HEMANT KUMAR NARSANI

B.E in Telecommunication Engineering from

HEMANT KUMAR NARSANI Mehran University of Engineering and
Lecturer in Telecommunication Engineering Technology(MUET) in 2016
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, University of MS in Electrical Engineering (Telecommunication
Sindh.
and Computer Networks) from National University
of Sciences and Technology(NUST) in 2019
Currently I am a Lecturer (BPS-18) in
Telecommunication Engineering, FET, UoS.

• Lecturer Timing:
HEMANT KUMAR NARSANI – Monday: 11:30 A.M - 01:00 P.M
Research Areas: – Wednesday: 11:30 A.M - 01:00 P.M
• Wireless Communications – Thursday (LAB): 8:30 A.M – 10:00 A.M
• Wireless Sensor Networks • Office Hours:
– You can meet anytime other than my classes’ duraction.
Interest in Subjects:
– Or by appointment by email
• Analog and Digital Communications
• Hemant.kumar@usindh.edu.pk
• Wireless Communications • Hkumar.msee16seecs@seecs.edu.pk
• Computer Networks
• Text Book:
• Satellite Communications
– Satellite Communications (3rd Edition) by Dennis Roddy.

• Introduction & Historical background, need of satellite communication. • Launches and launch vehicles.
• Uplink & downlink frequencies, synchronous satellite, international regulation • Radio wave propagation introduction, Atmospheric losses, Ionospheric effects.
& frequency coordination. • Rain attenuation, other propagation impairments, Introduction to polarization.
• Satellite frequency allocation & band spectrum, general & technical • Polarization of satellite signals, Cross polarization discrimination.
characteristics of satellite communication signals. • Ionospheric depolarization, Rain depolarization, Ice depolarization.
• Advantages & disadvantages of satellite communication, active and passive • Space segment introduction, Power supply, Altitude control.
satellite.
• Station keeping, Thermal control, TT&C subsystem , Transponders, Antenna
• Orbit introduction, Kepler’s Laws, Definition of terms for earth orbiting subsystem.
satellites.
• Earth segment introduction, Receive-only home TV system, Transmit-receive
• Orbital elements, apogee and perigee heights, orbital perturbations. earth station.
• The geo-stationary orbit, antenna look angles. • Space link introduction, Equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP).
• Polar mount antenna, limit of visibility, earth eclipse of satellite, sun transit • Transmission losses ( free space losses, feeder losses, antenna misalignment
outage. losses) , Link power budget equation.
• System noise (antenna noise, amplifier noise temperature), carrier-to- noise
ratio.
• Interference introduction, interference between satellite circuits.
• Combine (C/I) ration due to interference on both uplink & downlink, Antenna
gain function & pass band interferences.
• Satellite access introduction, single access, Introduction to FDMA/TDMA, pre-
assigned FDMA, Demand assigned FDMA.
• Pre-assigned TDMA, Demand assigned TDMA, Satellite switched TDMA, Code
division multiple access (CDMA).
• Satellite services introduction, Direct broadcast satellite services (DBS).
• Mobile satellite services (MSATs), Very small aperture terminals (VSATs),
Radar –sat.
• Global positioning satellite system (GPS), Orbcomm.

• In early 1960’s, the American

Telephone n Telegraph Company • A body which revolves around
(AT&T) released studies indicating that another body of preponderant
a few powerful satellites of advanced mass and which has a motion
design could handle more traffic than primarily and permanently
the entire AT&T long-distance determined by the force of
communication network. The cost was
attraction of that other body. OR
also not too much with respect to
long-distance communication • a satellite is any object that orbits
network. or revolves around another
• Satellite systems offer more flexibility object. For example, the Moon is
than submarine cables, buried a satellite of Earth, and Earth is a
underground cables, line-of-sight satellite of the Sun.
microwave radio or optical fiber
systems.

• A satellite
communications
system uses satellites
to relay radio
transmissions
between earth
terminals.
• A A typical operational link involves an active
telecommunications satellite and two or more earth terminals.
service provided via One station transmits to the satellite on a
one or more satellite frequency called the UP-LINK frequency (6 or
relays and their 14GHz). The satellite then amplifies the
associated uplinks signal, converts it to the DOWN-LINK
and downlinks. frequency (4 or 12GHz), and transmits it back
to earth. The signal is next picked up by the
receiving terminal.
• Satellites offer a number of features
not readily available with other
means of communications.
• Because very large areas of the This is especially valuable for Of course, satellite signals
communities in sparsely ignore political boundaries as
earth are visible from satellite, the populated areas that are well as geographical ones,
satellite can form the star point of a difficult of access by other which may or may not be a
means. desirable feature.
communications net linking together
many users simultaneously, users
who may be widely separated
geographically. Satellites are also used for
Some of these remote sensing
remote sensing, examples
• The same feature enables satellites being the detection of water
satellites also form a vital link
in search and rescue
to provide communication links to pollution and the monitoring
operations for downed aircraft
and reporting of weather
and the like.
remote communities. conditions.

13

• Radio communication by satellite is

an outcome of research for
increasing radio communication
range and capabilities.
• Satellite Communication combines
the missile and microwave Footprint: the
area the satellite Downlink is broadcast.
technologies
can “cover”.
• The space era started in 1957 with This can be very
the launching of the first artificial large.
satellite (sputnik). Uplink is “directed”
• SYNCOM was the first Geostationary using antenna.
satellite, launched in 1963.

15
 HISTORY OF
SATELLITE

HISTORY OF 1957

SPUTNIK
1957

* 4th Oct 1957.

* launched by “Soviet Union”.

* Used for observing atmosphere.

* Radio transmitter.

* 20.005Mhz & 40.002Mhz.

1957

• launched by “Soviet Union”.

HISTORY OF 1958
• experience on a dog “ LAIKA”
 EXPLORER 1
1958
1958
* *Jan 31,1958.
FEB 1958.
* *InIn
United states.
United states.
* “Cosmic ray detector” designed to measure
radiation environment in earth orbit. cary

* weighed 14 kg.

* made its final transmission on May 23rd,1958.

EXPLORER 2
1958
* March 5,1958.

* In United states.

* 4th stage of Jupiter C rocket failed to ignite.

EXPLORER 3
1958

* March 26,1958.

* In United states.

* Identical to explorer 1.

* Operated until 16 June 1958.

 EXPLORER 4
1958
* July 26,1958.

* In United States.

* Defense Dept planned to study effects of

nuclear explosions.

* Operated until 6th Oct 1958.

1958 1958
* August 24,1958. * Dec 18,1958.

* In United states. * 1st Communication satellite.

* Also failed due to 2nd stage. * Launched by NASA.

* Experience for missile. 12

SCORE

HISTORY OF 1960
 ECHO 1

1960
* Aug 12,1960.

* United states.

* Passive reflector satellite.

* simple & reliable.

at
* no amplification possibilities.

COURIER
1960
* Oct 1960.

* launched by Dept: of Defense.

* mission was to develop a satellite

for communication tests & assessment of traffic
handling.

* worked till 17 days.

1

1962
HISTORY OF 1962 * July 10,1962.

* launched by AT&T.

* communication satellite. meo

* use to relay TV signals.

live

* worked till Feb.21, 1963.

 TELSTAR 1

HISTORY OF 1963

1963 1963

* 1963.
* Feb 14,1963. 68

* telephone, television, facsimile,& data transmission.

* 1st attempt to place communication satellite in
geosynchronous orbit.
* 1st successful video transmission.

SYNCOM I

1963
* 1963.

* geosynchronous satellite.

* used to experimental T.V Coverage.

* Private satellite.
 SYNCOM II

HISTORY OF 1965

1965
(Early Bird).

* 6th April 1965.

* telecommunication satellite.

* used for telecommunication over Atlantic Ocean.

* launched by International Telecom: Satellite Org.

***Between 1966 to 1987 international

telecommunication satellite organization launched
the series of satellites Intelsat II,III,IV,V,VI .

1972
HISTORY OF 1972
* 9th November 1972.

* launched by Telsat Canada.

* Geostationary satellite.

* Improved telephone & television communication.

 ANIK A-1

HISTORY OF 1974

WESTAR I

1974
* April 13, 1974.

* Launched by Western Union & NASA..

*1st commercially launched geo synchronous

communication satellite.

* It is 12 transponder satellite.

* used for their own internal communication.

* retired in April 1983..

1975
HISTORY OF 1975 * Dec 13,1975.

* stands for “satellite communication”.

* used to help telecommunication by reflecting & relaying

signals.

* most powerful form of radio. .

* It was one of the early geostationary satellite..

 SATCOM-1 Other satellites
Indonesia 1976 Palapa A I
Czechoslovakia 1978 Magion I
Brazil 1985 Brasilsat A1
Mexico 1985 Morelos I
Sweden 1986 Viking
Israel 1988 Ofeq I
Argentina 1990 Lusat
Pakistan 1990 Badar I

• South Korea 1992 Kitsat A • Algeria 2002 AlSat

• Thailand 1993 Thaicom I • Nigeria 2003 NigeriaSat
• Turkey 1994 Turksat IB • Iran 2005 Sina I
• Malaysia 1996 MEASAT • Kazakhstan 2006 KazSat
• Norway 1997 Thor 2 • Columbia 2007 Libertad I
• Egypt 1998 Nilesat 101 • Vietnam 2008 VinaSat
• Singapore 1998 ST-I • Switzerland 2009 Swisscube I
• Taiwan 1999 ROC SAT I
• Saudi Arabia 2000 Saudi sat IA
• UAE 2000 Thuraya I
• Morocco 2001 MorocTubsat

QUOTE OF THE DAY

• Today’s Topics are,
• Active and Passive Satellite
• Frequency Bands
• Types of Orbits Passive Satellite. Active Satellite.

• A satellite carrying a station

A satellite that only reflects signals intended to transmit or retransmit
from one Earth station to another, or radio communication signals.
from several Earth stations to several
others. OR • It performs signal processing
functions such as amplification,
regeneration, frequency translation,
and link switching, to make the
An Earth satellite intended to transmit signals suitable for retransmission.
radio communication signals by
reflection. • Sputnik1 was the first active satellite
launched.

• R1: Europe, Africa,

what was formerly
the Soviet Union,
and Mongolia
• R2:North and South L-band (1 - 2 S-band (2 - 4 C-band (4 - 8 X-band (8 -
America and GHz) GHz) GHz) 12.5 GHz)
Greenland
• R3:Asia,Australia,
and the south-west
Pacific
• Frequency and band
designations are Ku-band (12.5 K-band (18 - Ka-band (26.5
listed in table1.1 - 18 GHz) 26.5 GHz) - 40 GHz)
• Uplink frequencies: 5.925-6.425 GHz • Uplink frequencies: 14-14.5 GHz
• Downlink frequencies: 4.2-4.7 GHz • Downlink frequencies: 11.7-12.2 GHz
• First choice for satellites because it • Up/downlink frequencies differ for US and
was also used for terrestrial Europe.
microwave. Equipment and • Smaller/cheaper earth stations used than for C
expertise were available. Band.
• Interference with terrestrial • Rain produces attenuation problems so more
microwave
powerful transmitters are needed.
• Used for video delivery, VSAT,
• Used for video delivery, VSAT, news gathering,
news gathering, telephony
telephony, direct-to-home video/audio, internet
• Band is saturated access, voice, video, data
• Band is saturated.

• LEO
– POLAR
• MEO
• L Band 1.530-2.700 GHz
– Voice/low speed data to mobile terminals. • HEO
• S Band 2.7-3.5 GHz – ELLIPTICAL
– Cellular telephony, data, paging
• Ka Band 18-31 GHz
• GEO
– Internet access, voice, video, data, videoconferencing
– Very powerful transmitters to deal with attenuation

GEO 36,000 km

• When a satellite circles close to

Earth we say it's in Low Earth Orbit
MEO 5,000 – 15,000 km (LEO)
• Satellites in LEO are just 200 - 500
LEO 500 -1000 km
miles high.
• B/c they orbit so close to Earth, they
must travel very fast so gravity won't
pull them back into the atmosphere.
• Satellites in LEO speed along at
17,000 miles per hour.
Hemant Kumar Narsani
• They can circle Earth in about 90
minutes.
• Orbit at 500-2,200 Km.
– Each orbits the Earth every 1-2 hours. Not geosynchronous or geostationary!
Therefore receivers must be “passed-off” from satellite to satellite.
– A large constellation of satellites is required to guarantee continuous coverage.
• Much stronger signals are received for a given power of transmission
than from a GEOs.
– Can use hand-held receivers instead of dish antennas. A Low Earth Orbit is useful because its nearness to Earth.
• Smaller footprint than GEOs. can capture very detailed images of Earth's surface.

• A Polar orbit is a particular type of

Low Earth Orbit. The only
difference is that a satellite in
polar orbit travels a north-south
direction, rather than the more
common east-west direction.
• Polar orbits are useful for viewing
the planet's surface
• weather satellites, are almost
always in polar orbit. No other
orbit gives such thorough
Estimated number of objects in low Earth orbit. Credit: NASA
coverage of Earth.

Near the poles, GEOs appear

near the horizon in the sky.
• Signals have farther in the Some Russian satellites are in
atmosphere to travel and highly inclined (65o above the
can encounter obstacles. equator), highly elliptical orbits.
• Orbit at 5,000-15,000 Km.
– Longer orbital period than LEOs. Not geosynchronous or geostationary.
However, receivers need not be passed-off as often.
– Fewer satellites are required for complete coverage than for a constellation
of LEOs.
Each satellite orbits in about 12
• Signals received will be weaker than for LEOs but stronger than hours, spending most of its Greater distance/attenuation
for GEOs. time above the northern than GEOs.
hemisphere.
– Can use hand-held receivers instead of dish antennas.
• A satellite in elliptical orbit
follows an oval-shaped path.
• One part of the orbit is closest to
the center of Earth (perigee) and • Geostationary satellites are satellites that orbit in a circular pattern
the other part is farthest away with an angular velocity equal to that of earth.
(apogee). • they remain in a fixed position in respect to a given point on earth
and available to all earth stations within their shadow 100% of the
• A satellite in this orbit takes time
about 12 hours to circle the • They require sophisticated and heavy propulsion devices on board to
planet. keep them in a fixed orbit.
• Like polar orbits, elliptical orbits • Syncom I launched in feb 1963, was the first attempt then ,SyncomII,
syncomIII
move in a north-south direction

• A satellite in geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO) is

located directly above the equator, exactly 22,300 miles
out in space.
• a satellite in GEO always stays directly over the same
spot on Earth.
 STRUCTURE OF IONOSPHERE
The ionosphere is the region of the atmosphere
that extends from about 30 miles above the
surface of the Earth to about 250 miles.
It is appropriately named the ionosphere because
it consists of several layers of electrically charged
gas atoms called ions. The ions are formed by a
process called ionization.

IONOSPHERE
1 Lecture #3,4

2
Hemant Kumar Narsani

The rate at which ionization occurs depends on the

IONIZATION density of atoms in the atmosphere and the intensity of
the ultraviolet light wave, which varies with the
Ionization occurs when high energy ultraviolet activity of the sun.
light waves from the sun enter the ionospheric
Since the atmosphere is bombarded by
region of the atmosphere, strike a gas atom, and
ultraviolet light waves of different frequencies,
literally knock an electron free from its parent
several ionized layers are formed at different
atom.
altitudes.
A normal atom is electrically neutral since it contains
An important factor in determining the density of
both a positive proton in its nucleus and a negative
ionized layers is the elevation angle of the sun, which
orbiting electron.
changes frequently.
When the negative electron is knocked free from the
For this reason, the height and thickness of the
atom, the atom becomes positively charged.
ionized layers vary, depending on the time of day
A positive ion remains in space along with the free and even the season of the year.
electron, which is negatively charged.
This process of upsetting electrical neutrality is
known as IONIZATION. 3 4

RECOMBINATION FOUR DISTINCT LAYERS

Recall that the process of ionization involves The ionosphere is composed of three layers
ultraviolet light waves knocking electrons free designated D, E, and F, from lowest level to
from their atoms. highest level as shown in figure.
A reverse process called RECOMBINATION
occurs when the free electrons and positive ions
collide with each other. Since these collisions are
inevitable, the positive ions return to their
original neutral atom state.
The recombination process also depends on the
time of day.

5 6
 The presence or absence of these layers in the
ionosphere and their height above the Earth varies
with the position of the sun.
At high noon, radiation in the ionosphere directly
above a given point is greatest.
At night it is minimum.
When the radiation is removed, many of the particles
that were ionized recombine. The time interval
between these conditions finds the position and
number of the ionized layers within the ionosphere
changing.
Since the position of the sun varies daily, monthly,
and yearly, with respect to a specified point on Earth,
the exact position and number of layers present are
extremely difficult to determine. However, the
following general statements can be made:

7 8

D LAYER E LAYER
The D layer ranges from about 30 to 55 miles. The E layer limits are from about 55 to 90 miles.
Ionization in the D layer is low because it is the This layer is also known as the Kennelly- Heaviside
layer, because these two men were the first to propose
lowest region of the ionosphere. its existence.
This layer has the ability to reflect signals of low It exits only in day-time.
frequencies (VLF and LF). Its electrons density, N = 2 10 electrons / cm
5 3

High frequencies pass right through it and are Critical frequency of the layer, f c  4 MHz
attenuated (HF). The rate of ionic recombination in this layer is rather
Its electrons density, N = 400electrons / cm3 rapid after sunset and the layer is almost gone by
midnight.
Critical frequency of the layer, f c = 180kHz This layer has the ability to refract signals as high as
After sunset, the D layer disappears because of 20 megahertz. For this reason, it is valuable for
the rapid recombination of ions. 9
communications in ranges up to about 1500 miles. 10

F LAYER REFRACTION IN THE IONOSPHERE

The F layer exists from about 90 to 240 miles. When a radio wave is transmitted into an ionized
During the daylight hours, the F layer separates layer, refraction, or bending of the wave, occurs.
into two layers, the F1 and F2 layers.
Refraction is caused by an abrupt change in the
The ionization level in these layers is quite high velocity of the upper part of a radio wave as it
and varies widely during the day.
strikes or enters a new medium.
At noon, this portion of the atmosphere is closest
to the sun and the degree of ionization is The amount of refraction that occurs depends on
maximum. three main factors:
the density of ionization of the layer,
Since the atmosphere is rarefied at these heights, o

the frequency of the radio wave, and

recombination occurs slowly after sunset. o

o the angle at which the wave enters the layer.

Therefore, a fairly constant ionized layer is
always present. The F layers are responsible for
high-frequency, long distance transmission. 11 12
 Each ionized layer has a central region of
DENSITY OF LAYER relatively dense ionization, which taper off in
Figure illustrates the relationship between radio waves and intensity both above and below the maximum
ionization density. region.
As a radio wave enters a region of INCREASING
ionization, the increase in velocity of the upper
part of the wave causes it to be bent back
TOWARD the Earth.
While the wave is in the highly dense center
portion of the layer, however, refraction occurs
more slowly because the density of ionization is
almost uniform.
As the wave enters into the upper part of the
layer of DECREASING ionization, the velocity of
the upper part of the wave decreases, and the
13 wave is bent AWAY from the Earth. 14

If a wave strikes a thin, very highly ionized layer, the

wave may be bent back so rapidly that it will appear FREQUENCY
to have been reflected instead of refracted back to
For any given time, each ionospheric layer has a
Earth. maximum frequency at which radio waves can be
To reflect a radio wave, the highly ionized layer must transmitted vertically and reflected back to Earth.
be approximately no thicker than one wavelength of This frequency is known as the CRITICAL
the radio wave. FREQUENCY.
Radio waves transmitted at frequencies higher than
Since the ionized layers are often several miles thick, the critical frequency of a given layer will pass
ionospheric reflection is more likely to occur at long through the layer and be lost in space; but if these
wavelengths (low frequencies). same waves enter an upper layer with a higher
critical frequency, they will be reflected back to
Earth.
Radio waves of frequencies lower than the critical
frequency will also be reflected back to Earth unless
15
they are absorbed or have been refracted from a lower 16
layer.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
The lower the frequency of a radio wave, the  The rate at which a wave of a given frequency is
more rapidly the wave is reflected by a given reflected by an ionized layer depends on the
degree of ionization. angle at which the wave enters the layer.
 Figure shows three radio waves of the same
frequency entering a layer at different angles.

Frequency versus refraction and distance. 17 18

 VARIATIONS IN THE IONOSPHERE
Because the existence of the ionosphere is directly
As the frequency of the radio wave is increased, the related to radiations emitted from the sun, the
critical angle must be reduced for reflection to movement of the Earth about the sun or changes in
occur. the sun's activity will result in variations in the
ionosphere.
These variations are of two general types:
o Those which are more or less regular and occur in cycles
and, therefore, can be predicted in advance with
reasonable accuracy.
o Those which are irregular as a result of abnormal
behavior of the sun and, therefore, cannot be predicted
in advance.
Both regular and irregular variations have
19 important effects on radio wave propagation. 20

REGULAR VARIATIONS
The regular variations that affect the extent of In the E layer, ionization depends on the angle of the
ionization in the ionosphere can be divided into four sun. The E layer refracts hf waves during the day up
main classes: to 20 megahertz to distances of about 1200 miles.
 daily, Ionization is greatly reduced at night.
 seasonal, Structure and density of the F region depend on the
11-year, and

time of day and the angle of the sun. This region
27-day variations.

consists of one layer during the night and splits into
DAILY two layers during daylight hours.
Daily variations in the ionosphere are a result of the Ionization density of the F1 layer depends on the
24-hour rotation of the Earth about its axis. angle of the sun. Its main effect is to absorb hf waves
Daily variations of the different layers are passing through to the F2 layer.
 The D layer reflects vlf waves; is important for long range vlf The F2 layer is the most important layer for long
communications; refracts lf and mf waves for short range
communications; absorbs hf waves; has little effect on vhf distance hf communications. It is a very variable
and above; and disappears at night. 21 layer and its height and density change with time of 22
day, season, and sunspot activity.

SEASONAL ELEVEN-YEAR SUN SPOT CYCLE

One of the most notable phenomena on the surface of the sun is the
Seasonal variations are the result of the Earth appearance and disappearance of dark, irregularly shaped areas known
as SUNSPOTS.
revolving around the sun
Seasonal variations of the D, E, and F1 layers
correspond to the highest angle of the sun; thus
the ionization density of these layers is greatest
during the summer.
The F2 layer, however, does not follow this
pattern; its ionization is greatest in winter and
least in summer, the reverse of what might be
expected. As a result, operating frequencies for
F2 layer propagation are higher in the winter
than in the summer. 23 24
 The exact nature of sunspots is not known, but scientists believe they
are caused by violent eruptions on the sun and are characterized by These sunspots are responsible for variations in the
unusually strong magnetic fields.
ionization level of the ionosphere. Sunspots can, of
course, occur unexpectedly, and the life span of
individual sunspots is variable; however, a regular
cycle of sunspot activity has also been observed. This
cycle has both a minimum and maximum level of
sunspot activity that occur approximately every 11
years.
During periods of maximum sunspot activity, the
ionization density of all layers increases. Because of
this, absorption in the D layer increases and the
critical frequencies for the E, F1, and F2 layers are
higher. At these times, higher operating frequencies
must be used for long distance communications.
25 26

27-DAY SUNSPOT CYCLE IRREGULAR VARIATIONS

The number of sunspots in existence at any one time Irregular variations in ionospheric conditions
is continually subject to change as some disappear
and new ones emerge. also have an important effect on radio wave
As the sun rotates on its own axis, these sunspots are propagation.
visible at 27-day intervals, the approximate period Because these variations are irregular and
required for the sun to make one complete rotation.
The 27-day sunspot cycle causes variations in the unpredictable, they can drastically affect
ionization density of the layers on a day-to-day basis. communications capabilities without any
The fluctuations in the F2 layer are greater than for warning.
any other layer. For this reason, precise predictions
on a day-to-day basis of the critical frequency of the The more common irregular variations are
F2 layer are not possible. o sporadic E,
In calculating frequencies for long-distance o sudden ionospheric disturbances, and
communications, allowances for the fluctuations of o ionospheric storms.
the F2 layer must be made.
27 28

SPORADIC E SUDDEN IONOSPHERIC

Irregular cloud-like patches of unusually high ionization, called sporadic
E, often form at heights near the normal E layer. Exactly what causes this
phenomenon is not known, nor can its occurrence be predicted.
DISTURBANCES
At times the sporadic E is so thin that radio waves penetrate it easily and
are returned to earth by the upper layers. The most startling of the ionospheric
At other times, it extends up to several hundred miles and is heavily irregularities is known as a SUDDEN
ionized.
IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCE (sid).
These characteristics may be either harmful or helpful to radio wave
propagation. For example, sporadic E may blank out the use of higher, These disturbances may occur without warning
more favorable ionospheric layers or cause additional absorption of the
radio wave at some frequencies. Also, it can cause additional multipath
and may exist for any length of time, from a few
problems. minutes to several hours.
On the other hand, the critical frequency of the sporadic E is very high
and can be greater than double the critical frequency of the normal
When sid occurs, long distance propagation of hf
ionospheric layers. radio waves is almost totally "blanked out." The
This condition may permit the long distance transmission of signals at immediate effect is that radio operators listening
unusually high frequencies.
It may also permit short distance communications to locations that would
on normal frequencies are inclined to believe
normally be in the skip zone. their receivers have gone dead.
The sporadic E can form and disappear in a short time during either the29 30
day or night. However, it usually does not occur at the same time at all
transmitting or receiving stations.
 IONOSPHERIC STORMS
The solar eruption produces an unusually intense Ionospheric storms are disturbances in the
burst of ultraviolet light, which is not absorbed Earth's magnetic field. They are associated, in a
by the F2, F1, and E layers, but instead causes a manner not fully understood, with both solar
sudden abnormal increase in the ionization eruptions and the 27-day intervals, thus
density of the D layer. As a result, frequencies corresponding to the rotation of the sun.
above 1 or 2 megahertz are unable to penetrate Scientists believe that ionospheric storms result
the D layer and are usually completely absorbed from particle radiation from the sun.
by the layer. Particles radiated from a solar eruption have a
slower velocity than ultraviolet light waves
produced by the eruption. This would account for
the 18-hour or so time difference between a sid
31 and an ionospheric storm. 32

Critical frequencies are lower than normal,

particularly for the F2 layer.
Ionospheric storms affect the higher F2 layer
first, reducing its ion density.
Lower layers are not appreciably affected by the
storms unless the disturbance is great. The
practical effect of ionospheric storms is that the
range of frequencies that can be used for
communications on a given circuit is much
smaller than normal, and communications are
possible only at the lower working frequencies.
33
 Earth's atmosphere varies in density
and composition as the altitude
increases above the surface.
The atmosphere is divided into five
layers.
Five distinct layers have been
identified using…
Atmospheric Region thermal characteristics (temperature
changes),
chemical composition,
LECTURE 8-9
movement, and
Density pause
It is thickest near the surface and
thins out with height until it
eventually merges with space.
1
 Troposphere
 Stratosphere
 Mesosphere

 Thermosphere 2
Hemant Kumar Narsani
 Exosphere

TROPOSPHERE
The troposphere is the first layer
above the surface.
It is extended up to 10km from
the earth surface.
As the gases in this layer decrease
with height, the air become
thinner. Therefore, the
temperature in the troposphere
also decreases with height.
The gases in this region are
predominantly molecular Oxygen .
Weather occurs in this layer.
All weather is confined to this
lower region and it contains 90% of
the Earth's atmosphere and 99%
3 of the water vapor. 4

Fig: 01

STRATOSPHERE
It extended up to 40km above
the earth surface.
This layer holds 19 percent of
These conditions have a great effect on the the atmosphere's gases and but
propagation of radio waves. very little water vapor.
The highest mountains are still within the In this region density and
troposphere and all of our normal day-to-day temperature remains constant.
activities occur here. It has relatively little effects on
the radio waves due to its
consistency.
Many jet aircrafts fly in the
stratosphere because it is
very stable. Also, the ozone
layer absorbs harmful rays
5 from the Sun. 6
 MESOSPHERE
The mesosphere extends
from the stratosphere to
about 50 km above the
earth.
The gases, including the
oxygen molecules,
continue to become
thinner and thinner with
height.
The top of the mesosphere
is the coldest part of
Earth's atmosphere.
Weather balloons and jet
planes cannot fly high
enough to reach the
Fig: 02
7
mesosphere. 8

THERMOSPHERE
The Thermosphere extends from the
mesosphere to 300 km above the
earth.
This layer is known as the upper
atmosphere.
The air density is so low in this layer
that most of the thermosphere is what
we normally think of as outer space.
It is also where the space shuttle
orbits.
The gases of the thermosphere are
increasingly thinner than in the
mesosphere. As such, only the higher
energy ultraviolet and x-ray radiation
from the sun is absorbed. But because
of this absorption, the temperature
increases with height.

9 10

Fig: 03

EXOSPHERE
The Exosphere is the
outermost layer of the
atmosphere and extends
from the thermosphere to
400 km above the earth.
In this layer, atoms and
molecules escape into space
and satellites orbit the
earth. Fig: 04

The atmosphere merges into

space in the extremely thin
exosphere. This is the
upper limit of our
atmosphere. 11 12
 - Shape of Earth is Elliptical.
- Circle is a special case of ellipse.
- Uplink→ Point to point (signal)
Satellites, its Uses, Services and - Downlink → point to multipoint (signal)/ Broadcast
Limitations - 4/6 GHz = Downlink/Uplink frequency, 12/14 GHz = Downlink/Uplink
frequency
-Uplink is greater than the downlink = due to ionosphere layers!!! Higher
the frequency, more is the directivity.
- 15 to 16 years is a lifetime of a satellite.
- there is only single GEO orbit
- One GEO satellite can see 43 degrees of earth, minimum 3 satellites
cover 120 degrees
- Names of the satellites show the distance.
- Latitude = X-axis, Longitude = Y-axis

Hemant Kumar Narsani 1

30.0

25.0

20.0
Hours

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000
Altitude [km]

• It is clearly seen that there is a successive

increase in the size and capacity of the
satellites, the latest in the series, Intelsat
VI, being capable of providing 80,000 voice
channels.
• The design lifetime for recently launched Domsat is an abbreviation for
satellites ranges from 10 to 15 years domestic satellite.
(ThaiCom will last about 14 years).
• The international regions served by
Intelsat are divided into the Atlantic Ocean
Region (AOR), the Pacific Ocean Region Domsats are used to provide
(POR) and Indian Ocean Region (IOR). various telecommunications
• For each region, satellites are positioned in services such as voice, data, and
geostationary orbit above the particular
ocean.
video transmissions, within a
country.
 • Limited bandwidth, even with
Used for television, long-distance dish antennas directionality is
telephone, and private business limited.
networks. • Long propagation delays due to
distance.

Particularly suitable for creating

networks where cabling is not practical.
• Low subscriber densities
• Mobile stations

• Bigger, heavier, GEO satellites with multiple roles

• More direct broadcast TV and Radio satellites
• Expansion into Ka, Q, V bands (20/30, 40/50 GHz)
• Massive growth in data services fueled by Internet
• Mobile services:
– May be broadcast services rather than point to point
– Make mobile services a successful business?

• Growth requires new frequency

bands
• Propagation through rain and clouds
becomes a problem as RF frequency is
increased
– C-band (6/4 GHz) Rain has little impact
99.99% availability is possible
– Ku-band (10-12 GHz) Link margin of  3
dB needed for 99.8% availability
– Ka-band (20 - 30 GHz) Link margin of  6
dB needed for 99.6% availability
 Kepler (1600's)
• Described the shape of planetary orbits
as well as their orbital speeds

Kepler’s Laws

Kepler and the

Physics of Planetary Motion
Laws of Planetary Motion
• Law 1 - Law of Ellipses
• Law 2 - Law of Equal Areas
• Law 3 - Harmonic Law (P2=ka3)

Kepler’s laws provide a concise and

simple description of the motions of
the planets

Some Properties of Ellipses

Kepler’s First Law
Since the orbits of the planets are ellipses, let us review a few basic
• The orbit of a properties of ellipses.
1. For an ellipse there are two points called foci (singular: focus) such
planet about that the sum of the distances to the foci from any point on the ellipse is a
constant. In terms of the diagram shown to the left, with "x" marking the
the Sun is an location of the foci, we have the equation
ellipse with the a + b = constant
that defines the ellipse in terms of the distances a and b.
Sun at one
focus.
 2. The amount of "flattening" of the ellipse is termed the eccentricity.
3. The long axis of the ellipse is called the
Thus, in the following figure the ellipses become more eccentric from major axis, while the short axis is called
left to right. A circle may be viewed as a special case of an ellipse with the minor axis (adjacent figure). Half of
zero eccentricity, while as the ellipse becomes more flattened the the major axis is termed a semimajor
eccentricity approaches one. Thus, all ellipses have eccentricities lying axis. The length of a semimajor axis is
between zero and one. often termed the size of the ellipse.
It can be shown that the average
separation of a planet from the Sun as
it goes around its elliptical orbit is equal
to the length of the semimajor axis.
Thus, by the "radius" of a planet's orbit
one usually means the length of the
semimajor axis.

The Ellipse
Semi-major Axis = ½ Major Axis
apoluna

90° Focus Points

Center

distance between focus points

eccentricity =
length of major axis
distance between focus points
eccentrici ty =
length of major axis

e=0 perfect circle

e=1 flat line
periluna

Verifying Kepler’s 1st

apoluna
P2
L1 + L2= L3 + L4 ??
Kepler’s Second Law
L3
L1
P1 • A line joining a
planet and the
Sun sweeps out
L4 equal areas in
L2
Center
equal intervals
of time.

periluna
 Verifying Kepler’s 2nd
Area = ½ base X height
Equal area in equal time.

A1 = A2 ??

A2

A1

Kepler’s 3rd P2=ka3

Kepler’s Third Law Finding the Moon’s mass.

The square of a planet's orbital period is

proportional to the cube of the length of its orbit's 4π 2 a3
P2 = 
semimajor axis. G (m + M )

4 2
k=
G (m + M )
4 2 a 3
ms + M m =
Or simply… T2 = R3 if T is measured in years and R G P2
is measured in astronomical units. ms + M m  M m

4 2 a 3
Mm =
G P2

An Astronomical Unit... Examples of Kepler's Third Law

…is the average distance of the

Earth from the Sun.

1 AU = 93,000,000 miles = 8.3

lightminutes
 As an example of using Kepler's 3rd Law, let's calculate the "radius" of the
orbit of Mars (that is, the length of the semimajor axis of the orbit) from the
Calculations Using Kepler's Third Law orbital period. The time for Mars to orbit the Sun is observed to be 1.88 Earth
A convenient unit of measurement for periods is in Earth years, and a convenient unit years. Thus, by Kepler's 3rd Law the length of the semimajor axis for the
of measurement for distances is the average separation of the Earth from the Sun, Martian orbit is
which is termed an astronomical unit and is abbreviated as AU. If these units are used
in Kepler's 3rd Law, the denominators in the preceding equation are numerically equal
to unity and it may be written in the simple form
which is exactly the measured average distance of Mars from the Sun. As a
second example, let us calculate the orbital period for Pluto, given that its
observed average separation from the Sun is 39.44 astronomical units. From
Kepler's 3rd Law
This equation may then be solved for the period P of the planet, given the length of the
semimajor axis,
which is indeed the observed orbital period for the planet Pluto.

or for the length of the semimajor axis, given the period of the planet,

Planet Semimaj Orbital Orbital Orbital Inclinatio Rotation Inclinatio

or Period Speed Eccentric n Period n
Axis (yr) (km/s) ity of Orbit (days) of
(AU) (e) to Equator
Ecliptic to Orbit
(°) (°)
Mercury 0.3871 0.2408 47.9 0.206 7.00 58.65 0
Venus 0.7233 0.6152 35.0 0.007 3.39 -243.01* 177.3
Earth 1.000 1 29.8 0.017 0.00 0.997 23.4
Mars 1.5273 1.8809 24.1 0.093 1.85 1.026 25.2
Jupiter 5.2028 11.862 13.1 0.048 1.31 0.410 3.1
Saturn 9.5388 29.458 9.6 0.056 2.49 0.426 26.7
Uranus 19.1914 84.01 6.8 0.046 0.77 -0.746* 97.9
Neptue 30.0611 164.79 5.4 0.010 1.77 0.718 29.6

Pluto 39.5294 248.54 4.7 0.248 17.15 -6.387* 122.5

• Negative values of rotation period indicate

that the planet rotates in the direction Kepler’s Laws
opposite to that in which it orbits the Sun.
This is called retrograde rotation.
The semimajor axis (the average distance to the These are three laws
of physics that relate
Sun) is given in units of the Earth's average
to planetary orbits.
distance to the Sun, which is called an AU. For
example, Neptune is 30 times more distant
from the Sun than the Earth, on average.
Orbital periods are also given in units of the
Earth's orbital period, which is a year. These were empirical
The eccentricity (e) is a number which measures laws.
how elliptical orbits are. If e=0, the orbit is a
circle. All the planets have eccentricities close
to 0, so they must have orbits which are
nearly circular.
Kepler could not
explain them.
 Kepler’s Laws...Simply Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
• From Kepler's
Gm1m 2
• Law 1:
Elliptical F= 3rd Law,
Newton
orbits… d2 deduced
• Law 2: Equal inverse square
areas in equal law of
times… attraction.
• Law 3: T2 = R3 • G=6.67 ´ 10-11
N m2/kg2

m1m2
Weight and Weightlessness =G
m1m2 F = G
Remember that the force between
R2
F

R2 the two masses is given by

Weight
m1m2
• the force due to gravity on an object
• Weight = Mass Acceleration of Gravity
F =G
R2
• W=mg R
Weightlessness - a conditions wherein m1m2
gravitational pull appears to be lacking F =G R2 R
R

• Examples: R
• Astronauts
m1m2
=G
F
• Falling in an Elevator
• Skydiving R2

• Underwater