HELPFUL HINTS

For Fastener Design and Application

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HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

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HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

Page
HELPFUL HINTS 9 TH
EDITION.............................................................................................1
COLD HEADING............................................................................................................. 1
Nine Guidelines to Use ............................................................................................................ 2
Materials................................................................................................................................... 2
Rolled Threads.......................................................................................................................... 2
Custom Cold Formed Parts...................................................................................................... 3

FASTENER STANDARDS.............................................................................................. 4
Product Identification – Fastener Markings.............................................................................. 5
Externally Threaded Inch Fasteners.......................................................................................... 5
Externally Threaded Metric Fasteners...................................................................................... 6
Internally Threaded Inch Fasteners.......................................................................................... 7
Internally Threaded Metric Fasteners....................................................................................... 8

DESIGN HINTS................................................................................................................ 9
Which Assembly Fails?............................................................................................................. 9
Role of Fastener Length in Joint Reliability.............................................................................. 9
Fastening Gasketed Joints..................................................................................................... 10
Fastening Rigid Joints............................................................................................................ 10
Fastening “Blind Hole” Joints................................................................................................ 10

BOLT/SCREW SELECTION......................................................................................... 11
Fastener Strength vs. Fastener Weight................................................................................... 11
Selecting the Right Fastener Grade....................................................................................... 12
Proof Load Comparison.......................................................................................................... 12
Hex Screws vs. Studs.............................................................................................................. 13
Hex vs. Socket Head Screws................................................................................................... 13

NUT DESIGN...................................................................................................................13
Selecting the Right Type & Grade of Hex Nuts...................................................................... 14
Nut Strength........................................................................................................................... 14
Should the Nut be able to Break the Bolt?............................................................................ 15
Nuts: Their Use & Abuse........................................................................................................ 15

THREAD SELECTION....................................................................................................16
How Threads Affect Nut Strength........................................................................................... 16
Engaged Thread Material Governs Strength........................................................................... 17
Coarse Threads vs. Fine Threads............................................................................................. 17
Stripping Strength vs. Tensile Strength................................................................................... 18

LOCKING FASTENERS.................................................................................................18
Locking Power......................................................................................................................... 18
Use & Reuse of Locking Fasteners.......................................................................................... 19
Selecting the Right Prevailing Torque (PT) Nut Grade............................................................ 19
Strength Identification............................................................................................................. 20
Importance of Breakloose Torque........................................................................................... 20

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 Page
TAPPING SCREWS...............................................................................................................21
Thread-Forming Screws ................................................................................................................. 21
Thread-Cutting Screws .................................................................................................................. 22
Thread-Rolling Screws ................................................................................................................... 22
Head Styles & Drives...................................................................................................................... 23

BOLT INSTALLATION.......................................................................................................... 23
Proper Loading of Bolts.................................................................................................................. 23
Bolt Load Levels............................................................................................................................. 23
Tighten Bolts to Yield Strength...................................................................................................... 24
Safety Factors................................................................................................................................. 24
Avoiding Bolt Failure under Dynamic Loads.................................................................................. 24
Role of Friction in Fastening........................................................................................................... 25

BOLT INSTALLATION – TORQUE................................................................................... 25

Fasteners take Greatest Stress during Wrenching.......................................................................... 25
Determining the Right Torque for Bolts......................................................................................... 26
Bolt Diameter Graph-Inches ¼” through 1”.................................................................................. 26
Metric Bolt Intallation Torque M6 through M12............................................................................. 27
Metric Bolt Intallation Torque M14 through M27........................................................................... 27
Bolt Tension from “Turn-of-Nut” Method....................................................................................... 28

CORROSION RESISTANCE............................................................................................... 28
Fastener Coatings........................................................................................................................... 29
Effect of Plating on Thread Fits...................................................................................................... 29
Stainless Steel Fasteners................................................................................................................ 30

METRIC FASTENERS.......................................................................................................... 30
Fastener Quantities & their Metric Units
of Measurement.......................................................................................................................... 30
Unified-Inch & Metric Compared................................................................................................... 31
Metric Property Classes.................................................................................................................. 32
English/Metric Conversions............................................................................................................ 33
Conversion Table: Inches-Millimeters............................................................................................. 33

GLOSSARY.............................................................................................................................34
Italicized words throughout the booklet are defined in the Glossary.

This material is provided for general informational purposes only, and is not intended to constitute advice
or recommendation of any particular product as suitable for your specific needs.
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

HELPFUL HINTS 9TH EDITION

People talk about “getting down to the nuts Proper fastener selection and application
and bolts” when describing something in min- are critical to ensure proper assemblies. The
ute detail. An apt phrase, because it recognizes joining requirements of the assembly and
that fasteners are the basic and fundamental the variety of available products complicates
component of assembled products. the user’s choices. This 9th Edition of “Helpful
Hints” contains general information that users
Fasteners are often taken for granted. Seldom can consider in light of their particular require-
are they viewed as the highly engineered items ments. Material in this edition has been updat-
that they are. All too often, fasteners are applied ed, rewritten, and regrouped for easier access
by “rule of thumb” techniques, not sound en- to the subject matter.
gineered practice. As a result, the performance
and economy that has been designed and built
into each fastener is not fully realized.

COLD HEADING
Cold heading and cold forming, the basic Stages in Making a Cap Screw
methods of manufacturing most bolts and
nuts, is the process of forcing unheated met-
al to flow into dies to change its shape. The
machines used are called headers and formers,
which are actually high-speed multi-blow
presses.

Cut-off Extrude Head Trim Point Thread

& bulb & extrude

Stages in Cold Nut Manufacturing

Raw material Cut-off Flatten

Metal flow lines of a cold-headed product

As illustrated on the right, heading machines

cut a length of wire from a coil, place the cut
blank in a die, and force it into the desired con-
figuration using a series of heading or forming
blows. The heading operation upsets the head.
The die extrudes the shank. Secondary oper- 1st upset 2nd upset Finish Blank Tap
ations, such as pointing, trimming, threading,
and tapping may also be employed.

1
Nine Guidelines to Use Materials
Compared to machining, cold heading yields Materials commonly used in cold heading
stronger pieces at less cost. Also, cold heading and cold forming commercial grade
automatically controls quality because unsound products include:
material cannot be used. While the capability
of cold headers is broad, it pays to design for • Carbon steels up to about 0.45 carbon
the process right at the start. • Low carbon martensitic boron steels
• Alloy steels up to about 0.45 carbon
Cold Heading Guidelines • Copper
• Brass – 60% copper and higher
1. Money can be saved by ordering in typical • Silicon bronze (97% copper)
production run quantities as follows: • Monel
Diameter/Length Approx. Pieces • 300 series stainless steels
¼ – ⅜ in. x 3 in. long 100,000 + • 400 series stainless steels
⁄16 – ½ in. x 5 in. long
7
60,000 + • Aluminum
⅝ – ¾ in. x 6 in. long 40,000 +
⅞ – 1 in. x 6 in. long 25,000 + Low carbon steels (AISI C1020 and under) are
frequently furnished bright, not heat treated, or
2. Maximum volume of upset is equivalent to with a simple stress relief. Higher carbon and
length of stock 4½ times its own diameter alloy products are customarily heat treated.
in two-blow heading. (With special operations,
Some commonly used steels include:
up to 26 diameters have been achieved.)
AISI
3. Various metals and alloys are suitable. Carbon
C1010 Machine screws, rivets
content in steel should be kept under 0.45%.
C1110 Hex nuts
4. Concentric pieces are easier to form, though C1018-20 Grade 2 cap screws (made cold)
eccentric and serrated shapes can be practi- C1030-38 Grade 5 cap screws (made cold),
cal to cold form. A 325 Bolts
C4140, C4037, Grade 8 cap screws, A 490 bolts
5. Avoid sharp corners and allow for generous C8367
radii.
6. Since upsets are usually cylindrical, Rolled Threads
oval or round shapes take less trimming
Bolt blanks are roll threaded by progressively
than square or rectangular shapes.
squeezing them between rotating or recipro-
7. Hollow upsets tend to form cracks at edges cating dies. Displaced metal then flows into the
of recess, so avoid them. threading dies.
8. Embossing raises costs. Rolled threads date back to 1851. At that
time, rolled threading produced threads with
9. No problem heat treating short sections,
a larger diameter than the shank. As a result,
but long sections are apt to be distorted.
it was necessary to cut threads to have the
When in doubt, contact an expert in cold
same thread and shank diameter. Rolled or cut
heading or heat treating.

2
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

threads were used to identify cap screws with Custom Cold Formed Parts
undersize or full-size body shanks, respectively.
Today’s cold heading and cold forming equip-
ment offer users a source for volume procure-
This is no longer true. Today all types of
ment of close-tolerance complex parts. Here
threads can be precision rolled. In most in-
are some reasons for designing a special cold
stances, rolled threads are better than cut
headed part:
threads, because cold working the metal
• Design considerations may rule out use of a
results in continuous flow lines and improves
standard fastener.
physical properties – as well as burnishing the
• A special part may prove more efficient in
surface of the thread.
assembly.
• A single special part may replace two or
A high-production process, roll threading is
more separate parts.
used on 95% of today’s output of screws and
• A cold headed or cold formed part may be
bolts.
less expensive than a machined part.
When designing a non-standard part, try to use
a listed mechanical performance standard. This
will give your supplier easier access to the raw
material, or it may be in their inventory.
Some of the many capabilities of heading and
Reduced body diameter
forming equipment are shown on these pages.
Unthreaded shank has a smaller diameter
(about equal to the pitch diameter) than the
OD of the thread. Trim

Knurl

Roll Thread

Full body diameter Extrude Point

Unthreaded shank has the same diameter as
the OD of the thread. Drill

Spherical
Head and
Groove

Extrude Square
Shoulder

Extrude Shank

Roll Thread Point

3
 Pierce Flatten
Hole

Bend

Form Flange on Square

Head Collar

Extrude &
Roll Thread Cold Formed Slotted Nut

FASTENER STANDARDS
User-producer groups have developed standards performance standards define materials, hard-
for all widely used fasteners. Dimensional stan- nesses, physical strengths, and test procedures.
dards detail product dimensions, and mechanical

The major fastener specification groups include:

ANSI American National Standards ISO International Standards

Institute, Inc. Organization
https://www.ansi.org/ https://www.iso.org/home.html

ASTM American Society for Testing DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung
and Materials https://www.din.de/en
https://www.astm.org/
BS British Standards
SAE Society of Automotive https://www.bsigroup.com/
Engineers, Inc.
https://www.sae.org/ JIS Japanese Industrial Standards
https://www.jisc.go.jp/eng/
IFI Industrial Fasteners Institute
https://www.indfast.org/

4
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

Product Identification – Fastener Markings

SAE and ASTM specifications offer similar Standard fastener-head markings have two
grades of fasteners. SAE grades are applicable important meanings: identifying the strength
to automotive and other general design fas- properties of the fastener and showing the
tening whereas ASTM specifications include original manufacturer of that fastener. The
structural applications. most widely used strength grade marks are
illustrated below:
Externally Threaded Inch Fasteners
Grade Identification Proof Load Tensile Strength
Marking Specifications Material Nominal Size (In) Stress (ksi) Min. (ksi)

SAE J429 – Grade 1 1/4 thru 1-1/2 33 60

1/4 thru 3/4 55 74
SAE J429 – Grade 2
No Mark over 3/4 thru 1-1/2 33 60

Low or Medium
307A ASTM A307 – Grade A Carbon Steel 1/4 thru 4 – 60

– 60 min
307B ASTM A307 – Grade B 1/4 thru 4 – 100 max

SAE J429 – Grade 5 Medium Carbon 1/4 thru 1 85 120

ASTM A449 – Type 1
Steel, Quenched over 1 thru 1-1/2 74 105
and Tempered
ASTM A449 – Type 1 over 1-1/2 thru 3 55 90

Medium Low or
Carbon Steel, Quenched
SAE J429 – Grade 5.1 No. 6 thru 1/2 85 120
and Tempered

SAE J429 – Grade 5.2 Low Carbon

Martensite Steel, 1/4 thru 1/2 85 120
ASTM A449 – Type 2 Quenched and
Tempered

A325 ASTM A325 – Type 1 Medium Carbon Steel,

Quenched and Tempered
1/2 thru 1 85 120
Atmospheric Corrosion over 1 to 1-1/2 74 105
A325 ASTM A325 – Type 3 Resistant Steel, Quenched
and Tempered

Medium Carbon
BC
ASTM A354
– Grade BC Alloy Steel, Quenched
1/4 thru 3/4 55 74
over 3/4 thru 1-1/2 33 60
and Tempered

SAE J429 – Grade 8 1/4 thru 2-1/2 120 150

Medium Carbon
Alloy Steel, Quenched
and Tempered

BD ASTM A354 – Grade BD 1/4 thru 2-1/2 120 150
over 2-1/2 thru 4 105 140

Low Carbon
SAE J429 – Grade 8.2 Martensite Steel, 1/4 thru 1 120 150
Quenched and Tempered

Medium Carbon 150 min
A490 ASTM A490 – Type 1 Alloy Steel, Quenched 1/2 thru 1-1/2 120
170 max
and Tempered

Low Carbon
ASTM A490 – Type 2 1/2 thru 1 150 min
120
Martensite Steel,
A490
Quenched and Tempered 170 max

Atmospheric Corrosion 150 min

A490 ASTM A490 – Type 3
Resistant Steel, Quenched 1/2 thru 1-1/2 120
170 max
and Tempered

5
Externally Threaded Metric Fasteners
Property Class Proof Load Stress (MPa ) Yield Strength Tensile Strength
Designation Marking Nominal Product Dia. (mm) Material and Treatment Length Measurement (MPa) (MPa)

4.6 M5 – M100 Low or Medium Carbon Steel 225 240 400

Low or Medium
4.8 M1.6 – M16 Carbon Steel, Partially or 310 340 420
Fully Annealed as Required

M5 – M24 Low or Medium Carbon 380 420 520
5.8
Steel, Cold Worked


Medium Carbon Steel,
8.8 M16 – M72 Quenched 600 660 830
and Tempered

Low Carbon Martensite,

8.8 M16 – M36 Quenched 600 660 830
and Tempered

Atmospheric Corrosion
8S3 M16 – M36 Resistant Steel, 600 660 830
Quenched and Tempered

Medium Carbon Steel,

9.8 M1.6 – M16 Quenched 650 720 900
and Tempered

Low Carbon Martensite

9.8 M1.6 – M16 Steel, Quenched 650 720 900
and Tempered

Medium Carbon Steel,

10.9 M5 – M20 Quenched 830 940 1040
and Tempered

Medium Carbon Alloy Steel,

10.9 M5 – M100 Quenched 830 940 1040
and Tempered

Low Carbon Martensite Steel,

10.9 M5 – M36 Quenched 830 940 1040
and Tempered

Atmospheric Corrosion
10S3 M16 – M36 Resistant Steel, 830 940 1040
Quenched and Tempered

Alloy Steel,
12.9 M1.6 – M100 970 1100 1220
Quenched and Tempered

6
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

Internally Threaded Inch Fasteners

Grade Alternate
Identification Identification Proof Load
Marking Marking Specifications Material Nominal Size (In) Stress (ksi)

ASTM A563 – Grade O 1/4 thru 1-1/2 69

1/4 thru 1-1/2 90

ASTM A563 – Grade A
Carbon Steel 1/4 thru 1 120
ASTM A563 – Grade B Over 1 thru 1-1/2 105
No Mark
1/4 thru 1-1/2 UNC 90
SAE J995 Grade 2
1/4 thru 1-1/2 UNF 80

• 1/4 thru 1 UNC 120

1/4 thru 1 UNF 109
SAE J995 Grade 5 Medium Carbon Steel
x
•
x Over 1 thru 1-1/2 UNC 105
Over 1 thru 1-1/2 UNF 94

Carbon Steel May Be

ASTM A563 – Grade C 1/4 thru 4 144
Quenched and Tempered

3 Atmospheric Corrosion
ASTM A563 – Grade C3 Resistant Steel May Be 1/4 thru 4 144
Quenched and Tempered

D
ASTM A563 – Grade D Carbon Steel May Be
1/4 thru 4 150
Quenched and Tempered

•
•
SAE J995 Grade 8 Medium Carbon Steel, 1/4 thru 1-1/2 150
Quenched and Tempered
x x

DH

ASTM A563 – Grade DH Carbon Steel, Quenched 1/4 thru 4 175

and Tempered

3
DH Atmospheric Corrosion
ASTM A563 – Grade DH3 Resistant Steel, Quenched 1/4 thru 4 175
and Tempered

ASTM A194 – Grade 1 Carbon Steel 1/4 thru 4 130

ASTM A194 – Grade 2 Medium Carbon Steel 1/4 thru 4 150

2H
Medium Carbon Steel, 1/4 thru 4 175
ASTM A194 – Grade 2H
Quenched and Tempered

M
2H
Medium Carbon Steel,
ASTM A194 – Grade 2HM 1/4 thru 4 150
Quenched and Tempered

4
Medium Carbon Alloy Steel, 175
ASTM A194 – Grade 4 1/4 thru 4
Quenched and Tempered

Medium Carbon Alloy Steel, 1/4 thru 4 175

ASTM A194 – Grade 7
Quenched and Tempered

7M
Medium Carbon Alloy Steel,
ASTM A194 – Grade 7M Quenched and Tempered 1/4 thru 4 150
7
Internally Threaded Metric Fasteners
Property Class
Identification Marking Nominal Nut Proof Load
& Property Class of Nut Style of Nut Dia. Range Stress (MPa)
M1.6 - M4 520
Hex Style 1 M5 & M6 580
M8 & M10 590

Hex Style 1 M12 - M16 610

5
Heavy Hex M20 - M36 630

Heavy Hex M42 - M100 630

Hex Style 1 M1.6 - M10
800
Hex Flange M5 - M10
Hex Style 1 M12 - M16
820
Hex Flange M12 - M16
8
Hex Style 1 M20 - M36
830
Hex Flange only M20
Heavy Style 2 M3 & M4 900

Heavy Style 2
M5 & M6 915
Hex Flange
Hex Style 2
M8 & M10 940
Hex Flange
Hex Style 2
Hex Flange M12 - M16 950
9
Heavy Hex
Hex Style 2 M20 - M36
Hex Flange only M20 920
Heavy Hex M20 - M36

Heavy Hex M42 - M100 920

Hex Style 1 M1.6 - M10 1040

Hex Flange M5 - M10
Hex Style 1 M12 - M16
1050
Hex Flange M12 - M16
10
Hex Style 1 M20 - M36
1060
Hex Flange only M20
Hex Style 2
M5 & M6 1150
Hex Flange
Hex Style 2
M8 & M10 1160
Hex Flange
Hex Style 2
Hex Flange M12 - M16 1190
12
Heavy Hex
Hex Style 2 M20 - M36
Hex Flange only M20 1200
Heavy Hex M20 - M36

Heavy Hex M12 - M36 1075

8S 8S3

Heavy Hex M12 - M36 1245

10S 10S3

8
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

DESIGN HINTS
Which Assembly Fails? Role of Fastener Length in
Two assemblies with identical parts – bolt, stiff
Joint Reliability
spring, and rigid plates are shown. All steel bolts elongate approximately 0.001-in.
per inch of length for each 30,000 psi of tensile
A cyclic load (P), equal to initial bolt tension stress. Consequently, a long bolt (or screw) can
(F), is applied to the plates. One assembly prove to be more reliable than a shorter one
fails, the other doesn’t. Can you tell which? for dynamic loading. Here’s why:

P
F

Figure A Figure B
3 A 6 B

In Fig. A the total bolt load becomes twice the Hypothetical Example
initial bolt tension because the spring’s expan- In Fig. A, the bolt grip length is 3 in.; in
sion force (equal and opposite to the bolt’s Fig. B, it’s 6 in. Both bolts are SAE Grade 5,
initial clamping tension) adds to the load P. coarse threaded, ⅝ in. diameter.

In Fig. B the spring is in effect part of the bolt The load is the same on both joints, with each
instead of part of the bolted assembly. With F bolt tightened to 60,000 psi, 4,650 pounds of
applied, the load between the plates reduces residual tension. Therefore, in Fig. A, the bolt
to zero. The bolt undergoes virtually no basic stretches 0.006 in.; in Fig. B, 0.012 in.
change in load because it isn’t stretched (or Now assume that burrs or scale exist under nut
the spring compressed). and bolt head bearing surfaces. These flatten
in service because of cold flow, causing some
Hence the loading of the bolt in Fig. B is grip relaxation. Assume a 0.002 in. relaxation in
essentially static. This assembly is strong, re- both examples.
mains unaffected by the cyclic external stress,
and won’t fail. The shorter bolt in Fig. A loses 1,550 pounds
of residual tension, retaining only 67% of its
Conversely, the bolt loading in Fig. A, being initial clamping force. The longer bolt in Fig. B
dynamic, fluctuates between P. Subject to loses 775 pounds of tension, retaining 83% of
fatigue, it fails. its initial clamping force.
Thus, the longer bolt, with a higher remaining
The hypothetical assemblies shown here have tension, would be more reliable in joints sub-
analogs in actual practice for the assembly of jected to cyclic loads, including vibration. In
flexible, gasketed, and rigid joints. addition, the longer bolt would better resist
both loosening and fatigue.
Note: Coarse threads refer to Unified National Coarse
(UNC) and fine threads refer to Unified National Fine (UNF).

9
Fastening Gasketed Joints of the metal-to-metal fastened members will
not crush or yield before the full load-carrying
Selecting the right fastener for a “flexible” capacity of the screw or bolt is developed.
joint depends on the type of gasket material
and its compressibility. Total preload on all of User Benefits
the fasteners in the connection must be just Rigid joints offer a definite product advantage.
enough to compress the gasket and provide They can take high strength cap screws or bolts
sufficient clamping force to withstand the hy- tightened up to or beyond the yield strength of
drostatic test pressure. Excessive fastener the fastener. Under such tension, fasteners will
preload can cause leakage through “bowing” stay tight despite limited low frequency vibra-
of the clamping plate or simply by gasket tion. In addition, rigid joints are resistant to
creep from overloading the gasket material. fatigue from constant load reversals.
Installation Hints
There is no problem achieving a rigid joint
when fastening heavy section steel members.
Just tighten the fastener to its full fastener
Exaggerated sketch showing how too much capacity. Thin sections can be reinforced and
torque tends to distort clamping plate and similarly fastened. In joining milder steels or
leads to leakage. softer metals, use of a hardened washer will
distribute bolt load, prevent crushing, and give
Hypothetical Case the desired effect of rigidity.
Suppose leakage develops when a joint is
tightened with Grade 5 cap screws to their
yield strength and that a switch to alloy screws
and further tightening does not solve the
problem. The solution may be as simple as
using Grade 5 or possibly Grade 2 cap screws,
Hardened
all torqued evenly to a lower clamping load. High Tensile Washer Heavy Nut
Bolt
Actual Case
The fasteners on one product’s flange had to
Fastening “Blind Hole” Joints
withstand a 4,000 pound hydrostatic pressure.
The hard-asbestos gasket selected required Holes which don’t go all the way through a
a bolt load of 28,000 pounds for sufficient solid member must be tapped. For small,
compression to seal. By substituting a rubber shallow holes and in fastening soft materials,
and fibre gasket, in this case, bolt load could thread-cutting or thread-rolling screws work
be reduced. Bolt size could also be reduced, well and save time.
thereby saving 73% on fastener costs.
Thread Effects
Fastening Rigid Joints Tapped holes should be coarse threaded
because coarse threads are stronger than
Theoretically, a rigid joint is impossible be- fine threads and they take fewer turns in
cause there is always some elasticity in the fas- assembly. Studs typically go into tapped
tened metals. For practical purposes, you can holes with an interference thread fit, cap
consider a joint rigid when the bearing areas screws with a simpler clearance fit.

10
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

Desirably, studs should all be driven to the However, “blind hole” fastening of large flang-
same hole depth and bottomed. However, es, pressure plates, heads, etc., requires great-
because of normal manufacturing differences, er “tapped hole” precision, when using ¼ in.
mismatched high and low tolerances will and larger diameter fasteners.
cause some studs to project unevenly. As-
Noteworthy Joint Features
semblers must be careful with studs to ensure
uniform height projection. This problem does ASTM F436 ANSI/ASME B18.2.2 Hex Cap Screw
Thick Hardened SAE J429 Grade 5 or Grade 8
not exist with hex screws that can be tight- Steel Washer
ened to a specified preload. When using hex Bearing Surfaces Perpendic-
ular to the Fastener Axis
screws, there is no double-driving operation
Bolt:Joint Stiff- Generous Filet Radius
as required with a stud plus nut. ness Ratio 5:1 That Does Not Interfere
or Better With The Washer I.D.

Strength of Blind Joints

Tapped holes behave like nuts. Their threads Properly Sized Tighten by
Within the Grip the Through Holes the Nut
adjust elastically and plastically to distribute Length/Diameter Whenever
stress and develop high thread tension. Is this Ratio = 8 or More Possible
Smooth Gradual Thread
harmful in repeated disassembly? Not at all. Runout Transition
Cap screws have been installed 50 times in
cast iron test blocks, then tightened to failure
without damage to tapped holes.
ANSI/ASME B18.2.2 Hex Nut
Two Thread SAE J995 Grade 5 or Grade 8
Pitches

BOLT/SCREW SELECTION
Fastener Strength vs. Fastener screws, or smaller Grade 5 screws. Weighing
Weight less, Grade 5 fasteners cost less, making them
the best choice for economy both in terms of
Weight and dimensions of the same size high- purchasing and production.
strength cap screw (SAE Grade 5) and standard
cap screw (SAE Grade 2) are identical as the Grade 5 Most Versatile
same machine makes both. They only differ in There are fastener grades stronger than SAE
the clamping force that can be developed and Grade 5. These are heat-treated alloy-steel fas-
usually in cost. teners that cost more and unless their strength
is needed and utilized in an assembly, money
Higher fastener strength comes from more car- is wasted.
bon in the steel and heat treatment.
Of the many SAE strength grades, Grade 5
Heat treatment and carbon content represent is the most versatile. High-strength Hex
only a fraction of the total cost of material and Screws suit most design and rapid assembly
manufacturing that go into a fastener. Yet the operations.
heat-treated fastener, depending on size, may
develop two times the strength of its stan-
dard (SAE Grade 2) counterpart. A given load
requirement can be met with larger Grade 2
Grade 2 Grade 5

11
Selecting the Right Fastener Grade Grade 8 or PC 10.9 material is medium carbon
alloy steel, quenched and tempered.
With few exceptions, the true function of a
Special circumstances allow material and pro-
fastener is to clamp members together, not
cessing modifications. The graph below shows
to act as an axle or fulcrum. The residual ten-
the relative clamping strength of the three
sion set up in the fastener keeps joints tight.
S.A.E. grades.
Three physical grades of steel can satisfy most
“clamping” applications:
Some Suggestions
Diameter Tensile Proof Grade In terms of holding power, stronger fasteners
S.A.E. Range Strength Load Ident.
Grade (in.) (psi) (psi) Marking may be less costly than the least expensive
Grade 2. For example, a ⅝ in. diameter Grade
2 1/4 - 3/4 74,000 55,000 none
7/8 - 1-1/2 60,000 33,000 none 5 fastener has a proof load of 19,200 lb. and
5 1/4 - 1 120,000 85,000 a ¾ in. diameter Grade 2 fastener has a proof
1-1/8 - 1-1/2 105,000 74,000 load of 18,400 lb. The ⅝ in. diameter Grade 5
8 1/4 - 1-1/2 150,000 120,000 fastener, being smaller than the ¾ in. Grade 2,
Metric Diameter Tensile Proof Grade
costs less.
Property Range Strength Load Ident.
Class (mm) (min., MPa) (MPa) Marking
By using higher-strength fasteners, users can
5.8 M5 - M24 520 380 5.8 affect economies through diameter reduction.
8.8 M16 - M72 830 600 8.8 If diameter reduction is not desirable, fewer
10.9 M5 - M100 1040 830 10.9 higher-strength fasteners are needed to achieve
the same proof load.
Grade 2 or PC 5.8 material is low or medium
In short, for more pounds of clamping effort
carbon steel.
per dollar, use high-strength fasteners; for more
Grade 5 or PC 8.8 material is a medium carbon pieces per dollar, use lower grade fasteners.
steel, quenched and tempered.

Proof Load Comparison

50,000
75% of Rated Proof Load (Pounds)

40,000
S
REW
S
X SC
30,000 REW HE
SC 5
X A DE
8 HE E GR
20,000
G RADE S A
CR EWS
SAE H EX S
RA DE 2
AE G
10,000
S

0
1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1
Diameter

12
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

Hex Screws vs. Studs Hex vs. Socket Head Screws

Many products once fastened with studs are If head diameter is limited, consider using an
now assembled with hex screws. Why the internally wrenched fastener. For more holding
change in preference? power per dollar, use the hex screw.

Studs exhibit certain advantages in large di- There is no question that small-head socket
ameters and in high-temperature applications. screws are best utilized in counterbored holes
However, when used in smaller sizes and to clear tight spaces. It is not possible to utilize
tapped holes, the hex screw has a number of the full strength of the alloy used for the socket
design and production advantages. head. Remember that the strength of a connec-
tion depends on fastener preload and not on
Assembly Considerations the strength of the fastener material alone.
In fastener selection, production and assembly
considerations are as important as joint strength. Socket Head Screws
Internal wrenching rarely develops the torque
Studs require two wrenchings (first stud, then needed for proper preloading. If high torque
nut). Also, expensive close-tolerance tapping is developed, the smaller bearing area of the
is required since a stud takes an interference fit socket head tends to crush the bearing surface
to stay tight and not withdraw when the nut is rather than increase tension or preload.
backed off.
Hex Head Screws
Hex screws only require a clearance fit. Used in Design that takes advantage of heat treated
a tapped casting, they can be repeatedly insert- hex screws of SAE Grade 5 quality will yield a
ed and removed without thread damage. stronger connection at a lower cost. These
standard fasteners have ample bearing and
Stud Application wrenching surfaces and can be torqued right
Studs should not be used as dowels to locate up to yield strength. More importantly, they
and line up for fastening. To line up numerous cost less than alloy fasteners.
studs and bring two pieces together raises as-
sembly cost. Use dowel pins for part alignment
cost. Use hex screws to achieve greater fastening
economy.

NUT DESIGN
The standard nut is not as simple as it looks. enough to contain sufficient threads. The
Considerable design expertise goes into nut material may lack the plasticity necessary to
manufacturing to avoid these pitfalls: deform under tightening so enough threads
engage and distribute the load to avoid pro-
Thread Shear: Several factors can cause thread gressive shear.
shear in nuts (Fig. A). The nut may not be high

13
Wall Dilation: The inclined plane effect of the High carbon heat-treated nuts are used with
thread angle (Fig. B) divides the contact stress bolts of 150,000 psi (Grade 8) and greater
on a nut into two components: vertical (shear) ultimate tensile strengths.
and horizontal (dilation). Dilation enlarges nut
diameter, shifting joint load towards the weak- Hex Thick Nuts are used where additional
er “tips” of the nut threads. thread engagement is required for severe
fastening applications and where fine threaded
Crushing: Nuts that do not have sufficient bolts are required.
width across flats, (Fig. C) bear down on too
small a surface. High unit stress may crush the The need for Hex Thick Nuts is limited since
bearing surface, with relaxation of bolt tension the nut material of the regular carbon steel
as the undesirable end result. nut (non-heat treated) is strong enough to pull
bolts (through Grade 5) beyond their yield
Reputable fastener manufacturers supply ANSI point and lets threads distribute the load to
standard Hex Nuts having sufficient height avoid stripping.
to sustain high thread tension, sufficient wall
thickness to control nut dilation under load, Jam Nuts are special function nuts and are
and the right amount of bearing area. used for position locking. The use of two nuts
together can be used to form a locking device.
When used to lock a standard nut, the Jam Nut
should be used between the Hex Nut and the
joint surface so the Hex Nut, rather than the
Jam Nut, will take the full bolt load.

2H Nuts are used for stability in high-tempera-

ture applications and with high-strength struc-
Figure A Figure B Figure C tural bolts.

High Nuts are used for shackle, U, and tractor

Selecting the Right Type & Grade pad bolts. They are furnished only with fine
of Hex Nuts threads and hardened. However, the better
choice for these applications is coarse thread
The standard Hex Nut series is the “work-
Heavy Nuts.
horse” among nuts. Its products provide ade-
quate bearing area, sufficient height to sustain Lock Nuts are used where dynamic environ-
high thread tension and enough wall thickness mental loading (vibration), differential thermal
to control elastic nut dilation under load. expansion, or soft joint fastening is present.

Heavy Hex Nuts are wider than Hex Nuts in Nut Strength
all sizes by ⅛ in. across flats. Thus, their value
diminishes as size increases. Most effective in It is difficult to plastically adjust and distribute
½ to 1½ in. size ranges, Heavy Hex Nuts load over many threads with hard heat-treat-
satisfy applications using structural bolts or ed nuts. That is why non-heat-treated nuts are
involving excessive clearance holes, unusual strong enough for most applications.
loads, and certain boiler codes.

14
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

A good rule of thumb is to use a heat-treated With Grade 5 Bolts, standard Hex Nuts are
nut where bolts with a minimum 150,000 psi adequate to develop at least 100% of the
tensile strength are used to achieve maximum bolt’s ultimate tensile load.
bolt stress. Conversely, bolts with minimum
tensile strengths less than 150,000 psi should Material strength is not the only factor
use a non-heat-treated nut. governing whether the bolt or nut fails first.
Threads-per-inch complicate the picture as fur-
Nut Stripping ther explained in the How Threads Affect
On tightening, a nut both compresses and Nut Strength section.
dilates. Dilation can only be overcome by wall
thickness, not by added height. When applying this to a possibility on the
production line, for example, when power
Nut dilation is important since a reduction in wrenching to excessively high loads, a fine
the thread flank contact area of the mating thread nut will generally strip before the bolt
bolt under tension also occurs. Threads pull breaks. In this instance, the nut locks and
away from each other from their stronger base the wrench “kicks out” with the result that
to weaker thread tips. For fine threads, the the installer can’t tell if the nut is stripped.
shallowness of the threads will also cause pro-
gressive shear. With a coarse thread nut at the same load,
the bolt would break, and need to be re-
That is why Heavy Hex Nuts (with coarse placed. To gain the benefits of this automatic
threads) are a better choice than High Nuts “inspection” technique, use coarse threads.
(with fine threads). Actual proof loads will be higher with better
reliability for critical joints.
Wrenching Stress
Nut rotation places both tension and torsion Nuts: Their Use & Abuse
in the mating bolt. The wrenching force apply-
ing this combined stress is about 20% greater Nut performance is critical when bolts are
than the load, which must be sustained when tightened to high load levels.
nut rotation stops.
Bolt tension is produced by a nut rotating
Thus, if a nut has not failed in wrenching, it and advancing on the bolt threads. To do this
can still withstand at least 20% more direct properly, there must be a mating condition of
pull than it sustained during tightening. threads, which is influenced by thread lead.
Thread lead is a matter of tolerance only be-
Should the Nut be able to Break fore the bolt is stressed. When tightened, the
the Bolt? nut is then under compression and its threads
tend to contract. Conversely, the bolt is in
Practically, the nut should be the strongest
tension and its threads tend to stretch. Thread
member of a bolted assembly. If suitably mated,
lead is affected - elastically before the yield
nut proof load will be rated equal to the mini-
point is reached, permanently beyond it.
mum ultimate tensile strength of the bolt.
This shortening of one lead thread and length-
Thus, with alloy bolts, such as those meeting ening of the other has two effects:
ASTM A-490 specifications, a 2H Nut is used. 1. Load is distributed unequally along
the threads
2. Bolt torsion increases
15
Deformation must occur, especially for high- Soft Nuts Do Most Jobs
tension bolts. In this case, it is better for the Soft Nuts adjust more readily than hard ones
nut to do so. As a result, a nut should be soft under severe loading conditions. While soft
enough to deform plastically and compensate nuts may not be as strong in shear as heat-
for off-lead threads. If it does, it distributes the treated nuts, they can pull the bolt well into its
load and can advance to increase tension. plastic range. However, nuts should be matched
according to the appropriate specification.

THREAD SELECTION

How Threads Affect Nut Strength 2. Nuts will dilate under load, shifting stress
toward the weaker tips.
Any nut should be able to withstand stripping
loads equal to the minimum ultimate tensile
Both reasons invite progressive shear.
strength of the bolt with which it is used.

Theoretically, the stress areas of fine thread

bolts should be stronger than coarse thread
bolts, however they are not. Failure by thread
stripping on a fine thread is a greater possibili-
ty for two reasons:
1. On a ½ in. diameter nut, 231% of the aver-
(0.1419 sq. in.) (0.1599 sq. in.) (0.1799 sq. in.)
age stress on all threads is concentrated on
the first fine thread, compared with 179% for
The point is shown in the three sketches.
the first coarse thread as shown in the
Assume a stress area of 0.1419 sq. in. for
following graph.
the coarse thread ½ in. diameter bolt. For a
Thread No. Thread No.
fine thread of equal diameter, the stress area
would be 0.1599 sq. in. and, theoretically, a
5 8 37%
½ in. diameter fastener could be made with
7 41% a still shallower thread with a stress area of
Stress on Threads

Stress on Threads

4
6 50% 0.1799 sq. in. Although this third fastener
5 65% would be the strongest, the threads would
3
4 87% quickly strip.
2 3 121%
Therefore, it is not a stress area, but the
2 168%
1
volume of thread metal remaining in actual
179% 1 231%
100%
engagement under load and the ability to
100%
Bearing Area distribute that load over all threads, will then
determine the stripping strength.
1/2-13 1/2-20
Coarse Fine

16
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

It is for this reason that SAE specifications for Another consideration is to look at threads as
¼ in. through 1 in. diameter Hex Nuts have a helical inclined plane. The longer the “in-
reduced the proof load of Grade 5 fine thread clined plane” thread contact area of mating
nuts to 109,000 psi, while their coarse thread thread members, the greater the distribution
counterparts remain at 120,000 psi. of load and the less stress concentration on
any individual thread section.
Engaged Thread Material
For this reason, nuts should be made from
Governs Strength
material that enables threads to “give” and
The thread profile is extremely important in thereby engage more thread material to carry
the ability of mating threads (nut and bolt) the load.
to take high thread tension loads without
stripping.
Coarse Threads vs. Fine Threads
The thread can be considered as a triangle
Thread load and stress concentrations are
of material with an apex and a root. There is
lower in standard coarse thread fasteners than
less material in the thread apex to sustain
in fine thread fasteners. Flank engagement is
a load.
also greater because coarse threads are deep-
Therefore, it is better to have more flank er. As a result, coarse threads are preferable to
engagement of threads than less (as long as fine threads except for applications where fine
the threads don’t bind). Flank engagement is adjustments are required. Coarse threads have
especially important since nuts tend to dilate greater resistance to striping and consequent-
under high loads. ly a greater portion of their strength goes into
making a stronger assembly.
Coarse threads offer more latitude and reli-
ability because greater flank engagement can Faster Assembly Time
be achieved as the following illustrates. Coarse thread fasteners tighten with only two-
thirds the revolutions needed for fine threads.
Fine Coarse This helps speed assembly time. Also, coarse
thread bolts enter nuts or mating holes with
less tendency to cross thread when not accu-
rately positioned. In hard-to-reach areas, this
ease of thread starting can be helpful. Another
Nut Nut
consideration is that coarse threads need less
handling care since they are less apt to be
damaged.

All in all, coarse threaded standard fasteners

are usually the best choice for an assembly
Thread Flank Engagement
because of their additional clamping strength
and the production savings they bring in assembly.

17
Stripping Strength vs. Tensile Strength When equally loaded, a bolt experiences the
same tension along its entire grip length. Ten-
If a long, threaded anchor or nut made from sion is the same at any cross-sectional plane.
Delrin® is mated to a steel screw and tensile Overloaded, the weakest area is the first to strain
tested, the screw will break before the plastic beyond its ultimate strength with the result that
nut strips. the bolt “necks” down and finally snaps.
This seems incredible when you consider
Thread tension causes a plastic adjustment of
that Grade 2 steel has seven times the tensile
the nut threads. Under tension, the bolt load
strength of Delrin®. A practical explanation is
distributes itself along the entire height of the
found in a study of thread geometry and
nut. Thus, shearing stress on an individual inter-
behavior under load.
nal thread is far less than on a plane across the
Break Location minor diameter of an external thread.
Bolts almost always break at an unengaged
That’s why, paradoxically, a nut of weaker materi-
thread root because this is the minor diameter
al can match the proof load of a stronger screw.
of the external thread and, therefore, the small-
A Delrin® nut cannot be torqued on a steel bolt
est cross section. It is the weakest link.
to any degree of tightness without failing. This
example shows the importance of the plastic
thread adjustment available with the use of a
softer nut.

LOCKING FASTENERS
Broad principles of locking fasteners are cov- Since these elements must be tight to lock,
ered in this section. For more complete infor- they get extra resistance to back-off from the
mation on the use of locking fasteners, please friction caused by thread tension.
check with a Supply Technologies technical
Below is an example of Free Spinning Locking
representative.
Fasteners:
Locking Power
The locking action of self-locking fasteners
depends on an increase in thread friction, an
integrated anchoring device, or both.

There are three basic types of Locking Fasteners:

1) Free Spinning
2) Prevailing Torque Resistance Thread tension (clamping
3) Prevailing Torque Chemical Reaction force) created when this face
bears down
Free Spinning Locking Fasteners turn easily
Flexing at concentric groove
until they begin to seat. Further tightening
brings the locking action into play. The locking
action is caused by pressure on the bearing Locking action by embedded
hardened teeth
surface of the fastener and the work being
held.
18
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

Prevailing Torque (PT) Resistance Fasteners Because of this, mechanical prevailing torque
develop resistance to back-off as soon as the elements will lose some of their holding power
friction device reaches the mating thread. The during and after initial assembly and tightening.
most common prevailing torque fasteners are The amount of performance drop-off from first
all-metal deflected thread, nylon insert, and assembly to subsequent reuse is a good mea-
nylon patch. All rely on the spring action of the sure of locking element reusability. Performance
locking device to develop prevailing torque. drop-off signifies the degree of prevailing
torque element wear and spring-back potential.
Prevailing torque screws utilize a deflected
external thread to create a friction lock. Specifications such as ASME B18.16.6,
IFI 100/107, and IFI 124/125 have been estab-
The pictures below reflect the various locking lished to measure performance capabilities of
mechanisms. competitive prevailing torque fasteners.
Where to use Locking Fasteners
Prevailing torque fasteners should be used in
assemblies where effective thread tension may
be overcome by a sustained vibratory force or
momentary shock overload. Experience has
shown that conventional fasteners perform
adequately in static joints and in some instances
may be suitable under limited dynamic conditions.
External Thread Deflection, Internal Thread
Deflection, and Nylon Patch/Inserts
Selecting the Right Prevailing Torque
(PT) Nut Grade
There are three basic inch and metric prevailing
torque nut grades manufactured in the United
Prevailing Torque Chemical Reaction Locking
States. Each grade has been developed for use
Fasteners use epoxy, glues, or resins to hold
with a specific grade of screw:
mating fasteners together with an adhesive
action. The chemicals may have separate Screw Grade Screw Grade
bands of adhesives and hardeners or the PT Nut Grade (Inch) PT Nut Grade (Metric)
A 2 PC5 PC5.8
hardener may be microencapsulated with the B 5 PC8 PC8.8
adhesive. Prevailing torque chemical reaction C 8 PC10 PC10.9
locking fasteners offer high breakaway torques
and minimal prevailing-on torque, but once Commercially available Grade A prevailing
dissembled, their locking device has limited torque nuts are not heat treated. Grade B pre-
reuse. vailing torque nuts may or may not be
heat treated (manufacturer’s option). Grade
Use and Reuse of Locking Fasteners C prevailing torque nuts are heat treated to
Importance of Locking Fastener Reuse achieve desired hardness and strength.
The frictional reaction between two loaded
and sliding surfaces will cause wear and a given
amount of permanent material deformation.

19
Prevailing Torque Nut Design Prevailing Torque Screws
Prevailing torque nuts are designed and manu- Strength grades and the producer’s identifica-
factured so their stress levels are best suited to tion appear on the heads of domestically made
the mating screw grade. Thread hardess, nut prevailing torque screws. See pages 7 and 8
body dilation, and friction element deflection for strength grade markings.
are key design factors in matching prevailing
torque nut and screw. Prevailing Torque Nuts
On prevailing torque nuts, the grade of nut
Prevailing Torque (PT) Nut Selection Critical must be identified by one of three different sets
An example of improper application would be of markings that denote the strength level and
to use a Grade A or B prevailing torque nut on manufacturer. Comparable screw grades are
a Grade 8 cap screw. Conversely, using a Grade shown below.
B or C prevailing torque nut on a Grade 2 cap Nut Screw
screw is a waste of money. In either example, Grade A Grade 2
improper stressing of one member (bolt or nut) Grade B Grade 5
Grade C Grade 8
will occur. In the first example, the Grade A
or Grade B prevailing torque nut will be over- The three common methods of identifying lock-
stressed if tightened with Grade 8 cap screw nuts are as follows:
torques. In the second example, the Grade B
or Grade C prevailing torque nut would over-
stress the Grade 2 cap screw if tightened to its B
full potential.

Of equal importance is the possible mismatch 60˚- 90˚ Included Angle

of material hardness between the screw mem-
Grade Identification Grade Identification Grade Identification
ber and friction element. Such a mismatch Grade A no marks Grade A no marks Grade A no notches
can cause exceptional wear to softer thread- Grade B three marks Grade B letter B Grade B
Grade C six marks Grade C letter C one circumferential
ed elements with a corresponding loss in nut notch
performance. Marks need not be Grade C
located at corners two circumferential
notches
Strength Identification
Importance of Breakloose Torque
It is necessary to know the strength of the
fastener prior to its application to ensure that The amount of torque required to start disas-
the friction producing element will work prop- sembly of an axially loaded fastener is called
erly when the fastener is loaded. From a cost the breakloose torque. Resistance to break-
standpoint, why pay for strength that is not loose torque is usually thought to be synony-
being used? From a strength standpoint, an mous with the preload in a bolted assembly.
inferior grade fastener could be subject to Under normal conditions, bolt preload is suf-
possible premature failure. ficient to maintain joint integrity. Normally the
torque required to loosen an assembly is less
Manufacturer Identification
than the torque required to tighten. The prim-
All domestic manufacturers identify their product
ary need then for any locking device is not only
by type and strength grade and by manufacturer.
to resist coming apart, but to increase the joint’s

20
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

resistance to initial loosening when joint integ- torque. The merits of breakaway torque are best
rity has been jeopardized. exemplified in assemblies where preload is not
allowed. Examples include most spring-loaded
In a good prevailing torque fastener, the ef-
assemblies, gasketed joints, and the adjustment
fective breakloose torque of the assembly is
of positioning assemblies.
increased by the added locking feature.
Breakaway Torque – For Joints Not Prevailing Off Torque – Last Line of Defense
Under Load Conventional bolt and nut assemblies are free
Any bolted assembly that is not under initial spinning. This means that the fastener will
preload, or has lost its preload, may start to assemble and disassemble without applying
disassemble when subjected to external dynamic torque. Prevailing torque is the amount of ro-
forces. The static torsional resistance to disas- tational force required to keep the fastener in
sembly in a non-axially loaded locking fastener motion during assembly or disassembly. The im-
is called breakaway torque. portance of prevailing off torque is resistance to
disassembly. It is the last line of defense against
Breakaway torque is normally less than break- separation of an assembled joint.
loose torque, but greater than prevailing

TAPPING SCREWS
Tapping screws are hardened screws that form full-length thread, and larger thread profile. Type
mating threads when driven into the material AB screws usually are recommended over Type A.
being jointed. They are available in a wide variety
of tapping styles, head styles, drives and locking
features.
Tapping styles can be grouped into three categories: (Type B)
• Thread-Forming Type B – has a finer thread pitch than Type A
• Thread-Cutting and a blunt point. Primarily used for light and
• Thread-Rolling heavy sheet metal, nonferrous castings, plastics,
resin-impregnated plywood, and compressed
Thread-Forming Screws compositions. Recommended for heavier mate-
rial thickness than Type AB because its gradual
Thread-Forming tapping screws are generally
point taper starts more easily than Type AB,
used in materials where large internal stresses are
which starts with a full thread diameter.
permissible or desirable to increase resistance to
loosening.

(Type AB)
(Type A) Type AB – has the thread pitch of Type B and
Type A – a spaced thread screw with a gimlet the gimlet point of Type A. Primarily used for
point. Primarily used in light sheet metal, res- thin sheet metal, resin-impregnated plywood,
in-impregnated plywood, or compressed compressed compositions, and nonferrous cast-
composition materials. Often used in place of ings. Recommended over Type A especially for
wood screws because of its quicker driving time, use in brittle materials such as plastics and zinc
die castings.
21
 Types BF and BT – are Type B tapping screws
with the addition of cutting edges and chip cav-
ities. Primarily used for materials such as plastics
(Type BP) and similar compositions.
Type BP – has a conical point. Primarily used for
piercing fabrics or in assemblies where holes
may be misaligned. Type AB screws are recom- “BF” “BT”
mended over Type BP.

Thread-Rolling Screws
High-performance thread-rolling screws are a
(Type C)
more sophisticated version of thread-forming tap-
Type C – has machine screw threads with a blunt
ping screws. Available in coarse or fine threads,
point and tapered entering threads. Primarily
thread-rolling screws overcome most problems
used to tap into thicker metallic sections than
encountered with other tapping screws. Types SF,
the Type AB thread series and where chips from
SW, and TT are described in published standards.
thread-cutting screws are objectionable. Ex-
treme driving torques may be required where
Compared with thread-forming and thread-cut-
long thread engagement is involved. As a result,
ting tapping screws, thread-rolling screws have
thread-rolling screws have frequently replaced
three advantages:
Type C screws for difficult applications.
1. Easier starting due to their unique points and
body configuration
Thread-Cutting Screws 2. Less driving torque required
3. The cold working of material during thread
Thread-cutting screws are used in materials
forming improves joint strength
where disruptive internal stresses are undesirable
or where excessive driving torques would be en-
countered if thread-forming screws were used.

Types D, F, G and T – have machine screw

“SF”
threads and diameter pitch combinations, blunt
point and tapered entering threads. The enter-
ing threads have one or more cutting edges and
chip cavities. Primarily used for aluminum, zinc,
or lead die castings, steel sheets and shapes, “SW”
cast iron, brass and plastics.

“D” “G”
“TT”

“F” “T”

22
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

Head Styles and Drives

Pan Head tapping screws are recommended Slotted Pan Head Hex Head
for most applications. Severe torque conditions
may dictate use of a drive such as Cross or
Six-Lobe or a Hex Head.
Cross-Recess Six-Lobe

BOLT INSTALLATION
Proper Loading of Bolts
Overtightening
The preload, or residual tension, in a tightened In a static (stationary or nonmoving) joint, a bolt
bolt means more to assembly strength than ac- can be tightened up to yield strength and beyond.
tual strength of the bolt itself. This is recommended for permanent connections.
In a joint, a bolt torqued to its proper load level When a fastener is tightened up to and beyond
can resist a maximum amount of external load its yield strength, pitch of the external threads
without loosening. Designers can take advan- increases as the screw stretches. Conversely,
tage of this fact to assure correct bolt loading pitch of the internal nut threads decreases.
and at the same time cut costs.
This results in a cumulative off-lead condition.
Example: One designer calculated that a partic- Normally it’s not practical to reuse a bolt and/or
ular truck frame needed high-strength bolts with nut stressed beyond its elastic limit.
a minimum ½ in. diameter bolts. He specified
⅝ in. diameter bolts. On the assembly line, Recommended stress levels for non-permanent
these bolts were torqued to 100 lb. ft., but a connections are as follows:
minimum 200 lb. ft. was required for proper Inch Metric
residual tension. Use of a ½ in. diameter bolt SAE Grade 2 – 40,000 psi PC5.8 – 285 MPa
at 100 lb. ft. would have provided a stronger Grade 5 – 60,000 psi PC8.8 – 450 MPa
assembly at less cost. Grade 8 – 90,000 psi PC10.9 – 620 MPa

Example: The bucket on earth moving equip- Although below yield strength, these levels
ment was always coming loose. To correct the are approximately 75% of the bolt’s proof load
problem the design engineer specified a 1¼ and provide a high preload for good assurance
in. diameter bolt, but to no avail. The impact against loosening and fatigue.
wrench used to assemble the joint was supply-
For structural steel connections, A325 bolts
ing far too little torque for this size fastener. A
(equivalent to SAE Grade 5) should be tightened
return to the original ¾ in. bolt assembled at
to proof load or beyond (85,000 psi up to 1 in.
350 lb. ft. torque solved the problem.
diameter 74,000 psi for 1⅛ to 1½ in. diameter
Assembled bolts are tightest when stressed as sizes). A490 bolts (equivalent to SAE Grade 8)
near as possible to their elastic limit. should be tightened beyond 120,000 psi.

Bolt Load Levels Always specify that the assembler torque a

fastener to achieve the recommended tension
Tightening a bolt beyond its proportional limit will (clamping load), not the torque level. Tension is
deform the bolt plastically. The stress level that caus- the usable “muscle.” Not used, money is being
es permanent set is called the bolt’s yield strength. wasted and the joint isn’t as strong as it should be.
23
Tighten Bolts to Yield Strength mean a safety factor of 4. The bolt must actually
be tightened to X 4 working load to get a safety
Bolts should be tightened to yield strength. factor of 4.
Here’s why:
Proof Stress Yield Strength The reason is that rigidly fastened members can
be loaded externally to the full value of residual
tension in bolts without any separation or signifi-
cant extra bolt stress.
Stress

Example: A bolt has been selected for a 5,000 lb.

working load. In order to obtain X 4 safety factor,
Strain it is necessary to use a 20,000 lb. capacity bolt
and tighten it to 20,000 lb. tension. If this bolt is
{

Permanent Set Residual Tension tightened to 10,000 lb., a larger external load will
cause loosening and progressive bolt failure from
Residual Tension FIGURE 1 fatigue. In reality, the safety factor is only X 2.

Up to proof stress, the strain in a bolt is propor- Assembly Important

tional to stress. Beyond the proof stress or elas- Safety factors then are not established on the
tic limit, the bolt goes into its “plastic range” drawing board. They can only be put into the
and some permanent stretch takes place (Fig.1). product by the person with the wrench. A bolt is
Although the bolt will not return to original no better than the supervision of its tightening.
length, the residual tension is almost fully main-
Flexible Joints
tained. This is the force that keeps a bolt tight
Flexible joints should just be tightened to their
and determines joint strength.
working load. Select a bolt capable of meeting the
Permanent
Stretch working load plus added stress multiplied by the
Starts Nut safety factor.
Here

Avoiding Bolt Failure under

Bolt Dynamic Loads
FIGURE 2 A dynamic loading in a tightened bolt may vary
from no stress at all to that exceeding bolt preload.
Permanent set starts at the section with the
highest unit stress, the unengaged threads The connecting rod in a reciprocating engine is a
(Fig. 2). Ultimately, this set throws thread pitch classic example of dynamic loading. However, such
off, locking the nut, and subjecting the bolt to cyclic stress is encountered wherever fastened
torsion (rather than further tightening). This force members move or vibrate.
disappears with wrench removal. Bolts can be
torqued well into their plastic range, provided It has been shown that when the fluctuating stress
they won’t be reused or need adjustment. approaches or exceeds actual bolt tension, early
fatigue failure can be expected.
Safety Factors
Demonstration
A bolt with a calculated yield strength of four In tests, bolts tightened to a 1,420 lb. tension and
times the working load does not automatically stressed cyclically to 9,215 lb. failed after 5,960

24
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

cycles. Identical bolts tightened to 8,420 lb. and Role of Friction in Fastening
cyclically stressed to the same 9,215 lb. went 4.65
Friction is both an asset and a detriment. Friction
million cycles before failure.
helps make a better joint but friction also compli-
If the bolts had been tightened beyond 9,215 lb., cates and varies the torque/tension relationship.
it would have been impractical to cycle them to
Fastener friction is no problem until high thread
failure.
tension is developed. Then friction becomes
To avoid fatigue failure, make sure bolt tension the major resistance to further rotation. Friction
exceeds the known or estimated maximum dy- occurs between head and bearing surfaces and
namic load. This way, the bolt’s life under dynamic between mating threads.
loading will approach its life under static loading.
Most of the torque required for fastening goes to
To avoid fastener failure, take advantage of the overcoming this torsional resistance; only a minor
high residual tension available in today’s high- part to increase tension.
strength bolts and screws.
Lubrication, either from plating or oil, changes
this ratio. That’s why the same torque values can’t
be used for dry, oiled, and plated fasteners. The
best approach is to test for the proper torque
with a pilot assembly to get full usable strength
from high-strength fasteners.
Make cer- Joint Friction
Bolt tain that
Tension In structural engineering, a friction-type joint is
bolt tension
exceeds one where bolts have been tightened to transfer
the the load from one connected member to the oth-
External er by friction, rather than by bearing on the bolts.
Load
In a friction joint, there is no slippage, no loosen-
ing. The full net section of the structural member
becomes available to support the shear load.

BOLT INSTALLATION – TORQUE

Fasteners take Greatest Stress The instant the load exceeds residual tension, addi-
during Wrenching tional stress is placed on the fastener that can cause
joint separation. These loads can cause loosening,
Two forces put stress on fasteners as they tighten: leading to stress change, which in turn causes de-
tension due to bolt stretch; torsion due to friction. layed or fatigue failure. This is why it is important to
However, only tension remains after wrenching. In a torque bolts tight and the tighter the better.
rigid joint, if this tension exceeds external forces, the
fastener will not experience further strain, and will A flexible joint is an exception. With high cyclic
therefore not loosen or fail. loading, loosening and fatigue cause trouble in a
flexible joint. Since a metal gasket should not be
Why Some Failures? tightened too much, sometimes the only remedy
Unusual and unforeseen loads can cause trouble. is to remove the flexible element and install a rigid
joint. (An example would be a metal-to-metal
25 flange connection instead of a gasketed one.)
Determining the Right Torque for Bolts The average deviation is about 7%. When conditions
are “normal” the only sure way to check torque is to
“What is the right torque for bolts?” is a tough ques- set up a pilot assembly and try it out.
tion. There are too many variable conditions. The
following may help: In pilot testing for rigid joints, first tighten a few
bolts with the torque wrench to failure. Then set the
Bolts take two stresses during wrenching: torsion and torque at 60% of that load, or even at yield strength,
tension. Correct tension is the goal. Torsion is a nec- since the torsion component vanishes when tighten-
essary evil due to friction. Probably 90% of applied ing ceases leaving the bolt under tension only (which
torque goes to overcome friction. is well below ultimate strength). Torque is the vehicle
to create bolt tension.
With the friction factor changed by lubrication, plat-
ing, etc., it is hard to determine the torque needed The graphs on pages 26 and 27 suggest torque for
to produce a given tension. However, a useful empir- various size bolts. Remember, these curves are only
ical formula exists for normal friction conditions. starting points in determining proper torque-tension
Lb.-In. Torque = relationships. (Note: The break in Grade 2 torque
0.2 x Bolt Diameter x Bolt Tension between the ¾ in. and ⅞ in. diameters reflects the
drop in the proof load specification from 55,000 psi
Tests show that the 0.2 torque coefficient is approx- to 33,000 psi.)
imately constant for normal friction conditions, all
fastener diameters, and for coarse or fine threads.

Bolt Diameter Graph-Inches ¼” through 1”

E8
1 DE
5 GRAD
GRA

7/8
2
DE
GRA
Bolt Diameter (Inches)

3/4

5/8

1/2
7/16
5
3/8 DE
2 GRA E8
5/16 A DE GRAD
GR
1/4
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Nominal Torque at 75% Rated Proof Load

Solid lines are in Ft-Lbs Dashed lines are in In-Lbs

26
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

Metric Bolt Intallation Torque M6 through M12

130
s
120

110

100

90 n
80
Torque (Nm)

70 s
60
u
50 n
40 s
30
u
n
20
s u
10 n
u
0
6 8 10 12

Thread Size (mm)

u PC5.8 n PC8.8 s PC10.9

Metric Bolt Intallation Torque M14 through M27

1600
s
1400

1200
n
s
1000
Torque (Nm)

800
s n
u
600 s n
s n u
400
n
u
s u
200 s n u
n u
u
0
14 16 18 20 22 24 27

Thread Size (mm)

u PC5.8 n PC8.8 s PC10.9

27
Bolt Tension from “Turn-of-Nut” Method proof load, or beyond, into the bolt’s plastic range.
The significance?
Product designers think in terms of torque when
specifying how much to preload a bolt. The “Turn-of-Nut” method results in a safe, strong
joint because it eliminates the effect of variation in
Structural steel fabricators customarily use the coefficient of friction due to presence or absence of
“Turn-of-Nut” method. lubrication on threads or bearing surfaces.
To understand the “Turn-of-Nut” method, first con- “Turn-of-Nut” Method
sider that within its elastic limit, a steel bolt stretched
Position mark on
0.001 in. for each inch of grip length is loaded to work surface
30,000 psi. Position mark on nut

As the nut advances, the bolt is stretched and loaded

in tension. Since thread pitch is fixed, an increment of
nut turn from the snug tight position produces a fixed
increment in tension. Coarse thread nuts need less Position mark on nut
turning than fine thread nuts since they have fewer Step 1: Tighten nut to snug fit
threads per inch. Step
2: Turn nut additional ⅓ turn (for bolts up to
4 diameters long, bearing faces normal to
In steel structures, nuts are coarse thread exclusively. bolt axes). Use ½ turn for bolts 4 to 8
They are wrenched from ⅓ to 1 full turn (depending on diameters and ⅔ turn for bolts 8 to
length of bolt) to load the bolt to 100% of its 12 diameters.

CORROSION RESISTANCE
Fasteners must be coated or made from a cor- conversion finishes promise increased protection
rosion-resistant metal to stand up in a corrosive from organic coatings.
environment.
Corrosion Resistant Metals
Metallic Coatings Stainless steel, aluminum, and silicon bronze
Outdoor corrosion resistance can be improved offer distinct advantages in given corrosive
by electroplating or galvanizing the fastener. environments.
Mechanical or hot dip galvanizing processes
offer much thicker zinc coatings than commercial Silicon bronze is popular for electrical uses due
electroplated zinc, hence, they have greater re- to its unusual strength and resistance to stress
sistance to atmospheric corrosion. They usually corrosion.
cost more than the electroplate. Specific cor-
Aluminum fasteners offer lightweight as well
rosion conditions may require other metallic or
as excellent conductivity. Anodizing improves
bi-metallic, coatings such as zinc nickel.
aluminum’s corrosion resistance and permits the
Organic Coatings use of various colors.
Corrosion resistance can also be increased Widely used for fasteners, the 300 Series stain-
through the application of organic coatings, less steels assure good strength and excellent
usually phosphate and oil. Results can match corrosion resistance in most atmospheres.
those of electroplated metallic finishes for many
service conditions. Recent developments of
28
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

Fastener Coatings Effect of Plating on Thread Fits

Salt spray tests of the various metallic coat- With respect to thread geometry, one unit
ings used on fasteners do not always give a of plating thickness on screw thread flanks
true picture. In actual service, accelerated test will add X 4 that ‘thickness’ dimension to the
results are not always borne out. The reason is screw’s pitch diameter.
that tests can only approximate, but not dupli-
cate, atmospheric or service conditions. Illustration: The standard and minimum
0.00015 in. of plating “t” adds 0.0006 in. or
Organic and inorganic coating can be low more to the screw pitch diameter “D.”
chrome or no chrome, while providing excel-
lent corrosion resistance. t

Mechanical galvanizing offers great endurance

under most conditions, followed by hot-dip
galvanizing.
D D+
4t
Electrodeposited zinc is the next most prac-
tical, providing good appearance, controlled
tolerance at threads, and ability to take high
bolt tensions.

Where appearance is secondary, phosphate

Moreover, because of plating both character-
and oil coating offer protection under relative-
istics, the average deposit varies from thread
ly severe conditions. For general applications,
tips to roots. On long fasteners, plate build-up
the rust prevention of black oxide coatings
is thicker at ends and thinner towards the mid-
generally proves satisfactory.
length, adversely affecting the screw’s starting
Various conversion coatings are available threads.
which tend to extend the life of zinc and phos-
phate finishes. Specifying heavier-than-normal plating for
threaded fasteners can make assembly diffi-
Chromium should be considered more for ap- cult, even impossible, unless special undercut
pearance but does offer extended protection. threads are specified.

RoHS, REACH, and other environmental reg- Gaging Procedures

ulations restricting the use of certain heavy Thread limits for standard external thread
metals, carcinogens, and other chemicals Class 2A, apply prior to coating. Threads after
persistent in the environment (i.e. hexavalent plating or coating should go into a Class 3A
chromium, cadmium, etc.) need to be consid- GO thread gage and must not go into a class
ered before selecting a surface finish. 2A minimum material or NO GO gage to
assure ease of assembly with mating parts.
However, if the plated or unplated screw will
enter a Class 2A NO GO gage, it should be
rejected. Its entry indicates excessive coating
or plating or there is insufficient thread depth
to develop full strength of the fastener.

29
Stainless Steel Fasteners cal in the stainless steel group but are generally
used where corrosion-resistance requirements
Stainless steels are iron alloys containing from
are not severe.
12% to 30% chromium and from 0% to 20%
nickel. All stainless steels are not alike, some 300 Series
will corrode where others will not. Sometimes called 18-8 stainless (18% chromium
They also vary in strength, in temperature 8% nickel) the 300 Series of alloys offers the
resistance, and in workability. In turn, fasteners highest degree of corrosion resistance. 300 Se-
made from them vary, depending on the type ries stainless steels work-harden rapidly, which
of stainless steel used. greatly reduces tool and die life.

400 Series The choice of a stainless material should be

Steels in this group are straight chromium based on the application. Be sure to specify
types. All are magnetic. Some are heat treat- the grade or the service requirement, not just
able, others are not. They can be cold formed “stainless.”
and cold worked with good results. Due to their low carbon content, 300 Series
Fasteners made from these steels are easier to stainless steel cannot be heat treated to improve
head and thread. They are the most economi- strength.

METRIC FASTENERS
The International Organization for Standardiza- Metric Fasteners
tion (ISO) has created the most commonly used Language is based on the existing comprehen-
metric fastener standards worldwide. sive SI (International System of Units) Metric
System. Metric units for measurement of
fasteners are shown in the table below.

Fastener Quantities and their

Metric Units of Measurement
Quantity Unit of Measurement Symbol
Area square millimeter mm2
Density kilograms per kg/m3
cubic meter
Force kilonewton (1) kN
Length millimeter mm
Mass (weight) kilogram (2) kg
Plane angle degree ˚
Plating thickness micrometer µm
Stress (pressure) megapascal (3) (4) MPa
Surface finish micrometer µm
Temperature degree Celsius ˚C
Time second s
Torque newton-meter Nm
Volume (6) cubic millimeter mm3
30
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

Metric Fasteners
The table below compares the Unified-Inch and
Metric Diameter-pitch combinations:

Unified-Inch and Metric Compared

Unified-Inch
Screw Thread
Coarse Fine Standard
Major Thread
Nom. Threads/ Nom. Threads/ Dia. Pitch
Size (in.) Size (in.) (mm) (mm)
— — 0 -80 M1.6x0.35
1 -64 1 -72 —
2 -56 2 -64 M2x0.4
3 -48 3 -56 M2.5x0.45
4 -40 4 -48 —
5 -40 5 -44 M3x0.5
6 -32 6 -40 M3.5x0.6
8 -32 8 -36 M4x0.7
10 -24 10 -32 M5x0.8
12 -24 12 -28 —
1/4 -20 1/4 -28 M6.3x1
5/16 -18 5/16 -24 M8x1.26
3/8 -16 3/8 -24 M10x1.5
7/16 -14 7/16 -20 —
1/2 -13 1/2 -20 M12x1.75
9/16 -12 9/16 -18 M14x2
5/8 -11 5/8 -18 M16x2
3/4 -10 3/4 -16 —
7/8 -9 7/8 -14 M20x2.5
1 -8 1 -12 M24x3
1-1/8 -7 1-1/8 -12 —
1-1/4 -7 1-1/4 -12 M30x2.5
1-3/8 -6 1-3/8 -12 M33x3.5
1-1/2 -6 1-1/2 -12 M36x4
— — — —
1-3/4 -5 — M42x4.5
— — — —
2 -4-1/2 — M48x5
2-1/4 -4-1/2 — M56x5.5
2-1/2 -4 — M64x6
2-3/4 -4 — —
3 -4 — M72x6
3-1/4 -4 — M80x6
3-1/2 -4 — —
3-3/4 -4 — M90x6
4 -4 — M100x6

31
Metric screw thread pitch sizes fall in between the concept for inch fasteners has been replaced in
coarse and fine thread series of the Inch System. metric by “boundary profiles for gaging.”

All metric thread dimensions are referenced from Materials and Mechanical Specifications
the major diameter instead of the pitch diameter Shown below are seven metric material property
used in the inch series. The “thread limits of size” classes for bolt products and four for nuts.

Metric Property Classes

BOLTS, SCREWS, AND STUDS
Nominal Proof Tensile Rockwell
Property SAE dia. load strength hardness
Class Grade(1) (mm) (MPa) (min. MPa) min. max.

4.6 1 M5 thru M36 225 400 B67 B100

4.8 – M1.6 thru M16 310 420 B71 B100

5.8 2 M5 thru M24 380 520 B82 B100

8.8 5 M16 thru M36 600 830 C24 C34

9.8(2) – M1.6 thru M16 650 900 C27 C36

10.9 8 M5 thru M36 830 1040 C33 C39

12.9 – M1.6 thru M36 970 1220 C39 C44

HEX NUTS
Nominal Proof Mating bolt Rockwell
Property SAE dia. load and screw hardness
Class(3) Grade(1) (mm) (MPa) class min. max.

5 2 M5 thru M36 225 5.8, 4.8, C30 max

4.6
8 5 M5 thru M7 855 8.8, 5.8, B92, C31
M8 thru M10 870 4.8
M11 thru M16 880
M17 thru M39 920 B98, C37

9 – M1.6 thru M14 900 9.8, 8.8, B89, C30

M5 thru M24 990 5.8, 4.8
M16 thru M36 910

10(2) 8 M5 thru M36 1040 10.9, 9.8, C26, C36

8.8
1) To be used for guidance purposes only in selecting metric property classes.
2) This class is actually 9% stronger than SAE Grade 5 and ASTM A449.
3) Property Classes 5 & 9 are low carbon steel, not heat-treated. Property Class 10 is medium carbon
steel, heat-treated.

32
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

English/Metric Conversions

To convert English and Metric units use the following factors:
English Abbre- Conversion Conversion English
Quantity
Quantity Unit Unit
English viation
Abbrev Factor
ConvFactor MetricUnit
Metric Unit Symbol
Symbol Factor
Factor Unit
Unit
Length Inch in x 25.4* = millimetre mm x 0.039370 = in

2 2 2
Area Square Inch in x 645.16* = square millimetre mm x 0.001550 = in
3 3 3
Volume Cubic Inch in x 16387.064* = cubic millimetre mm x 0.000061 = in

Mass (weight) Pounds lb x 0.453592 = kilogram kg x 2.20462 = lb

Force Pounds (force) lbf x 4.44822 = Newton N x 0.224809 = lbf

Torque Pound-feet lb-ft x 1.35582 = Newton-metre Nm x 0.737562 = lb-ft

Stress Pounds per sq. in. psi x 0.006895 = megapascal MPa x 145.038 = psi

Temperature ˚Fahrenheit ˚F x 5/9 (˚F-32) = ˚Celsius ˚C x 1.8˚C + 32 = ˚F

Conversion Table: Inches-Millimeters

2.5
3

3.5 16

20

6.3 24

30
8 36

10

12

Bold Face = Standard metric diameters

33
GLOSSARY
Bearing Surface – Refers to the area of a fastener that contacts the mating surface, such as the area under the head on a
bolt or screw. Externally threaded and internally threaded fasteners both typically have a bearing surface.
Blank – A section of metal that has been cut off from a larger section or coil of metal. A blank refers to the section of metal
that undergoes a cold forming process.
Blow – Refers to the action of a punch applying a force to a blank as a step in the cold forming process. The number of
blows refers to the number of times a force is applied to the blank.
Breakaway Torque – The static torsional resistance of a threaded fastener to disassemble in the absence of any amount of
clamp load.
Breakloose Torque – The amount of rotational force required to overcome clamp load and reverse the rotation of a thread-
ed fastener that is in the seated, clamped, or tightened position.
Coating – A finishing process of applying a product to the surface of a part by adhesion, such as paint. It may also refer to
the actual product that is applied to a surface rather than the process of applying that product.
Coil / Wire – A long, round section of metal that is looped and bent into a coil shape to be used as the raw material for cold
forming processes.
Cold Forming – Any process that involves permanently deforming a section of unheated metal. Cold forming includes cold
heading, upsetting, extruding, piercing, trimming, point rolling, and thread rolling among other operations.
Cold Heading – A process that involves applying a force to a section of unheated metal that is beyond that metal’s elastic
limit causing permanent plastic deformation of the metal. Cold heading typically refers to decreasing the length and increas-
ing the diameter of the metal as is done when the head of a bolt is created.
Conversion Coating – A secondary electro-chemical process that creates an additional layer on top of an electroplated
finish. They are typically used to extend the life of metallic plating and thus the overall life of the base part. Conversion coat-
ings may also be used for decorative purposes, conductivity, or as an adhesion promoter or to optimize the torque tension
relationship.
Deform Plastically – See “Plastic Deformation.”
Delrin® – A brand name for a type of low-friction, high-wear acetal plastic.
Die – A high strength metal device used inside cold forming machines to control the shape of the blank as it is deformed.
A punch applies a force to the metal blank and the blank expands until it fills a void within a die.
Elastic Deformation / Limit – The movement of a material occurring due to a force being applied to that material in which
the material movement completely reverts if the force is removed. Elastic deformation is not permanent, and the material’s
original shape is unchanged once that force is removed. This is referred to as the Elastic Limit of the material.
Electroplate – A finishing process of using chemicals and an electrical charge to cause a thin metallic layer to bond to the
exterior surface of another metallic part. Zinc electroplate and galvanizing are examples of electroplated finishes.
Embossing – The process of forming raised or recessed areas on the surface of a material.
External Wrenching / Drive – Fasteners that require the installation force to be applied to the outermost surface of the
fastener, such as a bolt with a hex head or a nut that is hex-shaped.
Extrude – To permanently deform a material by increasing the length and decreasing the diameter of that material by
pushing or pulling it through a die.
Finish – A thin chemical layer that is applied to the surface of a part. Finishes are applied for decorative, protective, perfor-
mance, or other purposes.
Former – Refers to a machine that permanently deforms an unheated section of metal in any manner.
Grade / Property Class – A system of defining the material properties of a fastener. “Grade” refers to imperial fasteners
whereas “class” refers to metric fasteners. A grade or class rating defines what type of material is used, any heat treat re-
quirements, and final strength requirements among other criteria.
Grip Length – The maximum length, or thickness, of material that can be successfully held together without compromising
the integrity of the joint.
Hardened – A material that has undergone a heat treat process and now has an increased hardness as a result of the heat
treat process.
Header – Refers to the machine that performs the cold heading process. This machine uses a punch to apply a force to the
end of an unheated metal blank contained within a die.

34
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application

Heat Treating – A group of industrial, thermal, and metalworking processes used to alter the physical, and sometimes
chemical, properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical. Fastener heat treating is typically
done within an open-flame furnace and includes any necessary quenching and tempering post-processes.
Internal Wrenching / Drive – Fasteners that require the installation force to be applied to an internal recess in the end
of a fastener, such as a screw with a Torx®, Phillips®, or slotted recess.
Machining – The process of using a machine to cut away material, such as drilling, milling, and lathe cutting among other processes.
Major Diameter – The largest circumscribing circle created by a threaded product, such as the diameter created by the thread
crest of an externally threaded part or the thread root of an internally threaded part.
Minor Diameter – The smallest circumscribing circle created by a threaded product, such as the diameter created by the thread
root of an externally threaded part or the thread crest of an internally threaded part.
Non-Standard Part / Special Part – A part that does not comply to a standard. The requirements for such a part are defined by
the purchaser or end-user.
Pitch Diameter – A circumscribing circle created by calculated points on a threaded product that is halfway between the minor
and major diameter of that threaded product.
Plastic Deformation – The movement of a material occurring due to a force being applied to that material in which the material
movement becomes permanent after the force is removed. Plastic deformation is permanent, and the original shape of the material
is changed once that force is removed.
Preload – The amount of tension within a fastener as a result of being installed or assembled.
Prevailing Off Torque – The amount of rotational force required to keep a fastener in motion during disassembly in the absence
of any amount of clamp load.
Prevailing Torque – The frictional resistance of a threaded joint during rotation in either the installation or removal cycle which
does not produce or remove clamp load or bolt stretch. Typically utilized with locknuts or lock patches to resist loosening of the joint.
Proof Load – The maximum amount of stress that can be applied to a material without causing that material to experience plastic
deformation.
Property Class – See “Grade / Property Class.”
Salt Spray Test – The process of continuous exposure of ferrous metal to saline solution for the purpose of determining how
long the finish will last before the conversion coating, base finish or both break down, and red oxidation/rust first starts to visibly
appear on the ferrous material. Salt spray testing is specified as a number of hours to white corrosion, which occurs when the zinc
base finish begins to oxidize, and/or to a number of hours to red corrosion, which is when the zinc base finish breaks down and
the ferrous base metal oxidizes/rusts. White oxidation will always appear prior to red oxidation. The process requirements for salt
spray testing are defined within globally accepted standards, ASTM B117 being one of the most common. Salt spray testing is not
just for zinc coatings.
Shank – The unthreaded section of a bolt or cap screw.
Special Part – See “Non-Standard Part.”
Standard Part – A part, or fastener, that is compliant to a standard. Most readily available fasteners are compliant to a standard,
however not all parts defined by a standard are readily available.
Standards – Documents produced by an organization that define the requirements of a part and/or process. Standards are used
to define dimensional, material, finish, and inspection requirements of fasteners among many other processes.
Tap / Tapping – The process of cutting threads into a material to form internal threads.
Thread Lead – The amount of overlapping material between two mating internally threaded and externally threaded fasteners.
Trim / Trimming – The process of creating a desired shape on a section of material after that material is headed (diameter is
increased, length is decreased). Typically, a trimming operation is performed on a section of material that was not contained within
a die and has an undefined or “free-flow” shape (i.e. the hex on a bolt head).
Ultimate Tensile Strength – The maximum amount of stress a material can withstand without fracture.
Upset – The process of applying an axial force to a material that causes the material to expand in a cold forming process. It may
also refer to the section of material that has been expanded.
Wire – See “Coil.”
Yield Strength – The stress required to cause plastic deformation of a material.

35
NOTES
HELPFUL HINTS
For Fastener Design and Application
 Interesting Nostalgia
We Would Like to Share:

Park Ohio purchased Russell, Burdsall, & Ward

(RB&W) Manufacturing and Distribution in
1995. After this purchase, Park Ohio changed
the RB&W Logistics name to Integrated Logis-
tics Solutions (ILS) which was later rebranded
as Supply Technologies. RB&W’s roots go back
to 1845.

In 1876, RB&W’s fastener manufacturing skills

were featured at the Centennial International
Exposition of 1876, the official First World’s Fair
in Philadelphia. This Fastener Display was in
the Machinery Hall – the second largest struc-
ture at the Exposition. The exhibits in this hall
focused on machines and evolving industries.
The United States of America took up two-thirds
of the exhibit space. The Machinery Hall had
8,000 operating machines and was filled with
a wide assortment of hand tools, machine
tools, material-handling equipment, and the
latest fastener technology.

A replica of this display can be seen at the

Corporate Headquarters of Park Ohio and
Supply Technologies in Cleveland, Ohio. The
original one remains with the Smithsonian.

www.supplytechnologies.com
 Enabling manufacturers to build their
products better, smarter, and faster
than ever before.

6065 Parkland Blvd., Cleveland, OH 44124

A ParkOhio Company
Cleveland, Ohio USA
NASDAQ Symbol PKOH

P: +1 440.947.2100 www.supplytechnologies.com marketing@supplytechnologies.com

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