Unit 4 learning
learning the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.
habituation an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.
associative learning: learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in
classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
stimulus any event or situation that evokes a response.
cognitive learning the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching
others, or through language
classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate
events. Pioneered by Ivan Pavlov.
behaviorism the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior
without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with
(2).
Pavlov and Watson shared both a disdain for “mentalistic” concepts (such as consciousness) and
a belief that the basic laws of learning were the same for all animals—whether dogs or humans.
neutral stimulus (NS) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.
unconditioned response (UR) in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such
as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).
unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and
automatically—triggers a response (UR)
conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now
conditioned) stimulus (CS).
conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after
association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience
is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.
acquisition in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In
operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an
unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning
when a response is no longer reinforced.
spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
generalization the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
discrimination in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus
and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or
diminished if followed by a punisher.
law of effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more
likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
operant chamber in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing
a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record
the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer
approximations of the desired behavior.
discriminative stimulus in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with
reinforcement
positive reinforcement increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is
any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
negative reinforcement increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative
reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (
primary reinforcer an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. no
learning is required.
conditioned reinforcer a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary
reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer
reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.
continuous reinforcement reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
partial (intermittent) reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower
acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
fixed-ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only
after a specified number of responses
variable-ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response
after an unpredictable number of responses.
fixed-interval schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response
only after a specified time has elapsed.
variable-interval schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response
at unpredictable time intervals.
In general, response rates are higher when reinforcement is linked to the number of responses
(a ratio schedule) rather than to time (an interval schedule). But responding is more consistent
when reinforcement is unpredictable (a variable schedule) than when it is predictable (a fixed
schedule).
punishment an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.
biofeedback a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a
subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension
Superstitious behavior can be produced by the accidental timing of rewards.
respondent behavior: behavior that
occurs as an automatic response to some
stimulus
operant behavior: behavior that operates
on the environment, producing
consequences
taste aversion: resistance to eat things
that make you sick or ill. – John Garcia
cognitive map a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment.
latent learning: learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Edward Chase Tolman
insight a sudden realization of a problem’s solution.
Overjustification: leading people to see their actions as externally controlled rather than internally
appealing
intrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
extrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened
punishment.
coping alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.
problem-focused coping attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we
interact with that stressor
emotion-focused coping attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending
to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.
learned helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable
to avoid repeated aversive events
external locus of control the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control
determine our fate.
internal locus of control the perception that you control your own fate.
Self-control is the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for longer term rewards
observational learning: learning by observing others. Also called social learning.
modeling the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
mirror neurons frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or
when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and
empathy.
prosocial behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
