S. J. Krasemann/PR; 827
RLM, (t) Runk/Schoenberger/GH; 626 (l) David J. Wrobel, (r) Bryan Mullennix/GI; 627 Omikron/Science Source/PR; 828 HRW/SD; 829 Thomas McAvoy/LIFE Magazine, ©
(bl) Fred Bavendam, (br) Herv Chaumeton/PR, (t) Fred Bavendam/MP; 628 A. Witte & TIME Inc.; 830 Jeff Lepore/PR; 831 (bl) N. Nosing/AA/ES, (br) Gary W. Griffen/AA/ES,
C. Mahaney/GI; 629 Hal Beral/VU; 631 RLM; 632 Sinclair Stammers/SS/PR; 633 (b) TF, (tc) Patti Murray/AA/ES, (tl) Stephen J. Krasemann/PR, (tr) William H. Beatty/VU; 832
(t) SPL/PR; 634 RLM; 635 J.W. Mowbray/NASC/PR; 636 J.W. Mowbray/NASC/PR; 638 (b) (b) Wayne Lynch/DRK, (t) Brian Woodbridge; 833 (b) Samuel R. Maglione/PR, (tl)
G. Shih-R. Kessel/VU, (c) HRW/SD, (t) Carolina Biological Supply/PT; CHAPTER 29: 640 Charles Palek/AA/ES, (tr) Francois Gohier/PR; 835 (l) Hans Reinhard/BC, (r) J.C.
John Seagrim/Masterfile; 645 (b) HRW/SD, (t) Robert Maier/AA/ES; 646 (l) J.H. Carton/BC; 836 Martin Harvey/The Wildlife Collection; 837 J. Eastcott & Y.
Robinson/AA/ES, (r) MC Chamberlain/DRK; 648 (b) TF, (t) George H. Harrison/GH; 649 Momatiuk/Masterfile; 838 J. Eastcott & Y. Momatiuk/Masterfile; 839 (b) Robin
(c) Joyce & Frank Burek/AA/ES, (l) Runk/Schoenberger/GH, (r) Douglas Brandt/Natural Selection, Thomas/McAvoy/LIFE Magazine, © TIME Inc., (tl) Francois
Faulkner/NASC/PR; 651 (l) Ed Reschke/PA, (r) Hal Beral/VU; 652 HRW/SD; 653 John Gohier/PR; 840 HRW/SD; 841 TF; 842-843 (bkgd) GW Willis/BPS/GI; 842 Lester
Anderson/AA/ES; 654 (b) J.P. Ferraro/Jacana/PR, (t) Barbara Gerlach/DRK; 656 (b) St. Lefkowitz/The Stock Market; 843 (b) Richard Nowitz/PT; 843 (c) Jim Cummings/GI, (t),
Barholomew’s Hospital/SPL/PR, (t) RLM; 657 John Seagrim/Masterfile; 658 John (l), (tr) The Granger Collection, New York; CHAPTER 37: 844 Telegraph Photo Library/GI;
Seagrim/Masterfile; 660 Jeff Smith/Fotosmith; 661 TF; CHAPTER 30: 662 Mervyn Rees/GI; 846 (br) Carolina Biological Supply/PT, (bl) G. W. Willis/GI, (tr) John D.
664 (l) Raymond A. Mendez/AA/ES, (r) Joe McDonald/AA/ES; 666 (b) Dr. Jeremy Cunningham/VU, (cr) Eric Grave/SS/PR, (tl) Ed Reschke/PA; 847 TF; 852 Andrew
Burgess/SPL/PR, (c) Art Wolfe/GI, (t) Dr. E.R. Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc.; 667 (b) Syred/GI; 853 (bl) Coronado Frank Wing, (br) Caroline Wood/International Stock
HRW/SD, (t) Ed Reschke/PA; 668 RLM; 669 Volker Steger/PR; 670 RLM; 671 RLM; 672 Photography, (tl, tc) Dr. M. Klein/PA, (tr) Yoav Levy/PT; 860 TF; 861 SP/FOCA; 862
(b) Scott Camazine/NASC/PR, (l) David Scharf/PA; 676 R. Al Simpson/VU; 678 Stephen Telegraph Colour Library/GI; 863 TF; 864 (b) James Stevenson/SS/PR, (t) Dr. P.
Dalton/NASC/PR; 679 (bl) Marty Cordano/DRK, (br) Karl Weidmann/FOCI Image Marazzi/SS/PR; 865 Telegraph Photo Library/GI; 866 (b) Dr. P. Marazzi/SPL/PR, (t)
Library/PR, (t) RLM; 681 Flip Nicklin/MP; 683 Mervyn Rees/GI; 684 Mervyn Rees/GI; Telegraph Photo Library/GI; 868 TF; CHAPTER 38: 870 Uniphoto Picture Agency; 873 Ed
686 RLM; 687 HRW/SD; 688 (b) GH, (c) Henry Ausloos/AA/ES, (t) Strawser/GH; 689 Reschke/PA; 874 John D. Cunningham/VU; 875 TF; 876 (b) Uniphoto Picture Agency, (t)
Scott Bauer/Agricultural Research Service, USDA; CHAPTER 31: 690 Marilyn Merlin D. Tuttle/Bat Conservation International; 877 (c) Don Fawcett/PR, (l) David M.
Kazmers/PA; 693 Phil Degginger/Geological Enterprises/Color-Pic, Inc.; 694 (bl) Dr. E. R. Phillips/VU, (r) Robert Caughey/VU; 878 Veronica Burmeister/VU; 878 (b) Dr. Jurgen
Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc., (br) Andrew J. Martinez/PR, (t) TF; 695 Joyce & Frank Scriba/PR; 882 TF; 883 John Feingersh/Tom Stack & Associates; 886 (b) Brian Seitz/PR,
Burek/AA/ES; 696 Andrew J. Martinez/PR; 697 (b) Fred Bavendam, (t) Fred (t) Petit Format/Nestle/SS/PR; 889 HRW/SD; 890 (b) James Stevenson/SPL/PR, (t) A.
Winner/Jacana/PR; 698 (b) Kelvin Aitken/PA, (tl) D. Shale/OSF/AA/ES, (tr) Bruce Glauberman/SS/PR; 891 Uniphoto Picture Agency; 892 Uniphoto Picture Agency; 894
Watkins/AA/ES; 699 David Thielk/HRW; 701 Gregory G. Dimijian, M.D./PR; 702 (b) Yoav Levy/PT; 895 Geoff Tompkinson/SPL/PR; 896 (b) Stephen Simpson/GI, (t) St.
HRW/SD, (t) Grant Heilman/GH; 703 Marilyn Kazmers/PA; 704 Marilyn Kazmers/PA; Bartholomew’s Hospital/SPL/PR; 897 SIU/PA; CHAPTER 39: 898 Meckes/Ottawa/PR; 900
706 Gregory Brown/AA/ES; 708-709 (bkgd) Nigel J.H. Smith/AA/ES; 708 Tim Davis/GI; Michelle Bridwell/HRW; 903 HRW; 904 SP/FOCA; 905 (b) Davies & Starr, Inc./GI, (t)
709 (b) K. Schafer and M. Hill/GI, (c) Valmik Thapar/PA, (t) Hulton/GI; CHAPTER 32: 710 Russell Diane/HRW; 908 © Stephen Ferry/Liaison/Getty Images; 910 CNRI/SPL/PR; 911
Tom Bean/DRK; 712 Robert Maier/AA/ES; 713 Jim Tuten/AA/ES; 714 John HRW/SD; 914 Runk/Schoenberger/GH; 915 TF; 917 Meckes/Ottawa/PR; 918
Cancalosi/Natural Selection; 717 (b) E.R. Degginger/AA/ES, (l) Tom McHugh/PR, (r) M. Meckes/Ottawa/PR; 920 TF; CHAPTER 40: 922 Dr. Dennis Kunkel/PT; 926 (b)
Gibbs/OSF/AA/ES; 720 (bl) William Leonard/DRK, (br) Zig Leszczynski/AA/ES, (tl) Carl Meckes/Ottawa/PR, (t) Dr. Dennis Kunkel/PT; 929 HRW/SD; 930 Mednet/PT; 932
R. Sams II/PA, (tr) James P. Rowan/DRK; 724 TF/HRW Photo; 725 (b) O. Louis HRW/SD; 934 Lennart Nilsson/Boehringer Ingelheim Int’l GmbH; 935 Paul Hardy/The
Mazzatenta/National Geographic Society Image Collection, (t) S. Nielsen/DRK; 726 (bc) Stock Market; 936 David M. Grossman/PR; 937 Dr. Dennis Kunkel/PT; 938 Dr. Dennis
David Welling/AA/ES, (bl) E. R. Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc., (br) Stephen J. Kunkel/PT; 940 TF; 941 Mark Richards/PhotoEdit; CHAPTER 41: 942 Oliver
Krasemann/DRK, (t) Rob & Ann Simpson/VU; 727 (b) Tom J. Ulrich/VU, (c) Joe Meckes/Ottawa/PR; 944 Andrew Leonard/PR; 951 TF; 953 Damian Dovarganes/AP/Wide
McDonald/VU, (tl) C.C. Lockwood/DRK, (tr) M. H. Sharp/PR; 728 Dr. E.R. World Photos; 954 TF; 958 A. L. Blum/VU; 962 Gregory G. Dimijian/PR; 963 Michelle
Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc.; 729 Mauro Fermariello/PR; 730 (c) Tom McHugh/PR, (l) D. Bridwell/HRW Photo; 964 (b),Jim Strawser/GH, (t) Scott Camazine/PR; 966 Dr. E.R.
Cavagmaro/VU, (r) Tom McHugh/PR; 731 Frans Lanting/MP; 733 TF; 734 (l) Gordon Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc.; 967 Oliver Meckes/Ottawa/PR; 968 Oliver Meckes/Ottawa/PR;
Gahan/National Geographic Society Image Collection, (r) David L. Brill/Atlanta, artifact 970 Dr. David Scott/PT NYC; CHAPTER 42: 972 Reuters/Wolfgang Rattay/GI; 974 David
credit; National Museum of Kenya, Nairobi; 735 Educational Images/Custom Medical Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit; 976 HRW/SD; 979 The Image Works; 981 Terry
Stock Photo; 737 Douglas Mazonowicz/Art Resource, NY; 738 John Reader/SPL/PR; 739 Allen/International Stock Photography; 984 John Paul Kay/PA; 986 (b), (c) SP/FOCA, (t)
Tom Bean/DRK; 740 Tom Bean/DRK; 743 Kenneth Garrett/National Geographic Society Carolina Biological Supply/PT; 987 GI; 989 Reuters/Wolfgang Rattay/Archive Photos; 990
Image Collection; CHAPTER 33: 744 Stephen Dalton/OSF/AA/ES; 746 (c) Fred Bavendam, Reuters/Wolfgang Rattay/Archive Photos; 992 M.I. Walker/PR; CHAPTER 43: 994 Lennart
(l) Bill Kamin/VU, (r) Kelvin Aitken/PA; 750 (b) Stuart Westmoreland/GI, (t) George Nilsson/Albert Bonniers Förlag; 1000 David M. Philips/PR; 1003 C. Edelmann/La
Bernard/AA/ES; 751 (b) Hans Reinhard/Okapia/NASC/PR, (c), (l) Tom Villette/SS/PR; 1006 (bl, tl) Lennart Nilsson/Albert Bonniers Förlag, (tr) D.
McHugh/NASC/PR; 752 (c) Kelvin Aitken/PA, (l inset) Doug Perrine/PA, (r inset) Wayne Bromhall/OSF/AA/ES, (br) Petit Format/Nestle/PR; 1007 Eurelios/PT; 1009 (bl)
& Karen Brown; 754 John G. Shedd Aquarium; 756 HRW/SD; 757 (b) Tom McHugh/PR, Cabisco/VU, (br) Frederick C. Skvara, M.D., (t) L. Moskowitz M.D./Medichrome; 1010
(t) Richard Herrmann Photography; 758 R. Lindholm/VU; 761 RLM; 762 John (b) SPL/Custom Medical Stock Photo, (t) Michelle Bridwell/HRW; 1011 Lennart
Mitchell/PR; 764 (b) Juan M. Renjifo/AA/ES, (t) Zig Leszczynski/AA/ES; 765 Stephen Nilsson/Albert Bonniers Förlag; 1012 Lennart Nilsson/Albert Bonniers Förlag; 1016
Dalton/OSF/AA/ES; 766 Stephen Dalton/OSF/AA/ES; 768 (b) RLM, (t) HRW/SD; 769 T.A. HRW/Peter Van Steen; 1024 HRW/SD; 1025 SP/FOCA; 1026 HRW/SD; 1028 SP/FOCA;
Wiewandt/DRK; CHAPTER 34: 770 Dr. E.R. Degginger/AA/ES; 772 Joe McDonald/AA/ES; 1029 SP/FOCA; 1030 SP/FOCA; 1031 Dr. Dennis Kunkel/PT; 1036 (tl) Myron Jay
773 G.C. Kelley/PR; 774 (b) HRW/SD, (t), (l), (tr) Mark A. Chappell/AA/ES; 777 (l) Zig Dorf/Corbis, (tc) Adam Jones/PR, (tr) Rod Planck/PR, (c) DR. Dennis Kunkel/PT, (bl)
Leszczynski/AA/ES, (r) Michael Fogden/DRK; 778 (l) Tom McHugh/PR, (r) Roland Gary D. Gaugler/PR, (br) Wolfgang Baumeister/PR; 1037 (l) Fran Heyl Associates (r) S.
Seitre/PA; 779 Michael Fogden/DRK; 780 Dr. E. R. Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc.; 782 (b) Lowry/Univ. Ulster/GI; 1038 (l) Corale L. Brierley/VU, (r) Kent Wood; 1039 Jeff
SP/FOCA, (c) Tom Walker/GI, (t) DR & TL Schrichte/GI; 783 (b) Zig Leszczynski/AA/ES, Lepore/PR; 1040 (l) Doug Wechsler/AA/ES, (r) Ed Reschke/PA; 1041 William H.
(tl) Fred Whitehead/AA/ES, (tr) David Austen/GI; 784 Richard During/GI; 787 Keith Mullins/NASC/PR; 1042 (l) Gerry Ellis/ENP Images, (r) Joyce and Frank Burek/AA; 1043
Scholey/Masterfile; 788 Alan & Sandy Carey/PR; 790 Tim Davis/GI; 793 Dr. E.R. (t) E. R. Degginger, (b) Art Wolfe/ GI; 1044 RLM; 1045 (c) Richard During/GI, (t) Joe
Degginger/AA/ES; 794 Dr. E.R. Degginger/AA/ES; 796 Dr. E. R. Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc.; McDonald/AA, (b) Dan Guravich/PR; 1048 (cr) ©Medical-On-Line; 1049 (tl) Mauro
797 Jeff Smith/Fotosmith; CHAPTER 35: 798 Darrell Bulin/GI; 800 Dan Guravich/PR; 801 Fermariello/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (br) MAURO FERMARIELLO/Photo Researchers,
(b) HRW/SD, (c) J. Sneesby/B. Wilkins/GI, (t) Stanley Breeden/DRK; 802 (b) SP/FOCA, Inc.; (bl) Dr. Jurgen Scriba/Photo Researchers, Inc.; 1050 (tr) © Underwood &
(tl) Carl R. Sams II/PA, (tr) RLM; 804 Kevin Schafer; 806 (r) Tom McHugh/PR, (l), Jeff Underwood/CORBIS; 1051 (c) ©ISM/J. C. Revy/Phototake; (cr) ©ISM/J. C.
Foott; 807 (b) James D. Watt/Masterfile, (t) Joe McDonald/AA/ES; 808 (c) Darrell Revy/Phototake; 1053 (tr) © Royalty Free/CORBIS; 1054 (bl) © Ward’s Natural Science;
Gulin/GI, (b) Tom McHugh/PR, (t) Jean Phillippe Varin/NASC/PR; 809 (b) TF, (t) Dr. E.R. 1056 (tr) © Mark Costantini/San Francisco Chronicle/Corbis ; 1058 (bl) © Ward’s Natural
Degginger/AA/ES, (c) John Cancalosi/PA; 810 (l) Robert Maier/AA/ES, (r) Fred Science; 1059 (bl) Courtesy of Cellmark Diagnostics, Inc., Germantown, Maryland; 1061
Habegger/GH; 812 (b) Sturgis McKeever/PR, (c) Art Wolfe/GI, (t) Rod Planck/PR; 813 (b) (bl) © Ward’s Natural Science; 1062 (tr) © Royalty Free/CORBIS; 1063 (bl) Sam
Norbert Wu/Masterfile, (c) Leo Keeler/AA/ES, (t) Jeremy Woodhouse/DRK; 814 (b) Fred Dudgeon/HRW; 1064 (tr) age fotostock/Tom Grill; 1065 (bl) © Ward’s Natural Science;
Felleman/GI, (c) M. Harvey/DRK, (t) Stephen J. Krasemann/DRK; 815 (b) John 1068 (tr) © Christopher Griffin/Alamy Photos; 1069 (bl) Sam Dudgeon/HRW; (bc) Sam
Downer/Masterfile, (c) Douglas Faulkner/PR, (r) Thomas Kitchin/Natural Selection; 817 Dudgeon/HRW; 1070 (tr) © H. David Seawell/CORBIS; 1071 (tr) Denis Fagan/HRW
Darrell Gulin/GI; 818 Darrell Gulin/GI; 820 Ed Reschke/PA; 821 (bl) Flip Nicklin/MP, (br)
1146 Credits

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AUTHORS

George B. Johnson, Ph.D. Peter H. Raven, Ph.D.

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Peter Raven, Ph.D.

Copyright © 2006 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston

Printed in the United States of America

Matt T. Lee, Ph.D.

David Ho, M.D. V. Patteson Lombardi, Ph.D.

continued on page 1136

CHAPTER 2 Chemistry of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

CHAPTER 3 Cell Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

CHAPTER 4 Cells and Their Environment . . . . 72

CHAPTER 5 Photosynthesis and

CHAPTER 6 Chromosomes and

CHAPTER 8 Mendel and Heredity . . . . . . . . . . 160

CHAPTER 9 DNA: The Genetic Material . . . . . 188

CHAPTER 10 How Proteins Are Made . . . . . . . . 206

CHAPTER 11 Gene Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

CHAPTER 13 The Theory of Evolution . . . . . . . 274

CHAPTER 14 Classification of Organisms . . . . 298

CHAPTER 16 Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

CHAPTER 17 Biological Communities . . . . . . . . 360

CHAPTER 18 The Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

CHAPTER 20 Viruses and Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . 432

CHAPTER 21 Protists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

CHAPTER 22 Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

CHAPTER 24 Plant Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . 528

CHAPTER 25 Plant Structure and Function . . . 550

CHAPTER 26 Plant Growth and

CHAPTER 28 Simple Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . 616

CHAPTER 29 Mollusks and Annelids . . . . . . . . . 640

CHAPTER 30 Arthropods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662

CHAPTER 31 Echinoderms and

CHAPTER 33 Fishes and Amphibians . . . . . 744

CHAPTER 34 Reptiles and Birds . . . . . . . . . 770

CHAPTER 35 Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798

CHAPTER 36 Animal Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822

CHAPTER 38 Circulatory and

CHAPTER 39 Digestive and

CHAPTER 40 The Body’s Defenses . . . . . . . . . . 922

CHAPTER 41 Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942

CHAPTER 43 Reproduction and

APPENDIX Reference and Skills . . . . . . . . . . 1016

Using a Compound The Counterfeit Drugs . . . . . . 1062

Biowatch features highlight the

Foods as Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Eating Mollusks Safely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648

Forensics Biowatch features

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) . . . . . . 236 If Bones Could Talk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729

Escherichia coli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Lichens as Environmental

SCIENCE • TECHNOLOGY • SOCIETY

Understanding Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Observing the Arrangement of

Math Labs let you practice

Exploration Labs CHAPTER

14 Skills Practice Lab Making

Skills Practice Labs 15 Exploration Lab Observing How Natural

17 Skills Practice Lab Observing How

18 Skills Practice Lab Studying

CHAPTER 19 Skills Practice Lab Surveying

6 Exploration Lab Modeling

7 Exploration Lab Modeling

8 Skills Practice Lab Modeling

9 Exploration Lab Modeling