OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGY AND THE MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

Originated as a combination of the study of Philosophy and Physiology – branch of biology that focuses
on the functioning of living organisms.

In the late 19th century many philosophers were seeking to find the connection between the mind and
the body.

Rene Decartes – Mind and body are separate and interact only through the phineal gland found in the
brain. This perspective was known as dualism

Other philosophers believed that the mind influenced the body and the body influenced the mind. This
perspective was known as interactionism

Issues regarding the human mind required an empirical approach and so they turned to the field of
Physiology. This field of study had been utilising the scientific method to resolve questions about the
nervous system and the senses for many decades.

A new idea emerged where it was realised that the scientific approach could be applied to the field of
psychology.

Wilhelm Wundt founded the first formal research laboratory for psychology research and as a result of
this he was often thought to be the founder of experimental psychology however Alexander Bain is also
thought to hold this title as he preceded Wundt with the writing of the journal called the MIND.

Wundt proposed that the field of psychology should look at

Structralism – analysing the contents of consciousness in order to determine its basic elements and the
relationships between them. He believed that this could be achieved through introspection – where
trained individuals report on their responses to stimuli such as sounds which are applied to them in
controlled conditions.

This was challenged by other psychologists such as William James who believed that the focus should
not be on the structure of consciousness but on its functions and how it helps humans to cope with the
challenges of the changing world. It also had a Darwinian undertone which looked at the fact that
aspects of consciousness or behaviour evolve.

Both these perspectives were replaced by Behaviourism when John Watson introduced the perspective
that psychology should not focus on consciousness or experience but should in fact look on behaviour
which is observable and measurable. This was corroborated by BF Skinner who argued that the fact that
internal mental states such as motivation cannot be studied scientifically they should not be a part of
psychology. The focus should be on observable behaviour and mental states should be ignored.

Challenges to Behaviourism

1950s the humanistic psychologists argued that people have free will and do not simply repeat
behaviors that yield positive outcomes while avoiding behaviours that produce negative ones.
The cognitive revolution was the ultimate challenge to the behaviourist theory. This was propelled by
the development of computers which made it possible to expose individuals to specific stimuli and
measure their reaction with great precision. The processes that behaviourists once thought to be
unobservable had now become observable.

Modern psychology is the science of behaviour and cognitive processes. It studies everything we think
feel experience or do.

Issues in Psychology

Stability versus Change – to what extent do we remain stable over time and to what extent do we
change

Nature vs Nature – to what extent are various aspects of our behaviour shaped by inherited tendencies
and to what extent are they learned.

Rationality vs irrationality – humans are not completely rational. We know what the logical response
would be in a given situation but our reason is overridden by other factors such as a gut feeling or bad
mood.

Major perspectives in modern Psychology

1. Behavioural – focuses on overt behaviour

2. Cognitive – focuses on thoughts, memory etc
3. Biological – focuses on biological events and processes that underlie behaviour
4. Developmental - focuses on changes in behaviour and cognitive processes over the lifespan
5. Psychodynamic – focuses on the role of hidden, often unconscious internal processes
6. Social and cultural – focuses on social and cultural factors that can influence behaviour

Subfields of Psychology

1. Clinical – studies diagnosis, causes, and treatment of mental disorders

2. Counselling – Assists individuals in dealing with personal problems that do not involve
physiological disorders
3. Developmental – Studies how people change physically, cognitively and socially over their
lifespan
4. Educational – Studies all aspects of the educational process
5. Experimental – Studies all basic psychological processes, including perception, learning and
motivation
6. Cognitive – All aspects of cognition – memory, thinking, reasoning
7. Industrial/organisational – studies all aspects of behaviour in work setting
8. Psycho biology and evolutionary – biological bases of behaviour and the role of evolution in
human behaviour
9. Social – studies all aspects of social behaviour and social thought
Multicultural perspective

In the early years because majority of psychological research originated from North America little or no
consideration was given to the importance of diversity. This is the difference in behaviour or
characteristics of individuals from differing cultural or ethnic groups and gender. This perspective is
used by psychologist to look at issues such as domestic violence which is caused by high levels of
emotional distress, poverty, alcoholic consumption. Cultures such as Japan view violence as appropriate
forms of discipline and punishment.

Evolutionary Psychology

Most psychologists today believe that genetic factors contribute to our behaviour. This shift in opinion
resulted from the development of the growth of evolutionary psychology. This perspective believes that
the human species has undergone a biological evolution over time and as a result of this we now
possess large numbers of evolved psychological mechanisms that help us to deal with problems relating
to survival.

Three basic components:

 Variation – organisms belonging to a given species vary in many different

 Inheritance – inheritance refers to the fact that varying traits may pass from one generation to
the next
 Selection – some variations give the individuals who possess them an edge in reproduction –
height etc.

Exportation of Psychology: from science to practice

Many branches of psychology are applied – they not only acquire basic knowledge about human
behaviour they put it to practical use eg organisational psychologists focus on solving practical work
related problems such as motivating employees and employee performance evaluation

Psychology and the Scientific Method

Scientific method is an approach to acquiring knowledge it can be used to study any topic. It is the
adoption of the scientific method that makes psychology a science.

The essential components of the scientific method are:

 Accuracy – precise an error free data gathering

 Objectivity – gathering data in a bias free manner
 Skepticism – accepting data only after they have been verified several times – over and over
again
 Open mindedness – a commitment to changing your views in the face of evidence that these
views are inaccurate.
Theory in Science

Scientists do not only want to describe the data they gather they also want to explain it. To do this
scientists construct theories – these are frameworks for explaining various events or processes.

 Theory is formulated
 Theory consists of basic concepts and statements about the relationship of the concepts and
makes predictions about observable events
 Predictions are called hypotheses – these are tested by actual observation/research
 If observations are consistent with theory confidence level increases if not theory is modified
and further tests are performed
 The theory is either accepted as accurate or rejected as inaccurate

Scientific Method v Common Sense

Our thinking is subject to several types of errors

 Confirmation bias – Most persons like to have their views confirmed rather than refuted. We
tend to remember information that supports our views
 The availability heurisistic – emphasising what comes to mind first. We create mental shortcuts
to make remembering information easier however this can also lead to errors because
sometimes what we bring to mind is not necessarily important it is just highly memorable
because it is dramatic or unusual.
 Rational v intuitive thought – gut feeling – 1990s US passed laws requiring automobiles to have
airbags and insurance companies provided major discounts on antilock brakes. These safety
devices have not provided the benefits that it was believed that they would provide even
though they were tested carefully before being put in the vehicles. They were adopted largely
because it was felt at a gut level that they would work.

Research Methods

Observation

 Naturalistic observation – observing behaviour in its natural habitat – usually used in the study
of animals
 Case studies – generalising from the unique – detailed information is gathered on specific
individuals the researcher then extends this to a greater population.
 Surveys – very limited sample obtained from large numbers of individuals usually through
questionnaire responses.

Correlation – When relationships between events exist i.e. when one changes the other changes as well.
The correlation between variables allows for us to make predictions. The stronger the correlation the
greater the accuracy of the prediction.

Experimental method

Experimentation involves making changes in the natural world to see what if any effects or changes are
produced. The experimental method requires two steps

1. The presence of some variable believed to affect behaviour is systematically altered –

independent variable
2. The effects of such alterations are carefully measured - dependent variable

Success is dependent on two key requirements

Random assignment of participants to conditions – all participants in an experiment must have an equal
chance of being assigned to each group in the study

All factors other than the independent variable that might also affect participants behaviour must be
held constant.

Ethical issues

Use of deception

The temporary withholding of information about a study from the persons who participate in it. It raises
issues such as:

Is it appropriate for psychologists to withhold information from participants or mislead them. It is

debated that this is allowed on t basic principles:

 Informed consent – providing participants with as much information as possible

 Debreifing – full information given about all aspects of the research including deception after
they have participated.

Research with Animals

 Study behaviour of endangered species

 Examine the generality of basic principles of behaviour
 Exposing animals to treatments that could not be used with human beings