BS

COASTAL AQUACULTURE
AND MARICULTURE
SUBJECT CODE- FSAQ 2204

SCHOOL OF FISHERIES
B.F.Sc.
 Coastal aquaculture and mariculture (FSAQ 2204)
Theory class course outline
Clas Topics & sub-
s topics
1 An overview of sea farming and shore-based aquaculture in different
parts of the world
2 Resources for shore-based aquaculture and sea farming in India- seed
resources
3 Shore based aquaculture system
 Traditional (pokkali, bheries, gazanis, khazans),
4 Traits of important cultivable fish – Sea bass
 Taxonomic position
 Habitat, Distribution
 Salient features and Biology (Food and feeding habits and
 Reproductive behaviors
5 Culture practices of Sea bass
 Nursery and grow-out management ( Feeding strategy, growth
monitoring, soil and water quality mgt)
 Harvest & Economics
6 Traits of important cultivable fish – Mullets
 Taxonomic position,
 Habitat, distribution,
 Salient features and Biology (Food and feeding habits)
 Reproductive behaviours)
7 Culture practices of Mullets
 Nursery and grow-out management ( Feeding strategy, growth
monitoring, soil and water quality mgt)
 Harvest and Economics
8 Traits of important cultivable fish – Milk fish
 Taxonomic position,
 Habitat, Distribution,
 Salient features and Biology (Food and feeding habits) and
 Reproductive behaviours
9 Culture practices of Milk fish
 Nursery and grow-out management
 Feeding strategy
 growth monitoring
 soil and water quality mgt),
 Harvest and Economics
10 Traits of important cultivable fish – Groupers
 Taxonomic position
 Habitat and Distribution
 Salient features and Biology (Food and feeding habits)
 Reproductive behaviours)
11 Culture practices of Groupers-
 Nursery and grow-out management ( Feeding strategy, growth
monitoring, soil and water quality mgt)
 Harvest and Economics
12 Traits of important cultivable fish – Cobia
 Taxonomic position,
 Habitat, Distribution,
 Salient features and Biology (Food and feeding habits)
 Reproductive behaviours)
13 Culture practices of Cobia
 Nursery and grow-out management ( Feeding strategy, growth
monitoring, soil and water quality mgt)
 Harvest, Economics
14 Traits of important cultivable fish – Pearl spot
 Taxonomic position,
 Habitat, Distribution,
 Salient features and Biology (Food and feeding habits)
 Reproductive behaviours
15 Culture practices of Pearl spot
 Nursery and grow-out management ( Feeding strategy, growth
monitoring, soil and water quality mgt)
 Harvest, Economics
16 Traits of important cultivable fish – Snappers
 Taxonomic position
 Habitat, Distribution
 Salient features and Biology (Food and feeding habits)
 Reproductive behaviours
17 Culture practices of Snappers
 Nursery and grow-out management ( Feeding strategy, growth
monitoring, soil and water quality mgt)
 Harvest, Economics
18 Traits of important cultivable fish – Pearl spot
 Taxonomic position
 Habitat, Distribution
 Salient features and Biology (Food and feeding habits)
 Reproductive behaviours
19 Culture practices of Pearl spot
 Nursery and grow-out management ( Feeding strategy, growth
monitoring, soil and water quality mgt)
 Harvest, Economics
20 Traits of important cultivable fin fish – Tiger shrimp
 Taxonomic position
 Habitat, Distribution
 Salient features and Biology (Food and feeding habits)
 Reproductive behaviours
21 Culture practices of Tiger shrimp
 Nursery and grow-out management ( Feeding strategy, growth
monitoring, soil and water quality mgt)
 Harvest, Economics
22 Traits of important cultivable fin fish – White shrimp i.e P. indicus
 Taxonomic position
 Habitat, Distribution

 Salient features and Biology (Food and feeding habits)

 Reproductive behaviours

23 Culture practices of P. indicus

 Nursery and grow-out management ( Feeding strategy, growth
monitoring, soil and water quality mgt)
 Harvest, Economics
24 Traits of important cultivable fin fish – White shrimp i.e L. venamei
 Taxonomic position
 Habitat, distribution,
 salient features and Biology (Food and feeding habits) and
 Reproductive behaviours
25 Culture practices of L. venamei
 Nursery and grow-out management ( Feeding strategy, growth
monitoring, soil and water quality mgt)
 Harvest, Economics
26 Traits of important cultivable fin fish – Mud crabs
 Taxonomic position
 Habitat, Distribution
 Salient features and Biology (Food and feeding habits) and
 Reproductive behaviours)
27 Culture practices of Mud crabs
 Nursery and grow-out management ( Feeding strategy, growth
monitoring, soil and water quality mgt)
 Harvest, Economics
28 Traits of important cultivable fin fish – mussel, clam and oysters (edible and
pearl oyster)
 Taxonomic position
 Habitat, Distribution
 Salient features and Biology (Food and feeding habits) and
 Reproductive behaviours
29 Culture practices of mussel, clam and oysters (edible and pearl oyster)
 Nursery and grow-out management ( Feeding strategy, growth
monitoring, soil and water quality mgt)
 Harvest, Economics
30 Traits of important cultivable fin fish – i. e. Lobsters
  Taxonomic position
 Habitat, Distribution
 Salient features and Biology (Food and feeding habits)
 Reproductive behaviours
31 Culture practices of Lobsters
 Nursery and grow-out management ( Feeding strategy, growth
monitoring, soil and water quality mgt)
 Harvest, Economics
32 Water and soil quality management & Estimation of growth, survival and
pond
productivity

33 Methods of Shellfish Culture

 Rafts,
 Racks,

 Cages,
 Poles
 Ropes

34 Seaweed culture – Common spp.

 Importance
 Methods of culture
 Economics
35 Sea ranching
 Need
 Protocol and monitoring
 Impact assessment,
 Case studies
COASTAL AQUACULTURE AND MARICULTURE
SUBJECT CODE-FSAQ2204

1. Lesson-1
Shore based aquaculture
1.1 Sea farming and shore based aquaculture
"Aquaculture" is the farming of aquatic organisms, including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and
aquatic plants. Farming implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance
production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, health management,
genetic improvement etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock
being cultivated (FAO definition of aquaculture).
"Coastal aquaculture" is the farming of aquatic organisms in land-based facilities such as , ponds,
tanks, pens etc. in the coasts using brackish or salt water. It is also known as ‘shore based
aquaculture’.
“Mariculture” or " sea-farming" is the term used for farming of aquatic organisms in the open
sea, away from the shore, mainly in cages (fish and crustaceans) or using rafts or long-lines (for
molluscs and seaweeds).
1.2 Marine finfish Seed
stock production
Hatcheries are producing greater numbers and a wider range of marine finfish species, but the
industry is still heavily reliant on capture of fingerlings for grow- out, particularly for species
that are difficult or costly to raise in hatcheries, such as grouper or Napoleon wrasse or for which
there is no established hatchery technology, such as tunas .
In general, the availability of seed from wild sources is in decline through over- fishing and
habitat destruction . Consequently, there is a need to develop sustainable technologies for seed
production, particularly hatchery production.
Hatcheries range in size and technology. In Asia there has been considerable development of
small-scale or backyard hatcheries that have only a couple of larval rearing tanks. These
hatcheries use basic but effective techniques to produce large numbers of seed stock of a range of
marine finfish species.
Traditionally, much of their production has been of milkfish, but production is diversifying to
include more difficult to rear species such as groupers .
At the other end of the spectrum are the large technology-dependent hatchery systems that have
been developed in Australia and Japan. Much of the hatchery technology in use in Australia has
been adopted from Europe and modified to meet local conditions . A major focus in developing
hatchery technology in Australia in particular is the need to reduce labour inputs because of high
labour costs.
Taiwan PC has established itself as a major seed stock production centre for the Asia-Pacific
region, with around 1 000 farms involved in producing fry and juvenile marine finfish . Marine
finfish production in Taiwan PC is typified by highly specialized production sectors: e.g. one
farm may produce eggs from captive brood stock, a second will rear the eggs, a third may rear
the juveniles through a nursery phase (to 3–6 cm TL) and a fourth will grow the fish to market
size .
Nursery
There is substantial mortality of juvenile seed stock captured from the wild . Cannibalism among
hatchery-reared juveniles is a major cause of losses in many species. Transportation of
fingerlings also results in losses.
Grow-out technology
Grow-out technology employed in the Asia-Pacific region ranges from small floating or fixed
cages used by small family-run operations, to extremely large cages (15x15x15 m) used for
amberjack grow-out in Japan or 30–50 m diameter circular cages used for southern bluefin tuna
grow-out in Australia.
Much of the marine finfish aquaculture production in the Asia-Pacific region is from small to
medium-scale farms. Many farms use relatively simple technologies, with wooden or bamboo
cages and plastic barrels or polystyrene blocks to provide buoyancy. However, Japan and
Australia in particular use larger and more sophisticated cage systems. In the case of Australia,
these are based on European technologies. The traditional Asian cage system is suited to
sheltered inshore waters.
As coastal sites have become increasingly crowded, several countries have begun to adopt cage
designs that can withstand more open water. These offshore cages have been based on Japanese
and European designs. The ability to site farms in more open water has opened up more coastal
area for farming.
A major issue regarding the continued proliferation of marine finfish aquaculture in the Asia-
Pacific region is the environmental impact of such operations. Although there is now a good
understanding of the environmental impacts of cage aquaculture in temperate environments,
there has been relatively little work done in tropical systems.
2. Lesson -2
Important trait of Grey mullet
2.1 Introduction
Grey mullets are important cultivable fishes in brackish water ponds. Their culture dates back to
ancient times. Egyptians had devised their culture methods about 2500 years ago. In Rome,
mullet culture was profitably practiced since the first century.
Grey mullets are suitable for farming because they are herbivores and detritivores, feeding low in
the trophic level. They require less supplementary feed. They are tolerant to higher temperatures
and salinities, hence can be grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas. They are generally
polycultured with other fish and shrimps.
Distinctive characteristics
Grey mullets belong to the family Mugilidae. They have a broad and flattened head, a small and
terminal mouth, two short dorsal fins and they are devoid of a lateral line. When alive they have
blue, green or olive colorations on the back. The sides and belly are silvery and body has 3-9
longitudinal streaks. Among the 14 species only some are cultivable. Mugil cephalus is the
fastest growing larger sized mullet which is very widely distributed in the tropics and the
subtropics. Other important cultivable species are Liza macrolepis and Liza tade.
Mugil cephalus has a robust body and fatty tissue covering most of the eye.
The lips are thin, the lower one having a high knob on the symphusis. There are 6- 7 indistinct
brown bands down the flanks and a dark purple blotch at the base of the pectoral fin. This fish
grows to a maximum size of 90 cm, but the common sizes range from 35 – 45 cm.
Liza macrolepis has a moderately robust body and the fatty tissue is only in the from of a rim
around the eye. The body does not have nay bands or stripes. It grows to a maximum size of 60
cm, with common sizes ranging from 25-30 cm.
In Liza tade the body is slender and elongate. The head is depressed and elongated. In adults 5-7
indistinct longitudinal marks are present on the upper half of the body.
Biology
Majority of grey mullets are marine, inhabiting shallow areas of the sea. Since they are highly
eruyhaline and eurythermal, they ascend brackish waters, bays, creeks, swamps and estuaries.
The adults feed on algae, diatoms, crustaceans, decaying organic matter and detritus found at the
bottom. The post larvae, fry and juveniles feed on plankton.
Most species spawn in the sea, but fry form shoals along the coasts and enter estuaries, lagoons
and creeks from where they can be easily collected.
3. Lesson 3
Important trait of milk fish
3.1 Introduction
The milkfish, Chanos chanos is one of the most ideal fish for coastal aquaculture. This
commercially very important fish has many traits essential for culture. They have fast growth
rate, in the first year of its life; wide range of tolerance to temperature, salinity and dissolved
oxygen; feeds on algal mats at the bottom and resistant to most diseases and parasites.
It is cultured on a large scale in Indonesia, the Philippines and Taiwan for centuries. It is much
esteemed fish in the south east Asian countries.
Distinctive characters
Milkfish has a moderately compressed, spindle shaped elongated body covered with small scales.
Mouth is small, without teeth, snout is longer than the lower jaw, which has a small tubercle at
its tip.
The dorsal fin is located at about the middle point of the body; anal fin short and situated far
behind the dorsal fin base. Lateral line is present and tail fin is large and forked. The dorsal, anal
and caudal fins have dark margins.
Biology
It grows up to 180 cm in length and 20 kg in weight, but the fish caught in the sea normally
range from 70-110 mm.
The fry and fingerlings feed on microscopic algae. The fish grows to about 50 cm in length
weighing 500 – 800 g in brackish water ponds.
In ponds milkfish feed mainly on filamentous algae at the bottom along with associated
microorganisms and detritus. The fish can be fed supplementary feed such as rice bran, oil cakes
and other feed stuffs.
3.2 Pearls spot
The pearlspot Etroplus suratensis is an important cichlid fish distributed in India, Sri Lanka and
Pakistan. It is found in estuaries, tidal creeks, lagoons, backwaters and swamps. It attains a
length of more than 30 cm and weight of about 1.5 kg.
Distinctive characters
Body is oblong, compressed and elevated. There are small teeth on jaws, none on the palate. The
dorsal fin is single, with spinous portion greater in extent than the soft portion. Lateral line
present in the upper fourth of the body.
Colour light green, with eight oblique bands on the body. Most of the scales have central white
pearly spots. The dorsal, caudal, ventral and anal fins are dark coloured, pectoral yellowish with
a black base. Strong spines on dorsal and anal fins present.
Biology
It matures within one year of its life and breeds in confined waters such as ponds, almost
throughout the year. Natural breeding grounds have weeds with water depths ranging from 50-
100 cm. A female releases up to 6,000 eggs at a time. The eggs are attached to submerged
objects like stones, twigs, tiles, bamboo poles etc. by the female after cleaning them. The male
fertilizes the eggs and the female guards over them during development and hatching.
The early fry feed on zooplankton, the advanced fry on aquatic insect larvae. Juveniles and
adults feed on filamentous algae and other weeds. Since this fish is easy to breed and a
herbivore, it is one of the ideal species for coastal aquaculture.
4. Lesson 4
Asian sea bass
4.1 Introduction
The Asian sea bass Lates calcarifer is a prime value fish grown for luxury markets. It is
commonly distributed in Australia, Myanmar, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines,
Singapore and Thailand. This fish can grow in freshwater, brackish water and marine waters. In
India it forms a by catch in the traditional shrimp filtration fields. This fish is grown in large
scale in Singapore and Taiwan in sea cages.
Distinctive characters
Lates calcarifer belongs to the family Centropomidae. It has an elongated and compressed body,
with a deep caudal peduncle. Head is pointed with a concave dorsal profile, becoming convex in
front of the dorsal fin. Mouth is large, slightly oblique and the lower edge of the opercle is
serrated, with a strong spine.
The spinuous and the soft parts of the dorsal fin are separated by a deep notch. The lateral line
extends on to the tail. In juveniles the colour is olive brown above with silvery sides and belly,
while, in adults it is greenish or bluish above and silvery below. No spots or bars are present on
the body. The eyes are bright pink, glowing at night.
Biology
The fish has wide range of tolerance to temperature and salinity. Grows to a maximum size of up
to 200 cm. Common sizes are 25-100 cm. It is a highly carnivorous fish, feeds on fishes and
crustaceans. Fry feed on zooplankton and fingerlings on crustacean, worms, molluscs etc.
Growth is faster in the first three months of the first year.
For breeding, fish migrate to estuaries. They spawn in different parts of India in different
months.
In culture ponds the Asian sea bass attains 1.5 to 3.0 kg in the first year and 5 kg in the second
year. The fish is highly cannibalistic. Therefore it is suitable for grow out in floating cages with
periodic size grading.
4.2 Grouper
Groupers are an important group of fishes for coastal aquaculture. Epinephelus tauvina and E.
malabaricus of the family serranidae have robust, somewhat compressed, oval-oblong and
elongated body. There are 11 spines and 14-16 soft rays in the dorsal fin and 18-20 rays in the
pectoral fin.
A large blackish blotch is present at the base of the last four dorsal spines extending on to the
lower part of the fin in E. tauvina but absent in E. malabaricus, which possesses about five, more
or less distinct and slightly oblique, irregular bars on the body. Also, three dark blotches are
present on the inter-opercle in E. malabaricus.
The head and body are grayish, covered with small, dull, orange-red to dark brown spots. They
grow to 50-65 cm and to 100 cm respectively. Hong Kong, Thailand, Singapore and Malaysia
are the major producer of groupers in sea cages.
Groupers are suitable for culture in net cages, as well as in ponds. Limited success has been
achieved in the hatchery production of groupers. Wild seed collection is the major source of seed
for culture of groupers.
4.3 Snapper
The snappers are also an important group of marine fish that have high value in the domestic and
international markets. Of the many species of snappers the Golden snapper or red snapper are the
preferred species. Lutjanus johni is culture in Malaysia and Singapore.
It has a moderately deep body with a straight or slightly convex head profile. The dorsal has10
spines and 13 to 14 soft rays. Longitudinal scales above the lateral line are parallel to the dorsal
fin and those below the lateral line are horizontal.
The body has a reddish or bronze – silvery colour with a dark spot on each scale, forming a
series of dark streaks in the body. A large black blotch may be present above the lateral line in
the junction between spinuous and soft part of the dorsal. The fish grows to a maximum length of
about 70 cm; but the common sizes are 40
Red snapper feeds on invertebrates and fishes; and inhabits shallow waters and mangrove areas
besides the sea up to a depth of about 80 m.
The red snapper is cultured in net cages in the sea; the methods for its culture are similar to that
of the Asian sea bass.
5. Lesson 5
Shrimp
5.1 Introduction
Shrimps are the most widely cultivated marine/brackish water species in India. Among edible
crustaceans, shrimp are considered as highly valuable commodity. They are produced mainly for
export purpose although local demand in the coastal areas exists. Shrimps catches from the wild
has been stagnating since 1990s.
Interest in the culture of shrimps started in the 1990s in India due to high export potential and
apparent high profits of the Industry.
The shrimp Industry of India is spread over the entire coastline. At present India is 5th in
aquaculture production of shrimps in the World.
Although Indian shrimp industry is supported by many species, only a few of them are suitable
for aquaculture on account of their traits suitable for aquaculture. Due to its large size and faster
growth rate, Penaeus monodon is the most widely grown shrimp in India and south east Asia.
Other suitable species for culture in India are
P. indicus, P. merguiensis and P. semisulcatus. P.japonicus is grown in Japan while P. vennamei
is the most widely cultivated species in the south and central America.
Penaeus monodon
This also called as tiger shrimp. This the largest of the marine shrimps. Attains a maximum
length of 365 mm and 440 g in weight. Found throughout the coast of India. Maximum
abundance in the north east coast of India. Juveniles and sub- adults are found in estuaries,
backwaters and mangrove areas while mature adults are caught from the sea.
Can tolerate very low salinity. This is the fastest growing hardy shrimp, therefore suitable for
aquaculture.
Attains maturity at about 200 mm size. Spawning takes place at depths between 30 and 60 m.
Fecundity is 2- 19 lakh eggs at a size range of 200 to 260 mm.
Penaeus indicus
Commonly known as Indian white shrimp. Distributed from Goa to Kanyakumari on the west
coast and throughout the east coast. Grows to maximum size of 230 mm. Juveniles are caught
extensively in estuaries, adults are found in the sea.
Requires higher salinity than P. monodon in culture ponds.
Attains maturity at about 130 mm size. Spawning takes place in deeper waters. Matures in ponds.
Fecundity is 68000 to 73000 eggs per individual.
Penaeus merguiensis
The banana prawn P. merguiensis has a discontinuous and restricted distribution along the Indian
coast. It is found South of Maharashtra to Goa and North Karnataka along the west and in
Andhra Pradesh and Orissa on the west coast.
It grows to a maximum size of 240 mm and attains maturity at a size of about 140 mm. On an
average it produces about 4.5 lakh eggs per spawning.
The juveniles are found in the estuary but adults migrate to sea for maturity and spawning.
However, it readily matures in captivity. Juveniles grow faster in brackish waters.
6. Lesson 6
Lobster
6.1 Introduction
Among marine crustaceans, lobsters are the most highly priced commodity of significant interest
in many countries. Supply of lobsters to domestic and international market comes mainly from
the capture fisheries through intensive fishing in different parts of the world. Traditional lobster
stocks are heavily over fished. Therefore aquaculture of this group in a necessity. However,
aquaculture of this group is yet to take off due to very slow growth rate and difficulty in
producing seed in hatcheries due to very poor survival.
Presently undersized lobsters caught by fishermen are collected by the growers and cultured in
suitable enclosures to marketable size through appropriate feeding schedule and water quality
management. This kind of practice is called fattening. This is successfully practiced in countries
like Japan, Taiwan New Zealand.
In India currently no commercial lobster fattening or culture is being undertaken.
With the increase in prices for small and medium sized lobster, prospects for lobster culture in
India appear to be bright. Bigger species of lobsters such as P. homarus and P. ornatus are the
suitable species for culture. Following are the traits of the above species.
Spiny lobsters are heterosexual and strictly marine throughout their life. They attain maturity at
the age of two and half years and reproduce in inshore waters. Breeding is continuous, each
species having peaks at different times in different areas.
The life cycle involves a prolonged metamorphic phase extending for several months. Fertilized
eggs attach to the abdomen of the mother which is called berried female. They hatch into a flat
transparent phyllosoma larvae. The pelagic larvae after a series of stages during the next 10-12
months transform in to characteristic post larvae called puerulus. The puerulus is tiny and
transparent but resembles adults and settles to the bottom. It soon develops into a juvenile.
The lobsters are carnivorous and nocturnal. They feed on a wide variety of bottom dwelling
organisms and decaying animal matter. The most preferred food is bivalve mollusks, polychaets
and fish. Growth is relatively faster in the early stages and they attain 20 – 25 cm in the first two
years, thereafter the growth rate is very slow being 2-3 cm per year. They have a life span of 7-8
years
Panulirus polyphagus
It attains a maximum body length of about 37 cm. Carapace rounded and moderately curved with
spines and tubercles. Antennular plate with a single pair of anterior spines. Abdomen without
groves. Body colour dull greenish. Each abdominal segment with a distinct transverse band of
white colour along the posterior margin. Legs with indistinct blotches and short stripes.
It is generally associated with muddy sea bottom and found in maximum abundance along
Maharashtra and Gujarat coast
Panulirus homarus
Medium sized lobster growing to about 30 cm in length. Carapace rounded with numerous
spines. Antennular plate bearing two equal pairs of spines and many scattered smaller spines in
between.
Abdominal segments grooved transversely, grooves sometimes interrupted medially. Colour of
body dark greenish to blackish. Lateral border of each abdominal segment with a white circular
spot.
This species coexists with P. ornatus in the rocky coastal areas from Trivandrum to Cape
Comorin, Gulf of Mannar and Madras. P. homarus is dominant in southern areas, while P.
ornatus is dominant in Mandapam area.
Panulirus ornatus
The largest species under this genus, grows to about 50 cm. Carapace rounded and covered with
numerous spines and tubercles. Antennular plate bearing two pairs of spines, the anterior pair
being much larger than the posterior. Abdominal segment smooth, without transverse grooves.
Body colour grayish brown. Each abdominal segment with a broad dark transverse band and two
large white spots on either side. Legs with black and light yellow stripes.
7. Lesson 7
Crab
7.1 Among marine crustaceans, crabs rank third in their importance as gourmet food and the
value of fishery they support after shrimps and lobsters.
Out of the 16 species of the crabs exploited through capture fisheries, Scylla tranquibarica and
Scylla serrata are the larger ones attaining sizes of 0.5 to 2.0 kg and suitable for culture. They are
known as mud crabs, green crabs or mangrove crabs. Both these crabs co-exist in the inshore sea,
estuaries, backwater, coastal lakes and mangrove swamps of all maritime states of India,
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
They prefer muddy and sandy bottoms. They breed in the sea and migrate to the estuaries,
megalopa onwards. Males are bigger than females of the same age. They are omnivores feeding
on shrimps, bivalves and fish among other food items. They are continuous breeders with peaks
at different times in different places.
Scylla tranquibarica
This is the larger of the two species growing to a maximum size of 2.0 kg. Free living unlike S.
serrata which burrows into the substratum.
Outer margin of carpus of chelipeds with 2 sharp spines. Colour of upper surface of body light to
dark green. Polygonal marking on all walking and swimming legs.
Scylla serrata
Outer margin of the carpus of cheliped with one blunt spine. Colour of the carpapace greenish
brown to ferruginous brown. No polygonal markings on legs.
Lower surface of the fixed finger of cheliped dark to pinkish red in colour.
8. Lesson 8
Methods of coastal aquaculture
8.1 Pond culture
Many species of fish and shrimp are grown in earthen ponds. This is the most popular system of
aquaculture particularly in the developing countries. Proper site selection, designing and
construction of ponds is necessary for successful operations.
Site Selection
• Selection of site is generally based on species to be cultured and technology to be adopted.
However, some factors are common to all sites such as, agro- climatic conditions, access to
hatcheries/ seed centres, roads and communication, access to markets, protection from natural
disasters, availability of skilled and unskilled labour, public utilities etc.
• All available meteorological and hydrological information needs to be collected. Soil
characteristics, quality and quantity of available water, ease of filling and drainage, especially by
gravity, are basic considerations.
• Land elevation and flood levels have to be ascertained. The maximum flood level in the last 10
years and the highest astronomical tide should not be higher than the normal height of the dikes.
It will be advantageous to select land with slopes not steeper than 2 percent. The area should be
sufficiently extensive to allow future expansion and preferably be of regular shape to facilitate
farm design and construction.
• Among other important general factors be considered are the existing and future source of
pollution, developmental plans for the neighborhood areas and legal and social aspects of farm
establishment. The possible effects of the discharges of the farm on the environment needs to be
considered. This can greatly influence the attitudes of the local communities to the proposed
farming and hence their future cooperation.
• Sites generally available for the coastal pond farms are tidal and inter-tidal mud flats in
protected areas of near estuaries, bays, creeks, lagoons and salt marshes. If the ponds need to be
supplied water through tidal flow and information on tidal amplitude at the site is essential.
• Data on high tides and low tides need to be collected from tide charts available of the nearest
port. The elevation of the land relative to the tides is important to decide on the type of ponds to
be constructed (whether tidal fed or pump fed) and amount of excavation necessary for
constructing the ponds.
• The construction of ponds in areas reached only by the high spring tides would require
excavation, leading to high cost of construction. For tidal fed ponds sites with elevation of
between 0 and 140 cm relative to tides is necessary. However, if tidal energy can be replaced
with other forms of energy the above limitation would not apply.
8.2 Cages
• Rearing fish in cages is a traditional practice in some Asian countries. It appears to have
originated in Kampuchea two centuries ago. It has spread to other places in more advanced form
recently.
• Salmons in Norway, yellow tail in Japan and groupers and sea bass in Hong Kong, Vietnam
and Singapore are grown in cage farms.
• Cages offer great opportunities for aquaculture in open waters of the seas. In recent years cage
aquaculture has become a major source of aquaculture production, particularly of high value fish
like salmon, trout, sea bass and groupers. Several types and designs of cages and cage farms
have been developed and commercially used.
• Majority of the cages consist of a floating unit, a framework and a flexible mesh net suspend
under it. The floating unit can consist of empty barrels, Styrofoam polyethylene pipes, or ready
made pontoons of plastic or metal.
• The buoy units are often built into a framework. The framework can be made of impregnated
wood, bamboo spars, galvanized scaffolding or welded aluminum bars. Nylon is commonly used
for net, but weld-mesh or even woven split bamboo is also used. Cage flotillas provide safer
working conditions and enable storage of feed on site, as well as installation of automatic
feeders.
• Reasonably sheltered areas, with sufficient water movement to effect adequate mixing and
aeration are selected as sites for cage farms.
• The occurrence of typhoons, hurricanes and cyclones in the area and the vulnerability of the
sites are also major considerations in the design of cage farms. Polluted sites are generally
avoided.
• In cold climates, areas that receive safe heated water effluents are preferred, as higher water
temperatures generally improve growth and productivity.
• Unused feed and fish faeces fall from the bottom of floating net cages on to the floor of the
waters bodies. Accumulated wastes decompose and cause oxygen depletion or generation of
methane or other toxic gasses under anaerobic conditions.
• Cages also increase deposition of silt on the bottom of the site. It is therefore necessary to have
enough movement of clean water below the floating cages. Carrying capacities of the areas
should be determined to avoid overcrowding of cages.
• The most sophisticated design of cages is use in cage farms of Norway where salmon are
grown extensively. Cages of size 100 to 500 m3 are used. A simple unit holds a net of four
vertical sides and is rectangular in cross section. The more popular ones are circular in cross
section.
• There are many ways of arranging cages in a cage farm. Where possible, it is preferable to
moor cages to a jetty with direct access to a quay, in order to facilitate work and reduce labour
cost.
• However, environmental and site conditions may require them to be located farther away from
the coast, in which case a work boat will be needed for access. Cages should be installed on the
sides of a central walkway to facilitate day to day work on the farm.
• Feed dispensers are installed above each cage; in others, manual feeding is done. Mooring
blocks have to be sufficiently heavy and are usually made of concrete with heavy galvanized
bolts.
• Most of the presently available cages are designed for use in protected bays and fjords. In order
to utilize more open waters and high seas, special cages with a flexible rubber framework have
recently been developed.
8.3 Pen culture
• Pens and enclosures are transitional structures between ponds and cages. They are used for
culture of yellow tail in Japan, milkfish in the Philippines and salmon in Norway.
• The success of pens for culture depends on the hydro-biological conditions of the site. The
design of the structures is based on adequate knowledge of water quality, floods, waves and
currents and prevalence of predatory animals.
• Pens are formed by net barriers to partition off areas of an open water body, such as intertidal
areas of the sea, bays or lagoons.
• Different designs of enclosures have been constructed. Generally the enclosure is formed on
one side of the shore and on the other three by a wall of nylon netting hung from pole driven into
the bottom.
• In many such enclosures, concrete or stone walls are built on each side where it joins the shore
or provide adequate support to the nets.
• Around the rest of the perimeter, heavy posts of impregnated timber or concrete piles are driven
into the bed extending for about 2m out of water all times.
• Net barriers may be hung from steel cables stung between the poles or the concrete of steel
piles. To prevent the lateral movements of these piles some are anchored to fore and aft, to large
anchor blocks using strong steel cables.
• The nets are generally made of knotless nylon netting material. In some cases, two walls of
netting are used, the outer one to protect the enclosure from floating debris and to prevent escape
of fish if the inner wall gets damaged.
• However, if two walls of netting are used it may create hindrance to free flow of water. The net
barrier is fixed by a rope along the sea bed for 1m, until it terminates in a lead line. The net is
embedded in the sand or silt at the bottom. As a further precaution to prevent fish escaping heavy
rubble is piled up at the bottom around the pen.
8.3 Culture methods for oyster, mussels and seaweeds
A. Oysters
On-bottom and off bottom culture are practiced for edible oysters.
1. Onbottom culture: this method of culture is followed on a fairly firm bottom; protected from
wave action and predators. Oyster spats are sowed and harvested when grown to marketable size.
Though this method is cheaper, siltation over oysters beds can cause problems, and the areas
may not always be free from predators.
2. Off-bottom culture: Many methods of off-bottom culture viz., pole/stick method, and raft
culture methods are followed.
Pole /stick culture: Wooden or bamboo sticks are installed in rows in shallow muddy
regions of the intertidal zones. Sheltered areas free from strong waves and wood boring
organisms are selected. Seed oysters are attached to the poles using degradable nets, or sting on
which oysters are collected are strewn round the poles for fattening and final harvest.
Raft/string culture: string/trays are suspended from floating rafts or long lines. Raft are
use in protected areas, strings in more exposed areas.
Rafts/longlines are supported by buoys. Trays are made of wood or wire screens. Spat
oysters are placed in trays and suspend for grow out.
B. Mussels
The methods for mussels are very similar to oyster culture. Bottom culture is widely practiced in
Germany and the Netherlands; stake culture in France, Italy and the Philippines; and raft and
long line culture in Spain.
C. Seaweeds
Raft and long line culture similar to oysters and mussels is practiced for growing seaweeds.
Spores are collected on nets from areas rich in spores and they are transferred to on growing
areas for culture to marketable size.
Another method of culture is using floating frames, fabricated as nets with ropes of hemp fibres,
palmyra fibres or synthetic twines which serve as suitable substrata. The culture frames are
suspended in the sub-littoral zone from poles driven into the bottom in such a way that the flat
surface of the net is close to water surface even during low tides. Fragments of plants are twisted
into the ropes and allowed to grow to harvestable quantity.
9. Lesson 9
Water and soil quality management
9.1 Introduction
• Fish production is influenced by hydro-biological characteristics. Fish culture also has a
pronounced reverse effect on the environment.
For example fish consume oxygen and produce metabolic byproducts such as ammonia and
carbon dioxide, which react with already present constituents of the environment to drive an
ever-changing chain of reactions to produce a chemical environment in which fish must live. The
most important water quality parameters which affect fish in culture environments are discussed
in this chapter.
• Water quality standards for aquaculture are presented in the following table. They are meant to
be used as guide only, since certain parameters can vary significantly from one species to
another.
9.2 Physical parameter
Temperature
• Water temperature has the greatest effect on fish since they are poikilotherms.
•It is impractical to control temperature in ponds and other farming facilities; therefore, large-
scale mariculture and coastal aquaculture must be conducted in geographical regions having
sufficiently long growing seasons to produce marketable sized fish in reasonable amount of time.
• Temperature also affects oxygen solubility and causes interactions of several other water
quality parameters.
• Water temperatures greatly influence physiological processes such as respiration rate,
efficiency of feeding and assimilation, growth, behavior and reproduction.
• A temperature increase of 10oC will generally cause rate of chemical and biological reactions
to double or triple. Because of this dissolved oxygen requirements are more critical in warm
water than in cold water.
• Each species has an optimum temperature and upper and lower temperature limits beyond
which it cannot survive.
• Within a species’ tolerable limits growth will increase with increasing temperature and reach a
peak beyond which it will decline just before reaching the upper lethal limit.
• Fish will also be healthiest at it optimum temperature. Optimum temperatures vary from
species to species and must be considered before choosing a species for culture in a particular
geographic location.
Salinity
• Salinity is a measure of the concentration of dissolved ions in water expressed as parts per
thousand (ppt). The major dissolved ions are sodium, chloride, Magnesium, calcium, potassium,
sulphate and bicarbonates.
• Seawater varies in salinity from about 33 to 37 ppt with an average of about
34. Estuarine and brackish waters have varying salinities from full strength seawater to about 3
ppt.
• The composition and concentration of dissolved salts in the body fluids of fish and
invertebrates must be maintained within fairly narrow limits to buffer against changes that can
cause physiological disruptions.
• Since fish and shellfish live in water, salinity of external water can disrupt concentrations of
dissolved salts in the body fluids.
• Fish maintain homeostasis through osmoregulation which is influenced by salinity of water.
Some species can osmoregulation at wide range of salinity; they are called ‘Euryhaline’. Others
have limited tolerance to salinity changes, such species are called ‘stenohaline’.
• Every species has an optimum salinity range. When forced outside of this range, metabolic
energy is spent on osmoregulation at the expense of growth. If salinity deviates too far fish die.
• Euryhaline species such as the Asian sea bass can be cultured in a broad range of salinity from
fresh to seawater, but stenohaline fish such as cobia can be cultured only in full strength
seawater.
Turbidity
• Turbidity is a measure of light penetration in water.
• It is produced by dissolved and suspended substances such as clay particles, humic substances,
plankton, coloured compounds etc.
• Excessive turbidity can be troublesome in fish ponds and flow-through systems.
• Turbidity caused by plankton is usually desirable since it enhances fish production.
• However, turbidity caused due to clay and other colloidal particles in undesirable since it can
choke the gills of fish and shellfish. It can also restrict the growth of phytoplankton.
• Water turbidity in ponds is commonly measured with the Secchi disc. It is a round disk having
a diameter of 30 cm. the disk is divided into quadrants, two opposite quadrants are painted white
and the other two black. The disc is attached to a rope or cable marked in increments.
9.3 Chemical parameter
Dissolved oxygen
• Dissolved oxygen along with temperature controls the metabolism of fish and invertebrates.
Together, these two environmental variables control fish production.
• Although atmosphere contains 21% oxygen gas, it is only slightly soluble in water. Thus, water
contains only small amounts of oxygen available for fish respiration.
• The main source of oxygen to water is dissolution from the atmosphere. Phytoplankton and
macrophytes also add oxygen to water through photosynthesis. Increasing temperature and
salinity reduce the saturation point of DO in water.
• Fish oxygen consumption rates vary with water temperature, DO concentration, fish size, level
of activity, time after feeding and other factors.
• Metabolic rates vary by species and are limited by low DO conditions.
• Fish can acclimate to low DO conditions, but these adjustments are slow, taking anywhere from
a few hours to several weeks.
• Small fish consume more oxygen per unit weight than larger fish of the same species.
• Oxygen consumption increases when fish are forced to exercise, and metabolic energy
demands can cause oxygen consumption to double from one to six hours after feeding.
• In general, warm water species tolerate lower DO concentration than cold water fish.
• Warm water fish die after short term exposure to less than 0.3 mg/L DO. To support life for
several hours, a minimum of 1.0 mg/L is required, and 1.5 mg/L is required to support fish for
several days. However, for obtaining good production DO levels should be above 5.0 mg/L.
Total alkalinity
• Total alkalinity is the total amount of titratable bases in water expressed as mg/L of equivalent
calcium carbonate.
pH
• pH is an indicator of hydrogen ion concentration in water.
• The mean pH of ocean is about 8.3 and remains fairly constant because of the great buffering
capacity of the oceans.
• Since the optimum range of pH is 6.5 to 8 pH is rarely a concern in brackish and sea waters.
Carbon dioxide
• The main source of carbon dioxide to water is by respiration of organisms and biological
oxidation of organic matter.
• Carbon dioxide is not particularly toxic to fish provided sufficient dissolved oxygen is
available.
• CO2 concentration of 10-15 mg/L is recommended as maximum for fish culture.
Ammonia
• Ammonia exists in water in two states, ionized ammonia, also called the ammonium ion
(NH4+) and un-ionized ammonia (NH3). The sum of two is called total ammonia or simply
ammonia.
• The toxicity of total ammonia depends on what fraction of the total is in the un-ionized form,
since this form is by far the more toxic of the two.
• Which fraction dominates depends on the pH, temperature and salinity of water; out of this
water pH has the strongest influence.
• At higher pH un-ionized ammonia dominates and hence more toxic. A maximum concentration
of 0.01mg/L is recommended for marine fish.
Nitrite and Nitrate Nitrite
• Nitrite like ammonia is toxic to fish.
• Nitrite levels in fish ponds typically range from 0.05 to 5 mg/L, probably due to reduction of
nitrate under anaerobic conditions.
10. Lesson 10
Fin fishes culture system
10.1 Milk fish culture system
• The milkfish Chanos chanos , the only species of the family Chanidae, has a wide distribution.
• It does not form a capture fishery of any significance and its importance is based on the large
scale farming in over 400,000 ha of coastal impoundments in Southeast Asia. Its culture
originated in Indonesia and spread to the Philippines and Taiwan.
• Though essentially marine fish of the Indian and Pacific oceans, the young ones spend their life
in inshore estuarine areas and ascend rives to the fresh water zones.
• They are highly euryhaline and can live in fresh to hyper-saline waters.
• They tolerate temperature from 15-40oC but the optimum is between 20 and 33oC.
Culture systems
• The most common culture systems are brackish water coastal farms. The farm may include
nurseries, and rearing ponds.
• Though cultured under monoculture systems they can be polycultured with mullets and
shrimps.
• They are sometimes grown in freshwater ponds or stocked in lakes and reservoirs in the
Southeast Asia.
• The more important farming system in freshwaters is the pen farming that has developed in
lakes in the Philippines (Laguna de Bay and Lake Sampaloc).
Fry collection
• Milkfish don not mature and spawn naturally in captivity. They seem to spawn near the coast
and larvae occur periodically along the sandy coasts and in the estuaries.
• Hence, most of the fry used for milk fish culture are collected from the wild.
• A variety of gears are used to collect milk fish fry from shallow coastal water. The most
common collecting equipment comprises different types of dip nets, such as the triangular scissor
net in the Philippines and the scoop net in Taiwan. Dip nets are particularly suited for areas with
large concentrations of fry. Seine nets, drag nets and traps are also use by some fishermen.
Artificial propagation
• Since the supply from wild may not be sufficient to supply the demand. The AQD of the
SEAFDEC in the Philippines has developed technology to produce milkfish in hatcheries.
• Brood fish are reared in captured from the wild and reared for several years in captivity since
this fish matures at the age of 5-7 years when it is at least 3.5kg weight and 60 cm in length.
• The fish are induced to spawn implantation of LH-RH cholesterol pellets.
• After spawning the eggs are collected with plankton nets and hatched at 30oC they hatch in 24
hours.
• Fry start feeding in 2 days.
• They are maintained in green water, fed small rotifers and fertilized oyster eggs.
• After 10 days live feed is replaced by commercial artificial feed. At a density of 1500 t
6000/m2, two to three weeks after hatching fry reach 1.5cm.
Grow-out Fish ponds
• Fish ponds are made coastal low lands/mudflats. The land should between average sea level
and 45 cm above sea level.
• Pond can be filled and drained through gravity.
• The elevation should be such that ponds can be dried completely. Soil should be loamy or silty
loam.
Nursery ponds
• Nursery ponds vary in size form 18 to 25m wide and 20 cm deep along the length of the
production ponds.
• They consist of 2-3% of the farm area.
Water canals
• Water canals are constructed to supply and drain water to and from the ponds.
• They are connected to sluice gates and can be up to 15 m wide.
Pond preparation
• Decomposing algae are raked and spread evenly.
• Dykes are repaired and all leaks plugged.
• Ponds are dried to get rid of pests and to oxidize pond sediments.
• Fine mesh nets are installed in the inlets to prevent unwanted organisms from entering the
ponds.
• Natural food, lab lab is grown at the bottom. Let some water into the ponds to the bottom wet
all over.
• Apply agricultural lime at 1 ton per ha and chicken manure at 2 tons per ha on moist pond
bottom.
• A week later apply ammonium phosphate at 20 kg per ha and urea at 10 kg per ha. The
amounts of inputs may be changed depending on the productivity and pond history.
• As lab lab grows, increase water depth to 30 cm. Fertilizers again added after biweekly water
exchange at the same or half the basal rate.
Water management
• 30cm water level is maintained for first 30-40 days with lab lab.
• It is increased to 50-100 cm when fish grow bigger and supplemental feeding starts.
• Pumping may be necessary to keep the pond water at a higher level than outside.
• Monitor dissolved oxygen at 6-8 AM and 2-4 PM. Aeration becomes necessary if oxygen
levels drop to 1 ppm.
Supplementary feeding
• The fish fed are a mixture of rice bran and oil cakes at the rate of 2-3% of the body weight.
• Feeding should be avoided on over cast days and when oxygen levels fall below 2 ppm.
Harvesting
• Over wintered fry of 100 to 150 g reach marketable size of 300 to 450 g in eight weeks.
• New fry reach market size in 5 months.
• After 2 months of stocking fish can be partially harvested by dragging gill nets.
• Final harvest is carried out when all the fry reach marketable size.
• A production of 2000-5000 ka/ha/year can be expected from semi-intensive culture of milkfish.
11. Lesson 11
Culture of mullet
11.1 Grey mullets and milkfish have been the mainstay of finfish culture in coastal and
estuarine impoundments for centuries. The formed one of the important group of cultured species
in
• Vallis of the Mediterranean lagoons (Italy)
• Coastal harbour culture' of China
• Gangetic and Southern estuaries of India
• Coastal fish ponds of Hawaii
• Mullets are relished by consumers in some areas but considered poor eating quality in others.
• The striped mullet Mugil cephalus is the most widely distributed and well known of the mullets
due to its larger size and faster growth rate and hence preferred species for culture.
• It is eurythermal and highly euryhaline tolerating salinities between 0 - 75 ppt.
• It feeds on detritus, large plants, blue green algae, green algae and diatoms.
• It is valued not only for meat but also for roe which is a delicacy inn Taiwan and Japan where
the roe fetches a very high price.
• It breeds in the sea whereas eggs need seawater but larvae migrate to coastal waters and
estuaries.
• The fry and fingerlings of the striped mullet are not abundant; hence, other species of mullets
are also cultured.
Culture systems
The traditional and extensive culture with other euryhaline species still continues to be an
important culture system. They are generally raised with other species in polyculture-
• In Hong Kong with Chinese carps
• In Taiwan with Chinese carps and Tilapias
• In Israel with common carp and tilapias
• In India with shrimps, pearlspot and other fish in traditional prawn culture systems
• In the Philippines and Indonesia with milkfish.
Fry collection
• Most fry are obtained from natural systems.
• The striped mullet breeds in the sea, fry and fingerlings enter estuaries and congregate in
shoals.
• The fry collection methods are similar to those of the milkfish. Commonly seines and dip nets
are used.
• The most suitable areas for collection are marginal areas of rivers, tidal streams, creeks,
swamps and inundated fields.
• They swim against slow currents and such areas are ideal sites for collection
Hatchery production
• Taiwan was the first to succeed in artificial propagation of stripped mullet.
• 2.5 to 3 years old spawners are obtained from the sea and stocked in cement tanks.
Grow-out operations
• In traditional coastal farming mullets are raised with other fish and shrimps.
• When tidal stocking is adopted the quantity and composition of stock can seldom be
determined. This practice leads to under-stocking and presence slow growing species.
• The aquaculturists now supplement stock with fry and fingerlings caught from the wild.
• Neither feeding nor fertilization is practised in traditional culture system.
• Regular exchange of water is performed. Natural food enters along with the tidal water on
which mullets and other fish feed.
• They also feed on benthic algal mat growing in the ponds. Production in this system varies
from 150 – 1500 kg/ha.
• The more intensive polyculture is done in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Israel and to a lesser extent in
Egypt.
12. Lesson 12
12.1 Culture of asian seabass
• The Asian sea bass Lates calcarifer is an important coastal, estuarine and freshwater fish in the
tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific region.
• It supports commercial and recreational fisheries in Australia, and Papua New Guinea.
• It is caught in the traditional prawn/fish filtration systems of Asia. It is widely distributed from
the Gulf of Arabia to Northern Australia.
• It is highly Euryhaline with a complex life history. It is a protandrous hermaphrodite and
catadromus fish.
• Spawning occurs in brackish waters of 28 to 36 ppt salinity, near river mouths. Generally
spawns from January to August, spawning is triggered by a rise in temperature.
• There is a tide based monthly cycle of spawning, spawns usually around full moon and new
moon days coinciding with spring tides.
• It is highly predacious and cannibalistic, which is the main difficulty in culture of this fish.
• Stringent size grading is required in the culture environments.
• The fish is fast growing and commands good price in local and international markets, hence
this is one of the species cultured in Australia, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand.
Source of seed
• Fry are generally produced in hatcheries.
• The fish can be matured in sea cages and bred through environmental manipulation of
hormonal injections.
• Wild ripe spawners can also be collected and stripped followed by dry method of fertilization.
• Eggs hatch in 12-15 hours at a temperature of 29-31oC. They are hatched in seawater of
salinity 30 ppt.
• Larvae start feeding from the 2nd day onwards when they are fed marine rotifer Brachionus
plicatilis.
• From day 8 post hatch they are fed with Artemia nauplii or cladocerans.
• 25-30 days post hatch they are fed with ground trash fish meat/sub-adult and adult Artemia.
• Grading is essential to prevent cannibalism starting from 2nd weed post hatch.
Grow-out culture
• Asian sea bass has been cultivated for many years in brackish-water ponds. In recent years
floating cages are used for production of marketable sized fish.
• The main problems of grow-out as earlier told is cannibalism and feeding, since this fish is
highly predatory. Therefore grow-out is performed in two phases.
• In the first phase fry are grown to a weight of about 20 g in special nursery type of ponds of
upto 2000m2.
• Fry are stocked at the rate of 20-30/m2.
• Besides natural food produced by fertilization, the fry are fed with supplementary feed
consisting of ground trash fish twice a day.
• Exchange of water @ 30% per day is maintained. They are reared for a period of 30 – 40 days.
• By frequent sorting fingerlings of similar size are separated and stocked in separate grow out
facilities for growing to market size.
• Grow-out period last for 3-4 months in countries like the Philippines, where 300-400g fish are
acceptable and 8-2 months in other countries where marketable sized fish is 700g to 1.2 Kg.
• Floating and stationary cages of different sizes (usually 50m2) are used. The stocking density
in cages is 40-50 fish /m3, after a growth of about 3 months is stock is thinned out to 10-20/m3.
12.2 Culture of groupers
Biology and Seed supply Biology
• Groupers are carnivorous fish associated with reefs.
• They are found both in marine and brackishwaters.
• Feed on small fish and shrimp.
• Distributed primarily in South East Asian countries.
• They are protogynus hermophrodites – mature as females and convert to males as they grow
larger.
• In Epinephelus tauvina sex reversal begins at the age of 6 years and the proportion of males
increases thereafter.
• Most fish become males after the age of 9 years.
• For hatchery production of fish males can be got younger by hormonal sex reversal.
Seed supply
• Both wild and hatchery reared seed are used. Survival rates of larvae in hatchery is still poor.
• Hence majority of the seed is from the wild. Fry measuring 3.5-5 cm are available during the
breeding season.
• Fishermen collect them with small seines and transport them for sale to fishermen.
Culture techniques
• Majority of the grouper production comes from open sea cage culture. They are also grown in
coastal ponds and recirculatory systems.
• Wild fry or fingerlings are initially held in hapas for a month or more. Hapas measuring 2x2x2
m are stocked at a rate of 400-600 advanced fry or fingerlings.
• Fry and fingerlings are fed @ 10% biomass with mysids and small shrimp after a couple of
days of acclimatization.
• When they have reached lengths of 12-15 cm they are transferred to nursery cages of 5x5x3m,
each holding about 1100 fish. Cages are made of polyethylene net of mesh size 2.5cm.
• They are fed trash fish which is minced or chopped to size suitable to the size of growing fish
at the rate of 8% of the biomass.
• After about 2-3 months they are transferred to production cages
• Floating cages made of polyethylene netting of mesh size 2.5-5.0cm, supported by wooden
framework are kept afloat with metal or plastic drums and anchored with concrete blocks.
• Fish are stocked at the rate of 2-4/m3. They are fed with trash fish or pelleted feed @ 5% body
biomass.
• E. tauvina reaches marketable size of 800g within about 6 months and two crops can be raised
per year. Survival ranges from 60-90%. A production of 150 to 250Kg per cage is possible.
Pond culture:
• Groupers can be grown in earthen ponds and concrete tanks.
• Pond are prepared by drying liming and fertilization.
• The ponds are stocked with 5000 to 10,000 tilapia per hectare surface area. Tilapia fingerlings
serve as food for groupers.
13. Lesson 13
Culture of crustaceans
13.1 Shrimp culture
Shrimps had formed a subsidiary species in most types of fish culture in coastal ponds in Asia;
and in countries like India, rice fields have been used for a form of extensive culture of shrimps
for centuries. Intensive culture and semi-intensive cultures of these crustaceans are of recent
origin.
Interest in their culture, particularly shrimps was triggered by the increase in export demand and
the inadequacy of capture fisheries to meet the demand. As the expanding markets were in
economically advanced countries like Japan and USA, the prospects of an export market and
opportunities for earning foreign exchange attracted support from the governments of developing
countries and led investment by private entrepreneurs. Shrimps and prawns became high value
commodities in many developing countries because of their market potential. In India shrimps
are the mainstay of coastal aquaculture.
Major cultivated species of shrimps
• Attention so far has been directed to the culture of tropical and sub- tropical species of shrimps.
In Asia important species are P. monodon,
P. merguiensis, P. semisulcatus and P. chinensis. P. penicillatus is a species cultured in Taiwan.
Metapenaeus monoceros, M. brevicornis and
M. ensis form subsidiary species in shrimp farms in several Asian countries.
• The most important species in Central and South America are P. vannamei and P. stylirostris.
P. japonicus is the major species in temperate countries like Japan and Taiwan and in a less
intensive way in France, Italy and Brazil. P. orientalis = P. chinensis is the major species grown
in China and Korea. P. setiferus is the species of interest in temperate USA.
Culture systems
• Mainly there are two types of culture systems – traditional and modern scientific. In traditional
systems, natural stocking is achieved through intake of tidal water carrying large number of
shrimp larvae along with unwanted predators and competitors. They are held in the pond over a
period of time to grow and are then harvested.
These culture systems more appropriately termed as ‘catch and hold’ culture systems evolved
thousands of hundreds of years ago in the Mediterranean and are still commonly used today
where labour and land costs are low. This approach can still be profitable with low risk although
profits can also be low. The Pokkali field prawn filtration, Bheries of West Bengal, Gazanis of
Karnataka and Khazans of Goa are the examples of this system of prawn/shrimp culture.
• While catch and hold approach requires minimal labour, capital and skill, it is also low yield
and unpredictable. Neither stocking densities nor species composition are controllable. And
improvement over catch and hold system is a grow-out system where pond source water is
screened to control unwanted entrants, and the pond is then stocked with a known quantity of
desirable species of shrimps.
Shrimp seed are collected from wild are normally late post larvae or juveniles which are either
stocked directly or nursed to a larger size before stocking. Although additional labour and skill
are needed for this kind of approach, greater control is exercised over density, species, survival
and growth and size at harvest. The grow-out locations can be far removed from the source of
seed, greatly expanding potential farm sites.
• Although this system is commonly still used, it does have limitations. Seed availability is
unpredictable since it fluctuates from season to season and year to year. Therefore there is
potential for the farms to be under stocked or not stocked at all. This can lead to economic
hardships. Additionally, it requires skill to distinguish seed of fast growing species from slow
growing species. Ponds are often stocked with a mixture of species that are less optimal and
results in reduced yields.
• The evolution of modern shrimp culture required captive reproduction and seed production
through larviculture in hatcheries. The Japanese scientist Motasako Fujinaga (published under
the name Hudinaga) laid the technical ground work for this development. He spawned wild
spawners of
P. japonicus in the laboratory, hatched eggs and reared the larvae to the size of post larvae
suitable for stocking. Some species mature in captivity while others don’t. Eyes stalk ablation
technique was subsequently developed to mature the spawners in captivity. This ensured year
round availability of spawners and hence the seed could be produced anytime.
Modern shrimp farming
Modern shrimp farming can be divided into four types
1. Extensive
2. Modified extensive
3. Semi-intensive
4. Intensive.
• Extensive shrimp farming is characterized by large ponds, low stocking densities, with very
little input and low levels of management and low yields per unit area. In places where labour is
cheap and land is plenty, seed are abundant and inexpensive this form of shrimp culture is quite
profitable. Neither use of expensive formulated feed nor high levels of pond management are
necessary.
• Semi-intensive shrimp farming on the other hand requires high stocking densities in smaller
ponds, high feed and high energy inputs, and continuous management attention and gives higher
yields.
• Modified extensive shrimp farming falls between extensive and semi- intensive systems.
Intensive system of shrimp farming is followed in advanced countries and is characterized by
very high stocking densities and very high inputs of feed and energy with a concomitant high
level of management attention aided by automatic systems.
Selection of shrimp fry (post larvae)
The most important criteria for selecting shrimp fry is the stage of development. The age of the
fry influences size variation at harvest and the survival. Usually PL15 to PL20 are stocked. PL20
is the most ideal size to stock. If fry of size less than PL20 are stocked in the ponds it will result
in least size variation but also low survival. If fry of more than PL20 are stocked in the ponds, it
will improve survival but results in greater size variation.

What to look for in the fry

• Fry should be transparent and not cloudy or with white spots or covered with stains
• Rostrum and head should not be wrinkled
• Abdomen should have long black line along the body – indicates that the gut is full and
therefore fry are healthy since they are feeding well
• Uropods should be well spread out
• Fry should be of uniform size
• Fry should swim against the currents.
The fry should be transported in polythene bags filled with water and oxygen in the ratio of 1:3.
Stocking
Fry should be stocked in the ponds at a density indicated for the type of culture (extensive,
modified extensive, semi-intensive). The fry should be acclimated before stocking in the ponds
the following way.
1. Transfer fry to plastic basins
2. Slowly add pond water to the basins
3. Tilt the basins slowly after acclimatization, if the fry swim out it indicates that they are
acclimatized
4. If not they need further acclimatization.
Stock the fry during cool hours preferably in the night or early morning.
Feeding
Quality of feed has a direct impact on the growth and production of shrimps. Choose a feed of a
reputed company with proven track record. During the first two weeks feed the fry @ 1Kg/1lakh
seed. The feed quantity is doubled the next two weeks.
From the second month onwards, feeding is based on the biomass/body weight of the shrimp.
Feeding rate should be adjusted according to manufacturer’s feeding guides. Actual feeding rate
will depend on results of the check trays. Place 4-8 check trays per ha of the pond area. Place 1%
of the feed in each check tray.
Inspect the check tray two hours later for shrimp of size less than 10g; one and half hour later for
shrimps size10-20g and after one hour after feeding for shrimps more than 20g in size.
13.2 Mud Crab Culture
Crabs are a high value export commodity. Increase in demand and decrease in supply has
prompted the development of crab culture technology.
Advantages
• Rehabilitation of fisheries
• Abandoned shrimp ponds can be used for crab culture.
• Possible to supply prescribed product ( e.g. size, sex, maturity stages, soft shelled crabs)
specifically catering to consumer demand
Weaknesses
• Absence of proper technology
• High labour and production cost
• Lack of seed stock and commercial crab farms.
Species suitable for culture
• Scylla serrate
• Scylla tranquibarica
• Scylla oceanica
6.2.1. Culture methods
• Select a suitable site, free from pollution, year round brackish water supply. Best salinity is 18-
30ppt, temperature 25-30oC.
• Rectangular ponds 0.5 to 1 ha with water depths 0.6-1.0m are constructed. Shelters are provide
for crabs to hide during moulting. They are placed in strategic places all over the pond. Canals
and trenches also serve as hide outs.
• The ponds are drained and dried for two weeks. Piscicides are used to remove unwanted fish.
To prevent crabs from escaping the ponds by crawling over bunds, install nylon net fencing of 1-
2 mesh close to the perimeter of the ponds. Support the nets vertically using bamboo poles or
wooden posts and horizontally with bamboo splits. Install plastic sheets along top edge of net
fence.
14. Lesson 14
Culture of mollusk and seaweed
14.1 Oyster Culture
Marine aquaculture may well has begun with oyster culture. It has been cultivated for centuries.
Two groups of oyster are cultured
1. Flat oysters – Osrea spp
2. Cupped oysters – Crossostrea spp
Oysters are distributed throughout the world. They are filter feeders feeding mainly on plankton
and suspended detritus. In tropics they spawn throughout the year while in tropics they breed
with rising temperatures. The larvae pass through trochophore and veliger and metamorphose to
spat and settle on solid surfaces.
 Culture techniques
In nature oyster grow on hard substratum found at the bottom or column of coastal areas and
estuaries. Most primitive methods of culture involve spreading clean oyster shells called cultches
on the bottom. The spat settle on the empty oyster shells and grow. This is method is known as
bottom culture and is still practiced in USA Canada and France.
In 1673 a Japanese culturist Gorohachi Koroshiya discovered that oyster spat also settle on
bamboo poles erected in water. This observation led to the development of off-bottom culture
techniques.
Four methods of off-bottom culture techniques are being followed. They are
• Raft culture
• Rack culture
• Long line culture and
• Stake culture.
Growing to market size
Raft culture is practiced mainly in Japan. The sites selected for raft culture should have the
following characteristics.
• The farming area should be in sheltered places like bays, fjords etc. free from strong wave
action.
• Tides should be sufficient and frequent to change water.
• Salinity should be 23-28 ppt and temperature 15-30oC.
• They area should have sufficient phytoplankton as food for the growing oysters.
• The area should be free from industrial, agricultural and domestic pollution.
The rafts are made of bamboo poles tied together using strong polythene ropes. They are
suspended using floats made of used empty cans or Styrofoam floats coated with cement. Rafts
of size 16x25m are generally used.
One month old spat attached to oyster or scallop shells from collection areas are restrung on
galvanised wires 20cm apart using bamboo/plastic spacers. 500 to 600 wires with spat can be
suspended from each raft. The spat are allowed to grow to marketable size of 30-60g individual
weight. Duration of culture will depend on water temperature. In Japan it takes around 6 months
for the oysters grow to marketable size.
Long line culture
This method of culture is followed in Northern Japan where wind and wave action is heavy.
Unlike rafts the long lines can withstand more water agitation. They are also cheaper than rafts.
14.2 Mussel Farming
Mussel farming has one of the highest potential for increasing protein rich food for aquatic
environment. Mussels give the highest conversion of primary production (phytoplankton) to
human food and production in water column enhances yield several fold.
The important genera of mussels farmed around the world are Mytilus and Perna. The major
mussel producing countries are Spain, the Netherlands, France and Italy. 93% of the total world
production of mussels through aquaculture comes from the above four countries. The species
cultured in different countries are as follows:
• Mytilus edulis – the Netherlands, France and Spain
• Mytilus galoprovincialis – Italy,Yugoslavia and Russia
• Mytilus smaragdinus = Perna viridis – the Philippines.
Life History
Mussels filter feed on phytoplankton and suspended organic matter. Large quantities of seawater
are filtered for this purpose. They reach sexual maturity in first year.
They spawn with rising temperature in the temperate region and almost throughout the year in
tropics.
Grow-out
CMFRI has developed techniques to farm the green mussel Perna viridis using raft culture
method. Rafts are fabricated using wooden/bamboo poles tied together with nylon/coir ropes.
The poles are treated with coal tar to enhance their life. Raft of 6x5 or 8x8m are constructed. The
rafts are mounted on 5 empty sealed drums of 200L capacity, painted with anti-corrosive paint.
A few wooden planks are fixed on the raft to provide for working space. The rafts are anchored
in the protected areas of the sea using 3 iron anchors each weighing 100 kg at a depth ranging
from 8-10m in the sea 1-1.5Km way from the shore. Ropes with seed attached to them are
suspended form the raft for growing to marketable size.
Seed collection
Seeds are collected from the natural mussel beds. They are cleaned in seawater to remove mud
and epifauna. The size of the seed ranges from 20-30mm.
Growth and production
The seeded mussels grow to 36g in 5 months. Each rope will yield about 5.1- 12.3Kg/m. 100
ropes of 6m length in a raft of 8x8m will yield 4800Kg per raft assuming an average production
of 8Kg per m of the rope. It works out to 150 tonnes per hectare in 5 months.Cultured mussel
have better meat yield (35-40%) compared to wild mussels (27-32).
Management of rafts
• Collected mussels should be seeded within 24h.
• Periodic inspection of rafts to detect leakage in floats, damage to rafts or ropes
• Farm area should be demarcated with lights and flags to avoid damage by fishing boats.
• Periodical cleaning and thinning of mussels to improve growth rates
Fouling organisms
Fouling is a serious problem in mussel farming. Barnacles attach themselves to ropes and
mussels with 30 days of seeding the ropes. More fouling takes place in the upper 2 m of the rope.
Heavy fouling by a bivalve Mytilaster arculatula takes place in the months of November and
December. Other fouling organisms are tubiculous polychaetes, Ascidians, Cnidarians and
Bryozoans. Fouling organisms should be manually cleaned periodically to remove competition
for food and space and to improve the growth mussels.
Predation
Predation by fish Rhabdosargus sarba has also been reported. Net enclosures around the rafts
will eliminate predation.
14.3 Culture of Pearl Oysters
Pearls are the most universal and oldest of gems. They were the first gems to be used by
mankind and need no polishing. Besides being ornamental they have medicinal value, they are
used in cosmetics and tooth pastes.
The species of pearl oysters found in India are Pinctada maxima, P. fucata and P. margaritifera
Biology
• Pinctada fucata is commonly used for pearl production because it produces fine pearls. In
nature it is found attached to hard substratum by means of byssus threads. It is stenohaline
although it survives short term salinity fluctuations. It is a filter feeder, feeds mainly on
phytoplankton, occasionally on bivalve eggs and copepods.
• Life span is 5-6 years, maximum size 10cm. Annual growth rate is about 50mm. environmental
factors such as depth, transparency, temperature, salinity, currents, calcium content of water,
food and foulers influence growth rates.
• Sexes are separate; however, hermaphroditism and change of sexes from one spawning season
to another are not uncommon. It attains maturity at a size of 25-30mm. Has two peak spawning
seasons, one during July to August, another from November to December. Individual oysters
spawn more than once in spawning seasons.
• Eggs and sperms are shed in water, fertilization is external. Hatching takes place in about 4
hours. Spat settle when 0.3mm in size.
• Spat availability in the wild fluctuates, hence hatchery produced spat are used for culture.
Development of pearl
Natural pearl is formed when a foreign material enters the body of pearl oysters.
Epithelial layer of mantle forms a sac around the foreign body which secretes nacre over the
nucleus (foreign body) layer after layer resulting in pearl formation.
Shape of the pearl depends on the shape of the nucleus/foreign body.
Nucleus/nuclei can be implanted along with a piece of mantle tissue as graft into the gonads
oysters which results in formation of cultured pearls.
Culture methods
The suitable sites and culture methods are almost similar to edible oyster. Cages are stocked with
seed oyster and suspended from the rafts or long lines in protected bays. Oysters are allowed to
grow for four months when they become ready to receive nucleus.
The oysters from cages are brought to the laboratory for implantation of nucleus. They are kept
in glass troughs containing filtered seawater. A few menthol crystals are sprinkled into the
troughs to anesthetize the oysters. After one hour the oysters are ready to receive the nucleus.
Graft tissues are prepared by sacrificing a few oysters. Pieces of mantle are cut, cleaned and
trimmed to 3x2mm pieces. They are smeared with weak eosin solution to avoid deterioration.
Nuclei are made from chank shells of shells of freshwater mussels. Nuclei range in size from 2-
8mm.
The anaesthetized oysters are mounted on a stand. An incision is made at the base of the foot and
a canal is cut through the gonad. A graft tissue is first implanted into the gonad through the canal
followed by insertion of nucleus using special instruments made for the purpose. Depending on
the size of the oyster and the nuclei, 1-8 nuclei can be inserted into the same oyster.
After implantation of the nuclei, the oysters are acclimatized in the laboratory and returned to the
farming sites, but this time they are placed in frame nets which have compartments for individual
oysters. The frame nets are suspended from the rafts/long-lines for development of the pearl.
The outer epithelium of the graft tissue grows over the nucleus and forms pearl sac in about a
week. The pearl will form in about 3 months. The time of harvesting depends on the size of the
pearl required. 3-20 months are required to produce pearls of 3-8mm respectively. Six months
are required to coat nacre 0.2mm thick. The oysters are harvested after the formation of required
size of pearls. They are sacrificed to recover pearls. The harvested pearls are bleached in
hydrogen peroxide to remove any blemishes.
14.4 Culture of Seaweeds
Seaweeds are macroscopic algae growing in the sea. They are one of the important marine
resources. They are found in shallow coastal areas many of them grow on substratum. They are
grouped into green, brown, red and blue green algae. They have been harvested since many
centuries. In Japan and China they form staple food. They are also used as fodder and fertilizers.
They contain 60 trace elements whose concentration is higher than terrestrial plants. Seaweeds
are the only source of agar, algin and carrageenan – phytochemicals that have wide application in
food, confectionary, pharmaceuticals, dairy and paper industries as gelling, stabilizing and
thickening agents.
In India there are vast resources of seaweeds near many coasts and estuaries. Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep have rich resources of seaweeds. The total resources of
seaweeds in India are about 70,000 tonnes.
Large scale sea farming of aquatic plants originated in Japan around three centuries ago with the
culture of ‘nori’ or the laver Porphyra spp., which continues to be the most important cultivated
species for human consumption. Culture of Laminaria has advanced rapidly in China. Their use
as condiment or vegetable is limited to the oriental countries and among certain ethnic groups.
Their protein content is high (35.6% in dried nori), they also contain high levels of vitamins A,
B, B2, B6, B12, C and biotin.
Main groups of algae cultivated for food
• Red algae (Rhodophycea) – e.g. Porphyra spp.
• Brown algae (Phaeophyceae) – e.g. Undaria pinnatifida, Laminaria spp.
• Green algae (Chlorophyceae) – e.g. Enteromorpha compressa, Monostroma.
All the above are marine species but there is a difference in their salinity and temperature
tolerance. Many cannot withstand exposure to wide variations in temperature and salinity. Many
edible seaweeds require temperatures between 10- 20oC for rapid growth. They are largely
intertidal and subtidal species.
They reproduce both sexually and asexually. Some red algae exhibit biphasic (gametophyte,
carposporophyte) type of alternative generation. Others are triphasic (gametophyte,
carposporophyte, tetrasporophyte).

Culture systems
Porphyra (Nori) culture consists of placing bundles of twigs or rocks or concrete blocks for
monospores to settle on. These are then transferred to shallow areas for development of thali to
desired size. The most common method now is the use of nets with large mesh (15x15cm) and
blinds made of 10x15 cm to collect spores and transfer to suitable areas for grow-out.
Blasting rocks surfaces or rocky reefs to expose for additional surface area for propagation is
common practice, particularly for Laminaria and Undaria culture.
In commercial culture of Euchema in China, cuttings of plants are inserted in sub- littoral reefs
by divers. A new method in recent years consists of fastening cuttings to coral branches with
rubber strings and dropping them onto reefs. Divers rearrange them if required.
Raft and rack culture are followed in Japan and China. Laminaria is cultured on long lines in
China.
In some Asian countries like the Philippines and Taiwan, Gracillaria and Caulerpa are grown in
ponds following procedures common to fish culture, such as pond fertilization, water
management and disease and pest control. Culture of these species is largely for industrial use.
Large scale seaweed culture for waste recycling and industrial uses is practiced in North
America. Unattached masses of algae are grown in raceways and greenhouses flushed with
seawater.